<Article>

Experiment of Medical Translationin Language Background Students and Science-based Students（語学系及び理系学生を対象にした医療翻訳に関する実験）
Mami Tsuyuki

Abstract
Are students with English skills without healthcare knowledge at disadvantages in translating
medical documents compared with students with health scientific background without theexperience of learning English specially? Experiments were held in June, 2011 to compare to thetwo groups. The total number of the subjects was 37 (students of the humanities were 20 and
health science students 17). Both groups took the same translation task about medicine. There areno significant differences in the task scores between two groups. Therefore no disadvantage for
language background students was found in this study.

1. Introduction
Technical translation, especially in medicine, is a worthy career for bilingual students
who major in English. Regarding genres in medical translation, Reeves-Ellington (1998: 108)
says that the most common include biomedical papers, clinical reports for New Drug
Applications, case reports, patient consent forms, expert opinions, official regulations
governing drug manufacturing and clinical research, package inserts, and patient education
brochures. There is unique terminology in each type of document. Wakabayashi (1996: 356)
contends that medical translation is a growing field especially in context of Japanese-English
translation. Skilled medical translators continue to secure good offers and compensation.
Employers believe that it is hard for humanities students to acquire proficiency inmedical translation. This is reinforced by the fact that most medical translators in Japan haveprior healthcare work experience (Fast Track Guide: Business Translation 2008, 2007: 28).
Maier and Massardier-Kenney (1993: 151) insist that students aspiring to become competenttranslators in medicine, law and science must achieve rapid proficiency in their fields ofspecialization even if they do not eventually practice their field. The authors suggest
achieving such proficiency would be difficult for students of literature.
Achieving proficiency in medical English poses several challenges. However, thismight be a false impression without definitive evidence. Niedzielski and Chernovaty (1993:
123-149) compared two groups; students who had a language background (Language99

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)

Background Students), and those who had a scientific or technical background (Science-based
Students). They concluded that these two groups had no significant difference. The maindifference between Language Background Students and Science-based Students was in thenature of their mistakes, with the former being weak in terminology and the latter in grammar
and vocabulary unrelated to their specialty. Niedzielski and Chernovaty, however, conducted
their experiments in Ukraine around twenty years ago. I did not find any similar comparative
study conducted in modern Japan.
This study investigated whether language background students are at disadvantages intranslating healthcare documents compared with science-based students at two tertiary
institutions in Japan. I conducted experiments using vocabulary quizzes and translation tasks
in June, 2011. Humanities students and health science students likely to take up healthcaretranslation work in the future were selected for this study to measure the potential English
skills in medical translation.
2. Method of administering translation task
Students of Kitasato University were chosen as scientific-based students. As language
background students, students of Aoyama Gakuin University were selected. See Section 2.1
for details about the subjects. The same procedures, question sheets, and model answers wereused for both groups. Only the questionnaires were changed a little in consideration ofdifferences in the students’ situations. In each administration of the test, the students were
given 15 minutes for its completion. The questions for the experiments were made to comply
with special purpose. These questions concerned terminology in medicine. To consider thedifficulty level of the test, the following specialists gave advice: Professor Joseph Dias,
College of Literature, Aoyama Gakuin University and Shigeomi Koike, MD, Ph.D. See
Section 2.2 and Appendix for details about the questions.
2.1 Subjects
The total number of participants was 37: 17 health science students and 20 students of
the humanities were chosen as the subjects.
2.1.1 Group S: Students who had health scientific background
Students who studied in an English class at the Department of Allied Health Sciences ofKitasato University were chosen as subjects. All of the students were undergraduates. They
majored in biomedical engineering. This group is called “Group S” in this paper. They are also
called “science-based students” from Niedzielski and Chernovaty (1993).
As for the health science students, none of them had taken the TOEIC or TOEFL.
Twelve students had taken the Eiken with one scoring at the second level, five at the100Experiment of Medical Translation in Language Background Students and Science-based Students

pre-second level, five at the third level, and one at the forth level (see Table 1).
Table 1Students’ glade of Eiken
LevelGroup S*Group L*

1

0

0

Pre-1

0

9

2

1

1

Pre-2

5

0

3

5

0

4

1

0

Total

12

10

*Number of students
Scoring at the second level is equivalent to the level of a high school graduate; the pre-second
level is equivalent to the level of a high school student; and the third level is equivalent to thatof a graduate from junior high school. Compared with the experiment held by Sasaki (2003:
35-36), the students’ English levels seem quite normal. These facts suggest that the students did
not have particular interests in English and they had no special English skills.
Therefore, the students of Group S had healthcare knowledge and their English skills
were typical.
2.1.2 Group L: Students who had language background
Students in an interpretation class at Aoyama Gakuin University were chosen as subjects.
It was a voluntary class by a teacher who had regular interpretation classes in the university.
Almost all the students majored in English and one student majored in International Politics,
Economics and Communication. One student was a graduate and the others were
undergraduates. This group is called “Group L” in this paper. They are also called “language
background students” from Niedzielski and Chernovaty (1993).
The students of Group L were speculated that they had high English skills. The
questionnaire revealed that the students who provided a TOEIC score (14 of 37 students) had
scores ranging from 740 to 990. The average score of these 14 students was 873.6. Of them, six
students had a score of over 900 (see Tables 2 and 3).

101

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)

Table 2TOEIC score of Group L
Score

Number of students

990-9503949-900

3899-8504849-800

1

799-7502749-700

1

Total

14

Table 3
Average score of TOEIC of Group L
Variable

Score*

Average

873.6

Median

882.5

Mode

865

S.D.

77.047

Minimum

740

Maximum

990* n= 14

Their scores are considered very high because according to Institute for International BusinessCommunication, the mean score of the 167th TOEIC held on September, 2011, was 567.8 and
S.D. 171.2, and the rate who got the score over 845 was 6.8% (Official Data, TOEIC test,
TOEIC Official Site). Three students had also taken the TOEFL PBT and had a score that wasaround 500 (see Table 4), and five students had taken the TOEFL IBT, scoring in the 79 to 100
range (see Table 5). Ten students had passed Eiken, nine at the pre-first level and one at leveltwo (see Table 1). According to a website offered by The Society for Testing English
Proficiency (2011), scoring at the pre-first level is equivalent to the level of university students.

102

Experiment of Medical Translation in Language Background Students and Science-based Students

Table 4
Score of TOEFL PBT of Group L
Score

Number of students

599-5501

549-500

2

Total

3

Table 5
Score of TOEFL iBT of Group L
Score

Number of students

120-100

1

99-90

0

89-80

2

79-70

1

Total

4

The questionnaire also revealed that one student had experience with medical in the class. The
other students answered that they did not have experience with medical translation orinterpreting. Therefore, Group L was considered to have high English skills but they did nothave medical knowledge.
2.2 Questions for the translation task
Part 1 had six vocabulary questions. Correct answers were awarded one point each. The
total point of this section was six. Part 2 had two translation quizzes. The total score for thissection was 16. Marking focused on two areas: English grammar and vocabulary. Grammar
points were based on three or four areas in each question.
To choose appropriate phrases and sentences as questions Medical and pharmaceuticaltranslation and Medical and pharmaceutical translation (B) (2010 and 2010 to 2011. Abe) werereferred. The frequency of medical words in books and the Internet was also investigated. The
choice of terminology was informed by the frequency of the terms in four medical books,
specialized search engines, two books for English learners, and one general search engine. The
books and search engines referred to include the following:(1) Medical books
Stedman’s English-Japanese Medical Dictionary 6th Edition (Stedman Editorial
Committee, 2008)
Igaku-Shoin’s Medical Dictionary Second Edition (Ito and Imura, 2009)103

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)

Writing Medical Records in English Forth Edition (Hajiro, 2008)
Igaku-eitango (Tomita, 2009)(2) Medical search engines
The New England Journal of Medicine (theses released within 20 years were checked)
PubMed.gov, U.S. National Library of Medicine(3) Books for English learners
Dialogue Vocabulary 1800 (Akiba and Mori, 2000)
Kikutan [Super] (Hitosugi [Written and Ed.], 2006)(4) General search engine
GoogleEach search engine was monitored from June 1 to September 3, 2011.
Since the students had not deemed to have experience of medical translation, it had been
predicted that students would get few points if the questions were inappropriately difficult.
Therefore basic terms and sentences were chosen as the questions for the experiment toinvestigate their potential English skills in medical translation.
2.3 Translation tasks
The experiment for health science students was held on June 13, 2011 at Kitasato
University and the one for students of the humanities on June 19, 2011 at Aoyama Gakuin
University. In the experiment for health science students, 18th student came at the time one
minute before end. This student was excluded as a subject because the only questionnaires wereanswered. This exclusion was considered no influence to this experiment.
2.4 Comparison
The data were put into a Microsoft Excel 2007 spreadsheet and were compared(selections of multiple choice items and translations). Each translated sentence in Part 2 wasconverted to points before comparison.
3. Results
The full score for the translation task was 22. This task was divided into two parts. Part 1
was allotted six points and Part 2 was allotted 16 points. For all participants, the average total
score for the translation task was 12.73, standard deviation 3.19, median 13 and most frequentscore 15. The maximum score was 19 and minimum 3 (see Table 6).

104Experiment of Medical Translation in Language Background Students and Science-based Students

Table 6
Scores on the Translation Task (Group S: n=17, Group L: n=20)
Variable

All participants*

Group S*Group L *Average

12.73

12.24

13.15

Median

13

13

13

Mode

15

15

13

S.D.

3.19

3.82

2.56

Minimum

3

3

9

Maximum

19

16

19

Full score

22

22

22

Average

2 .65

2.82

2.50

Median

3

3

2.5

Mode

2

4

3

S.D.

1.27

1.4

1.15

Minimum000Maximum555Full score

6

6

6

Average

10.08

9.41

10.65

Median

11

10

11

Mode

12

12

12

S.D.

2.58

3.28

1.66

Minimum

2

2

2

Maximum

14

13

14

Full score

16

16

16

Total

Part 1

Part 2* Points

The scores are analyzed statistically in the next section.
4. Statistical analysis
Correlations between knowledge of healthcare and score in the task were investigated.
An analysis to determine whether there were statistical differences between the scores ofstudents of the humanities and health science students was performed. There were no
significant differences in the task scores between Group S and Group L.
105

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)

Part 1 had six questions (six points). The average score of Group S was 2.82, Group L
2.50. An f-test was performed in advance and it showed that Group S and L were
homoscedastic. The scores were subjected to a t-test (at a 0.05 of level significance [α=0.05]).
The two-tailed test showed that P=0.45 and t=0.77 (-2.03<t<2.03). Therefore, no statisticaldifferences were observed between Groups S and L.
Part 2 presented two questions to the participants. The full score in this section was 16
points; seven points for grammar and nine points for vocabulary. The average score of GroupS was 9.41, and that of Group L was 10.65. An f-test was performed in advance and it showedthat Groups S and L had unequal variance. A t-test with Welch’s correction, at a significancelevel of 0.05 (α=0.05), was used. The two-tailed test showed that P=0.17 and t=1.41(-2.07<t<2.07). Therefore, no statistical differences between the scores of Groups S and L
were found.
In conclusion, there were no significant differences in the task scores between Group S
and Group L in this study.
5. Discussion
Each part of the translation task will be analyzed in this section. Issues about thisexperiments and suggestions regarding medical translation will be made in this chapter.
5.1. Part 1
See Table 7 to confirm the rate of correct responses. This table was made with reference
to the table by Fukayama ([Ed.], 2000, p. 123).
Table 7
Rate of Correct Answers in Part 1 (Group S: n=17, Group L: n=20)
Question
Appropriate

Other selections

answer
Group

n (%)

n (%)

n (%)

n (%)

(1) 動脈 domyakuarteryhemorrhageveinhemoglobin

Group S15 (88%)0 (0%)

2 (12%)

0 (0%)

Group L

10 (50%)0 (0%)

10 (50%)0 (0%)(2) 腎炎 jin-en
nephritis
Group S

0 (0%)

nephrectomy
8 (47%)

nephromegaly
3 (18%)

106

6 (35%)

nephric

Experiment of Medical Translation in Language Background Students and Science-based Students

Group L

10 (50%)2 (0%)

4 (20%)

4 (20%)

frontal boneparietal bone

occipital bone

(3) 側頭骨 sokutokotsu*
temporal bone
Group S

7 (41%)

1 (6%)

5 (29%)

2 (12%)

Group L

2 (10%)

1 (5%)

12 (60%)2 (2%)

心停止

心室瘤

心血管造影

shinteishi

shinshituryu

shinkekkanzoei

shinkikei(4) cardiac arrest
心奇形Group S

8 (47%)

2 (12%)

6 (35%)

1 (6%)

Group L

13 (65%)5 (25%)

1 (5%)

1 (5%)

静注で

経口

1日2回

既往歴

jochu dekeikoichinichi nikaikioreki(5) IVGroup S15 (88%)1 (6%)

0 (0%)

1 (6%)

Group L

7 (35%)

6 (30%)

1 (5%)

6 (30%)(6) Itchy athlete's foot often occurs between the () of the foot.

toes

ankle

instepsole

Group S

3 (18%)

6 (35%)

2 (12%)

6 (35%)

Group L

8 (40%)

4 (20%)

5 (25%)

3 (15%)* Five students chose no answer (Group S, 2: Group L, 3).
Significantly many students (25) chose correct answer “artery” in the question (1). Ten
students of the humanities chose “artery” correctly and another ten chose “vein.” It issuggested that students knew that “artery” and “vein” were kinds of blood vessels. The healthscience students also significantly better on the question (5). This question was provided to
ask about abbreviations. Fifteen students (88%) chose the correct answer “IV.” Abbreviations
and units of measure are troublesome for students. The reason is that these words are too short
to identify the meaning in dictionaries or on the Internet. It is significantly higher than forother questions except the question (1) showing that they were familiar with this term. On theother hand, the answers of Group L were split. That means they may have chosen the answer
randomly. The question (6) was quoted from questions made by Fukuyama (2000). She claims
that it is difficult for health science students to distinguish everyday words like body parts in
English. The students’ answers were split and only three of them chose “toes.” This question
was speculated to be easy for students of the humanities because the correct answer was the
only one that was plural. However the answers of the students of the humanities were also107

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)

split. Four students chose “ankle,” “instep” five, and “sole” three. The question (3) was alsodifficult for both Group L and M because it is a term in anatomy.
5.2 Part 2
In the grammar questions of Question (2), students of the humanities got significantly
better scores (100%). On the other hand, in the vocabulary questions, no difference was shownin both groups except Question (2) e). See Table 8 to confirm the rate of correct responses inPart 2.
Table 8Rate of correct answers in Part 2 (Group S: n=17, Group L: n=20)
MeasureAll participantsGroup Sn (%)

Group L

n (%)

n (%)

Question (1)a) Subject and verb

28 (76%)

13 (76%)15 (75%)b) Relationship

22 (59%)9 (53%)

13 (65%)29 (78%)13 (76%)16 (80%)1. 37-year-old

35 (95%)16 (94%)19 (95%)

2. present with

4 (11%)

1 (6%)

3 (15%)

3. brownish-black

5 (14%)

2 (12%)

3 (15%)

4. big toe

25 (68%)11 (65%)

14 (70%)of decorationc) Tensed) Vocabulary

Question (2)a) Subject and verb

32 (86%)

12 (71%)20 (100%)b) Object

31 (84%)

11 (65%)20 (100%)c) That clause32 (86%)

12 (71%)20 (100%)d) Tense

35 (95%)15 (88%)20 (100%)e) Vocabulary
1. medical student

33 (89%)15 (88%)18 (90%)2. report

23 (62%)12 (71%)

11 (55%)

3. advisor

23 (62%)7 (41%)

16 (80%)

4. family history

12 (32%)9 (53%)

3 (15%)

5. unremarkable

4 (11%)

2 (12%)

2 (10%)

108

Experiment of Medical Translation in Language Background Students and Science-based Students

5.2.1 Question (1)“A 37-year-old man presented with a brownish-black nail on the big toe of the right foot.”(The model answer: 37 sai no dansei ga migiboshi no tsume ga kasshoku wo obita kokushoku
ni nari jusin shita. [37 歳の男性が右母趾の爪が褐色を帯びた黒色になり受診した.])This sentence was quoted from the New England Journal of Medicine (Yun, S. J. and S.
Kim, 2011). It is a typical sentence used at the beginning of a case study. The model answer
was from Nankodo’s website.
Regarding vocabulary, the item “37-year-old man” had the best score among thequestions for vocabulary in Parts 1 and 2. Ninety-five percent of the students wrote this phrase
correctly. On the other hand, “present with” was one of the most difficult questions in this task.
Some students thought this phrase meant miseru (見せる, “show”). Fukuda (2010) indicatesthat many learners mistook the sentence “patients may present with nonspecific symptoms” intheir translations into Japanese and suggested one must check common words carefully.
This sentence should be translated in the past tense but some students translated it aspresent tense (Group L: four, Group S: three). These students tended to use “-ga iru (がいる).”To check the understanding about the relationship of decoration, “nail on the big toe” waschosen. This phrase should be understood as oyayubi no tsume (親指の爪). The percentage ofcorrect answers was relatively low compared to other grammar questions.
5.2.2 Question (2)“The medical student reported to the adviser that the patient’s family history was
unremarkable” (The model answer: Igakusei ha kanja no kazokureki ni tokkijikou ha nai tosidokyokan ni houkokusita [医学生は患者の家族歴に特記事項はないと指導教官に報告した。]).

In the grammar questions, the language background students got markedly better scores(100%). The health science students also answered well. The number of students translating
the grammar questions appropriately was between 11 and 15 (65 to 88%). Two of themconsidered “was (unremarkable)” as the main verb of the sentence.
Five words were picked up as indicators of vocabulary. “Medical student” should betranslated as igakusei (医学生) without special context. Four subjects in Group S and five inGroup L translated it to iryo(kei) gakusei (医療[系]学生). Iryo(kei) gakusei does not refer
specifically to students of medicine, but of nursing, pharmacy, dentistry and various otherstudents who study subjects related to medicine. It was also included as a correct answer inthis task because “iryou(kei)” tends to be used often. “Advisor” means shidokan in this casebut katakana adobaiza was given a point. The number of students who used adobaiza (アドバイザー), which was just put into katakana, was 20. It was quite common in Group L (15). Two109

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)

health science students considered “advisor” to be a noun “advice.” “Family history” shouldbe translated as kazokureki (家族歴). It was speculated that health science students would
have the advantage in this question, but only 53% (nine) answered correctly. The number ofstudents who answered the phrase as kioreki (既往歴) was four. The health science students
were expected to answer this item from their medical vocabulary. “Unremarkable” means
tokkijikou ha nai (特記事項はない), which is frequently seen in medical contexts. Thisadjective was considered difficult for both Group L and M.
5.3 Issues
This was a cross-section study. Only potential English skills in medical translation were
investigated. I could not give the students long translation tasks because of two reasons. The
students had never learned medical translation. It was deemed that the students could nottranslate long sentences in medicine without knowledge. In addition only 15 minutes were
given for each experiment because the translation task was held in the class. It is consideredthat a longitudinal study could be more effective to investigate skills of medical translation
between language background students and science-based students.
5.4. Suggestions
Groups L and S made mistakes that were different in nature although there were no
statistically significant differences in their task scores. The students with language backgroundhave the chance to develop their medical translation skills when they begin to learn. Somehumanities students answered in the questionnaire that they found an interest in medicaltranslation. However, the English departments of universities in Japan rarely have specializedclasses for translation in science. According to Maier and Massardier-Kenney (1993: 151),
there are four key aspects of translation practice: research skills, technical writing skill,collaboration, and theory. They primarily emphasize research skills. In this paper, three tools
are suggested for improving research skills for healthcare translation: translation schools,
books and the Internet, and free seminars.
Students who major in science can learn technical English at university but students of
the humanities have to study English in healthcare at other schools. Schools of translation
offer classes on medical translation. Shinban igaku·yakugaku no honyaku·tsuyaku kanzen
gaido bukku (Ikaros-Shuppan, 2011: 134-137) introduces many courses for medical translation.
Such specialized translation schools have another advantage. Those who learn at classes there
will have many friends who have different majors from them. Translation schools accept bothstudents who have scientific background or who only have English skills. Maier and
Massardier-Kenney (1993) say that in the face of specialized material, as with any difficult

110Experiment of Medical Translation in Language Background Students and Science-based Students

translation, collaboration is crucial. It includes collaboration with respect to anotherprofession and another academic discipline but also within the translation profession itself (p.
157). Language background students and science-based students can help each other.
Fischbach (1962: 464) says that to translate scientific documents is to form meaning, i.e.
transmitting ideas of a foreign author to a foreign or English-speaking reader. Therefore,
healthcare professional students have an advantage in getting a job as a medical translator. To
cover the lack of medical knowledge, students who major in literature have to study basics ofhealthcare by themselves. Training in Medical Translation with Emphasis on German(Lee-Jahnke, 1998) is a brief guide for learning medical translation not only for German but
for a student whose first language is not German. It introduces practical and fundamental
strategies for acquisition of medical translation skills (pp. 81-91). Trustworthy dictionaries arecertainly needed both for students of the humanities and health science students. Stedman’s
English-Japanese Medical Dictionary 6th Edition (2008) and Igaku-Shoin’s Medical
Dictionary 2th Edition (Ito and Imura, 2009) are popular dictionaries to learn healthcare terms.
Searching for information on the Internet is necessity for translation. CiNii, GeNii and Google
Scholor are search engines specialize in academic theses by researchers and scholars. The New
England Journal of Medicine and PubMed.gov, U.S. National Library of Medicine are popular
websites, which allows for the searching of medical documents.
If students want to increase their knowledge of healthcare, attending lectures andmeetings will give them a chance to learn about healthcare issues. For instance, Keio
University presented free lectures, mainly to allow participants to learn about the brain (Keio
University, 2010). Kitasato University and Aoyama Gakuin University collaborated tohighlight healthcare issues and had symposia about foreign nurses and clinical studies(Kitasato University and Aoyama Gakuin University, strategic university collaboration
program, 2010). Another choice is to take online courses in the website Coursera. Many
famous universities around the world offer online courses. Students can take lectures about
science and healthcare for free.
So, humanities students can research the field in many ways to learn healthcare terms in
the classed offered by translation schools. They can study healthcare issues checking books,
dictionaries, and the Internet. Attending seminars and symposia will expand one’s knowledgeof healthcare.
6. Conclusion
Just as Niedzielski and Chernovaty (1993) showed in their study, this study did notshow significant differences between scores of students of the humanities and health science
students. It means that knowledge of healthcare gave advantages to Group S and students of111

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)

Group L covered their disadvantage using their English skills. In this study no disadvantage
for language background students was found.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express her thanks to the students and teachers who voluntarycooperated in the experiments.
............................................
About the Author
Mami Tsuyuki（露木麻未）: Affiliate of Department of English, College of Literature (Evening
Division), Aoyama Gakuin University.
..............................................

References[Japanese]
Abe, K. (April 2010 to August 2010). 『医薬翻訳』. [Medical and pharmaceutical translation]. Lectures
conducted at ISS Institute, Tokyo.
Abe, K. (September 2010 to February 2011). 『医薬翻訳(B)』. [Medical and pharmaceutical translation(B)]. Lectures conducted at ISS Institute, Tokyo.
Akiba, T. and Mori, H. (2000). 『英単語・熟語ダイアローグ 1800（改訂版）』. Eitaingo·jukugo
daiarogu 1800 (kaitei-ban). [Dialogue Vocabulary 1800]. Tokyo: Obunsha.
Fast Track Guide: Business Translation 2008.『稼げる実務翻訳ガイド 2008 年度版』. (2007). (p.
28).Tokyo: Alc.
Fukuda, M. (2010). 『定例トライアル 2010［実務］メディカル』. Teirei-toraiaru 2010 [jitumu]
medikaru. {Regular Trial 2010 [Business] Medicine}. [Brochure]. Amelia; March Issue, 2010.
Fukayama, A. (2000). 『ESP の理論と実践：これで日本の英語教育が変わる』. ESP no riron tojissen: kore de nihon no eigokyoiku ga kawaru. [Theories and Practice of ESP]. Tokyo: Sanshusha.
Google. [Website] Retrieved from http://www.google.co.jp/ (Access date: June 1, 2011 to September 3,
2011)
Hajiro, K. (2008). 『臨床英文の正しい書き方

改訂第４版』. Writing Medical Records in English

Forthh Edition. Kyoto: Kinpodo.
Hitosugi, T. (Written and Ed.) (2006). 『キクタン[Super]』. Kikutan [supa]. {Kikutan [Super]}. Tokyo:
Alc.
Ikaros-Shuppan (Ed.). (2011). 『新版医学・薬学の翻訳・通訳完全ガイドブック』. Shinban

igaku·yakugaku no honyaku·tsuyaku kanzen gaido bukku. [Complete guidebook for translation andinterpretation of medicine and pharmacy]. Tokyo: Ikaros Mook.

112

Experiment of Medical Translation in Language Background Students and Science-based Students

Institute for International Business Communication. 『TOEIC 公式データ』. TOEIC koshiki deta.
[TOEIC official data]. [Website]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.toeic.or.jp/toeic/data/data_dist01.html?score_id=0000000101 (Access date: November
19, 2011)
Ito, M. and Imura, H. (2009). 『医学書院

医学大辞典（第 2 版）』. Igaku-Shoin’s Medical Dictionary

Second Edition. [Electronic dictionary version]. Igaku-Shoin.
Keio University. (2010). 『脳の講習会～基礎知識～』. Nou no koshukai-kisochisiki. [Lectures forhuman brain]. [Website]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.carls.keio.ac.jp/%E6%9B%B4%E6%96%B020100708brain.pdf
Kindersley, D. (Ed.), Kohashi, R. (translate) (2002). 『ヒューマン・ボディ』. Hyuman·bodi. [Humanbody]. Shufuno Tomo Co., Ltd.
Kitasato University. 『北里大学』. [Website]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.kitasato-u.ac.jp/daigaku/syogai/rishusei/rishu02.html(Access date: May, 2011 to January, 2011)
Kitasato University and Aoyama Gakuin University, stragetic university collaboration program. (2010,
September). 『外国人看護士、今後の展望』. Gaikokujin kangoshi, kongo no tenbo. [Prospects forforeign nurses]. Seminars conducted at Aoyama Gakuin University
Kitasato University and Aoyama Gakuin University, strategic university collaboration program. (2010,
December). 『ヘルスケア・ソリューション研究シンポジウム「臨床研究と医療の倫理」－治験の推進と人権保護のバランスを求めて』. Herusukea·soryushon kenkyu simpojium“Rinsho kenkyu to iryo no rinri” Chiken no suisin to jinken hogono baransu wo motomete.
[Clinical Studies and Medical Ethics]. Seminars conducted at Aoyama Gakuin University
National Institute of Informatics. CiNii. [Website] Retrieved from http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ (Access date:
January 29. 2013)
National Institute of Informatics. Genii. [Website] Retrieved from http://ge.nii.ac.jp/genii/jsp/index.jsp(Access date: January 29. 2013)
Sasaki, M. (2003). 医療系学生の数学的能力と教養教育に関する考察. Mathematical ability andgeneral education in the medical students. Yamagata Journal of Health Science, 6: 35-36.
Stedman Editorial Committee. (2008). 『ステッドマン医学大辞典改訂第 6 版（最新改訂版）』.
Stedman’s English-Japanese Medical Dictionary 6th Edition. [Electronic dictionary version].
Medical View Co., Ltd.
The Society for Testing English Proficiency. (2011). 『英検』. Eiken. [Website]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.eiken.or.jp/exam/index.html (Access date: November 19, 2011)
Tomita, R. (Ed.) (2009). 『医学英単語』. Igaku eitango. [Medical English words]. Tokyo: Synergy.
Yamauchi, M. (1987). 『心理・教育のための統計法〈第 2 版〉』. Shinri·kyoiku no tame no tokeiho (dai2 han). [Statistics for Psychology and Education second edition]. Tokyo: Saiensusha.

113

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)

Yun, S. J. and S. Kim. (2011). 『IMAGES IN CLINICAL MEDICINE 爪のハッチンソン徴候
Hutchinson's Nail Sign』. Tume no hacchinson choko. The New England Journal of Medicine(Japanese). Nankodo youshobu, 364 (18). [Website]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nankodo.co.jp/yosyo/xforeign/nejm/xf2hm.htm (Access date: May 11, 2011)[English]
Baggaley, A. (Ed.) (2001). Human Body. New York: Dk Pub.
Barron, J. P., Breugelmans, R. and Ashida, R. (2009). A fundamental approach to radically improve
English education in Japanese medical schools. Igaku kyoiku, 40 (2) : 113-115.
Coursera. [Website]. Retrieved from https://www.coursera.org/courses (Access date: January 14, 2013)
Fischbach, H. (1962). Problems of medical translation. Bulletin of the medical library assocication, 50(3): 464
Lee-Jahnke, H. (1998). Training in medical translation with emphasis on German. In H. Fischbach(Ed.), Translation and medicine. American Translators Association scholarly monograph series,
10. (pp. 81-102). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Maier, C. and Massardire-Kenney, F. (1993). Toward an expanded pedagogy of specialized translation.
In S. E. Wright & L. D. Jr. Wright (Eds.), Scientific and technical translation., American
Translators Association Scholarly monograph series, 6. (pp. 151-157). Amsterdam/ Philadelphia:
John Benjamins.
Micic, S. (2008). The role of translation in undergraduate medical English instruction. Ibèrica 16[2008]: 169-182
Niedzielski, H. and Chernovaty, L. (1993). Linguistic and technical preparation in the training oftechnical translators and interpreters. In S. E. Wright & L. D. Jr. Wright (Eds.), Scientific andtechnical translation. Translation and medicine. American Translators Association scholarly
monograph series, 6.

(pp. 123-149). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

OED on line (The Oxford English Dictionary). Latest additions: June 2010. [Database]. (Access date:
September 7, 19, and 20, 2011)
Oxford Dictionary of English. (2003). [Electronic dictionary version]. Oxford University Press.
PubMed.gov, U.S. National Library of Medicine. [Website]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ (Access date: June 1, 2011 to September 3, 2011)
Reeves-Ellington, B. (1998). The pragmatics of medical translation: A strategy for cooperativeadvantage. In H. Fischbach (Ed.), Translation and medicine. American Translators Association
scholarly monograph series, 6. (pp. 105-115). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
The New England Journal of Medicine. [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.nejm.org/ (Access date:June 1, 2011 to September 3, 2011)
Seya. Y., Nishimura, T. et al. (1994). A shorter course in health living. Tokyo: Nan’un-Do.
Seya, Y. (1933). The Future is Now. Tokyo: Nan’un-Do.

114

Experiment of Medical Translation in Language Background Students and Science-based Students

Wakabayashi, J. (1996). Teaching medical translation. Meta, 41(3): 356-365.
Wright, S. E. and Wright, Jr., L. D. (Ed.). (1993). Scientific and technical translation. American
Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series, 6. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John
Benjamins.
Yun, S. J. and S. Kim. (2011). Hutchinson’s nail sign. The New England Journal of Medicine. 364: e385, [Website] Retrieved from http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMicm1009305 (Accessdate: May 11, 2011)

Appendix
Questions for the translation task
Part 1: 選択肢の中から適切な英語または日本語を選んで○をつけてください。(Please selectthe appropriate English/Japanese from choices and circle it.)(1) 動脈a. hemorrhage

b. veinc. arteryd. hemoglobinb. nephritis

c. nephromegaly

d. nephricb. frontal bonec. parietal boned. occipital boneb. shinkekkan-zoei

c. shinkikei

d. shinteishi

b. jochu dec.

d. kioreki(2) 腎炎a. nephrectomy(3) 側頭骨a. temporal bone(4) cardiac arresta. shinsitsu-ryu(5) IVa. keikou

ichinichi nikai(6) Itchy athlete’s foot often occurs between the (a. ankle

b. instepc. toes) of the foot.

d. solePart 2: 日本語に訳してください。(Please translate following sentences to Japanese.)(1) A 37-year-old man presented with a brownish-black nail on the big toe of the right foot.
(2) The medical student reported to the adviser that the patient’s family history was unremarkable.

115

『翻訳研究への招待』No.9 (2013)116