CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE EDUCATIONSECTOR – FOCUSED ON THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONGINSTITUTIONS, INCENTIVES AND BEHAVIOURS –Atsushi MATACHI, Senior Advisor (Education)
Japan International Cooperation Agency

1. Introduction
Improving the quality of mathematics and science (M&S) education by improving thequality of teaching of teachers is the main approach of the technical cooperation of JICA in the basic
education sector1 up until now (JICA IFIC 2007b). Characteristics of major approaches in M&S
education cooperation have been analyzed to draw some lessons learnt for project formulation andimplementation (JICA 2004, JICA IFIC 2007b). Analyses based on the perspectives of capacity
development (CD) of projects for M&S education and in-service teacher training (INSET) are also
reported (Mabuchi and Yokozeki 2004、JICA IFIC 2006).
The Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education (SMASSE)
Project implemented in Kenya is regarded as one of the most successful projects in the M&S
education cooperation in JICA. Some of the success factors of SMASSE are already reported (JICA
Social Development Cooperation Department 2002, JICA IFIC 2007a).
Taking SMASSE as a case study, this paper analyzes the relationship among informal andformal institutions, incentives and behaviors of individuals in the process of institutionalization. By
using the framework that distinguishes interior from exterior of individuals, organizations andsocieties, it is explained how the interiors influence the exteriors and vice-versa. Based on theanalysis, some suggestions will be made regarding the relationship between technical cooperation
and a process of institutionalization. Finally some recommendations are made on technicalcooperation from the perspective of CD.
2. Background
2.1 In-service education and training (INSET) for teachers in basic education
Among several issues to be addressed to improve the quality of education, the majority of
the JICA’s technical cooperation projects aim to improve the quality of teaching in M&S teachers.
Approaches for improving the quality of teaching can be divided into two kinds: Pre-service training(PRESET) and In-service training (INSET). While PRESET targets students studying in teacher
education institutions who are to be a teacher, INSET targets incumbent teachers.
Because many developing countries do not have a continuous INSET system, the necessityof providing opportunities for teachers to improve the quality of teaching is generally high. Becauseof this high demands, most of the projects in the M&S education cooperation by JICA are related to
INSET (JICA 2004).
2.2 Technical cooperation as CD
JICA has recently mainstreamed the CD perspective into its basic operational principles oftechnical cooperation projects (JICA 2006). Supporting CD needs to address various issues atdifferent levels beyond implementing a single project. For example, most of the successful projects
of JICA not only transferred knowledge, skills and experience, but also created an environment
which enhances the utilization of those knowledge and skills. This environment is often called an
1JICA’s technical cooperation in the education sector are categorized as basic education, higher education, andvocational and technical education and training.

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―enabling environment‖.
One of the important roles that technical cooperation can play in supporting CD is tosupport partner countries in achieving tangible results which can be used to convince the society
including the Ministries of Education, parents and teachers of the importance of the changes that thepartner countries envisage. For example, by presenting the positive results that have been achievedby pilot projects, policy recommendations can be made which are convincing.
2.3 An issue of concern
As Baba and Iwasaki (2001) argues in their paper that ―Institutions for universalizing
educational practices have two aspects: formal and economic aspect at societal and organizational
levels; and attitudinal and psychological aspect at individual level‖, it is necessary to consider not
only the aspect of organizational and institutional development but also the aspect of incentives,
values and mind-sets of individuals in the scope of technical cooperation in order to makeinstitutions to be functional. Likewise, supporting CD processes of developing countries requires
paying attention not only to the ―explicit‖ aspect such as skills acquisition and establishing a system,
but also to the ―tacit‖ aspect such as organizational cultures, incentives and mindsets.
In terms of the explicit aspect, some lessons have already been drawn from analyses of theimplementation processes of past experiences of JICA’s projects in M&S education cooperation(JICA 2004). However, little literature argues the importance of incentives in the technicalcooperation in the education sector. As one of such examples, Hochachka (2006, 2007) discusses theimportance of having an integral perspective paying attention to both of interior and exterior ofindividuals and collectives in international development.
By using the framework which is developed by incorporating the integral perspective that
Hochachka uses in her analyses, the author analyzes the relationships among the interiors andexteriors of the society, organizations, and individuals. In the following sections, the author analyzes
theIn the following sections, the SMASSE project is taken as an example which has
successfully developed the capacity of developing countries to sustain the project outcomes. A brief
overview of the project will be provided in the section three. In the section four, by using theframework that has been developed by incorporating the integral perspective that Hochachka uses, ahypothetical analysis is explained as to what changes in the interiors of individuals, organizations,and societies have promoted the institutionalization of INSET and how those institutions influencemind-sets and values of individual teachers.
3. A Brief Overview of SMASSE as an Example of INSET Project
SMASSE in Kenya has successfully institutionalized a sustainable INSET system (JICA,
Social Development Cooperation Department 2002). This section provides an overview of SMASSE
including the context and approaches taken in the project, and summarizes the success factors basedon the CD concept.
3.1 Context of the project
Since the independence in 1963, the Kenyan government has attached great importance toeducation to cope with the demand of the people as the fundamental right and to develop humanresources at managerial level in the political and economic sector. Since 1970 access to education
has rapidly expanded with the government budget as well as with the self-help efforts by theguardians and communities in the spirit of ―Haranbee2‖ that was advocated by the first President
Kenyatta.
In the 1990’s, under the 7th and 8th National Development Plans, the Kenyan government
emphasized the importance of skills development through education and training to achievesustainable development through industrialization. Hence, the government prioritized M&S
2―Haranbee‖ roughly means that ―Let us pull together and get the job done‖ in Swahili (JICA IFIC

2007a).

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education and technical and vocational education and training (TVET).
Although the access to primary and secondary education increased, quality of education
was not satisfactory, in particular, regarding mathematics and science subjects. For instance, in theexamination conducted for students completing secondary schools in Kenya, called Kenya
Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE), results of mathematics and science were not performed
well compared to other subjects, which raised concerns not only by the government but also by theparents and communities (JICA Project Formulation Study Department 1995, 1996, JICA Social
Development Cooperation Department 2002, JICA IFIC 2007a). In response to the pressure from theparents on improving the quality of education, the Secondary School Heads Association in the
Nairobi Province, for instance, organized INSET with the financial support of the parents andschools (JICA Project Formulation Study Department 1996).
It was under these circumstances when the Kenyan government made a request to theJapanese government for technical cooperation in establishing an INSET system for teacher training
in order to improve the capacity of students in mathematics and science at secondary level.

Overall
Goal
Project
PurposeExpected
OutputPhase I
Phase II(PDM Second Version)
Domestic Components3
Capability of young Kenyans in
Capability of young Kenyans inMathematics and Science is upgraded.
Mathematics and Science is upgraded.
Quality of Mathematics and Science
Quality of Mathematics and Scienceeducation at secondary level iseducation at secondary level is strengthened
strengthened through INSET amongin Kenya through INSET for teachers.
teachers in the Pilot District.
1. A system of training for the District 1. A system of training for the District
trainers
in
Pilot
Districts
in trainers in Mathematics and Science will be
Mathematics and Science will be strengthened at National INSET center.
established at KSTC.
2. A system of INSET in Mathematics and
2. A system of INSET in Mathematics
Science will be established in the Districts.
and Science will be established in the
3. Role of SMASSE National INSET Center
Pilot Districts.
and District INSET Centers as resource
3. Role of KSTC and District INSET
centers will be strengthened.
centers as resource centers will bestrengthened.
Table 1: Goals, Purposes and Outputs of SMASSE
Source: Modified the table, p. 6, of JICA IFIC (2007a).

In Kenya at that time, although INSET was occasionally conducted, most of which weremainly organized by external development partners, there was not an INSET organized regularly andcontinuously. Thus, the project aimed at institutionalizing an INSET system in which all the
incumbent teachers in Kenya can participate continuously. Table 1 below summarized the overall
goals, project purposes and expected outputs of the SMASE Phase I and Phase II.
Training methods for INSET can be divided into two types: a cascade method and a cluster
method. Considering the purpose of the training and the political and economic contexts, anappropriate method is determined. SMASSE adopted the cascade method considering that theeducational administration in Kenya is relatively centralized and the INSET was expected todisseminate standardized contents with acceptable quality nationwide (Mabuchi and Yokozeki 2004).
In this cascade method, first National Trainers at the national level are trained who are toprovide training for District Trainers, and then the District Trainers are to provide training forteachers in each District (Figure 2).

3

Phase II of SMASSE consists of the two components: Domestic component which is aimed to expand the INSET
nationwide in Kenya and the Regional component which is to expand the INSET system to other countries in Africa.
As this article deals with only in-country activities in Kenya, PDM of the Regional component is not included.

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National

National Trainers

District
TrainerTraining
District
Trainer

District
Trainer

District
Trainer

Teacher

District
Training
ineach District
Teacher

Teacher

Figure 2: Cascade Method for INSET
3.2 Contributing factor to CD (1): Ownership and endogenuity
SMASSE has attached the great importance to the ownership of Kenya from the project
formulation stage through the implementation stage. As the detail of the approach adopted by
SMASSE is reported by JICA IFIC （2007a）, only issues related to institutions and incentives aretouched upon below.
(1) Ensuring the needs
As stated in 3.1, when SMASSE was formulated, priorities of the political, economical,
and societal needs of Kenya were carefully examined in order to decide the possibility of
institutionalization of INSET. Because improving the ability of students in mathematics and science
was one of the most prioritized issues in Kenya at that time, JICA was aware that the Kenyan
government would by all means secure the budget and personnel necessary for institutionalizing
INSET. Because of this awareness, JICA was able to wait until the Kenya government is prepared
for the project. Through this process during the formulation of the project, the ownership of the
Kenyan side was strengthened4.
(2) High quality training as non-pecuniary incentives
JICA was certain that pecuniary incentives such as a per diem allowance would spoil thesustainability of the project, JICA did not agree to bear the cost of per diem to be paid to theparticipants of INSET. Although the Kenyan government agreed to bear the cost for per diem for theparticipants and trainers when necessary, as they did not have the budget enough to pay the per diem,it has not been paid in the project. As a result of this, the quality of INSET itself must be thenon-pecuniary incentive for the participation.
(3) Effective use of monitoring and evaluation
In order to for the Kenyan counterparts to develop the capacity to improve the quality of
the INSET system by themselves, a Monitoring and Evaluation Unit was established to monitor thequality of training sessions and classroom practices. The monitoring activities for which Kenyan
counterparts themselves visited schools and district training centers provided national and district
trainers with opportunities to objectively reflect their activities they have implemented in the
National Training Workshops, which made them aware of the areas of improving the quality of theirown activities. In this way, monitoring and evaluation activities created attitudes of Kenyan
counterparts to identify and solve problems by themselves.
4

JICA-IFIC (2007a), p. 10.

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Furthermore, by presenting effectively the results of the monitoring and evaluation
activities to those stakeholders who have the power to formulate polices as well as who can
influence them, SMASSE successfully convinced them of the importance of INSET and created a
supportive environment for INSET. Sensitization through the presentation of the positive results ofthe project contributed to creating the shared value in the society that INSET is useful to improve theteaching mathematics and science. The creation of the shared value, which can be interpreted as―informal institutions,‖ have contributed to establishing formal institutions (p.77, JICA IFIC 2007a).
3.3 Contributing factor to CD (2): Comprehensive approach
The sustainability of the SMASSE Project is rated as high (JICA Social Development
Cooperation Department, 2002) because SMASSE was designed to enable the partner country tosustain the system established by the Project with own budgets and human resources.

(a) Implementation(b) Administration(c) Finance

Figure 3: SMASSE Triangle
Source: JICA Social Development Cooperation Department (2002)

Taking cognizance of the importance of strengthening the three aspects of an institution,
namely, ―administration‖, ―implementation‖ and ―finance‖ both at national and district levels forsustainability, strengthening the three aspects have been emphasized from the outset of the Project,which is called ―SMASSE Triangle‖ (Figure 3).
(a) Strengthening the aspect of implementation
Major elements of the aspect of implementation include: strengthening the capacity of
training centers and the capacity of trainers at national and district levels. In terms of the capacity of
training centers, at national level the National Training Center was renovated which was furnishedwith educational materials and at district level one of the secondary schools in the districts was
selected as a District INSET Center (DIC) which was also furnished with educational materials.
In terms of the capacity of trainers, at national level full-time trainers were selected, whowere sent to Japan, the Philippines, and/or Malaysia for training and at district level capable teachers
were selected as District Trainers, who were trained at the National Training Center.

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Education Sector Plan
National Level
Securing the budget

Ministry of Education

Dialogue

National Training Center

National INSET W/S
Stakeholder W/SDistrict Level

District Education OfficeDistrict Planning Committee (DPC)

Chair
Influence

EO (Heads)
District Trainers
SV
SupportDistrict INSET W/S
School Level
Schools
Principals

District Trainers: DT(Experienced Teachers)

Teachers

Source: Modified the Figures 2-4 (p. 32) and 3-1 (p. 77) in JICA-IFIC (2007a).

Figure 4: Implementation Structure of SMASSE(b) Strengthening the aspect of administration
Regarding the aspect of administration, in order to implement INSET smoothly at nationaland district levels, key personnel at each of the levels are sensitized to the purpose and merits of the
project through stakeholder workshops, who are also invited to decision-making bodies so that theirownership of the project can be strengthened. For example, at district level, all the major
stakeholders are involved in the District Planning Committee (DPC) chaired by the Education
Officer (EO) who is the head of the District Education Office (DEO) which have the administrative
power. Other members of the DPC include a District Supervisor (SV) as a District INSET
Coordinator, a representative from the Secondary School Heads Association in the district, who takes
charge of financial matters, and the principal of the District In-service Training Centers which is aselected school (Figure 4).
(c) Strengthening the aspect of finance
Since the beginning of the project, highest attention has been paid to the sustainability of theactivities after the project. The budget necessary for conducting training at national level has been
secured by the Ministry of Education (MOE) as part of the recurrent budget and the budget
necessary for district level training has been covered by the ―SMASSE Fund‖ which accumulates
one percent of tuition fees collected from the students.
The three aspects of the SMASSE Triangle are summarized as shown in Table 4.
In this way, the SMASSE Project has strengthened the capacities of individuals—skills
and knowledge necessary to conduct training, capacities of organizations—management structure
and administrative capacity to plan and organize training workshops, and capacities of theinstitution—securing the budget necessary for activities.
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National
Level

District
Level(a) Implementation- Strengthening the capacityof National Training
Center (Reconstruction of
National Training Centerand provision of
educational materials)- Strengthening the capacityof National Trainers(Securing full-time trainers
and training them in Japanand Asia)- Strengthening the functionof the District Centers(Provision of educational
materials to selected
secondary schools)(b) Administration- Establishing Joint
Coordinating Committee(JCC)(Members: Representatives
from MOE, JICA, Districts
and SMASSE Project Team)- Establishing National
Planning Committee(NPC)(Members: Representatives
from MOE, KSTC andSMASSE Project Team)- Establishing District
Planning Committee(DPC)(Members: Representatives
from District Education
Office, Inspector, Principals,
and District Trainers)(c) Finance- Securing budget at
National level- Establishing
SMASSE Fund

- Strengthening the capacityof District Trainers(Securing trainers at districtlevel and training them at
National Training Center)
Table 4: Three aspects of SMASSE Triangle
Source: Adapted from a memo written by Mr. Naganuma, JICA Expert
4. Relationships among institutions, incentives, mindsets, and behaviours in theinstitutionalization of INSET
4.1 The importance of understanding the interactions among individuals, organizations, andinstitutions
Section 3 briefly summarized as to how SMASSE successfully established a sustainablesystem of INSET by emphasizing on the endogenous and comprehensive perspectives. This section
examines as to how the approaches, activities that SMASSE adopted and outcomes from theapproaches are interrelated in the society5 of educational stakeholders in Kenya.
JICA defines ―capacity‖ as the ―the ability of developing countries to solve problems on
their own‖ and ―capacity development (CD)‖ as ―the ongoing process of enhancing the
problem-solving abilities of developing countries by taking into account all the factors at theindividual, organizational, and societal levels‖ (JICA IFIC 2006). The document also explains that―the capacity is a body comprising of any elements such as a relationship among stakeholders,institutions, policies, social systems, knowledge and skills, etc.‖ and that ―activities will not besustained unless such mechanisms and institutions that sustain and enhance the activities are in placein addition to improving the capacities of individuals and organizations that implement the activities(JICA IFIC 2006). Then, the document also states that ―what is most important when implementing
technical cooperation is that paying attention to the interactions between elements comprising of thecapacity, in particular, mechanisms and institutions which enable the activities to be continued andstrengthened‖.
5

In this context the ―society‖ comprised of stakeholders in the field of education including teachers, schools, District
Education Offices, Ministry of Education, students, parents, etc.

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Although much literature points out the importance of the comprehensive approach for CD,
only a few of them analyzes the interactions among the actors, influences of the approaches onactors in institutionalizing INSET. As Matsuoka (2004) argues that ―in order to conceptualize andtheorize the process of the formation of social capacity, it is important to clarify the capacities andbehaviors of the actors comprising of the society, and the elements that influence those capacities
and the behaviors and, moreover, how a bundle of institutions function which control the capacities
and behaviors‖, it is also necessary for technical cooperation to understand the inter-linkages
between actors, institutions, and activities and outcomes of the technical cooperation in order todeepen the understanding of the holistic perspective.
Hence, this section will identify what kinds of incentives are provided to individuals(teachers), organizations (schools), and societies (stakeholders in the field of education), and clarify
the relationships among them in the process of institutionalizing INSET.
4.2 Interiors and exteriors of individuals, organizations and societies
Table 5 shows an analytical framework that discriminates between the interiors and theexteriors of individuals, organizations, and the societies. ―Interiors‖ include anything that cannot be
observed from the outside but happen the inside. ―Exteriors‖ include anything that can be observed
objectively from the outside. Interiors and exteriors at each level can be defined as follows 6:(a)
The interior of a society includes anything regarding a society that cannot be observed fromthe outside but exists and influences organizations and individuals in the society, such as sharedvalues, cultures, and common senses. This can be referred to as Informal institutions.
(b)
The exterior of a society includes anything regarding a society that can be observed and canbe explicit and be described objectively. Examples of this category include laws, policies, andeconomic systems which are referred to as formal institutions.
(c)
The interior of an organization includes anything regarding an organization that cannot be
observed from the outside but exists and influences individuals in the organization such asorganizational cultures. It can be referred to as informal institutions.
(d)
The exterior of an organization includes anything regarding an organization that can beobserved from the outside such as organizational decisions, organizational strategies, andorganizational behaviors. This can be included as formal institutions.
(e)
The interior of an individual includes anything regarding an individual that cannot be
observed from the outside but happens inside of the individual, for example, feeling, thought andbelief.
(f)
The exterior of an individual means anything regarding an individual that can be observed
from the outside such as appearances and behaviors. In this paper, only behaviors are discussed as it
focuses on behavioral changes.
Interior
Exterior（Unobservable/Tacit）（Observable/Explicit）(a) Interior of society(b) Exterior of society
SocietyE.g., Shared value, culture,
E.g., Law, social/economic systems
common sense(c) Interior of organization(d) Exterior of organization E.g.,
Organization
E.g., Organizational culture,
Organization’s rule, organization’sorganizational climate
strategy, organizational behaviors(e) Interior of individual(f) Exterior of individual
Individual
E.g., Feeling, thought, belief
E.g., Appearance, behaviors
Table 5: Interiors and Exteriors of Society, Organization, and Individual7
6

A framework that has four quadrants, namely, the interior and the exerior of an individual and the interior and theexterior of a collective, is called an AQAL model (All Quadrants, All Levels). This model is used for anayses in thefield of international development. See Hochachka (2006、2007) for the detail.
7 Although the model used in this article is based on the AQAL model, this model is defferent from the AQAL modelin that the ―collective‖ in the AQAL model is dividied into two: ―Organization‖ and ―Society‖ which are used to136

While definitions of ―institutions‖ differ depending on scholars, according to North’s
definition, ―institutions are the rules of the game in a society, or more formally, the human devised
constraints that shape human interaction (North 1990)‖. Aoki (2001) pointed out that ―appropriate
formalization of concepts like institutions depends on the purpose‖ and that the ―constraints‖ inNorth’s definition may be ―something informal (e.g., social norm, customs, and codes of conduct) or
something purposely designed or formally stated‖. According to the definitions above, Table 5 canbe interpreted as shown in Table 6 in terms of the relationships among formal and informal
institutions and mindsets and behaviors of individuals.
Interior

Exterior

Informal institutions

Formal institutions

Society
Organization
Individual’s mindset, feeling,
Individual’s behavior
thought, and belief
Table 6: Relationship among Formal and Informal Institutions and Mindsets and Behaviors of
Individuals
Individual

Taking SMASSE as an example, by applying this framework, the process ofinstitutionalization of INSET and the relationships among formal and informal institutions, mindsets
and behaviors of individuals are analyzed in the next section (Figure 7).
4.3 Institutions necessary for institutionalization of INSET
As explained in Section 3, SMASSE aimed to institutionalize INSET. In order for the
institutionalized INSET to function, it is necessary for teachers to be motivated to participate in
INSET. Hence, it is important to appropriately incorporate incentives in the INSET system tomotivate teachers to participate in the training8. In the case of SMASS, the following incentives arein place for teachers to participate in INSET.
(1) Attractiveness of the INSET itself
If the quality of INSET is good enough to interest teachers, and applying the knowledge andskills learned through INSET to classroom practices motivates students, teachers are motivated toparticipate in INSET. This incentive is most important as it is more endogenous and more intrinsic
for a teacher than any other incentives to be explained below. Therefore, the most important
incentive for teachers to attend INSET is to offer what the participating teachers feel interesting anduseful (See the arrow9 (a) in Figure 7).
(2) Institutions that directly force teachers to participate in INSET
Some institutions directly force the target group to do what is expected. In the case of
SMASSE, INSET has been made compulsory based on the decisions made by the Stakeholder
Meeting in May 2001 and May 2002, and by the Secondary School Heads Association in 2001 (p. 41,
JICA IFIC 2007a) (See the arrow (b) in Figure 7).
Principal’s permissions and/or orders will also strongly influence the attendance ofteachers to INSET (See the arrow (c) in Figure 7).

explain about the CD concept of JICA.
8 Motivations are defined as something coming up from the within that makes people to do something, andincentives are defined as something that motivate someone from the outside to do.
9 Thickness of the arrows in Figure 7 indicates the likeliness of the incentives to make someone to do something. The
thicker the arrows are, the more likely the things happen.

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(3) Institutions that promote teachers to participate in INSET
In addition to (1) and (2) above, there are some institutions that encourage teachers toparticipate in INSET. For example, the necessity of developing high order thinking skills is
stipulated in education policies and syllabuses in Kenya. As ―ASEI lessons‖ aim to develop highorder thinking skills, the stipulation of the necessity in policies and syllabuses is likely to motivate
teachers to attend INSET (See the arrow (d) in Figure 7).
Moreover, if there is a policy stipulating that ―attendance at INSET is a requirement for promotion‖,
it will almost force teachers to participate in INSET. If there is another policy stating that ―a teacher
will be assessed positively if delivering student-centered lessons‖, teachers will be also encouraged
to attend INSET to acquire skills and knowledge necessary to implement student-centered lessons(See the arrow (e) in Figure 7. The arrow is shown in broken lines because these policies do not exist
at present).
(1), (2), and (3) mentioned above are the factors that motivate, force or encourage teachers
to attend INSET. Hence, it is crucially important to provide those incentives by formulatingnecessary policies (formal institutions) to institutionalize INSET.
In addition to those institutions, there are other institutions which are essential toinstitutionalize INSET as described below.
(4) Institutions essential to institutionalize INSET
In order to institutionalize a sustainable INSET model, it is essential to secure the financial
resources to implement INSET after the technical cooperation has finished. For example, SMASSE
has secured the budget at national levels by securing the national budget and at district level by
establishing the ―SMASSE Fund‖, as explained in 3.3 (c). These are the institutions essential for
institutionalized INSET to be sustained (See the arrow (f) in Figure 7).
As a secondary effect, the SMASSE Fund has also increased the awareness of the parents andguardians towards teachers’ performance in the classroom as they are aware that the money for thefund comes from the tuition fees they have paid. Their awareness towards teachers’ performanceputs pressure on teachers to show better performance. This pressure works as an incentive forteachers to attend INSET activities more seriously (See the arrow (g) in Figure 7).
4.4 Process of the formulation of informal and formal institutions
As explained above, INSET has been become compulsory based on the decisions made by
the Stakeholder Meetings and the Secondary School Heads Association. Because of the deep
concerns about the low performance in mathematics and science were shared through the society
including Ministry of Education, districts, schools, and parents and communities, high expectations
for INSET seem to have urged the stakeholders to support the institutionalize INSET (See the arrow(h) and (i) in Figure 7).
In addition to the expectations, efforts made by the SMASSE Project Team to visualize theeffectiveness of INSET in the pilot districts by presenting the positive results collected frommonitoring and evaluation activities (Refer to 3.2 (3)), succeeded to create confidence of the
stakeholders in the INSET, which have gradually changed the informal institutions in the society(See the arrow (j) in Figure 7).
It was especially important to show the achievements to those stakeholders who are able toformulate institutions such as policy-makers and who are influential to those policy-makers, forinstance, principals and parents in the case of SMASSE.
4.5 Incentives offered by institutions and intrinsic incentives
As discussed in 4.3 and 4.4, in order to institutionalize INSET, at least, three kinds ofinstitutions are necessary: 1) institutions that ―directly force‖ teachers to participate in INSET; 2)
institutions that are ―essential‖ to institutionalize INSET, for instance, SMASSE Fund, in this case;and 3) institutions that ―promote‖ teachers to attend INSET, for instance, the stipulation of theimportance of developing high order thinking skills.
Although there are no policies in terms of assessments and/or promotions at present in138

Kenya which provides advantages to those who have attended INSET, it will be effective toformulate such policies in order to strengthen the institutionalization of INSET.
However, as shown in 4.3 and 4.4, in order to enforce formal institutions effectively, theconfidence of teachers in INSET, which motivates teachers to attend INSET is important (See thearrow (a) in Figure 7). Without the confidence in INSET, formal institutions may not function
properly. Therefore, the quality of INSET is essentially important to determine the degree ofeffectiveness of INSET.
From this viewpoint, while the comprehensive view and the endogenuity are important intechnical cooperation based on the concept of CD, the quality of the outputs and outcomes of thetechnical cooperation, namely, the quality of INSET in this case, is also crucially important.
5. Conclusion
Taking the SMASSE Project as an example that has succeeded to institutionalize INSET in
Kenya, the paper examines the relationships among formal and informal institutions, incentives,mind-sets and behaviors of individuals in the process of the institutionalization of INSET.
The following points have been found to be particularly important when technicalcooperation is implemented based on the CD concept:(a) to observe not only formal institutions in the developing countries, but also informal institutions
including incentive structures, organizational cultures, values shared in the communities and thesociety;(b) to surely produce results through technical cooperation activities;(c) to present the positive results to those stakeholders who have the power to formulate institutions
and who are influential to those policy makers for advocacy; and to formulate formal institutions
such as policies at least three kinds of institutions: 1) institutions that ―directly force‖ teachers toparticipate in INSET; 2) institutions that are ―essential‖ to institutionalize INSET, for instance,
SMASSE Fund, in this case; and 3) institutions that ―promote‖ teachers to attend INSET, forinstance, the stipulation of the importance of developing high order thinking skills.

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Figure 7: Relationship among Institutions, Incentives and Changes in Mindset

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References:
Aoki, Masahiko (2005), ―Hikaku-seido Bunseki no Houhou: Seido no Schumpeter-teki Kakushin to
Kakushin no Seido [An Approach to Comparative Institutional Analysis: Schumpeterian Innovationof Institutions and an Institution of Innovation] (in Japanese), Japanese Journal of Comparative
Economics Vol.42, No.1, January 2005, Japan Association for Comparative Economic Studies.
Aoki, Masahiko (2001), Toward a Comparative Institutional Analysis, Massachusettes, MIT Press, 2001.
Baba, Takuya and Iwasaki, Hideki (2001), ―Sugaku Kyoiku Bunya ni Okeru Kokusai Kyoryoku no
Kosatsu: Kenia Koku Chuto Risuka Kyoiku Kyoka Purojekuto wo Jirei Toshite [Consideration ofInternational Cooperation in the Field of Mathematics Education: The Case of the Strengthening
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