CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT– FROM CONCEPT TO OPERATION:LESSONS LEARNED FROM A GLOBAL STUDY ON
EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL COOPERATIONFOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT
Satoko Miwa, Associate Professor
Ibaraki University, Mito, Japansmiwa@mx.ibaraki.ac.jp

Summary: This paper aims to examine how to make technical cooperation (TC)effective for capacity development (CD). The experience of 11 developing countries in
sector/thematic CD and TC shows that CD and TC are more effective when a clear
policy framework and a coordination mechanism are in place, and when CD and TC are
conducted in a way to support the change process by developing capacity of all the
stakeholders, ensuring a system for incentives, and promoting systematic learning. For
effective CD, it is essential to understand the policy and institutional context as well as
the mechanism of change and to take a wider framework of action, of which TC is a
part.
Key words: Asia, Africa, country-led strategy, change management, leadership,
incentive

1. Capacity Development and Technical Cooperation: Why Do They Matter?
Capacity development (CD) has been attached increased importance toward theachievement of development results. The issue of CD has been on the development
agenda for decades, but due to the recent movement in development emphasizing theachievement of development results and country ownership, CD has attracted evengreater attention. That is because adequate country capacity to manage development isessential to ensure country ownership in the development process and to achieve
development results. However, in practice, capacity constraints are a serious obstacle tothe current development efforts. In addition, the development of sustainable country
capacity has been one of the least responsive targets in the efforts. Against suchbackground, the need for CD was highlighted in the 2005 Paris Declaration on Aid
Effectiveness. The Declaration also underlined that CD was the responsibility ofdeveloping countries, with donors playing a supporting role and called for the former toposition CD as an explicit objective of their national development strategies and for thelatter to enhance support by aligning with the developing countries’ strategies, making
use of existing capacities, and harmonizing their assistance. This has provided an
impetus to the CD efforts by developing countries as a part of the follow-up to the Paris
Declaration.

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Improvement of technical cooperation (TC) has become one of the critical issues insuch CD efforts. While many aid instruments are used to support CD, TC still
constitutes a major instrument for supporting CD, representing around 20% of total
Official Development Assistance (ODA). It is also recognized by both developing
countries and donors that TC plays an important role in assisting knowledge acquisition,transforming people’s attitudes and behaviors, and facilitating change processes. Thesedays, the role of TC is attached importance from the viewpoint of the complementarity
with other aid modalities (ADB 2007, DFID 2006a, Land 2007, Lopes 2003). However,its mixed performance record is acknowledged and TC has been the target of various
criticisms. Such criticisms include that it is donor-driven and fragmented, transfers
external knowledge and models without sufficient consideration of the country context,
creates a parallel system and erodes country ownership, and has limited impacts onsustainable CD (Berg 1993, Fukuda-Parr et al. 2002, Morgan 2002, World Bank 2005).
Because of the important role of TC as mentioned as well as the controversy
surrounding its performance at the same time, it is considered essential to improve TC
for more effective CD.
There are many studies on TC. These studies examine, as the directions for
improving TC, country-led TC planning and management, more flexible and responsive
TC design and implementation, and more coordinated provision of TC with various
forms of CD support. The studies also stress the significance of the political andinstitutional context and leadership as the factors influencing the effectiveness of TC
and suggest the importance of examining TC and its contribution to CD from wider
perspectives, within a broader context and efforts toward CD (ADB 2007, DFID 2006aand 2006b, Land 2007, Morgan et al. 2005, World Bank 2005). These suggestions, ingeneral, are well accepted. However, the empirical evidence on when and how thesesuggestions work is still very limited. Also, many existing studies focus on individual
TC activities; they do not much examine TC and its contribution from wider
perspectives. As such, a global study on effective TC for CD has been conducted to fillthis gap.
2. The Overall Framework of a Global Study on Effective Technical Cooperation
for Capacity Development
A global study has been carried out since March 2007 as a 1.5 year study, on
the initiative of the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and including theparticipation of 11 developing countries and 7 donors. The donor members are: AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB), Department for International Development (DFID), German
Ministry of Economic Cooperation (BMZ), German Technical Cooperation Company(GTZ), JICA, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and World Bank. The
developing countries are from Asia and Africa, and include: Cambodia, Ghana, Kenya,
Lao PDR, Malawi, Malaysia, Pakistan, Tanzania, Thailand, Vietnam, and Zambia.
The purpose of the study is to advance the current CD efforts by providing
empirical evidence on how to implement effective TC as a part of the overall drive
towards country-led CD. The study especially aims at providing input in the discussions
at the Accra High-Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in September 2008, held as afollow-up to the Paris Declaration. For this purpose, the study, through country studies
and a synthesis study, examines actual TC practices and its contribution to CD within
the overall CD efforts in specific sector/thematic areas; analyzes contributing and263

impeding factors that influence the results of TC, including the context; extracts lessons
learned, identifies benchmarks, and formulates the recommendations.
The analysis is specifically made, taking up six key issues related to effective
TC for CD and investigates how, when, and why they work. The six issues, which are
set according to the main syggestions of the previous studies, are: country-led planning,
coordination and complementarity with other CD support instruments; flexible andresponsive design and implementation; country-led management; integration of TC withthe organizational change management; and integration of TC with the organizational
learning process.
The study includes a couple of distinctive features in its approach. First, TC
and its contribution are analyzed within a broader context. The target of the analysis is
not at the individual TC project/program level but at the sector/thematic level; and thecontext such as the overall CD strategies, sector strategies, and institutional settings arealso examined. The sector/thematic areas of each country study, selected by therespective country are as shown in Table 1. Secondly, the study takes a country-led
approach. While it is developing countries that have the primary responsibility in CD,
the existing studies have mainly been conducted by donors or researchers in donor
countries. Participation of developing countries and the reflection of their views are still
limited. Under the country-led approach, developing countries participate in the study
by self-selecting; the country case studies are managed by the respective countries fromthe planning through implementation up to the report making; and the overall study is
jointly managed by developing countries and donors. Finally, the study emphasizes
mutual learning among developing countries. This reflects many recent studies on CD
and TC which highlight the importance of knowledge and stress the usefulness ofpromoting knowledge flow from South to South. Mutual learning is incorporated into
the study process through the organization of regional workshops, establishment of thestudy website and so on.
3. Country Experience in Sector/Thematic Capacity Development and TechnicalCooperation: Major Findings from the Country Studies
As of July 2008, the country studies have been completed, but the synthesis
study is still ongoing. In this section, the author summarizes the major findings of thestudy, based upon the results of the country studies 1.
3.1. Landscape of Technical Cooperation
The volume and share of TC as a proportion of ODA vary by country; however,it occupies an important position in terms of volume and share in many countries.
According to the statistics of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), OECD,
total ODA has increased from US$65 billion in 2002 to US$130 billion in 2006.
Similarly, TC has increased from US$16 billion to US$24 billion over the same year,
while its share in total ODA has declined slightly from 25 to 19%2. A similar trend has
been observed in many countries. For example, total ODA and TC in Ghana more thandoubled from US$3.1 billion in 1997-2001 to US$6.4 billion in 2002-2006 for theformer and from US$2.6 billion to US$5.5 billion for the latter. In Ghana, TC represents
as high as 86% of total ODA in 2002-2006. In Lao PDR, total ODA has tripled toaround US$284 million in the last five years; TC represents around 48% of total ODA.

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The share of TC in Cambodia is around 45%, close to that of Lao PDR. It is less in
Tanzania and Zambia, representing one-third and one-quarter of total ODA respectively;
further, in Pakistan, TC represents 10%.
With regard to TC data, several countries such as Cambodia, Tanzania, andZambia point out the difficulty in obtaining adequate TC data. One of the reasons is that
TC is often provided as a part of a project/program which combines TC with other
instruments such as financial assistance and often it is difficult to separate TC embedded
in ODA. Further, TC involves many organizations in the country as well as various
donors, including NGOs. This also makes it difficult to capture the overall picture of TC
and its data and information. Thus, concrete data concerning TC volume, not to mention
disaggregated data and information by type and distribution, is not readily available. For
example, Zambia recently introduced an ODA information management system, Zambia
Development and Assistance Database (ZDAD); however, due to problems as
mentioned above, separate and disaggregated TC data and information are difficult toobtain. These problems with TC data and information can lead to problems in theplanning and management of TC.
A common feature of TC across all countries is the diversity in the modes andtypes of TC delivery. The modes of delivery include: free standing TC, TC provided asa sub-component of a project, TC through pooled funding, TC provided as a part of thesector/common basket funding and so on. Among these, TC delivered within a project isthe most common mode of delivery; however, there seems to be a gradual shift fromproject TC to TC through pooled funding as well as TC as a part of the sector/common
basket funding, especially in African countries. TC is further categorized by type suchas long-term or short-term TC personnel (international or local), training, twinning,
volunteers etc. While each mode and type has its own merit, such a variety, which
requires different management styles, may prove difficult for developing countries
whose management capacity is weak. Furthermore, varying procedures by donors forthe different TC aggravate the problem.
Despite the difficulties as mentioned above, there is a general consensus thatTC has been making a significant contribution, and playing diverse roles at various
levels. It has helped to develop policies, strategies, and guidelines; to strengthen coreorganizational functions to plan, manage, implement, evaluate, and account for the
results; to enhance staff knowledge and skills; to change people’s attitudes and behavior,including leaders; to promote innovation and piloting; to promote organizational andinstitutional reform; and to empower and develop capacity of the civil society. However,it should also be noted that not all TC is intended for CD. There is transactional TC
provided for delivering essential goods and services as well as TC for filling gap of
specific skills.
3.2. Policy and Institutional Context
Policy and institutional context is critical for effective CD and TC. The country
studies emphasize in common the importance of the existence of well-defined CD
strategies and TC policies, appropriate institutional arrangements for the coordination of
CD and TC within the country as well as between the country and donors, the linkage
between CD/TC and broader public reforms, and strong political leadership.
CD strategies at the national and sector/thematic levels are essential toreinforce country efforts for CD and to promote aligned support by donors; however,265there are disparities in the existence of CD strategies. At the national level, somecountries such as Lao PDR and Tanzania have well-defined national CD strategies,
which are integrated into the national development strategy. The strategy of Lao PDR
comprehensively covers CD needs of various sectors as well as at multiple levels,
including the provincial level. Tanzania’s strategy has a clear link with broader publicreforms. On the contrary, in other countries, such CD strategies are not formulated.
Malawi, for example, has a national development strategy placing high priority on CD;
however, the national CD strategy is not formulated. The findings at the national levelalso apply at the sector/thematic level. While all the sectors/thematic areas taken up in
the country studies have sector development strategies, less than half of thesector/thematic areas have CD strategies, including the agriculture sector in Tanzania
and the water and sanitation sector in Zambia. In other areas such as the public financial
management sector in Ghana and the health sector in Cambodia, CD strategies are notsufficiently articulated although specific CD needs are identified. The formulation of
CD strategies is progressing with increased donor support. In the case of Malawi, acomprehensive capacity assessment is currently being undertaken to serve as a basis of
the national CD strategy. Similar efforts are also being made in various sectors/thematic
areas under the sector-wide approach (SWAp). However, given the importance of apolicy framework for CD, the formulation of CD strategies is pressing.
A TC policy which defines the selection and management of TC is important toguide TC to the country CD priorities. Given that TC involves many organizations
within the country as well as donors, a TC policy also plays a crucial role in promoting
coordinated TC use by the former and support by the latter, and to maximize TC
contribution to the overall CD. Further, the increased variety in the modes of TC
delivery, including pooled funding and basket funding, development of a TC policy
which guides the selection of different TC forms in order to optimize TC effectivenessis increasingly being recognized as necessary. However, such TC policy is not often inplace. There are countries like Vietnam where details regarding the utilization andmanagement of aid, including TC, are defined as a policy; but most countries lackwell-defined TC policies. Existing partnership mechanisms such as joint assistantstrategies (JAS) and TC working groups function so far in some of these countries as an
institution to guide TC. However, the need for better defined TC policies is stressed by
the study countries, including Ghana, Cambodia, Tanzania, and Zambia, where TC
accounts for a large portion of ODA.
CD and TC involve various organizations at both the central and provincial
levels. Thus, the policy coherence and operational coordination of CD and TC among
multi-level organizations within the country are crucial. CD strategies and TC policies
help, but appropriate institutional mechanisms are also necessary. However, weaknesses
still remain in many countries. For example, in Zambia, CD and TC involve three key
ministries (the Cabinet Office, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Ministry of Finance andNational Planning, in charge of public service management, TC, and overall aid
mobilization, respectively) and the line ministries at the central government level. Due
to such bureaucratic structure as well as the lack of coordination mechanisms,
coordination and information-sharing are limited. Further, as a framework for CD and
TC, Zambia has Joint Assistance Strategy (JASZ) and Public Service Training andDevelopment Policy. However, the line ministries are not familiar with these; and they
are not well reflected in the policies and operations of the line ministries. The Zambian
experience, of which similar experiences are also seen in other countries, indicates that266

an institutional mechanism in addition to a policy is necessary to ensure policy
coherence and coordination, and that the clarification of roles and responsibilities
among the organizations concerned facilitates coordination of CD and TC.
Finally, incentives and political leadership are critical elements that constitutethe enabling environment for CD and TC. The problem of incentives is shared among
almost all the study countries, including Cambodia, Tanzania, and Zambia. The poor
conditions of service and uncompetitive remuneration in the public sector undermine
the motivation and make retention difficult as trained personnel leave for otheropportunities. The need for integrating CD with broader public reforms, especially staff
and payment reform, is recognized as essential. Further, the importance of politicalleadership is stressed by many country studies. The awareness of senior government
officials and political leaders about the importance of CD plays a critical role for
integrating CD strategies into the national and sector development strategies. Theirleadership and commitment are also essential to advance the policy coherence andcoordination among various organizations at multiple levels, not to mention publicreforms.
3.3 Conditions for Effective Technical Cooperation for Capacity Development:
Examination of Six Key Issues
To obtain empirical evidence for how and when the six key issues work,
several cases in sector/thematic areas are selected by each country and examined. The
major conditions for the successful functioning of each issue are summarized in Table 2.
The Table also lists the recommendations for actions to be taken by the countries anddonors in order to realize such conditions 3.
3.3.1. Country-Led Planning
The case studies show that there are many examples where country-led
planning has helped effective use of TC for sector/thematic CD through enhancedalignment of TC activities with the sector/thematic priorities of the country. One such
example is the Good Financial Governance Porgramme in Ghana, which aimed ataddressing the issues of equitable and effective taxation. The program was identified
through dialogue among the country, the donor, and the civil society organization, andthe joint capacity assessment. The Government promoted teamwork and partnership in
TC use with strong political support. TC supported strengthening of capacity for
equitable taxation policy and effective tax collection. It linked to organizational
development at multiple levels, including internal revenue and VAT Service Agencies
and governing bodies. The program produced visible results; revenue from income andcorporate taxes rose by about 57%. Another example is the Support for Public
Investment Programme (PIP) in Lao PDR, whose objective was to develop a firm PIP
management system to achieve the targets of the National Socio Economic
Development Plan and the National Growth and Poverty Eradication. The program wasstarted based upon strong demands within the government, sectors, and provinces, andled by Government with strong support from the National Assembly. Close consultationand collaboration were made through the identification, design, and implementation
process. TC helped capacity strengthening of the staff, organization, and PIP system at
multiple levels, which led to an improvement in the PIP performance.

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The success conditions drawn from the good practices of the country-led
planning include: strong consensus on country demand and priorities; country’s highcommitment, linked to national leadership and vision; clear CD targets and results aswell as aligned TC; and mutual trust and partnership between the country and donors.
3.3.2. Complementarity
One key finding from the case studies is that TC is more effective when it islinked to a variety of other complementary CD support such as infrastructure,equipment, and so on. Another key finding is that retaining the diversity of TC is
beneficial. While many countries generally prefer pooled funding in terms of the
reduction of transaction costs, they also stress that pooled funding arrangements should
ensure the diversity of TC and that complementary support are maintained. What is
important is to manage the diversity. The practice of complementarity suggests as
success conditions: existence of a sector CD roadmap and targets which definecomplementarity of TC and other support; strengthening of CD coordination
arrangements; and operational guidelines which present the comparative advantages ofdifferent TC modalities and donors.
One such good practice can be seen in the health sector in Tanzania, where
health sector reform and decentralization have been carried out. To support the reform,
the multi-donor sector basket fund was established under the SWAp to provide funds forhealth services. TC was provided by several donors to help strengthen management
capacity of local governments who are in charge of local health services. The basket
funding and TC complemented each other to strengthen capacity of the local
government. The government took the lead in the overall reform process, and both thebasket funding and TC were aligned to the country’s strategy. The health sector in
Cambodia provides another example. There, several donors provided TC, including
support to the Ministry of Health for strengthening health systems, support to national
centers for strengthening capacity of organizations and its staff, and support to the local
NGOs involved in health services at the community level. This allowed greater support
for CD across various parts of the sector and it contributed constructively to CD overall.
The existence of a well-defined sector strategy and active TC working group helpedalignment and coordination of TC and the management of TC diversity.
3.3.3. Flexible and Responsive Design/Implementation
Many examples indicate that flexible and responsive TC design andimplementation help make TC more effective. Examples of good practices include theDistance Teacher Education Programme in Ghana and the Kafue District Rural Water
Supply and Sanitation (WSS) Programme. The objective of the former was to expand
access to the university education system, which was limited by the constraints ofphysical capacity of the universities as well as geographical disadvantage of the students.
The program was started based on extensive preparatory work supported by TC. Then,the program was carried out in phases and gradually expanded across several
universities over 10 years. Along with the progress of the program, TC focus has shiftedfrom preparation for the delivery of a new education model to institutional capacity at
the universities to design and provide distance education. The program provided
increased access to the university education system as evidenced by the ten-fold268

expansion of enrollment in 10 years, particularly of female students who represent about
half of all students. The latter program aimed at strengthening community-level capacity
to plan and supervise WSS initiatives. Extensive stakeholder consultations were heldwith the community before designing CD and TC to respond to specific local needs, anda holistic approach was applied. This made the program flexible and adaptive to any
changing needs. It was also carried out by phasing and sequencing CD targets.
One key finding is that the good practices are characterized by a long-term
perspective on CD, and TC support by the country and donors. Based upon thelonger-term CD outcomes, TC activities are modified in a flexible and responsive
manner to respond to emerging issues and needs. To do so, organizational performanceand CD results are reviewed, and decisions on a new direction for the TC support aremade.
3.3.4. Country-led Management
One finding is that country-led management enhances TC effectiveness.
Stronger country commitment and a strengthening of country management capacity,which enables sustained CD efforts, appear to be major factors of this. An example ofgood practices is the VAT administration in Ghana, the objective of which was tostrengthen the capacity of the VAT Service, an organization established with theintroduction of the VAT in Ghana. TC focused on the design and implementation of the
VAT system. Extensive preparatory work was made with the involvement of several
donors; this led to a well-structured TC. With the government’s leadership in
introducing an adequate remuneration package to address staff and salary issues, theVAT Service was staffed with fairly stable staff who were well trained under TC. It also
had a dynamic leader. This enabled the VAT Service to provide effective and efficient
service.
Another example is the Essential Health Interventions Programme in Tanzania.
It aimed at piloting the evidence-based approach to health planning at the district level.
The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare took the lead in planning and implementing
the program as a whole. Local governments carried out actual evidence-based planningand managing of health services under the program. The program was supported by TC
with which the program staff, including international experts, were hired by thegovernment on a competitive basis. After the initial training, the local government staff
was better able to carry out actual evidence-based planning and management. CD
provided through TC helped improve the quality of health services. The program wassupervised by a program steering committee, led by the Ministry and participated by
local governments and donors.
The good practices examples indicate that an initial joint sector ororganizational capacity assessment, which articulates CD needs and TC priorities, canhelp country-led management. Definition of responsibilities among the organizations
concerned and their cooperation also reinforce the country-led management.
Strengthening of the country capacity to manage and monitor TC performance is an
essential enabling factor common to all cases.
3.3.5. Organizational Change Management and Learning
The case studies demonstrate that TC is more effective when embedded within269

an organizational change management and support organizational learning. The goodpractices examples include: the Morogoro Health Project in Tanzania and theStrengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education (SMASSE) in
Kenya. The Morogoro Health Project aimed at strengthening the health system of a
local government. The project was initiated under the strong leadership of thegovernment to respond to health sector reform. With TC support, the project was carriedout combining various activities. These included: strengthening of management capacityof the local government staff; development of a cooperation mechanism among
multi-level government organizations, local research institute, and the communities; andpeer-to-peer learning among the districts in Morogoro. TC was provided in a way topromote the endogenous CD process of the staff with external experts playing a catalyst
role. The project produced tangible results in the improvement of health conditions in
the district; this gave incentives for further change. The SMASSE project was intended
to strengthen the in-service teacher training system to improve the quality ofmathematics and science education. The project began with strong country leadership asa part of the education reform. The training system was designed through extensive
preparation work, including close stakeholder consultations with the teachers, school
principals and so on. It was implemented with wider participation of those stakeholders
as well as the parents. Periodical reviews were made to evaluate the progress of thequality of education. These served as evidence of the improvement in the teachers’
pedagogical quality and students’ achievement and helped provide accountability to thestakeholders. The peer-to-peer learning was conducted between the pilot districts andnon-pilot districts as well as between Kenya and other developing counties.
Success conditions identified from the good practices include: a clear demandfor organizational change; high-level country leadership and commitment to the change;
broad participation of stakeholders; synergy of organizational learning and change
management; and achievement of tangible results which provides incentives for further
change. Demand for change comes from various sources such as public reforms,
legislative changes, and calls from citizens for better services. CD of not only the
supply side of services but also the demand side is useful to promote change.
4. Conclusion: Effective Capacity Development and its Support
The success conditions for each of the six issues which make TC more
effective for CD, share several common points. These points can be summarized asfollows:- country-owned CD strategy which articulates CD targets and a roadmap with alonger-term perspective- a cooperation mechanism among the multi-level organizations concerned within the
country, based upon well-defined responsibilities of each organization- country leadership and commitment, especially including those by senior
government officials and political leaders- mutual trust, willingness, and close collaboration of the country and the donors aswell as an institutional mechanism for partnership- wider stakeholder participation and a demand for change from them
- willingness and commitment to change and the motivated efforts for change,
including flexible responses to emerging issues and needs- incentives for CD and change

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-

monitoring and reviews to manage and account for results
As these points show, many conditions for effective TC for CD involve policy
and institutional context, going beyond specific CD/TC programs and projects. This
indicates that the issues of CD and TC have to be viewed and tackled from a wider
range of policy and institutional perspectives. On the other hand, as presented in the
country studies, conductive policy and institutional environments are not yet in place,and strengthening of country capacity is necessary to make these conductive.
Assistance to such capacity strengthening needs comprehensive support, andTC alone is not enough. However, there are also many areas TC can support. These
include support to: capacity assessment, formulation of CD strategies, reinforcement ofcore functions of the country to manage development, CD at multiple levels andinvolving wider stakeholders, including civil society which constitutes the demand sideof the change, development of an institutional mechanism for cooperation among theorganizations within the country as well as between the country and donors,
development of leaders’ capacity and so on. To effectively support these, it is crucial
that TC be well embedded in a broader framework of efforts in a way to complementwith other CD support instruments. A program approach, which Japan’s ODA iscurrently promoting, will be useful from such perspective. However, Japan’s programs
under such a program approach, must adequately align with the country-owned
country-led program. In other words, it must be Japan’s program under the
program-based approach (PBA).
5. Acknowledgement
This paper is based upon information and data collected for a global study on
effective technical cooperation for capacity development, conducted since March 2007
on the initiative of JICA. The author has participated in the study as the study
coordinator from its start until March 2008 and as an advisor after April 2008. However,
the opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not reflect the official
views of the study members nor JICA.

Notes
1

The data and information used in this section are based on the following country study reports (inprinting):
Government of Ghana (2008) Ghana Country Case Study
Government of Kenya (2008) Kenya Country Case Study
Government of Lao PDR (2008) Lao PDR Country Case Study
Government of Malawi (2008) Malawi Country Case Study
Government of Malaysia (2008) Malaysia Country Case Study
Government of Pakistan (2008) Pakistan Country Case Study
Government of Tanzania (2008) Tanzania Country Case Study
Government of Vietnam (2008) Vietnam Country Case Study
Government of Zambia (2008) Zambia Country Case Study
Royal Government of Cambodia (2008) Cambodia Country Case Study
Royal Government of Thailand (2008) Thailand Country Case Study
2International Development Statistics (IDS) online Database, OECD/DAC
3
Table 2 is prepared, based upon the discussions among the members of the global study. The
discussions were made at an international workshop for the global study, held in April 2008 in Tokyo,
participated by the representatives of the developing country members and the donor members.

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