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Snorri Sturluson

EDDA
Translated and edited by
ANTHONY FAULKES
University of Birmingham

EVERYMANJ. M. DENT • LONDONCHARLES E. TUTTLE

VERMONTCover illustration:
The legend reads ‘Here Odin isriding the horse Sleipner. It isthe best of all horses’ (see p. 36).

Introduction, bibliography, indexes and textual editing© David Campbell Publishers 1987
Chronology and Synopsis © J. M. Dent 1995

All rights reservedFirst published in Everyman in 1987
Reissued 1992,1995
Reprinted 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001 (twice), 2002 (twice)J. M. Dent
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CONTENTS

Note on the Author and Editor vi
Chronology of Early Icelandic Literature viii
Introduction xi
Select Bibliography xxiv
PROLOGUEI

GYLFAGINNING

SKALDSKAPARMALHATTATAL

7
59

165

Text Summaries 221

Annotated Index of Names 2.2.9
Index of Metrical Terms z6o

NOTE ON THE ÁUTHOR AND EDITOR

Snorri sturluson, historian, poet and politician, was born at
Hvamm in western Iceland in 1179. He belonged to an aristo­
cratic family, the Sturlungar, who gave their name to the periodof violence and turmoil in the early thirteenth century which led
to the loss of Icelandic independence to the king of Norway in
1262-4. Snorri acquired great wealth and power and was twice
lawspeaker at the Icelandic parliament (Althingi), and twice
visited Norway where he became embroiled in the politics ofKing Hakon Hakonarson and the king’s father-in-law, Earl
Skuli. The latter rebelled against the king and was killed in
1240, and Snorri also became subject to the king’s displeasureand in 1241 was killed in his own cellar at Skalholt.
As he is depicted in contemporary records, Snorri was not an
attractive character, but he is acknowledged to be one of
Iceland’s greatest writers, and appears in his books as urbane,
intelligent and sensitive. His Heimskringla is the best account of
medieval Scandinavian history, and his Edda is a masterpiece oforganization, wit and irony. He may also be the author of oneof the finest of the Sagas of Icelanders, Egils saga. He was a manof great learning, and in spite of belonging to a society that had
been fully Christian for two centuries, was deeply immersed in
the traditions of his pagan Viking ancestors.
anthony faulkes is Professor of Old Icelandic at The Univer­sity of Birmingham. He studied Old Icelandic and Medieval
English at Balliol College, Oxford, and was lecturer for ten years
at Birkbeck College, University of London. He has travelledwidely in Iceland, and took his doctorate at the University inReykjavik in 1981. He has carried out extensive research on
Icelandic texts, including various versions of Snorri Sturluson’sEdda. He was President of the Viking Society for NorthernviNote on the Author and Editor
Research from 1986-8 and is now joint editor of the Society’s

Saga-Book and Text Series. In 1992 he was awarded the knight’s
cross of the Icelandic Order of the Falcon for services to
Icelandic scholarship.

vii

CHRONOLOGY OF EARLY ICELANDIC LITERATURE

Year (ad)Historical and Literary Context

c.

885

Beowulf written
First viking raid on Northumbria
Beginning of viking settlement inEngland
Beginning of viking settlement in
IcelandAlfred the Great becomes king ofEngland
Harald finehair becomes king of all930
948—54
963
982
986
995

NorwayFoundation of Althingi
Eirik Bloodaxe king at YorkDivision of Iceland into quarters
Beginning of settlement of Greenland
Discovery of America by Vikings
Olaf Tryggvason becomes king of

c.

725
793
850

c.

870

871
c.

Norway999-1000 Christianity accepted in Icelandc. 1005
Fifth court established
1010
Burning of Nial
1014
Battle of Clontarf
1030
Fall of St Olaf
1056
First bishop at Skalholt.
Sæmund the wise born
1066
Fall of Harald Hardradi in England.
Battle of Hastings
1067
Birth of Ari the wise
1096
Tithe laws introduced into Iceland
1106
First bishop at Holar
1117-18
Icelandic laws first written downc. 1130
Islendingabok compiled
1133
First monastery founded (atThingeyrar)

viii

Norse poets fl.

Bragi the old

Thiodolf of Hvinir
Thorbiom Homklofi

Eyvind Skaldaspillir
Egil Skallagrimsson
KormakEinar Skalaglamm
Hallfrod

SigvatAmor jarlaskald
Thiodolf Arnorsson

Chronology of Early Icelandic Literature'Year (ad)Historical and Literary Context

c. 1150

Earliest Icelandic manuscript
fragments
Archbishopric established at
Nidaros in Norway
First Grammatical Treatise.
Hryggjarstykki.
Birth of Snorri Sturluson”53c. 11701179
c. 1190
1197
1199
1214
1215-18
1217
1218-20
C. 12201222-31
I22Ó
I237-91240
1241
c. 12501262
1263
c. 1275
c. 12801284
c. 13201321
c. 1340c. 1350
1382
1550
1944

Norse poets fl.

Einar Skulason

Sverris saga
Death of Jon Loptsson
Thorlak declared saintBirth of Sturla Thordarson
Snorri Lawspeaker
Hakon Hakonarson becomes king of

NorwaySnorri’s first visit to Norway
The Prose Edda
Snorri Lawspeaker again
Tristrams saga
Snorri’s second visit to Norway
Earl Skuli killed
Snorri Sturluson killed 23 September
Oldest surviving manuscript of asaga of Icelanders (Egils saga)
Iceland ceded to king of Norway
Death of King Hakon
Codex Regius of eddic poems.
Morkinskinna
Nials saga. Hrafnkels saga
Death of Sturla Thordarson
Grettis saga
Death of Dante
Birth of Chaucer
Modruvallabok written
Flateyiarbok begun
Reformation in Iceland
Iceland regains complete
independenceix

Eystein Asgrimsson

INTRODUCTION

Snorri Sturluson’s Edda contains some of the best known andmost effective of Norse mythological stories. Many of thesehave their origin in primitive pagan times, though they are retoldby a learned and Christian author. They come chiefly in the firstpart of the work, Gylfaginning (the tricking of Gylfi), where wehear about the creation and end of the world, and many of theadventures of the Norse gods, especially those of the blustering,half-comic Thor, and the tragic account of the death of Baldr.
These stories were based on traditional poems (some of whichsurvive elsewhere) or in some cases perhaps oral prose stories,
though they are probably much changed from the form in which
they would have been told in heathen times. In the second partof the work, Skaldskaparmal (the language of poetry), there arealso some stories about human heroes, again mainly based onearly poems. Altogether the work contains the most comprehen­sive and systematic account of Norse mythology and legend
found anywhere in the Middle Ages. It can be supplemented
principally from the poems of the Elder Edda, Ynglinga saga(the first part of Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla), and theHistory of the Danes of Saxo Grammaticus, though somemythological and many heroic stories are also told in the
mythical-heroic sagas of medieval Iceland and Norway, such as
the Saga of the Volsungs. Snorri Sturluson’s Edda also contains
a large body of early poetry of various kinds, some of it
mythological, some of it court poetry in praise of Norse kings,
much of it from the Viking Age. This is mostly included in theform of quotation of short extracts in Gylfaginning and Skald­skaparmal, and a good deal of it is not preserved elsewhere.
Tlie Prose or Younger Edda (so called to distinguish it fromthe collection of traditional mythological and heroic poems
known as the Elder or Poetic Edda), was, according to thexiIntroduction
oldest manuscript that contains it, which was written about
1300, compiled by Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241). Snorri
belonged to an aristocratic Icelandic family - unlike many earlier
writers in Iceland, he was not a cleric - and during his turbulent
life became involved not only with Icelandic politics and feuding,but also - and this led to his violent death - in Norwegianpolitics. He became a rich man and was lawspeaker (presidentof the Icelandic parliament or Althingi) for two terms (1215-18
and 1222-31). He visited Norway twice (1218-20 and 1237-9)
and became acquainted with both King Hakon Hakonarson(ruled 1217-63) and the king’s father-in-law Earl Skuli (died1240), who acted as regent during the early years of the king’s
reign and was for a while the most powerful man in Norway.
The last part of Snorri’s Edda contains an elaborate poem of
102 verses which he wrote as a formal compliment to these tworulers, probably soon after the first of his visits.
The thirteenth century was a time of great political, economic
and cultural change in Iceland. The church had become apowerful institution and was attacking the traditional power ofsecular chieftains, who were also finding that economic devel­
opments were enabling other elements in society to rival theirwealth and influence. The heroic world of independent Viking
colonists was giving way to the medieval world of feudalism
and trade. In 1262-4 Iceland accepted Norwegian rule and its
political independence came to an end. During this time one
significant development was that oral poetry, which from Viking
times and perhaps earlier had been Scandinavian culture’s
principal means of expression and preservation, was being
rapidly supplanted in this function by written prose. Poetry was
no longer, as it had been from the time of Tacitus (second
century ad), the only form of recorded history for the peoplesof northern Europe. Sagas were now being written, and at the
court of Norway were replacing poetry as entertainment for the
court and as the official record of the king’s achievements.
From early in the Viking Age (which may notionally be said
to run from about 800 to 1050 ad), poets or skalds had
attached themselves to Scandinavian courts and had composed
and recited poems in honour of kings and earls. By the eleventh
century it seems that it was principally Icelanders who per­xii

Introduction
formed this function in Norway. Later on, when Norwegiankings wished to have sagas written about themselves, they often
continued to employ Icelanders, who were already coming to be
seen as a particularly literary nation. One of the earliest of suchroyal biographies was that of King Sverrir (n77-1202), which
was probably mainly written by Karl Jonsson, abbot of themonastery at Thingeyrar in northern Iceland, and Styrmir
Karason, prior of the monastery on Videy near Reykjavik and afriend of Snorri Sturluson, and like him serving two terms ofoffice as lawspeaker. Other biographies followed, both of con­temporary and earlier kings, and King Hakon Hakonarson
himself had his saga written by a nephew of Snorri, Sturla
Thordarson (died 1284).
Sagas and poetry on native subjects were not the only sorts ofwriting cultivated in Iceland. Literature of other kinds was
penetrating the north from southern Europe. From early in thetwelfth century at least, saints’ lives and other Latin works had
been known and soon translated in Iceland. Stories of love andchivalry, like that of Tristram and Yseult, and ballads, were
becoming known and popular in Scandinavia. It is likely that
Snorri Sturluson, traditional aristocrat that he was, would haveforeseen and regretted that the traditional poetry of the skalds
was to be superseded on the one hand by the writing of prosesagas (an activity in which he himself engaged, ironically withgreater success than in his poetical compositions), and on theother by new kinds of poetry in different metres and on newthemes. It seems that he wrote his Edda as a treatise on
traditional skaldic verse to try to keep interest in it alive and toencourage young poets to continue to compose in the traditional
Scandinavian oral style, although in form the work itself ishighly literary and owes much to the newly introduced traditionof Latin learned treatises.
Skaldic poems, it is true, were being extensively used andquoted by authors of sagas both as historical sources and toembellish the narrative. Snorri himself used them thus in his
own Sagas of the Norse Kings (known as Heimskringla fromthe first words of one of the principal manuscripts), and so,
particularly, did the authors of sagas about Icelandic poets, suchas Egils saga, which may also have been written by Snorri.
xiii

Introduction
Indeed the majority of skaldic verse that has survived has beenpreserved as quotations in sagas. But the complex and difficult
style of much skaldic verse, with its elevated and often obscurediction, made it hard to understand and limited its usefulness
both to authors and readers of sagas. Such highly wrought art
was coming to be less valued than literature that was simpler tounderstand and which could be enjoyed more easily by theuninitiated. If the practice of composing skaldic verse died,people would soon cease to understand most of it and it would
soon be forgotten. A text-book was becoming necessary.
Snorri’s Edda was written in the Icelandic language and is oneof the very few medieval European treatises on poetry that isboth written in a vernacular and is about vernacular verse.
There is further testimony to an extensive and developed interestin the techniques of native poetry in the earlier exemplificationof the range of skaldic verse forms, Hattalykil (key of metres),composed about 1145 by the Orkney earl Rognvald Kali andthe Icelander Hall Thorarinsson. There are also many anecdotes
in sagas about technical aspects of verse composition, such as
King Harald Hardradi’s complaint about a metrical fault in averse of Thiodolf Amorsson, and the king’s own apparent
preference for elaborate verse revealed in his compositions
before the battle of Stamford Bridge.
*
Moreover there arereferences in many of the poems themselves to the details of
their composition.
There is no direct evidence that Snorri or anyone else everactually instituted a school to teach vernacular poetry (Latinverse composition was taught in at least one of the cathedral
schools in Iceland), but several parts of his Edda are in the styleof formal school treatises, as are the compilations of his succes­sors Olaf Thordarson (another of his nephews) in the so-called
Third Grammatical Treatise, and the anonymous author of the
Fourth Grammatical Treatise, both of which are attempts toapply Latin rhetorical theory to Norse poetry.
It is the third part of the Edda, Hattatal (list of verse-forms)* See G. Turville-Petre, Haraldr the Hard-ruler and His Poets, London 1968, pp.
11-13; Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, Pan two (Everyman’s Library 847), pp.
130-31.

xiv

Introductionthat is most like a formal school treatise. Snorri has provided a
detailed commentary on his poem (or poems, since it is divided
into three parts), and to begin with at least this is in theconventional form of a dialogue between master and pupil; it
explains the formal devices of skaldic poetry (alliteration andrhyme) and the structure of the various stanza-forms used, andalso briefly gives an account of some rhetorical devices. This
commentary is in various ways reminiscent of Latin treatises ongrammar and rhetoric, and it is clear that Snorri was acquainted
with the content of some Latin text-books, whether or not he
could read Latin himelf. He exemplifies a hundred varieties ofverse-form, some of which, as he himself points out, are not
metrical but rhetorical variants. He also admits that he has on
occasion formalized what had earlier been a sporadic variationof style or metre, and used it in every line of a stanza to create a
new verse form. There is little comment on content or overall
structure; since he varies the metre in almost every stanza, arefrain or stef would have been hard to accommodate, though
he mentions that feature of longer skaldic poems in one place.
To the twentieth-century reader the content of the poem itself
seems repetitious and uninspired, but it was usual for court
poets to praise their kings in such generalized and conventionalterms for their generosity and valour, and the poem with its
commentary does give a valuable insight into the way an
educated and self-conscious Icelander regarded the craft ofpoetry in the Middle Ages, and into how he looked upon the‘rules’ of metrics and the norms of style.
Skaldskaparmal (the language of poetry), which may havebeen written after Hattatal, also begins in dialogue form, though
this tails off towards the end. This time it is a conversation
between two mythical characters, Ægir, god of the sea, andBragi, god of poetry. Bragi at first tells some mythological stories
that seem to be chosen at random, but this leads on to the mythof the origin of poetical inspiration which has so many interest­
ing parallels in other cultures. Then the origin of some kennings(periphrastic descriptions, e.g. fire of the sea = gold) is given,and Bragi begins a systematic and fairly comprehensive surveyof kennings for various beings and things, interspersed with a
few narratives giving the supposed origin of some of them. Some

xv

Introductionof these narratives may have been added later by an interpolator,
for this section of the work has been subject to a good deal ofrevision by various hands in different manuscripts. The illustra­
tive quotations in this part of the work are not by Snorri himself
but are from the work of earlier, sometimes much earlier, poets,some Norwegian, some Icelandic; many of the poems cited are
only known from these quotations. They must mostly have beentransmitted orally until Snorri wrote the extracts down, thoughsome may have existed in written form. The longer extracts ofskaldic poems on mythological themes are also known only
from here, though these too may have been added by aninterpolator since they are not closely related to the main topic
of this section and are not in all manuscripts of it, though they
obviously form part of the sources of the prose narratives andmust have been known to Snorri. This section also includes awhole poem of the eddic type, Grottasong, which is quoted (insome manuscripts) in connection with the kennings for gold.
Then attention is turned to the second major aspect of poeticallanguage (as Snorri has classified it), heiti (poetical words that
do not involve periphrasis, like steed for horse). They aresystematized in a similar way to the kennings, from which they
are not kept entirely separate; it is also noteworthy that thesystematization of poetical language in Skaldskaparmal is notquite the same as that presented near the beginning of Hattatal.
This may be an indication not of multiple authorship, but thatthe author spent a long time, perhaps many years, on the work.
In both sections the author shows a particular interest in word­
play both for its own sake and as a way of explaining metaphors.
At the end of Skaldskaparmal there are a number of versified
lists of names and words, again classified according to theconcepts to which they relate. They were presumably included
because they could be useful for poets in providing them withsynonyms for the construction of kennings in their verse. They
are a sort of primitive thesaurus. It is uncertain whether they
were included in the work by Snorri himself, since they are notin all manuscripts, but a number of the lists are similar to thosein Skaldskaparmal itself, and may be the source of them.
Gylfaginning may have been compiled after Skaldskaparmal.
It comprises a systematic account of the whole of Norsexvi

Introduction
mythology from the creation of the world to its end, thus
following mainly the plan of Voluspa, the first of the mythologi­
cal poems in the Elder Edda, which Snorri often quotes, as wellas other mythological poems. The purpose of this part ofSnorri’s Edda was presumably to give an account of the mythol­ogy which is the background to so many of the kennings
discussed in Skaldskaparmal, and which is important both inChristian and pre-Christian verse, although not all the stories
told in Gylfaginning gave rise to kennings. Here too the stories
are presented in the form of a dialogue, this time involving thefictional trinity of High, Just-as-high and Third, who answer
questions put to them by Gylfi, a legendary king of Sweden. In
this case the dialogue is maintained consistently right to the endof the section. It is made a contest of wisdom, and thus is more
like the dialogue poems of the Elder Edda, such as Vafthrudnismal, than the text-book treatises that seem to have been themodel for Hattatal. Gylfi’s encounter with his informants is
closed in the same way as the encounter they relate to him
between Thor and the giant Utgarda-Loki. Like Thor, though
he might be considered to have won the contest, he is trickedout of his victory (Gylfaginning means the tricking of Gylfi).
It is notable that little interpretation is given of the stories
told in Gylfaginning and Skaldskaparmal other than theoccasional aetiological aside (as for instance when Thor’s drink­ing from the sea is said to have been the origin of the tides), andthere is little sign of the usual medieval penchant for allegorization apart from a little indulgence in learned folk-etymology incommenting on the names of some goddesses, or in the accountof Hel’s household. On the whole the stories are told in astraightforward manner as if they are to be taken as factuallytrue, though the continual use of fictional or mythical charactersas narrators can be taken as a warning that this is not theauthor’s intention. And in the prologue to Gylfaginning theauthor presents in general terms his overall interpretation of thesignificance of the heathen gods he had written about in the restof the work. He himself was a Christian - in his time Christian­
ity had been established in Iceland for a good two centuries and did not believe in the heathen gods (indeed in Skaldskapar­
mal he explicitly warns the reader against such belief), butxviiIntroduction
interpreted them as many other medieval historians did (and as
he himself also did in Ynglinga saga, the first part of his
Heimskringla) as kings of great power who came to be wor­
shipped by ignorant people. He presents these kings as having
originated in Asia Minor (the connection with the name Æsir isanother example of learned folk-etymology), and as being
descendants of King Priam of Troy who migrated with theirpeoples to Scandinavia in prehistoric times. At the end of the
prologue and again at the end of Gylfaginning the process
whereby these migrating kings came to be honoured as gods is
described, and near the beginning of Skaldskaparmal the way inwhich historical events can give rise to myths is commented
upon.
The migrating Æsir themselves, however, are depicted as
worshipping gods, those gods about whom they tell Gylfi stories,
and whose names they eventually assumed. An explanation of
the origin of their religion is given in the opening paragraphs ofthe prologue, which state that it developed from worship of theearth and natural forces. Contemplation of these forces, accord­
ing to the author’s surprisingly rationalistic theory, led intelli­gent pagans to deduce the existence of an almighty creator, who
had different names in different parts of the world but whom
the Vikings called Odin.
Thus the author makes it clear that his view of the pagan
religion is that it was a rational but misguided groping towards
the truth. His account of its mythology is a scholarly andantiquarian attempt to record the beliefs of his ancestors without
prejudice - beliefs which were outdated but still relevant for theproper understanding of an ancient kind of poetry which hewished should be preserved and continue to be produced as animportant part of the contemporary culture of the Icelanders,
Christian and literate though they now were.
Snorri’s Edda is a unique and original work. It is the only
comprehensive account of Norse mythology from the Middle
Ages, and the only independent analysis of Norse poetic diction
and metre. Though there were precedents for a treatise on eachof these topics, Snorri took at most the idea for writing about
them from his predecessors (who were mostly concerned with
Latin literature); his work is in no way derivative. It is alsoxviii

Introduction
notable for its detached and scholarly treatment both of religion
and poetry, and the way in which sources and illustrations areextensively quoted and carefully attributed. Though it is clearthat Snorri cared deeply about his material, he treats it with
impartiality and humour, often mentioning two or more expla­
nations of something without deciding between them. Especiallyinteresting is the fact that in his discussions of both poetry andreligion, he sees them in terms of an evolutionary process,contrasting the beliefs and practices of earlier times with thoseof his own. He even sees the development of language inhistorical terms, and speaks of languages ‘branching’ from eachother. Though like most writers on such topics in the Middle
Ages, he believes in the authority of established writers, he also
allows extensive use of ‘licence’ and innovation, provided thatsuch use is in accordance with nature and probability. In thefirst part of the prologue to Gylfaginning where, as elsewhere in
the work, he shows acquaintance with medieval Latin writings
and the teachings of the medieval church, he also displays aremarkable capacity for independent rational thought and an
inclination towards philosophical analysis, and his account of
the kenning is a masterly piece of description. There are certainlyinconsistencies and illogicalities in his work, but they arise fromthe complexity of his material rather than from the primitivenessof the author’s mind.
It cannot be said that Snorri’s Edda was very influential in the
Middle Ages, or that he was successful in reviving interest inskaldic verse, if that was indeed his aim. Even so, his analysis of
poetic diction was followed by the rather more derivative workof the authors of the Third and Fourth Grammatical Treatises;
and Skaldskaparmal was adapted and copied by various people
and came to be regarded as a guide to poetic language bycomposers of rtmur, the peculiarly Icelandic genre of narrative
poetry, half ballad, half romance, which became popular in
Iceland in the later Middle Ages and continued to be produced
and read down to modem times. But ever since the revival oflearning in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, whenscholars began to rediscover the historical and mythologicalsources for the Viking Age, Snorri’s Edda has been one of theprincipal quarries of historians of religion and poetry and onexixIntroductionof the most widely read of early Icelandic texts. It is the
mythological stories it contains that are the most immediately
attractive part of the work, though it also contains a mine of
information about Viking poetry, and the analysis of poetic
diction and metre in Skaldskaparmal and Hattatal is of great
importance, firstly because it tells us how a medieval poet
regarded his art, and also because it gives the modern reader alot of help in understanding the complicated diction and metreof skaldic poems (even though some of Snorri’s explanations ofkennings are clearly mistaken) and enables him to see what washeld important in the technique of composition in early Iceland.
As for the mythological stories, the fact that as Snorri tells them
they are more detailed and coherent than those in the Elder
Edda and better told than those in Saxo Grammaticus’s Historyof the Danes means that it is in this form that Norse mythology
is most accessible and best known. It may be that Snorri’s
versions are less authentic than those less affected by Christian­
ity and learning, but if the skill of the author gives his stories aplausibility which is misleading to the historian, it also makes
them more rewarding for the student of literature.
The name Edda has been explained in various ways. The
author was brought up by his foster-father Jon Loptsson at
Oddi in the south of Iceland, and the name has been thought tomean ‘the book of Oddi’, though this is both linguistically andhistorically improbable (Snorri was not living at Oddi when
he wrote the book). It has been connected with the word ódrwhich appears in the work itself with the meaning ‘poetry’,though without any connection being made with the title. It has
been taken as a special use of the common noun edda which
also appears in the work where it apparently means ‘great­
grandmother’, again without any connection being made withthe title. The semantic connection between the two meanings of
the word is very problematical. Edda is also used in someIcelandic stories as a proper name for a woman. But in the
Middle Ages edda, as well as being used as the title of Snorri’s
book, is also used as an abstract noun meaning ‘poetics’, andthis latter may have been the original meaning of the word as aliterary term. Since Snorri almost certainly had at least asmattering of Latin, he may have invented the term himself,xxIntroduction
deriving it from the Latin edo, one of the meanings of which is‘1 compose’, on the model of the Icelandic word kredda, ‘creed,superstition’, which is certainly derived from Latin credo, ‘Ibelieve’.
The name Edda later (in the seventeenth century) came to be
applied also to the newly discovered collection of traditional
and anonymous poems on legendary subjects that has sincecome to be known as the Elder or Poetic Edda (moreover thiscollection was for a while mistakenly attributed to the Icelandic
scholar and priest Sæmund the Wise, and has sometimes beencalled Sæmund’s Edda). The poetry in this collection is usuallyreferred to as Eddie or Eddaic poetry to distinguish it from thepoetry of the skalds, skaldic (scaldic) poetry, which is usually by
named poets about contemporary people and events and char­acterized by more elaborate diction and metre. It is skaldic
poetry that Snorri’s Edda is most concerned with and which ismost often quoted in the second and third parts of the work,
though in Gylfaginning it is mostly eddic poetry that is quoted.

Note on the translation
There are seven manuscripts or manuscript fragments that
contain independent texts of the Prose Edda or parts of it, sixof them medieval, one written about 1600. None of them isquite complete. This translation follows mainly the text of theCodex Regius (GkS 2367, 4to), which is not the oldest manu­
script, but seems to have fewest alterations from the original,
and is nearest to being complete. It was written in the firstquarter of the fourteenth century. Where there are gaps in the
text of this manuscript, or illegible passages, or where what canbe read is incoherent, the text is supplemented from one of theother manuscripts. Where words have been added in the trans­
lation corresponding to omissions in the manuscripts, they are
enclosed in pointed brackets < >. In one place towards the endof Hattatal there is a verse that is only partly legible which isfound in no other manuscript and so cannot be completed.
One of the most attractive features of the original work is its
style, which is very different from that of normal modern English
narrative prose. In order not to disguise this fact, and so as toxxi

Introduction
give some flavour of the original style, the present translation
has been made as literal as possible, and often the repetitions,
allusiveness, abruptness and apparent illogicality of the Icelandic
text have been reproduced; it is hoped that some of Snorri’s
characteristic irony remains apparent. The style of Icelandic
poetry is even more remote from modem taste, and is often
extremely artificial and obscure, and the verses too (though they
have been translated into English prose) have been renderedliterally, since in Skaldskaparmal at least the point of the
inclusion of the quotations is to illustrate the use of kennings,
which must therefore be translated as closely as possible. (It is,however, impossible to do this and at the same time reproduce
the verse form.) The passages that are in verse in the original areindented. Where the meanings of kennings or words literallytranslated would not be clear to an English reader, and they are
not clearly explained in the text itself, an explanation has been
added in square brackets; further comment on proper names
and the kennings involving them will often be found in theindex. The texts of the verses, particularly in Skaldskaparmal,
are often poorly preserved and there are many obscurities. The
translations of these, as well as the equivalents given for someproper names and for words in the lists at the end of Skald­skaparmal, should be regarded as tentative and are often the
result of guesswork, though the intention has been to render theapparent meaning of words as closely as possible. In translating
the verses, I have relied heavily on the excellent explanations in
the edition of Edda Snorra Sturlusonar by Magnus Finnbogason(Reykjavik 1952)
In Hattatal, where the verses illustrate different stanza forms
and the number of syllables in a line and the placing ofalliteration and internal rhyme is significant, as well as a literalprose translation with explanations in square brackets, theoriginal text has been printed, though with some modifications
to the usual standard spelling that were required by the typesorts available. Icelandic ‘thorn’ has been printed th and ‘eth’ orcrossed d as d. Hooked o and o with a diagonal line through it
are printed as in Modem Icelandic as ö, and both œ and œ areprinted as æ. To assist with the correct pronunciation i has beenused instead of j. Icelandic words quoted in the translation arexxii

Introduction
printed in the same way and italicized. Though the treatment ofconsonants here is unconventional, none of these spellings is infact alien to Icelandic manuscripts, and both the spellings th for‘thorn’ and d for ‘eth’ are actually found in the Codex Regius.
The text is included only to clarify the translation of thecommentary, and is not intended as a substitute for a proper
edition of the poem.
Proper names in the introduction and translation are treatedin the conventional way, with accents and consonantal nomina­tive singular endings (except when they follow a vowel) omitted,
but again i has been used rather than ;, both because it is theusual symbol in medieval manuscripts, and to emphasize thatthe sound is not like the English j. It should also be noted thatthe stress always falls on the first syllable of Icelandic words andnames, and that -ar, -ir, -ur are in many cases plural endings.
At the top of each page of the Prologue, Gylfaginning and
Skaldskaparmal, the numbers of the corresponding chapters of
the edition of the text in Edda Snorra Surlusonar I (Copenhagen1848) are printed, since it is by these chapter numbers thatreferences to the text are usually made. In that edition somepassages were included in the Prologue from a manuscript not
used in the present translation, so that the chapter numbers are
not always consecutive; and the first few chapters of Skald­skaparmal were counted as part of Gylfaginning. In Hattatal
the numbers of the verses are given.
ANTHONY FAULKES

xxiii

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Texts and Translations of Works attributed toSnorri Sturluson:
Edda Snorra Sturlusonar, ed. Finnur Jonsson, Copenhagen
1931.
Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Prologue and Gylfaginning, ed.
Anthony Faulkes, Oxford 1982. Reprinted in paperback 1988
(Viking Society for Northern Research, University College
London).
Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Hattatal, ed. Anthony Faulkes, Oxford
1991.
The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson, tr. A. G. Brodeur, NewYork 1916 [omits Hattatal and parts of Skaldskaparmal].
The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson, tr. J. I. Young, Cambridge
1954 [omits Hattatal and much of Skaldskaparmal].
Reprinted University of California Press, Berkeley 1973.
Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, tr. Samuel Laing. Part one, The
Olaf Sagas, Everyman’s Library 717 and 722,1964. Part two,
Sagas of the Norse Kings, Everyman’s Library 847,1961.
Egils saga, tr. Christine Fell, Everyman’s Library 1975.

Historical Background:[Sturla Thordarson], The Saga of Hacon [Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar], tr. G. W. Dasent, Rolls Series, Icelandic Sagas IV,
London 1894.
Sturlunga saga I—II, tr. J. H. McGrew and R. George Thomas,
New York 1970-74.
Einar O. Sveinsson, The Age of the Sturlungs, New York 1953
(Islandica XXXVI).
Jónas Kristjánsson, Eddas and Sagas, Reykjavik 1992.

xxiv

Select Bibliography

Other Texts:
The Poetic Edda, tr. L. M. Hollander, Austin, Texas 1962.
Norse Poems [i.e. the Elder Edda], tr. W. H. Auden and P. B.
Taylor, London 1981.
E. O. G. Turville-Petre, Scaldic Poetry, Oxford 1976.
R. Frank, Old Norse Court Poetry, New York 1978 (Islandica
XLII).
The Saga of the Volsungs, ed. and tr. R. G. Finch, London 1965.
Saxo Grammaticus, The History of the Danes I—II, tr. P. Fisher,ed. H. E. Davidson, Cambridge 1979-80.

XXV

This book is called Edda. It was compiled by Snorri Sturluson
in the manner in which it is arranged here. There is told firstabout the Æsir and Ymir, then Skaldskaparmal [the language of
poetry] and terms for many things, finally Hattatal [list of verseforms] which Snorri has composed about King Hakon and Duke
Skuli.

(Uppsala manuscript)

xxvi

EDDA

Prologue
Almighty God created heaven and earth and all things in them,and lastly two humans from whom generations are descended,
Adam and Eve, and their stock multiplied and spread over all theworld. But as time passed mankind became diverse: some weregood and orthodox in faith, but many more turned aside to follow
the lusts of the world and neglected God’s commandments, and so
God drowned the world in a flood together with all creatures in
the world except those who were in the ark with Noah. After
Noah’s flood there lived eight people who inhabited the world
and from them generations have descended, and it happened justas before that as the world came to be peopled and settled itturned out to be the vast majority of mankind that cultivateddesire for wealth and glory and neglected obedience to God, andthis reached such a pass that they refused to mention the name ofGod. But who was there then to tell their children of the mysteriesof God? So it happened that they forgot the name of God and in
most parts of the world there was no one to be found who knew
anything about his creator. But even so God granted them earthly
blessings, wealth and prosperity for them to enjoy in the world.
He also gave them a portion of wisdom so that they could
understand all earthly things and the details of everything they
could see in the sky and on earth. They pondered and wereamazed at what it could mean that the earth and animals andbirds had common characteristics in some things, though there
was a difference of quality. One of the earth’s characteristics
was that when it was dug into on high mountain tops, water
sprang up there and there was no need to dig further for water
there than in deep valleys. It is the same with animals and birds,
that it is just as far to blood in the head as in the feet. It is a second
property of the earth that every year there grows on the earth
vegetation and flowers and the same year it all falls and fades. It is
the same with animals and birds, that their hair and feathers growand fall off every year. It is the third property of the earth, thatwhen it is opened and dug, then vegetation grows on the soil
which is uppermost on the earth. Rocks and stones they thoughtof as equivalent to teeth and bones of living creatures. From this1

Prologue[1-3]

they reasoned that the earth was alive and had life after a certain
fashion, and they realized that it was enormously old in count ofyears and mighty in nature. It fed all creatures and took posses­
sion of everything that died. For this reason they gave it a nameand traced their ancestry to it. Similarly they learned from theirelderly relatives that after many hundreds of years had been
reckoned there was the same earth, sun and heavenly bodies. But
the courses of the heavenly bodies were various, some had alonger course and some a shorter. From such things they thought
it likely that there must be some controller of the heavenly bodies
who must be regulating their courses in accordance with his will,
and he must be very powerful and mighty; and they assumed, if heruled over the elements, that he must have existed before theheavenly bodies; and they realized that if he ruled the course of theheavenly bodies, he must rule the shining of the sun and the dew ofthe sky and the produce of the earth which is dependent on it, andsimilarly the wind of the sky and with it the storm of the sea. But
they did not know where his kingdom was. And so they believedthat he ruled all things on earth and in the sky, of heaven and theheavenly bodies, of tbe sea and the weathers. But so as to be better
able to give an account of this and fix it in memory, they then gavea name among themselves to everything, and this religion haschanged in many ways as nations became distinct and languages
branched. But they understood everything with earthly under­
standing, for they were not granted spiritual wisdom. Thus theyreasoned that everything was created out of some material.
The world was divided into three regions. From south to west
and in up to the Mediterranean sea, this part was called Africa.
The southern part of this section is hot and burned up by the sun.
The second part from west and to the north and in up to the sea,
this is called Europe or Enea. The northern part there is cold sothat vegetation does not grow and habitation is impossible. From
the north and over the eastern regions right to the south, that iscalled Asia. In that part of the world is all beauty and splendour
and wealth of earthly produce, gold and jewels. The middle of theworld is there too; and just as the earth there is more beautiful andbetter in all respects than in other places, so too mankind there
was most honoured with all blessings, wisdom and strength,
beauty and every kind of skill.
2

Prologue[4,9-10]

Near the middle of the world was constructed that building anddwelling which has been the most splendid ever, which was called
Troy. We call the land there Turkey. This place was built muchlarger than others and with greater skill in many respects, using
the wealth and resources available there. Twelve kingdoms were
there and one high king, and many countries were subject to each
kingdom. In the city there were twelve chief languages. The twelve
rulers of the kingdoms were superior to other people who have
lived in the world in all human qualities.
The name of one king there was Munon or Mennon. He wasmarried to the daughter of the high king Priam; she was called Troan.
They had a son, he was called Tror; we call him Thor. He wasbrought up in Thrace by a duke whose name was Loricus. Whenhe was ten he inherited his father’s weapons. He was as beautiful
to look at when he came among other people as when ivory isinlaid in oak. His hair is more beautiful than gold. When he wastwelve he had reached his full strength. Then he lifted from theground ten bearskins all at once and then he killed his fosterfather Loricus and his wife Lora or Glora and took possession of
the realm of Thrace. We call this Thrudheim. Then he travelled
through many countries and explored all quarters of the world
and defeated unaided all berserks and giants and one of thegreatest dragons and many wild animals. In the northern part of
the world he came across a prophetess called Sibyl, whom we callSif, and married her. No one is able to tell Sif’s ancestry. She was
the most beautiful of all women, her hair was like gold. Their son
was Loridi, who took after his father; his son was Einridi, his
son Vingethor, his son Vingenir, his son Moda, his son Magi, his son
Sescef, his son Bedvig, his son Athra, whom we call Annar, his
son Itrmann, his son Heremod, his son Scialdun, whom we call
Skiold, his son Biaf, whom we call Biar, his son Iat, his son
Gudolf, his son Finn, his son Friallaf, whom we call Fridleif. He
had a son whose name was Woden, it is him that we call Odin. He
was an outstanding person for wisdom and all kinds of accom­
plishments. His wife was called Frigida, whom we call Frigg. Odin
had the gift of prophecy and so did his wife, and from this science
he discovered that his name would be remembered in the northernpart of the world and honoured above all kings. For this reason hebecame eager to set off from Turkey and took with him a very3

Prologue[io-ii]great following, young people and old, men and women, and they
took with them many precious things. And whatever countries
they passed through, great glory was spoken of them, so that they
seemed more like gods than men. And they did not halt theirjourney until they came north to the country that is now called
Saxony. Odin stayed there a long while and gained possession oflarge parts of that land.
There Odin put in charge of the country three of his sons; one’s
name was Veggdegg, he was a powerful king and ruled over East
Saxony; his son was Vitrgils, his sons were Vitta, father ofHengest, and Sigar, father of Svebdegg, whom we call Svipdag.
Odin’s second son was called Beldegg, whom we call Baldr; hehad the country that is now called Westphalia. His son was Brand,
his son Friodigar, whom we call Frodi, his son was Freovin, his
son Wigg, his son Gewis, whom we call Gavir. Odin’s third son’sname was Siggi, his son Rerir. This dynasty ruled over what isnow called France, and from it is descended the family called theVolsungs. From all these people great family lines are descended.
Then Odin set off north and came to a country that they called
Reidgotaland and gained possession of all he wished in that land.
He set over the area a son of his called Skiold; hrs son was called
Fridleif. From them is descended the family called the Skioldungs;
they are kings of Denmark, and what was then called Reidgota­
land is now called Jutland.
After that Odin went north to what is now called Sweden.
There was there a king whose name was Gylfi, and when helearned of the arrival of the men of Asia (who were called Æsir),
he went to meet them and offered Odin as much power in his
realm as he wished himself. And such was the success that
attended their travels that in whatever country they stopped, there
was then prosperity and good peace there, and everyone believedthat they were responsible for it because thé people who had
power saw that they were unlike other people they had seen inbeauty and wisdom. Odin found the conditions in the country
attractive and selected as a site for his city the place which is now
called Sigtunir. He also organized rulers there on the same pattern
as had been in Troy, set up twelve chiefs in the place to administer
the laws of the land, and he established all the legal system as it had
previously been in Troy, and to which the Turks were accustomed.
4

Prologue[n]After that he proceeded north to where he was faced by the sea,
the one which they thought encircled all lands, and set a son of hisover the realm which is now called Norway. He is called Saeming,and the kings of Norway trace their ancestry back to him, as doearls and other rulers, as it says in Haleygiatal. And Odin tookwith him a son of his whose name was Yngvi, who became king in
Sweden, and from him are descended the family lines known as
the Ynglings. These Æsir found themselves marriages within the
country there, and some of them for their sons too, and thesefamilies became extensive, so that throughout Saxony and fromthere all over the northern regions it spread so that their language,that of the men of Asia, became the mother tongue over all theselands. And people think they can deduce from the records of thenames of their ancestors that those names belonged to thislanguage, and that the Æsir brought the language north to thispart of the world, to Norway and to Sweden, to Denmark and to
Saxony; and in England there are ancient names for regions andplaces which one can tell come from a different language from thisone.

5The drawing depicts Gylfi (Gangleri) questioning his three informants in
Gylfaginning (Icelandic, ca.1300).
From the Uppsala manuscript of the Prose Edda, Uppsala University
Library, DG 11, f. z6v.

6Gylfaginning[The tricking of Gylfi]
King Gylfi was ruler in what is now called Sweden. Of him it issaid that he gave a certain vagrant woman, as a reward for his
entertainment, one plough-land in his kingdom, as much as fouroxen could plough up in a day and a night. Now this woman was
one of the race of the Æsir. Her name was Gefiun. She took fouroxen from the north, from Giantland, the sons of her and a certain
giant, and put them before the plough. But the plough cut so hardand deep that it uprooted the land, and the oxen drew the land out
into the sea to the west and halted in a certain sound. There
Gefiun put the land and gave it a name and called it Zealand.
Where the land had been lifted from there remained a lake; this is
now called Lake Malar in Sweden. And the inlets in the lakecorrespond to the headlands in Zealand. Thus says the poet Bragi
the Old:
Gefiun drew from Gylfi, glad, a deep-ring of land [the islandof Zealand] so that from the swift-pullers [oxen] steam
rose: Denmark’s extension. The oxen wore eight brow-stars[eyes] as they went hauling their plunder, the wide island of
meadows, and four heads.

King Gylfi was clever and skilled in magic. He was quite
amazed that the Æsir-people had the ability to make everything
go in accordance with their will. He wondered whether this could
be as a result of their own nature, or whether the divine powers
they worshipped could be responsible. He set out to Asgard andtravelled in secret and assumed the form of an old man and so
disguised himself. But the Æsir were the wiser in that they had thegift of prophecy, and they saw his movements before he arrived,and prepared deceptive appearances for him. When he got into
the city he saw there a high hall, so that he could scarcely see overit. Its roof was covered with gilded shields like tiles. Thiodolf ofHvinir refers thus to Val-hall being roofed with shields:

On their backs they let shine — they were bombarded with7

Gylfaginning[1-31

stones — Svafnir’s [Odin’s] hall-shingles [shields], thosesensible men.
In the doorway of the hall Gylfi saw a man juggling with knives,
keeping seven in the air at a time. This man spoke first and asked
him his name. He said it was Gangleri and that he had travelled
trackless ways; he requested that he might have a night’s lodging
there and asked whose hall it was. The man replied that it
belonged to their king.
‘And I can take you to see him. Then you can ask him his nameyourself.’
And the man turned ahead of him into the hall. Gylfi followed,
and the door immediately shut on his heels. He saw there many
apartments and many people, some engaged in games, some were
drinking, some were armed and were fighting. He looked aroundand thought many of the things he saw were incredible. Then hesaid:‘Every doorway, before you go through, should be peeredround, for you cannot know for certain where enemies may
be sitting waiting inside.’He saw three thrones one above the other, and there were threemen, one sitting in each. Then he asked what the name of theirruler was. The man who had brought him in replied that the onethat sat in the lowest throne was king and was called High, next to
him the one called Just-as-high, and the one sitting at the top wascalled Third. Then High asked the newcomer whether he had any
further business, though he was welcome to food and drink likeeveryone else there in the High one’s hall. He said that he wishedfirst to find out if there was any learned person in there. High said
he would not get out unscathed unless he was more learned, and‘Stand out in front while you ask: he who tells shall sit.’
Gangleri began his questioning thus:‘Who is the highest and most ancient of all gods?’
High said: ‘He is called All-father in our language, but in Old
Asgard he had twelve names. One is All-father, the second Herranor Herian, the third Nikar or Hnikar, the fourth Nikuz or
8

GylfaginningÍ3-41

Hnikud, the fifth Fiolnir, the sixth Oski, the seventh Omi, theeighth Biflidi or Biflindi, the ninth Svidar, the tenth Svidrir, theeleventh Vidrir, the twelfth Ialg or Ialk.’
Then Gangleri asked: ‘Where is this god, what power has he,and what great works has he performed?’High said: ‘He lives throughout all ages and rules all his
kingdom and governs all things great and small.’
Then spoke Just-as-high: ‘He made heaven and earth and theskies and everything in them.’
Then spoke Third: ‘But his greatest work is that he made man
and gave him a soul that shall live and never perish though the
body decay to dust or burn to ashes. And all men who arerighteous shall live and dwell with him himself in the place called
Gimle or Vingolf, but wicked men go to Hel and on to Niflhel;that is down in the ninth world.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What was he doing before heaven andearth were made?’
Then High replied: ‘Then he was among the frost-giants.’
Gangleri spoke: ‘What was the beginning? And how did things
start? And what was there before?’High replied: ‘As it says in Voluspa:
It was at the beginning of time, when nothing was; sand wasnot, nor sea, nor cool waves. Earth did not exist, nor heaven
on high. The mighty gap was, but no growth.’

Then spoke Just-as-high: ‘It was many ages before the earth
was created that Niflheim was made, and in its midst lies a springcalled Hvergelmir, and from it flow the rivers called Svol, Gunnthra, Fiorm, Fimbulthul, Slidr and Hrid, Sylg and Ylg, Vid, Leiptr;
Gioll is next to Hel-gates.’
Then spoke Third: ‘But first there was the world in the southern
region called Muspell. It is bright and hot. That area is flaming
and burning and it is impassable for those that are foreigners there
and are not native to it. There is one called Surt that is stationed
there at the frontier to defend the land. He has a flaming sword
and at the end of the world he will go and wage war and defeat all
the gods and burn the whole world with fire. Thus it says in

Voluspa:9Gylfaginning[4-51

Surt travels from the south with the stick-destroyer [fire].
Shines from his sword the sun of the gods of the slain.
Rock cliffs crash and troll-wives are abroad, heroes tread
the road of Hel and heaven splits.’
Gangleri spoke: ‘What were things like before generations
came to be and the human race was multiplied?’
Then spoke High: ‘These rivers, which are called Elivagar, when
they had got so far from their source that the poisonous flowthat accompanied them began to go hard like the clinker that comesfrom a furnace, it turned to ice; and when this ice came to a halt
and stopped flowing, the vapour that was rising from the poison
froze on the top in the same direction and turned to rime, and thisrime increased layer upon layer right across Ginnungagap.’
Then spoke Just-as-high: ‘Ginnungagap, the part that faces in anortherly direction, was filled with the weight and heaviness of ice
and rime and there was vapour and a blowing inwards from it.
But the southerly part of Ginnungagap cleared up in the face ofthe sparks and molten particles that came flying out of the worldof Muspell.’Then spoke Third: ‘Just as from Niflheim there arose coldness
and all things grim, so what was facing close to Muspell was hot
and bright, but Ginnungagap was as mild as a windless sky. And
when the rime and the blowing of the warmth met so that it
thawed and dripped, there was a quickening from these flowing
drops due to the power of the source of the heat, and it became
the form of a man, and he was given the name Ymir. But the
frost-giants call him Aurgelmir, and from him are descended
the generations of frost-giants, as it says in the Shorter Voluspa:

All sibyls are from Vidolf, all wizards from Vilmeid, allsorcerers from Svarthofdi, all giants from Ymir come.

And here it is told by the giant Vafthrudnir

where Aurgelmir came from, together with the sons ofgiants, first, that wise giant:“When from Elivagar shot poison drops and grew until fromthem came a giant in whom our ancestries all converge: thus
ever too terrible is all this.” ’10Gylfaginning[5-7]

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘How did generations grow from him,
and how did it come about that other people came into being, or
do you believe him to be a god whom you have just spoken of?’
Then High replied: ‘Not at all do we acknowledge him to be agod. He was evil and all his descendants. We call them frost­
giants. And it is said that when he slept, he sweated. Then there
grew under his left arm a male and a female, and one of his legs
begot a son with the other, and descendants came from them.
These are frost-giants. The ancient frost-giant, him we call Ymir.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Where did Ymir live, and what did helive on?’‘The next thing, when the rime dripped, was that there cameinto being from it a cow called Audhumla, and four rivers of milk
flowed from its teats, and it fed Ymir,’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What did the cow feed on?’High said: ‘It licked the rime-stones, which were salty. And thefirst day as it licked stones there came from the stones in theevening a man’s hair, the second day a man’s head, the third day
there was a complete man there. His name was Buri. He wasbeautiful in appearance, big and powerful. He begot a son called
Bor. He married a wife called Bestla, daughter of the giant
Bolthorn, and they had three sons. One was called Odin, thesecond Vili, the third Ve. And it is my belief that this Odin and his
brothers must be the rulers of heaven and earth; it is our opinion
that this must be what he is called. This is the name of the one who
is the greatest and most glorious that we know, and you would dowell to agree to call him that too.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘How did they get on together, whichgroup was the more powerful?’
Then High replied: ‘Bor’s sons killed the giant Ymir. And when
he fell, so much blood flowed from his wounds that with it theydrowned all the race of frost-giants, except that one escaped withhis household. Giants call him Bergelmir. He went up on to his ark
with his wife and was preserved there, and from them aredescended the families of frost-giants, as it says here:

Countless winters before the earth was created, then was
Bergelmir born. That is the first I remember, when that wise
giant was laid on a box.’11Gylfaginning[8]

Then Gangleri replied: ‘What did Bor’s sons do then, if you
believe that they are gods?’
High said: ‘There is not just a little to be told about that. They
took Ymir and transported him to the middle of Ginnungagap,
and out of him made the earth, out of his blood the sea and thelakes. The earth was made of the flesh and the rocks of the bones,
stone and scree they made out of the teeth and molars and of thebones that had been broken.’
Then spoke Just-as-high: ‘Out of the blood that came from his
wounds and was flowing unconfined, out of this they made thesea with which they encompassed and contained the earth, andthey placed this sea in a circle round the outside of it, and it willseem an impossibility to most to get across it.’
Then spoke Third: ‘They also took his skull and made out of it
the sky and set it up over the earth with four points, and undereach corner they set a dwarf. Their names are Austri, Vestri,
Nordri, Sudri. Then they took molten particles and sparks thatwere flying uncontrolled and had shot out of the world of Muspelland set them in the middle of the firmament of the sky both aboveand below to illuminate heaven and earth. They fixed all thelights, some in the sky, some moved in a wandering course
beneath the sky, but they appointed them positions and ordained
their courses. Thus it is said in ancient sources that by means ofthem days were distinguished and also the count of years, as itsays in Voluspa:
The sun did not know where her dwelling was. The moon
did not know what power he had. The stars did not know
where their places were.

That is what it was like above the earth before this took place.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘This is important information that I
have just heard. That is an amazingly large construction andskilfully made. How was the earth arranged?’
Then High replied: ‘It is circular round the edge, and around itlies the deep sea, and along the shore of this sea they gave lands tolive in to the races of giants. But on the earth on the inner side they
made a fortification round the world against the hostility ofgiants, and for this fortification they used the giant Ymir’s
12Gylfaginning[8—io]

eyelashes, and they called the fortification Midgard. They also
took his brains and threw them into the sky and made out of themthe clouds, as it says here:
From Ymir’s flesh was earth created, and from blood, sea;
rocks of bones, trees of hair, and from his skull, the sky.

And from his eyelashes the joyous gods made Midgard formen’s sons, and from his brains were those cruel clouds all
created.’Then spoke Gangleri: ‘A great deal it seems to me they had
achieved when earth and heaven were made and sun and stars
were put in position and days were separated - and where did thepeople come from who inhabit the world?’
Then High replied: ‘As Bor’s sons walked along the sea shore,
they came across two logs and created people out of them. The
first gave breath and life, the second consciousness and move­
ment, the third a face, speech and hearing and sight; they gavethem clothes and names. The man was called Ask, the woman
Embla, and from them were produced the mankind to whom thedwelling-place under Midgard was given. After that they madethemselves a city in the middle of the world which is known as
Asgard. We call it Troy. There the gods and their descendants
lived and there took place as a result many events and develop­
ments both on earth and aloft. In the city there is a seat called
Hlidskialf, and when Odin sat in that throne he saw over all
worlds and every man’s activity and understood everything hesaw. His wife was called Frigg Fiorgvin’s daughter, and from themis descended the family line that we call the Æsir race, who haveresided in Old Asgard and the realms that belong to it, and thatwhole line of descent is of divine origin. And this is why he can becalled All-father, that he is father of all the gods and of men and of
everything that has been brought into being by him and his power.
The earth was his daughter and his wife. Out of her he begot thefirst of his sons, that is Asa-Thor. He was possessed of power andstrength. As a result he overcomes all living things.
‘Norfi or Narfi was the name of a giant who lived in Giantland.
He had a daughter called Night. She was black and dark inaccordance with her ancestry. She was married to a person called13

Gylfaginning[io-iz]Naglfari. Their son was called Aud. Next she was married tosomeone called Annar. Their daughter was called lord [Earth].
Her last husband was Delling, he was of the race of the Æsir.
Their son was Day. He was bright and beautiful in accordancewith his father’s nature. Then All-father took Night and her son
Day and gave them two horses and two chariots and set them up
in the sky so that they have to ride around the earth every
twenty-four hours. Night rides in front on the horse called
Hrimfaxi, and every morning he bedews the earth with the drips
from his bit. Day’s horse is called Skinfaxi [shining-mane], andlight is shed over all the sky and sea from his mane.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘How does he control the course of thesun and moon?’High said: ‘There was a person whose name was Mundilfaeri
who had two children. They were so fair and beautiful that hecalled the one Moon and his daughter Sol [sun], and gave her inmarriage to a person called Glen. But the gods got angry at thisarrogance and took the brother and sister and set them up in thesky; they made Sol drive the horses that drew the chariot of thesun which the gods had created, to illuminate the worlds, out of
the molten particle that had flown out of the world of Muspell.
The names of these horses are Arvak and Alsvinn. Under theshoulders of the horses the gods put two bellows to cool them, andin some sources it is called ironblast. Moon guides the course of themoon and controls its waxing and waning. He took two children
from the earth called Bil and Hiuki as they were leaving a wellcalled Byrgir, carrying between them on their shoulders a tub
called Sæg; their carrying-pole was called Simul. Their father’sname is Vidfinn. These children go with Moon, as can be seenfrom earth.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘The sun moves fast, almost as if she wasafraid, and she would not be able to go any faster if she was interror of her death.’
Then High replied: ‘It is not surprising that she goes at great
speed, he comes close who is after her. And she has no escape
except to run away.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Who is it that inflicts this unpleasantness
on her?’High said: ‘It is two wolves, and the one that is going after her is
14

Gylfaginning[iz-141

called Skoll. She is afraid of him and he will catch her, and the onethat is running ahead of her is called Hati Hrodvitnisson, and he istrying to catch the moon, and that will happen.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What is the origin of the wolves?’
High said: ‘A certain giantess lives east of Midgard in a forest
called Ironwood. In that forest live trollwives called Iarnvidiur.
The ancient giantess breeds as sons many giants and all in wolf
shapes, and it is from them that these wolves are descended. And
they say that from this clan will come a most mighty one called
Moongarm. He will fill himself with the lifeblood of everyone that
dies, and he will swallow heavenly bodies and spatter heaven andall the skies with blood. As a result the sun will lose its shine andwinds will then be violent and will rage to and fro. Thus it says in

Voluspa:In the east lives the old one, in Ironwood, and breeds there
Fenrir’s kind. Out of them all comes one in particular, sun’s
snatcher in troll’s guise.

He gorges the life of doomed men, reddens gods’ halls with
red gore. Dark is sunshine for summers after, all weathers
hostile. Know you yet, or what?’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What way is there to heaven from earth ?’Then High replied, laughing: ‘That is not an intelligent ques­tion. Has no one ever told you that the gods built a bridge toheaven from earth called Bifrost? You must have seen it, maybe itis what you call the rainbow. It has three colours and greatstrength and is built with art and skill to a greater extent thanother constructions. And strong as it is, yet it will break whenMuspell’s lads go and ride it, and their horses will have to swim
over great rivers. That is how they will advance.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘It does not seem to me that the gods built
the bridge in good faith if it is liable to break, considering that they
can do as they please.’
Then spoke High: ‘The gods are not deserving of blame for thiswork. Bifrost is a good bridge, but there is nothing in this worldthat will be secure when Muspell’s sons attack.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What did All-father do then, when
Asgard was built?’
15

Gylfaginning[14]High spoke: ‘In the beginning he established rulers and badethem decide with him the destinies of men and be in charge of thegovernment of the city. This was in the place called Idavoll in thecentre of the city. It was their first act to build the temple that theirthrones stand in, twelve in addition to the throne that belongs to
All-father. This building is the best that is built on earth and thebiggest. Outside and inside it seems like nothing but gold. This
place is called Gladsheim. They built another hall, this was the
sanctuary that belonged to the goddesses, and it was very beauti­ful. This building is called Vingolf. The next thing they did was lay
forges and for them they made hammer and tongs and anvil, andwith these they made all other tools. After that they worked metaland stone and wood, using so copiously the metal known as goldthat they had all their furniture and utensils of gold, and that age isknown as the golden age, until it was spoiled by the arrival of thewomen. They came from Giantland. Next the gods took theirplaces on their thrones and instituted their courts and discussed
where the dwarfs had been generated from in the soil and down in
the earth like maggots in flesh. The dwarfs had taken shape firstand acquired life in the flesh of Ymir and were then maggots, but
by decision of the gods they became conscious with intelligenceand had the shape of men though they live in the earth and inrocks. Modsognir was a dwarf and the second was Durin. Thus itsays in Voluspat
Then went all the powers to their judgment seats, most holy
gods, and deliberated upon this, that a troop of dwarfs
should be created from bloody surf and from Blain’s bones.
There man-forms many were made, dwarfs in the earth asDurin said.
And the names of these dwarfs, says the prophetess, are these:

Nyi, Nidi, Nordri, Sudri, Austri, Vestri, Althiolf, Dvalin,Nar, Nain, Niping, Dain, Bifur, Bafur, Bombor, Nori, Ori,
Onar, Oin, Modvitnir, Vig and Gandalf, Vindalf, Thorin,
Fili, Kili, Fundin, Vali, Thror, Throin, Thekk, Lit, Vitr, Nyr,
Nyrad, Rekk, Radsvinn.

16Gylfaginning[14-15]

But these are also dwarfs and live in rocks, whereas the previous
ones lived in soil:
Draupnir, Dolgthvari, Hor, Hugstari, Hlediolf, Gloin,
Dori, Ori, Duf, Andvari, Heptifili, Har, Siar.

But these came from Svarinshaug to Aurvangar on Ioruvellir, andfrom them is descended Lofar; these are their names:

Skirpir, Virpir, Skafinn, Ai, Alf, Ingi, Eikinskialdi, Fal,
Frosti, Finn, Ginnar.’

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Where is the chief centre or holy place ofthe gods?’
High replied: ‘It is at the ash Yggdrasil. There the gods must
hold their courts each day.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What is there to tell about that place?’
Then said Just-as-high: ‘The ash is of all trees the biggest andbest. Its branches spread out over all the world and extend acrossthe sky. Three of the tree’s roots support it and extend very, very
far. One is among the Æsir, the second among the frost-giants,
where Ginnungagap once was. The third extends over Niflheim,
and under that root is Hvergelmir, and Nidhogg gnaws thebottom of the root. But under the root that reaches towards thefrost-giants, there is where Mimir’s well is, which has wisdom andintelligence contained in it, and the master of the well is called
Mimir. He is full of learning because he drinks of the well from thehorn Giallarhorn. All-father went there and asked for a single
drink from the well, but he did not get one until he placed his eye
as a pledge. Thus it says in Voluspa:
I know it all, Odin, where you deposited your eye, in thatrenowned well of Mimir. Mimir drinks mead every morn­ing from Val-father’s pledge. Know you yet, or what?

The third root of the ash extends to heaven, and beneath that root
is a well which is very holy, called Weird’s well. There the gods
have their court. Every day the Æsir ride there up over Bifrost. It isalso called As-bridge. The names of the Æsir’s horses are as
follows: best is Sleipnir, he is Odin’s, he has eight legs. Second is17

Gylfaginnmg[15-16]

Glad, third Gyllir, fourth Glær, fifth Skeidbrimir, sixth Silfrtopp,seventh Sinir, eighth Gils, ninth Falhofnir, tenth Gulltopp, Lettfeti
eleventh. Baldr’s horse was burned with him. And Thor walks tothe court and wades rivers whose names are:Kormt and Ormt and two Kerlaugs, these shall Thor wadeevery day when he is to judge at the ash Yggdrasil, forAs-bridge burns all with flame, the holy waters boil.’

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Does fire bum over Bifrost?’
High said: ‘The red you see in the rainbow is burning fire. The
frost-giants and mountain-giants would go up into heaven if
Bifrost was crossable by everyone that wanted to go. There aremany beautiful places in heaven and everywhere there has divine
protection round it. There stands there one beautiful hall under
the ash by the well, and out of this hall come three maidens whosenames are Weird, Verdandi, Skuld. These maidens shape men’s
lives. We call them norns. There are also other norns who visit
everyone when they are born to shape their lives, and these are of
divine origin, though others are of the race of elves, and a thirdgroup are of the race of dwarfs, as it says here:
Of very diverse parentage I think the norns are, they do nothave a common ancestry. Some are descended from Æsir,some are descended from elves, some are daughters of
Dvalin.’Then spoke Gangleri: ‘If norns determine the fates of men, they
allot terribly unfairly, when some have a good and prosperous
life, and some have little success or glory, some a long life, someshort.’High said: ‘Good norns, ones of noble parentage, shape good
lives, but as for those people that become the victims of misfor­
tune, it is evil norns that are responsible.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What other particularly notable things
are there to tell about the ash?’High said: ‘There is a great deal to tell of it. There is an eagle sits
in the branches of the ash, and it has knowledge of many things,
and between its eyes sits a hawk called Vedrfolnir. A squirrel
called Ratatosk runs up and down through the ash and carries
18Gylfaginning[16-17]malicious messages between the eagle and Nidhogg. Four stags
run in the branches of the ash and feed on the foliage. Their names
are: Dain, Dvalin, Duneyr, Durathror. And there are so many­snakes in Hvergelmir with Nidhogg that no tongue can enumeratethem. As it says here:
The ash Yggdrasil suffers hardships more than people
realize. Stag bites above, and at the sides it rots, Nidhogg
eats away at it below.

Also it is said:
More snakes lie beneath the ash Yggdrasil than any old fool
thinks. Goin and Moin — they are Grafvitnir’s sons —Grabak and Grafvollud, Ofnir and Svafnir I think will forever mar the tree’s twigs.

It is also said that the norns that dwell by Weird’s well take waterfrom the well each day and with it the mud that lies round the welland pour it up over the ash so that its branches may not rot or
decay. And this water is so holy that all things that come into thatwell go as white as the membrane called the skin that lies roundthe inside of an eggshell, as it says here:

I know an ash — its name is Yggdrasil, high tree, holy —drenched with white mud. From it come the dews that fall inthe valleys. It stands forever green above Weird’s well.
The dew that falls from it on to the earth, this is what people callhoneydew, and from it bees feed. Two birds feed in Weird’s well.
They are called swans, and from these birds has come that speciesof bird that has that name.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘You are able to give a great deal of
information about the heavens. What other chief centres are there
besides the one at Weird’s well?’High said: ‘Many splendid places are there. There is one placethat is called Alfheim. There live the folk called light-elves, but
dark-elves live down in the ground, and they are unlike them inappearance, and even more unlike them in nature. Light-elves are
fairer than the sun to look at, but dark-elves are blacker than19

Gylfaginning[17-19]pitch. One place there is called Breidablik, and no fairer place isthere. Also there is the one called Glitnir, and its walls andcolumns and pillars are of red gold, and its roof of silver. Therealso is a place called Himinbiorg. It stands at the edge of heaven at
the bridge’s end where Bifrost reaches heaven. There also is agreat place called Valaskialf. This place is Odin’s. The gods built it
and roofed it with pure silver, and it is there in this hall that
Hlidskialf is, the throne of that name. And when All-father sits onthat throne he can see over all the world. At the southernmost endof heaven is the hall which is fairest of all and brighter than thesun, called Gimle. It shall stand when both heaven and earth havepassed away, and in that place shall live good and righteous
people for ever and ever. Thus it says in Voluspa-.

I know a hall standing fairer than the sun, better than gold,
at Gimle. There shall virtuous men dwell, and for all ages
enjoy delight.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What will protect this place when Surt’sfire burns heaven and earth?’
High said: ‘They say there is another heaven south of and above
this heaven of ours, and that heaven is called Andlang; and that
there is a third heaven still further above that one, and that iscalled Vidblain, and it is in that heaven that we believe this place
to be. But we believe it is only light-elves that inhabit these places
for the time being.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Where does the wind come from? It is sostrong it stirs great seas and whips up fire, but strong as it is, itcannot be seen. Thus it is marvellously made.’
Then said High: ‘I can easily tell you that. At the northernmost
end of heaven there sits a giant called Hræsvelg. He has eagle
form. And when he starts to fly winds arise from beneath hiswings. It says so here:
He is called Hraesvelg who sits at heaven’s end, giant ineagle form. From his wings they say wind comes over allmen.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Why is there such a great difference
between the warmth of summer and the cold of winter?’20

Gylfaginning[19-2.0]

High said: ‘So wise a man should not need to ask, for everyone
is able to tell that, but if you have got to be the only one so
ill-informed that you have never heard it, then I will look on it
kindly that you should for once show your ignorance in asking
rather than that you should continue unaware of what you ought
to know. Svasud is the name of the one that is father of Summer,
and he is so blissful in his life that it is from his name that what is
pleasant is called svaslig [delightful]. And Winter’s father is called
either Vindloni or Vindsval. He is Vasad’s son, and members of
this family have been grim and cold-hearted, and Winter inherits
their nature.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Which are the Æsir that men ought tobelieve in?’High said: ‘There are twelve Æsir whose nature is divine.’
Then spoke Just-as-high: ‘No less holy are the Asyniur, nor istheir power less.’
Then spoke Third: ‘Odin is highest and most ancient of theÆsir. He rules all things, and mighty though the other gods are,yet they all submit to him like children to their father. Frigg is his
wife, and she knows men’s fates though she does not prophesy, as
it says here that Odin himself spoke to the As called Loki:“Mad you are Loki, and out of your wits; why will you not
be silent, Loki? All fates I believe Frigg knows, though sheherself does not pronounce.”‘Odin is called All-father, for he is father of all gods. He is also
called Val-father [father of the slain], since all those who fall inbattle are his adopted sons. He assigns them places in Val-hall andVingolf, and they are then known as Einheriar. He is also called
Hanga-god [god of the hanged] and Hapta-god [god of pris­
oners], Farma-god [god of cargoes], and he called himself byvarious other names on his visit to King Geirrod:“I call myself Grim and Ganglari, Herian, Hialmberi,
Thekk, Third, Thunn, Unn, Helblindi, High, Sann, Svipal,
Sanngetal, Herteit, Hnikar, Bileyg, Baleyg, Bolverk, Fiolnir,
Grimnir, Glapsvinn, Fiolsvinn, Sidhott, Sidskegg, Sig­
father, Hnikud, All-father, Atrid, Farmatyr, Oski, Omi,
Just-as-high, Blindi, Gondlir, Harbard, Svidur, Svidrir, Ialk,
21

Gylfaginning[ao-ai]

Kialar, Vidur, Thror, Ygg, Thund, Vakr, Skilfing, Vafud,
Hropta-Tyr, Gaut, Veratyr.” ’

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What a terrible lot of names you havegiven him! By my faith, one would need a great deal of learning to
be able to give details and explanations of what events have givenrise to each of these names.’
Then said High: ‘It is very instructive to go closely into ail this.
But to put it in a word, most names have been given him as a resultof the fact that with all the branches of languages in the world,
each nation finds it necessary to adapt his name to their language
for invocation and prayers for themselves, but some events giving
rise to these names have taken place in his travels and have been
made the subject of stories, and you cannot claim to be a wise man
if you are unable to tell of these important happenings.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What are the names of the other Æsir?
And what do they do? And what glorious works have they done?’High said: ‘Thor is the most outstanding of them; he is knownas Asa-Thor [Thor of the ÆsirJ or Oku-Thor [driving-Thor]. He
is strongest of all the gods and men. His realm is a place called
Thrudvangar, and his hall is called Bilskirnir. In that hall there are
five hundred and forty apartments. It is the biggest building thathas ever been built. Thus it says in Grimnismal:
Five hundred apartments and yet forty more I think are in
Bilskirnir in all. Of the buildings whose roofs I know, I
know my son’s is the greatest.

Thor has two goats whose names are Tanngniost and Tanngrisnir, and a chariot that he drives in, and the goats draw the chariot.
From this he is known as Oku-Thor. He also has three special
possessions. One of them is the hammer Miollnir, well known tofrost-giants and mountain-giants when it is raised aloft, and thatis not to be wondered at: it has smashed many a skull for theirfathers and kinsmen. He has another possession that is very
valuable, a girdle of might, and when he buckles it on his
As-strength is doubled. He has a third thing that is a mostimportant possession. This is a pair of iron gloves. He must not be
without these when he grips the hammer. But there is no one so
wise that can recount all his exploits, though I can tell you so22Gylfaginning[2.1—3]many stories about him that much time will be taken up before all
I know is told.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘1 would like to hear information about
more Æsir.’High said: ‘Odin’s second son is Baldr, and there is good to be
told of him. He is best and all praise him. He is so fair inappearance and so bright that light shines from him, and there is aplant so white that it is called after Baldr’s eyelash. It is the whitestof all plants, and from this you can tell his beauty both of hair andbody. He is the wisest of the Æsir and most beautifully spoken
and most merciful, but it is one of his characteristics that none ofhis decisions can be fulfilled. He lives in a place called Breidablik.
This is in heaven. No unclean thing is permitted to be there, as itsays here:
It is called Breidablik where Baldr has made himself adwelling, in that land where I know to be fewest evil intents.

‘The third As is the one called Niord. He lives in heaven in a placecalled Noatun. He rules over the motion of wind and moderates
sea and fire. It is to him one must pray for voyages and fishing. He
is so rich and wealthy that he can grant wealth of lands or
possessions to those that pray to him for this. Niord is not of therace of the Æsir. He was brought up in the land of the Vanir, but
the Vanir gave him as hostage to the gods and took in exchange asan Æsir-hostage the one called Haenir. He came to be the pledge oftruce between the gods and the Vanir.
‘Niord has a wife called Skadi, daughter of the giant Thiassi.
Skadi wants to have the home her father had had—this is in somemountains, a place called Thrymheim — but Niord wants to benear the sea. They agreed on this, that they should stay nine nights
in Thrymheim and then alternate nines at Noatun. But when
Niord came back to Noatun from the mountain he said this:“I hate mountains — not long was I there, just nine nights:
wolves’ howling I thought ugly compared with the swans’song.”

Then Skadi said this:23

Gylfaginning(X3-51“I could not sleep on the sea’s beds for the birds’ screaming;
he wakes me who comes from out at sea every morning, thatgull-”

Then Skadi went up into the mountain and lived in Thrymheim
and generally travels on skis and carries a bow and shoots game.
She is called ski-deity or ski-lady. As it says:
It is called Thrymheim where Thiassi dwelt, that mostmighty giant, but now Skadi, bright bride of gods, inhabits
her father’s old abode.

‘Niord of Noatun had afterwards two children. The son was
called Freyr and the daughter Freyia. They were beautiful inappearance and mighty. Freyr is the most glorious of the Æsir. He
is ruler of rain and sunshine and thus of the produce of the earth,and it is good to pray to him for prosperity and peace. He also
rules over the wealth of men. And Freyia is the most glorious of
the Asyniur. She has a dwelling in heaven called Folkvangar, andwherever she rides to battle she gets half the slain, and the otherhalf Odin, as it says here:
There is a place called Folkvang, and there Freyia is incharge of allotting seats in the hall. Half the slain shechooses each day, and half has Odin.

Sessrumnir, her hall, it is large and beautiful. And when she
travels she drives two cats and sits in a chariot. She is the mostapproachable one for people to pray to, and from her name isderived the honorific title whereby noble ladies are called frovur[noble ladies]. She was very fond of love songs. It is good to pray
to her concerning love affairs.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Most important these Æsir seem to me
to be, and it is not surprising that great power is with you when
you claim to know details about the gods and know which one
must be prayed to for every prayer. But are there yet more gods?’
High said: ‘There is also an As called Tyr. He is the bravest andmost valiant and he has great power over victory in battles. It isgood for men of action to pray to him. There is a saying that a man
is ty-valiant who surpasses other men and does not hesitate. He
24

Gylfaginning[25-7]

was so clever that a man who is clever is said to be ty-wise. It is one
proof of his bravery that when the Æsir were luring Fenriswolf so
as to get the fetter Gleipnir on him, he did not trust them that theywould let him go until they placed Tyr’s hand in the wolf’s mouth
as a pledge. And when the Æsir refused to let him go then he bit off
the hand at the place that is now called the wolf-joint [wrist], andhe is one-handed and he is not considered a promoter of settle­
ments between people.
‘There is one called Bragi. He is renowned for wisdom andespecially for eloquence and command of language. Especially heis knowledgeable about poetry, and because of him poetry iscalled brag, and from his name a person is said to be a brag [chief]of men or women who has eloquence beyond others, whether it isa woman or a man. Idunn is his wife. She keeps in her casket
apples which the gods have to feed on when they age, and thenthey all become young, and so it will go on right up to Ragnarok.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘It seems to me that the gods are staking agreat deal on Idunn’s care and trustworthiness.’
Then spoke High, laughing: ‘It nearly led to disaster on one
occasion. I could tell you about that, but first you must hear thenames of some more Æsir.
‘There is one called Heimdall. He is known as the white As. He
is great and holy. Nine maidens bore him as their son, all of themsisters. He is also called Hallinskidi and Gullintanni: his teeth
were of gold. His horse is called Gulltopp. He lives in a placecalled Himinbiorg by Bifrost. He is the gods’ watchman and sits
there at the edge of heaven to guard the bridge against mountain­
giants. He needs less sleep than a bird. He can see, by night just as
well as by day, a distance of a hundred leagues. He can also heargrass growing on the earth and wool on sheep and everything thatsounds louder than that. He has a trumpet called Giallarhorn andits blast can be heard in all worlds. The head is referred to as
Heimdall’s sword. Thus it is said here:
There is a place called Himinbiorg, and there they say it is
Heimdall who is ruler of the holy places. There the gods’
watchman drinks in the pleasant hall, merry, the goodmead.

And moreover he says himself in Heimdalargaldr:
25

Gylfaginning[2-7—341“Offspring of nine mothers am I, of nine sisters am I theson.”‘Hod is the name of one As. He is blind. Only too strong is he.
And the gods would prefer that this As did not need to be named,
for the work of his hands will long be kept in mind among gods
and men.
‘Vidar is the name of one, the silent As. He has a thick shoe. He
is almost equal in strength to Thor. He is a source of great support
to the gods in all dangers.
‘Ali or Vali is the name of one, the son of Odin and Rind. He isbold in battles and a very good shot.
‘Ull is the name of one, son of Sif, stepson of Thor. He is such agood archer and skier that no one can compete with him. He is
also beautiful in appearance and has a warrior’s accomplish­
ments. He is a good one to pray to in single combat.
‘Forseti is the name of the son of Baldr and Nanna Nep’s
daughter. He has a hall in heaven called Glitnir, and whoever
comes to him with difficult legal disputes, they all leave with theirdifferences settled. It is the best place of judgment among gods
and men. Thus it says here:
There is a hall called Glitnir, it is held up by golden pillars
and likewise roofed with silver. There Forseti dwells mostdays and settles all disputes.

‘That one is also reckoned among the Æsir whom some call theÆsir’s calumniator and originator of deceits and the disgrace of
all gods and men. His name is Loki or Lopt, son of the giant
Farbauti. Laufey or Nal is his mother. Byleist and Helblindi are
his brothers. Loki is pleasing and handsome in appearance, evil incharacter, very capricious in behaviour. He possessed to a greater
degree than others the kind of learning that is called cunning, andtricks for every purpose. He was always getting the Æsir into acomplete fix and often got them out of it by trickery. Sigyn is thename of his wife, Nari or Narfi their son. And Loki had otheroffspring too. There was a giantess called Angrboda in Giantland.
With her Loki had three children. One was Fenriswolf, the second
Iormungand (i.e. the Midgard serpent), the third is Hel. And when
the gods realized that these three siblings were being brought up in
26

Gylfaginning[34]

Giantland, and when the gods traced prophecies stating that fromthese siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them,
then they all felt evil was to be expected from them, to begin withbecause of their mother’s nature, but still worse because of theirfather’s.
‘Then All-father sent the gods to get the children and bringthem to him. And when they came to him he threw the serpent
into that deep sea which lies round all lands, and this serpent grewso that it lies in the midst of the ocean encircling all lands and biteson its own tail. Hel he threw into Niflheim and gave her authority
over nine worlds, such that she has to administer board andlodging to those sent to her, and that is those who die of sickness
or old age. She has great mansions there and her walls are
exceptionally high and the gates great. Her hall is called Eliudnir,
her dish Hunger, her knife Famine, the servant Ganglati, serving­
maid Ganglot, her threshold where you enter Stumbling-block,her bed Sick-bed, her curtains Gleaming-bale. She is half blackand half flesh-coloured - thus she is easily recognizable - andrather downcast and fierce-looking.
‘The Æsir brought up the wolf at home, and it was only Tyr
who had the courage to approach the wolf and give it food. And
when the gods saw how much it was growing each day, and allprophecies foretold that it was destined to cause them harm, thenthe Æsir adopted this plan, that they made a very strong fetter
which they called Leyding and brought it to the wolf and sug­gested he should try his strength with the fetter. The wolf decided
that it was not beyond its strength and let them do what they
wished with it. At the first kick that the wolf made at it this fetter
broke. Thus he loosed himself from Leyding. Next the Æsir madea second fetter twice as strong which they called Dromi, and asked
the wolf again to try this fetter and declared that he would achieve
great fame for his strength if such mighty pieces of engineering
could not hold him. The wolf thought to himself that this fetter
was very strong, but also that his strength had grown since hebroke Leyding. It occurred to him that he would have to takesome risks if he was to achieve fame, and allowed the fetter to be
put on him. And when the Æsir declared they were ready, the wolf
shook himself and knocked the fetter on the ground and strained
hard, kicked with his feet, broke the fetter so that the fragments
27

Gylfaginning[34]

flew far away. Thus he struck himself out of Dromi. Since then it
has been used as a saying to loose from Leyding or strike out ofDromi when something is achieved with great effort. After this theÆsir began to fear that they would not manage to get the wolf
bound. Then All-father sent some one called Skirnir, Freyr’s
messenger, down into the world of black-elves to some dwarfs
and had a fetter called Gleipnir made. It was made of six in­gredients: the sound of the cat’s footfall and the woman’s beard,
the mountain’s roots and the bear’s sinews and the fish’s breathand bird’s spittle. And even if you did not know this information
before, you can now discover true proofs that you are not being
deceived in the following: you must have seen that a woman has
no beard and there is no noise from a cat’s running and there are
no roots under a mountain, and I declare now by my faith thateverything I have told you is just as true even if there are somethings that you cannot test.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘I can indeed see that this is true. I canunderstand the things that you have given as proofs, but what was
the fetter made like?’
High said: ‘I can easily tell you that. The fetter was smooth andsoft like a silken ribbon, but as firm and strong as you shall now
hear. When the fetter was brought to the Æsir, they thanked themessenger heartily for carrying out their errand. Then the Æsirwent out on to a lake called Amsvartnir, onto an island called
Lyngvi, and summoned with them the wolf, showed him the silky
band and bade him tear it and declared it was rather firmer thanseemed likely, judging from its thickness, and passed it to eachother and tried it by pulling at it with their hands, and it did nottear; yet the wolf, they said, would tear it. Then the wolf replied:‘ “It looks to me with this ribbon as though I will gain no famefrom it if I do tear apart such a slender band, but if it is made withart and trickery, then even if it does look thin, this band is notgoing on my legs.”‘Then the Æsir said that he would soon tear apart a slendersilken band, seeing that he had earlier broken great iron fetters, “but if you cannot manage to tear this band then you will present
no terror to the gods, and so we will free you.”‘The wolf said: “If you bind me so that I am unable to release
myself, then you will be standing by in such a way that I should28

Gylfaginning[34-5]

have to wait a long time before I got any help from you. I am
reluctant to have this band put on me. But rather than that youquestion my courage, let some one put his hand in my mouth as apledge that this is done in good faith.”‘But all the Æsir looked at each other and found themselves in adilemma and all refused to offer their hands until Tyr put forward
his right hand and put it in the wolf’s mouth. And now when thewolf kicked, the band grew harder, and the harder he struggled,
the tougher became the band. Then they all laughed except for
Tyr. He lost his hand. When the Æsir saw that the wolf was
thoroughly bound they took the cord that was hanging from thefetter, which is called Gelgia, and threaded it through a greatstone slab — this is called Gioll — and fastened the slab far down in
the ground. Then they took a great rock and thrust it even further
into the ground - this is called Thviti - and used this rock as ananchoring-peg. The wolf stretched its jaws enormously andreacted violently and tried to bite them. They thrust into its moutha certain sword; the hilt touches its lower gums and the point its
upper ones. This is its gum-prop. It howls horribly and saliva runs
from its mouth. This forms the river called Hope. There it will lie
until Ragnarok.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘It was a pretty terrible family that Loki
begot, and all these siblings are important. But why did not theÆsir kill the wolf since they can expect evil from him?’
High replied: ‘So greatly did the gods respect their holy places
and places of sanctuary that they did not want to defile them withthe wolf’s blood even though the prophecies say that he will be thedeath of Odin.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Who are the Asyniur?’
High said: ‘The highest is Frigg. She has a dwelling called
Fensalir and it is very splendid. Second is Saga. She dwells at
Sokkvabekk, and that is a big place. Third is Eir. She is anextremely good physician. Fourth is Gefiun. She is a virgin, and is
attended by all who die virgins. Fifth is Fulla. She too is a virginand goes around with hair flowing free and has a gold bandaround her head. She carries Frigg’s casket and looks after her
footwear and shares her secrets. Freyia is highest in rank next to
Frigg. She was married to someone called Od. Hnoss is the nameof their daughter. She is so beautiful that from her name whatever29

Gylfaginning[351

is beautiful and precious is called hnossir [treasures]. Od went off
on long travels, and Freyia stayed behind weeping, and her tears
are red gold. Freyia has many names, and the reason for this is that
she adopted various names when she was travelling among
strange peoples looking for Od. She is called Mardoll and Horn,
Gefn, Syr. Freyia owned the Brisings’ necklace. She is known as
Lady of the Vanir. Seventh is Siofn. She is much concerned todirect people’s minds to love, both women and men. It is from her
name that affection is called siafni. Eighth Lofn: she is so kind andgood to pray to that she gets leave from All-father or Frigg forpeople’s union, between women and men, even if before it was
forbidden or refused. Hence it is from her name that it is called lof[permission], as well as when something is praised {lofat) greatly
by people. Ninth Var: she listens to people’s oaths and privateagreements that women and men make between each other. Thus
these contracts are called varar. She also punishes those who
break them. Tenth Vor: she is wise and enquiring, so that nothingcan be concealed from her. There is a saying that a woman
becomes aware {vor) of something when she finds it out. Eleventh
Syn: she guards the doors of the hall and shuts them against those
who are not to enter, and she is appointed as a defence atassemblies against matters that she wishes to refute. Thus there isa saying that a denial {syn) is made when one says no. Twelfth
Hlin: she is given the function of protecting people whom Frigg
wishes to save from some danger. From this comes the saying thatsomeone who escapes finds refuge {hleinir). Thirteenth Snotra:
she is wise and courteous. From her name a woman or man who is
a wise person is called snotr. Fourteenth Gna: she is sent by Frigg
into various worlds to carry out her business. She has a horse that
gallops across sky and sea, called Hofvarpnir. It happened once as
she was riding that some Vanir saw her travelling through the sky.
Then said one:
“What is it flying there? What is it travelling there, passing
through the sky?”‘She said:“I am not flying, though I travel and pass through the sky on
Hofvarpnir whom Hamskerpir begot on Gardrofa.”30

Gylfaginning[35-7]‘From Gna’s name a thing is said to tower (gncefa) when it goeshigh up. Sol and Bil are reckoned among the Asyniur, but theircharacteristics have been mentioned above. There are still others,
whose function it is to wait in Val-hall, serve drink and look after
the tableware and drinking vessels. Thus are they named in

Grimnismal:

Hrist and Mist I desire should bring me a horn, Skeggiold
and Skogul, Hild and Thrud, Hlokk and Herfiotur, Goll
and Geirahod, Randgrid and Radgrid and Reginleif. These
serve ale to the Einheriar.
These are called valkyries. Odin sends them to every battle. They
allot death to men and govern victory. Gunn and Rota and the
youngest norn, called Skuld, always ride to choose who shall beslain and to govern the killings. Thor’s mother lord and Vali’s
mother Rind are reckoned among the Asyniur.
‘There was someone called Gymir, and his wife Aurboda. She
was of the race of mountain-giants. Gerd is their daughter, themost beautiful of all women. It happened one day that Freyr hadgone into Hlidskialf and was looking over all worlds, and when helooked to the north he saw on a certain homestead a large andbeautiful building, and to this building went a woman, and when
she lifted her arms and opened the door for herself, light was shedfrom her arms over both sky and sea, and all worlds were madebright by her. And his punishment for his great presumption inhaving sat in that holy seat was that he went away full of grief.
And when he got home he said nothing, he neither slept nor
drank; no one dared to try to speak with him. Then Niord sent for
Freyr’s servant Skirnir, and bade him go to Freyr and try to get
him to talk and ask who he was so angry with that he would not
speak to anyone. Skirnir said he would go though he was not
keen, and said unpleasant answers were to be expected from him.
And when he got to Freyr he asked why Freyr was so downcast
and would not speak to anyone. Then Freyr replied and said he
had seen a beautiful woman and for her sake he was so full of griefthat he would not live long if he were not to have her.
‘ “And now you must go and ask for her hand on my behalf andbring her back here whether her father is willing or not, and I shallreward you well for it.”31

Gylfaginning[37-8]‘Then Skirnir replied, saying that he would undertake themission, but Freyr must give him his sword. This was such a goodsword that it would fight on its own. But Freyr did not let the lackof that be an obstacle and gave him the sword. Then Skirnir went
and asked for the woman’s hand for him and received the promise
from her, and nine nights later she was to go to the place called
Barey and enter into marriage with Freyr. But when Skirnir told
Freyr the result of his errand he said this:“Long is a night, long is a second, how can I suffer for three?
Often has a month seemed shorter to me than half thiswedding-eve.”‘This is the reason for Freyr so being unarmed when he fought
Beli, killing him with a stag’s antler.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘It is very strange that such a prince as
Freyr should want to give away his sword when he did not haveanother that was as good! This would have been a terrible
handicap for him when he fought with the one called Beli. I dareswear by my faith that he must then have regretted this gift.’
Then High replied: ‘It did not matter much when he and Beli
met. Freyr could have killed him with his fist. There will come atime when Freyr will find being without the sword a greater
disadvantage when Muspell’s sons come and wage war.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘You say that all those men that havefallen in battle since the beginning of the world have now come to
Odin in Val-hall. What has he got to offer them for food? I shouldhave thought that there must be a pretty large number there.’
Then High replied: ‘It is true what you say, there is a pretty
large number there, and many more have yet to arrive, and yet
there will seem too few when the wolf comes. But there will neverbe such a large number in Val-hall that the meat of the boar called
Saehrimnir will not be sufficient for them. It is cooked each day
and whole again by evening. But this question that you are now
asking, it seems to me very likely that there can be few so wise as tobe able to give the correct answer to it. The cook is called
Andhrimnir and the pot Eldhrimnir. Thus it says here:
Andhrimnir has Sæhrimnir cooked in Eldhrimnir, best ofmeats. But there are few that know on what the Einheriar
feed.’
32

GylfaginningÍ38-91

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Does Odin have the same fare as the
Einheriar?’
High said: ‘The food that stands on his table he gives to twowolves of his called Geri and Freki. He himself needs no food:wine is for him both drink and meat. Thus it says here:

Geri and Freki the battle-accustomed father of hosts feeds,
but on wine alone splendidly weaponed Odin ever lives.
Two ravens sit on his shoulders and speak into his ear all the news
they see or hear. Their names are Hugin and Munin. He sends
them out at dawn to fly over all the world, and they return atdinner-time. As a result he gets to find out about many events.
From this he gets the name raven-god. As it says:

Hugin and Munin fly each day over the mighty earth. I fearfor Hugin lest he come not back, yet I am afraid more about
Munin.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What do the Einheriar have as drink thatlasts them as plentifully as the food? Is water drunk there?’
Then said High: ‘This is a strange question you are asking,whether All-father would invite kings and earls and other men ofrank to his house and would give them water to drink, and I swear
by my faith that there comes many a one to Val-hall who would
think he had paid a high price for his drink of water if there were
no better cheer to be got there, when he had previously endured
wounds and agony leading to his death. I can tell you a different
story about this. There is a goat called Heidrun standing on top of
Val-hall feeding on the foliage from the branches of that tree
whose name is well known, it is called Lerad, and from the goat’s
udder flows mead with which it fills a vat each day. This is so bigthat all the Einheriar can drink their fill from it.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘That is a terribly handy goat for them. It
must be a jolly good tree that it is feeding on.’
Then spoke High: ‘There is a matter of even more note regard­
ing the stag Eikthyrnir which stands on Val-hall and feeds on the
branches of this tree, and from its horns comes such a great
dripping that it flows down into Hvergelmir, and from there flow
the rivers whose names are: Sid, Vid, Sekin, Ekin, Svol, Gunnthro,
Fiorm, Fimbulthul, Gipul, Gopul, Gomul, Geirvimul; these flow
33

Gylfaginning[39-41]through where the Æsir live. These are the names of others: Thyn,Vin, Tholl, Boll, Grad, Gunnthrain, Nyt, Not, Nonn, Hronn,Vina, Veg, Svinn, Thiodnuma.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘That is amazing information that you
have just given. Val-hall must be a terribly large building, it must
often be pretty crowded around the doorways.’
Then High replied: ‘Why don’t you ask how many doors there
are in Val-hall, and how wide they are? If you hear about this thenwhat you will say is that on the contrary it is amazing if everyone
cannot go out and in that wants to. But to tell the truth it is not
more crowded when it is occupied than when it is being entered.
You can hear about it here in Grimnismal:
Five hundred doors and yet forty more, that is what I think
are in Val-hall. Eight hundred Einheriar will go at once
through one doorway when they and the wolf go to fight.’

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘There is a very large number of people in
Val-hall. I declare by my salvation that Odin is a very great lordwhen he commands such a great troop. But what entertainment
do the Einheriar have when they are not drinking?’
High said: ‘Each day after they have got dressed they put on
war-gear and go out into the courtyard and fight each other andthey fall each upon the other. This is their sport. And when
dinner-time approaches they ride back to Val-hall and sit down todrink, as it says here:
All Einheriar in Odin’s courts fight one another each day.
They select their victims and from battle ride, sit the more atpeace together.
But it is true what you said: a mighty one is Odin. There is muchevidence that points to this. Thus it says here in the words of theÆsir themselves:“The ash Yggdrasil, this is the foremost of trees, andSkidbladnir of ships, Odin of the Æsir, of horses Sleipnir,
Bifrost of bridges, and Bragi of poets, Habrok of hawks andof dogs Garm.” ’34

GyIfaginning[42]

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Whose is the horse Sleipnir? And what isthere to tell about it?’High said: ‘You do not know details of Sleipnir and are notacquainted with the circumstances of its origin!—but you will findthis worth listening to. It was right at the beginning of the gods’
settlement, when the gods had established Midgard and built
Val-hall, there came there a certain builder and offered to build
them a fortification in three seasons so good that it would be
reliable and secure against mountain-giants and frost-giants eventhough they should come in over Midgard. And he stipulated as
his payment that he should get Freyia as his wife, and he wished tohave the sun and moon. Then the Æsir went into discussion andheld a conference, and this bargain was made with the builder thathe should get what he demanded if he managed to build thefortification in one winter, but on the first day of summer if there
was anything unfinished in the fortification then he should forfeit
his payment. He was to receive from no man help with the work.
And when they told him these terms, then he asked that theyshould permit him to have the help of his stallion called Svadilfæri. And it was Loki that was responsible for this being granted
him. He set to work the first day of winter to build the fortifi­
cation, and at night he hauled up stone with the stallion. And theÆsir thought it a great marvel what enormous rocks this stallion
hauled, and the stallion performed twice the deed of strength thatthe builder did. But at their agreement there had been mighty
witnesses invoked and many oaths, for the giants did not think it
safe to be among the Æsir without a guarantee of safety if Thor
were to return home, but at the time he was gone away into
eastern parts to thrash trolls. And as winter passed the building of
the fortification advanced rapidly and it was so high and strongthat it could not be stormed. And when summer was three days
away then he had almost got round to the entrance of thefortification. Then the gods took their places on their judgment
seats and tried to think of what to do and asked each other who
had been responsible for the decision to marry Freyia into Giant­land and to spoil the sky and heaven by taking away sun andmoon and giving them to giants. And there was agreement among
them all that he must have been responsible for this decision who
is responsible for most evil, Loki Laufeyiarson, and declared he35

Gylfaginning[41-3]

would deserve an evil death if he did not find a scheme whereby
the builder would forfeit his payment, and they offered to attack
Loki. And he, being afraid, swore oaths that he would manage
things so the builder would forfeit his payment, whatever it cost
him to do it. And the same evening, when the builder drove out forstone with his stallion Svadilfæri, there ran out of a certain wood amare up to the stallion and neighed at it. And when the stallion
realized what kind of horse it was, it went frantic and tore apartthe tackle and ran towards the mare, and she away to the woodand the builder after them, trying to catch the stallion, and thesehorses ran around all night and the building work was held up forthat night. The next day not as much building was done as had
been the case previously. And when the builder realized that thework was not going to be completed, then the builder got into a
giant rage. But when the Æsir saw for certain that it was amountain-giant that they had there, then the oaths were disre­garded and they called upon Thor and he came in a trice and thenext thing was that Miollnir was raised aloft. Then he paid thebuilder’s wages and it wasn’t the sun and moon, instead hestopped him from living in Giantland and struck the first blow sothat his skull was shattered into fragments and sent him down
beneath Niflhel. But Loki had had such dealings with Svadilfasrithat somewhat later he gave birth to a foal. It was grey and hadeight legs, and this is the best horse among gods and men. Thus itsays in Voluspa:

Then went all the powers to their judgment seats, most holy.
gods, and deliberated upon this, who had tainted all the sky
with darkness and to the family of giants given Od’s be­
loved.
Oaths were gone back on, pledged words and promises, all
the solemn vows that passed between them. Thor achieved
this alone, bursting with wrath. He seldom sits idle when helearns of such things.’

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What is there to be told about Skidbladnir if it is the best of ships? Is there no other ship as good as itor as big?’High said: ‘Skidbladnir is the best ship and constructed with36

Gylfaginning[43-4]

greatest ingenuity, but the biggest ship is Naglfari, it belongs toMuspell. It was certain dwarfs, sons of Ivaldi, that made Skidbladnir and gave Freyr the ship. It is big enough for all the Æsir tobe able to go aboard it with weapons and war gear, and it gets afair wind as soon as the sail is hoisted, wherever it is required togo. And when it is not to be taken to sea, then it is made of so many
parts and with such great art that it can be folded up like a clothand put in one’s pocket.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Skidbladnir is a good ship, but it must
require a very great deal of magic to make something like that.
Has Thor never got into such a situation that he has come up
against such great power or might that he has found it more thanhe could manage because of strength or magic?’
Then spoke High: ‘I expect there are few people that can tell
about that, though he has found many situations hard to deal
with. But even if it has happened that something or other has been
so powerful or strong that Thor has not managed to defeat it, yetthere is no need to speak of it, for there is much evidence to show,
and everyone is bound to believe, that Thor is mightiest.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘It looks to me as though I must haveasked you something that none of you is capable of telling me.’Then spoke Just-as-high: ‘We have heard tell of some events
which it seems to us impossible to believe can be true, but I guess
there is one sitting not far off who will be able to give a true
account of it, and you can be confident that he will not lie now for
the first time who never lied before.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Here I shall stand and listen whether
anyone offers a solution to this matter, and if not I declare you are
overcome if you are not able to tell what I ask.’
Then spoke Third: ‘It is clear now that he is determined toknow this story even though it does not seem to us nice to tell. But
you are not to interrupt.
‘The beginning of this business is that Oku-Thor set off with hisgoats and chariot and with him the As called Loki. In the evening
they arrived at a peasant’s house and were given a night’s lodging
there. During the evening Thor took his goats and slaughteredthem both. After this they were skinned and put in the pot. Whenit was cooked Thor sat down to his evening meal, he and his
companion. Thor invited the peasant and his wife and their37

Gylfaginning[44—5]

children to share the meal with him. The farmer’s son was called
Thialfi, his daughter Roskva. Then Thor placed the goatskins on
the other side of the fire and instructed the peasant and his
household to throw the bones on to the goatskins. Thialfi, thepeasant’s son, took hold of the goat’s ham-bone and split it openwith his knife and broke it to get at the marrow. Thor stayed thenight there, and in the small hours before dawn he got up anddressed, took the hammer Miollnir and raised it and blessed thegoatskins. Then the goats got up and one of them was lame in thehind leg. Thor noticed this and declared that the peasant or one ofhis people must have not treated the goat’s bones with propercare. He realized that the ham-bone was broken. There is no needto make a long tale about it, everyone can imagine how terrified
the peasant must have been when he saw Thor making his browssink down over his eyes; as for what could be seen of the eyes
themselves, he thought he would collapse at just the very sight.
Thor clenched his hands on the shaft of the hammer so that the
knuckles went white, and the peasant did as one might expect,
and all his household, they cried out fervently, begged for grace,
offered to atone with all their possessions. And when he saw theirterror then his wrath left him and he calmed down and acceptedfrom them in settlement their children Thialfi and Roskva, andthey then became Thor’s bondservants and they have attended
him ever since. He left the goats behind there and started on his
journey east to Giantland and all the way to the sea, and then hewent out across the great deep sea. And when he reached land hewent ashore and with him Loki and Thialfi and Roskva. Whenthey had gone a little way they were faced by a huge forest. They
walked all that day until dark. Thialfi was the fastest of runners.
He carried Thor’s knapsack, but there was not much in the way of
lodgings to be found. When it had got dark they looked forsomewhere to spend the night and came upon a certain very large
building. There was an entrance at one end and it was the full
width of the building. Here they sought night-quarters for them­selves. But at midnight there was a great earthquake, the groundmoved under them in shudders and the building shook. ThenThor got up and called to his companions and they searchedaround and found a side-chamber on the right hand side half-way
down the building and went in. Thor positioned himself in the38

Gylfaginning[451

doorway and the others were further in behind him and they were
fearful, but Thor clasped the shaft of his hammer and planned todefend himself. Then they heard a great rumbling and groaning.
And when dawn came Thor went out and saw someone lying alittle way from him in the forest, and he was no midget. He wasasleep and snoring mightily. Then Thor realized what the cause of
the noise in the night had been. He clasped on his girdle of might
and his As-strength grew, but at that moment the person awoke
and stood up quickly. And then they say that Thor for once wasafraid to strike him with the hammer, and asked him his name.
And he said his name was Skrymir.
* “But I do not need,” he said, “to ask you your name. I can tellthat you are Thor of the Æsir. But have you been making off withmy glove?”‘Then Skrymir reached over and picked up his glove. Then Thor
realized that this was what he had been using during the night as abuilding, and the side-chamber, that was the thumb of the glove.
Skrymir asked if Thor would like to have his company, and Thor
agreed. Then Skrymir went and undid his knapsack and got readyto eat breakfast, and so did Thor and his companions in a separate
place. Then Skrymir suggested that they pool their food, and Thor
agreed. So Skrymir tied up all their provisions in one bag and put
it on his back. He went ahead during the day and took rather long
strides. And then in the evening Skrymir found them a place tospend the night under a certain large oak, - “but you take theknapsack and get on with your supper.”‘Then Skrymir went to sleep and snored hard, and Thor took
the knapsack and was about to undo it, and the story goes,incredible though it must seem, that no knot could he get undone
and no strap-end moved so as to make it less tight than it was
already. And when he realized that this labour was going to get
nowhere, he got angry, grasped the hammer Miollnir in both
hands and stepped forward with one foot to where Skrymir was
lying and struck at his head. Skrymir awoke and asked whether
some leaf of foliage had fallen on his head, and whether they hadfinished eating and were ready for bed. Thor said they were justabout to go to sleep. They then went under another oak. To tell
you the truth, it was not possible to sleep without fear.
‘But at midnight Thor heard that Skrymir was snoring and39

Gylfaginning(45-

sleeping deeply so that the forest resounded. Then he stood up andwent up to him, swung the hammer quickly and hard and struck
down in the centre of his crown. He felt the face of the hammer
sink deep into the head. And at that moment Skrymir woke andsaid:‘ “What’s the matter now? Did an acorn or something fall on
my head? And what are you doing, Thor?”‘But Thor backed away quickly and replied that he had justwoken up, said that it was now midnight and still time to sleep.
Then Thor resolved that if he got an opportunity to strike him athird blow, he would never open his eyes again; he now lay
waiting to see if Skrymir fell fast asleep. And a little before dawn,
then he could hear that Skrymir must have fallen asleep, and hegot up and ran at him, swung the hammer with all his might andstruck at the temple that was facing upwards. Then the hammer
sank in up to the handle, but Skrymir sat up and stroked his cheekand said:‘ “Can there be some birds sitting in the tree above me? I am
sure as I awoke that some rubbish from the branches fell on myhead. Are you awake, Thor? It must be time to get up and dress.
And you do not now have very far to go on to the castle called
Utgard. I have heard you whispering among yourselves that 1 am aperson of no small build, but you will see bigger men there if you
get into Utgard. Now I will give you some good advice: don’t act
big. Utgarda-Loki’s men will not easily put up with cheekinessfrom babies like you. Otherwise turn back, and that I think will be
the better course for you to take. But if you are determined to goon, then make for the east, but my road now lies to the north tothese mountains that you should be able to see.”‘Skrymir took the knapsack and threw it on his back and turned
abruptly away from them into the forest, and there is no reportthat the Æsir expressed hope for a happy reunion.
‘Thor continued his journey with his companions and went on
until midday. Then they saw a castle standing on some open
ground and had to bend their heads back to touch their spines
before they could see up over. They approached the castle andthere was a gate across the entrance and it was shut. Thor went to
the gate and was unable to open it, but by struggling to get into thecastle they squeezed between the bars and thus got in, and then40

Gylfaginning[46]

saw a great hall and went up to it. The door was open. They wentin and saw there many people on two benches, most of them a fairsize. Next they came before the king, Utgarda-Loki, and addres­sed him, but he was slow to turn to them and bared his teeth in asmile and said:‘ “News travels slowly over long distances. But am I wrong inthinking that this little fellow is Oku-Thor? You must be bigger
than you look to me. And what are the feats that your party thinks
they can perform? No one is allowed to stay here with us whodoes not have some art or skill in which he is superior to mostpeople.”‘Then the one who was in the rear of the party, which was Loki,
said:‘ “I know a feat that I am quite prepared to have a go at, that
there is no one inside here who can eat his food quicker than I.”‘Then Utgarda-Loki replied: “That is a feat if you can perform
it, and we must try out these feats,” - called down the bench thatsome one called Logi was to come out on to the floor and competewith Loki. Then a trencher was fetched and brought in on to thefloor of the hall and filled with meat. Loki sat down at one end
and Logi at the other, and each ate as quickly as he could and they
met in the middle of the trencher. Loki had then eaten all the meat
off the bones, but Logi had also eaten all the meat and the bones
too and also the trencher, and it seemed to everyone now that
Loki had lost the contest.
‘Then Utgarda-Loki asked what that young man there could
perform, and Thialfi said that he would attempt to run a race ofsome kind with anyone Utgarda-Loki put forward. He said,
Utgarda-Loki, that this was a good feat and declared he would
indeed have to be good at running if he was to achieve this feat,and yet he said he would soon put it to the test. Then UtgardaLoki got up and went out, and there was a good course there forrunning over level ground. Then Utgarda-Loki called to him acertain little fellow called Hugi and bade him run a race withThialfi. Then they began the first race, and Hugi was so far aheadthat he turned back to meet him at the end of the race. Then said
Utgarda-Loki:‘ “You will have to make a greater effort, Thialfi, if you aregoing to win the contest, and yet it is true that never before have41

Gylfaginning[46]

people come here that have seemed to me able to run faster thanthat.”‘Then they began again another race, and when Hugi got to theend of the course and turned back, Thialfi was still a goodarrow-shot behind. Then said Utgarda-Loki:‘ “Thialfi has I think run a good race, but I no longer have any
confidence in him that he will win the contest. But we shall see
now when they run the third race.”‘Then they started another race. And when Hugi had got to theend of the course and turned back, then Thialfi had not reachedhalf-way. Then everyone said that this contest was decided.
‘Then Utgarda-Loki asked Thor which of his accomplishments
it was that he would be willing to display before them, such greatstories as people had made of his exploits. Then Thor said that hewould most willingly undertake to compete at drinking withsomeone. Utgarda-Loki said that would be fine and went inside
the hall and called for his butler, bade him get the forfeit-horn thatthe men of his court were accustomed to drink from. Next thebutler came forward with the horn and handed it to Thor. Then
said Utgarda-Loki:‘ “From this horn it is considered to be well drunk if it is drainedin one draught, but some people drain it in two draughts. But noone is such a poor drinker that it is not emptied in three.”‘Thor looked at the horn, and it did not seem all that big,
though it was rather long. But he was very thirsty, began to drink
and took great gulps and intended that it should not be necessary
to address the horn again for the time being. But when he ran outof breath and straightened up from the horn and saw how his
drinking was progressing, it seemed to him as though there could
be very little difference by which the level in the horn was now
lower than before. Then Utgarda-Loki spoke:‘ “That was a good drink, and not excessive. I would not havebelieved it if anyone had told me that Thor of the Æsir would nothave drunk a greater draught, but still I know that you will be
intending to drink it off in the second draught.”‘Thor made no reply, put the horn to his mouth and wasdetermined now that he was going to drink a bigger draught andstruggled with the drink as long as his breath held out, and foundstill that the point of the horn would not go as far up as he wanted.
42Gylfaginning[46]

And when he took the horn from his mouth and looked in, it now
seemed to him as though it had gone down less than the previous
time. The level was now far enough down for the horn to be
carried easily without spilling. Then spoke Utgarda-Loki:‘ “What’s the matter now, Thor? Are you not keeping back for
one drink more than you will find easy to manage? It seems to me
that if you are going to drain the horn with the third draught, thenthis must be intended to be the biggest one. But here among us you
will not be able to be reckoned as great a person as the Æsir say
you are, if you do not give a better account of yourself in othercontests than it seems to me you are going to do with thisone.”
‘Then Thor got angry, put the horn to his mouth and drank as
hard as he could and struggled as long as possible with the drink.
And when he looked into the horn, this time it had made most of
all some difference. And then he handed back the horn and would
drink no more. Then spoke Utgarda-Loki:‘ “It is obvious now that your might is not as great as wethought. Do you want to have a try at more contests? It is clearthat you are going to get nowhere with this one.”‘Thor replied: “I may as well have a try at yet more contests. But
I would have been surprised when I was back home with the Æsirif such drinks had been reckoned so slight. And what game do you
want to offer me now?”‘Then spoke Utgarda-Loki: “What the young lads here do,though it may not seem of great significance, is lift up my cat off
the ground. But I would not know how to mention such a thing toThor of the Æsir if I had not previously seen that you are a muchless impressive person than I thought.”‘Next a kind of grey cat ran out on to the hall floor, and it was
rather big. Thor went up and took hold with his hand down underthe middle of its belly and lifted it up. But the cat arched its back asmuch as Thor stretched up his hand. And when Thor reached ashigh up as the furthest he could, then the cat raised just one paw
and Thor was not able to perform this feat. Then spoke UtgardaLoki:‘ “This game went just as I expected: the cat is rather big, but
Thor is short and small in comparison with the big fellows herewith us.”43Gylfaginning[46—7]‘Then spoke Thor: “Small as you say I am, just let someone
come out and fight me! Now I am angry!”"‘Then Utgarda-Loki replied, looking round the benches, andsaid: “I do not see anyone in here who will not think it demeaning
to fight with you.” And then he went on: “Let’s see a moment.
Call here to me the old woman, my nurse Elli, and let Thor fightwith her if he likes. She has brought down people who haveseemed to me no less strong-looking than Thor is.”‘Next there came into the hall an old crone. Then Utgarda-Lokisaid that she was to have a wrestling match with Thor of the Æsir.
There is not a great deal to be told about it. What happened in thismatch was that the harder Thor strained in the wrestling, thefirmer she stood. Then the old woman started to try tricks, andthen Thor began to lose his footing, and there was some very hardpulling, and it was not long before Thor fell on to the knee of one
leg. Then Utgarda-Loki went up, told them to stop the wrestling,and said this, that there was no point in Thor challenging any
more people in his hall to a fight. It was also now late into thenight. Utgarda-Loki showed Thor and his companions to places
and they spent the night there with hospitable treatment. And in
the morning as soon as it dawned Thor got up and so did his
companions, they got dressed and were about to be off. Then
Utgarda-Loki appeared and had a table laid for them. There wasno lack of good cheer, food and drink. And when they hadfinished eating then they set off. Utgarda-Loki went out withthem, and accompanied them on their road out of the castle. And
as they parted, Utgarda-Loki spoke to Thor and asked how hethought his expedition had gone, and whether he had come up
against any person more powerful than himself. Thor said that hecould not claim that he had not suffered great loss of face in theirencounter.
‘ “And moreover I know that you will say that I am a person oflittle account, and it is that which irks me.”‘Then spoke Utgarda-Loki: “Now you shall be told the truth,
now you have come outside the castle, which is that if I live andcan have my way you shall never again come into it. And I swear
by my faith that you never would have come into it if I had known
before that you had such great strength in you, and that you weregoing to bring us so close to great disaster. But I have deceived you
44Gylfaginning[47]

by appearances, so that the first time when I discovered you in theforest it was I that came and met you. And when you tried to undo
the knapsack I had fastened it with trick wire, and you could not
find where it had to be unfastened. And next you struck me threeblows with your hammer, and the first was the smallest and yet it
was so hard that it would have been enough to kill me if it had
struck its mark. But where you saw near my hall a table­
mountain, and down in it you saw three square valleys, one
deepest of all, these were the marks of your hammer. I moved thetable-mountain in front of your blows, but you did not notice. So
it was too with the games in which you competed with my men.
The first was the one that Loki engaged in. He was very hungry
and ate fast, but the one who is called Logi [flame], that was
wildfire, and it burned the trencher just as quickly as the meat.
And when Thialfi competed at running with the one called Hugi
[thought], that was my thought, and Thialfi was not likely to beable to compete with its speed. And when you were drinking fromthe horn and it seemed to you that it was going slowly -1 swear by
my faith that then there took place a miracle that I would not havebelieved possible: the other end of the horn was out in the sea, andyou did not notice, but now when you come to the sea then you
will see what a lowering of the level you have made in the sea by
your drinking.”‘This is now known as the tides. And he went on:‘ “It did not seem to me any less impressive either when you
lifted up the cat, and to tell you the truth everyone that waswatching was terrified when you raised one of its feet from theground. For that cat was not what it appeared to you: it was theMidgard serpent which lies encircling all lands, and its length was
hardly enough for both its head and its tail to touch the ground.
And so far did you reach up that you were not far from the sky.
And that also was a great miracle with the wrestling when you
stood so long and fell no further than on to the knee of one leg
when you were fighting Elli [old age], for there never has been
anyone, and there never will be anyone, if they get so old that theyexperience old age, that old age will not bring them all down. And
the truth I must tell you now is that we must part, and it will now
be better on both sides that you do not come to see me again. I
shall again next time defend my castle with similar tricks or with45

Gylfaginning[47-8]

others so that you will not get any power over me.”‘And when Thor heard this speech he snatched up his hammer
and swung it in the air, but when he was about to bring it downthen he found he could nowhere see Utgarda-Loki. And then heturned back towards the castle, intending to smash the castle.
Then all he saw there was a wide and beautiful open landscape,but no castle. Then he turned back and went on his way until hegot back to Thrudvangar. But the fact is that he had then made up
his mind to seek an opportunity for a meeting to take place
between him and the Midgard serpent, as later occurred. Now I
think there is no one that can give you a truer account of thisexpedition of Thor’s.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Very powerful is Utgarda-Loki, and heuses a great deal of trickery and magic. It is clear that he ispowerful when he had men in his following who have great might.
But did Thor never get his own back for this?’High replied: ‘It is no secret, even among those who are notscholars, that Thor achieved redress for this expedition that has
just been recounted, and did not stay at home long before settingout on his journey so hastily that he had with him no chariot andno goats and no companionship. He went out across Midgard
having assumed the appearance of a young boy, and arrived one
evening at nightfall at a certain giant’s; his name was Hymir. Thor
stayed there as a guest for the night. And at dawn Hymir got up
and dressed and got ready to row out to sea fishing. And Thor
sprang up and was soon ready and asked Hymir to let him row out
to sea with him. But Hymir said there would not be muchadvantage in having him along since he was small and just ayouth.
‘ “And you’ll get cold if I stay out as long and as far as I am used
to do.”‘But Thor said he need not hesitate to row out from shore since
it was not certain whether it would be he that would first beg torow back; and Thor got angry with the giant so that he was on the
point of letting the hammer crash down on him straight away, but
he decided to hold back since he was planning to try his strength
elsewhere. He asked Hymir what they were to use as bait, butHymir told him to get his own bait. Then Thor went off to where
he could see a certain herd of oxen belonging to Hymir. He took46

Gylfaginning[4»1

the biggest ox, called Himinhriot, and tore off its head and took it
down to the sea. Hymir had now launched the boat. Thor went
aboard and took his seat in the well of the boat, took two oars androwed, and Hymir thought there was some impetus from his
rowing. Hymir was rowing forward in the bows and the rowing
progressed fast. Then Hymir said they had reached the fishingground where he usually sat catching flat fish, but Thor said hewanted to row much further, and they did another spun ofrowing. Then Hymir said they had got so far out that it was
dangerous to be further out because of the Midgard serpent. But
Thor said he would row on a bit and did so, but Hymir was thenvery unhappy. And when Thor had shipped his oars, he got out aline that was pretty strong, and the hook was no smaller or lessmighty-looking. On to this hook Thor fastened the ox-head andthrew it overboard, and the hook went to the bottom. And then it
is true to say that Thor fooled the Midgard serpent no less than
Utgarda-Loki had made a laughing-stock of Thor when he waslifting the serpent up with his hand. The Midgard serpent stret­ched its mouth round the ox-head and the hook stuck into theroof of the serpent’s mouth. And when the serpent felt this, itjerked away so hard that both Thor’s fists banged down on the
gunwale. Then Thor got angry and summoned up his As-strength,
pushed down so hard that he forced both feet through the boatand braced them against the sea-bed, and then hauled the serpent
up to the gunwale. And one can claim that a person does not knowwhat a horrible sight is who did not get to see how Thor fixed hiseyes on the serpent, and the serpent stared back up at him spitting
poison. It is said that then the giant Hymir changed colour, wentpale, and panicked when he saw the serpent and how the sea
flowed out and in over the boat. And just at the moment whenThor was grasping his hammer and lifting it in the air, the giant
fumbled at his bait-knife and cut Thor’s line from the gunwale,
and the serpent sank into the sea. But Thor threw his hammer
after it, and they say that he struck off its head by the sea-bed. But
I think in fact the contrary is correct to report to you that theMidgard serpent lives still and lies in the encircling sea. But Thor
swung his fist and struck at Hymir’s ear so that he plunged
overboard and one could see the soles of his feet. But Thor waded
ashore.’47

Gylfaginning[49]

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Have any greater events taken place
among the Æsir ? It was a very great exploit that Thor achieved on
this expedition.’High replied: ‘There are events to be related that would havebeen thought more significant by the Æsir. And the beginning of
this story is that Baldr the Good dreamed great dreams boding
peril to his life. And when he told the Æsir the dreams they tookcounsel together and it was decided to request immunity for Baldr
from all kinds of danger, and Frigg received solemn promises sothat Baldr should not be harmed by fire and water, iron and all
kinds of metal, stones, the earth, trees, diseases, the animals, thebirds, poison, snakes. And when this was done and confirmed,
then it became an entertainment for Baldr and the Æsir that heshould stand up at assemblies and all the others should either
shoot at him or strike at him or throw stones at him. But whatever
they did he was unharmed, and they all thought this a great glory.
But when Loki Laufeyiarson saw this he was not pleased that
Baldr was unharmed. He went to Fensalir to Frigg and changed
his appearance to that of a woman. Then Frigg asked this woman
if she knew what the Æsir were doing at the assembly. She said
that everyone was shooting at Baldr, and moreover that he wasunharmed. Then said Frigg:‘ “Weapons and wood will not hurt Baldr. I have received oaths
from them all.”‘Then the woman asked: “Have all things sworn oaths not toharm Baldr?”‘Then Frigg replied: “There grows a shoot of a tree to the westof Val-hall. It is called mistletoe. It seemed young to me to demand
the oath from.”‘Straight away the woman disappeared. And Loki took mistle­
toe and plucked it and went to the assembly. Hod was standing at
the edge of the circle of people, for he was blind. Then Loki said tohim:‘ “Why are you not shooting at Baldr?”‘He replied: “Because I cannot see where Baldr is, and secondly
because I have no weapon.”‘Then said Loki: “Follow other people’s example and do Baldr
honour like other people. I will direct you to where he is standing.
Shoot at him this stick.”48

Gylfaginning[491‘Hod took the mistletoe and shot at Baldr at Loki’s direction.
The missile flew through him and he fell dead to the ground, andthis was the unluckiest deed ever done among gods and men.
When Baldr had fallen, then all the Æsir’s tongues failed them, as
did their hands for lifting him up, and they all looked at each otherand were all of one mind towards the one who had done the deed.
But no one could take vengeance, it was a place of such sanctuary.
When the Æsir tried to speak then what happened first was thatweeping came out, so that none could tell another in words of his
grief. But it was Odin who took this injury the hardest in that hehad the best idea what great deprivation and loss the death ofBaldr would cause the Æsir. And when the gods came to them­selves then Frigg spoke, and asked who there was among the Æsirwho wished to earn all her love and favour and was willing to ride
the road to Hel and try if he could find Baldr, and offer Hel aransom if she would let Baldr go back to Asgard. Hermod theBold, Odin’s boy, is the name of the one who undertook thisjourney. Then Odin’s horse Sleipnir was fetched and led forwardand Hermod mounted this horse and galloped away. So the Æsirtook Baldr’s body and carried it to the sea. Hringhorni was thename of Baldr’s ship. It was the biggest of all ships. This the Æsirplanned to launch and perform on it Baldr’s funeral. But the shiprefused to move. So they sent to Giantland for a giantess called
Hyrrokkin. And when she arrived, riding a wolf and using vipers
as reins, she dismounted from her steed, and Odin summoned
four berserks to look after the mount, and they were unable tohold it without knocking it down. Then Hyrrokkin went to theprow of the boat and pushed it out with the first touch so thatflame flew from the rollers and all lands quaked. Then Thor
became angry and grasped his hammer and was about to smash
her head until all the gods begged for grace for her. Then Baldr’s
body was carried out on to the ship, and when his wife Nanna
Nep’s daughter saw this she collapsed with grief and died. She wascarried on to the pyre and it was set fire to. Then Thor stood byand consecrated the pyre with Miollnir. But a certain dwarf ran infront of his feet. His name was Lit. Thor kicked at him with his
foot and thrust him into the fire and he was burned.
‘This burning was attended by beings of many different kinds:
firstly to tell of Odin, that with him went Frigg and valkyries and49

Gylfaginning[49]

his ravens, while Freyr drove in a chariot with a boar called
Gullinbursti or Slidrugtanni. But Heimdall rode a horse called
Gulltopp, and Freyia her cats. There came also a great company offrost-giants and mountain-giants. Odin laid on the pyre a gold
arm-ring called Draupnir. It afterwards had the property thatevery ninth night there dripped from it eight gold rings of the same
weight. Baldr’s horse was led on to the pyre with all its harness.
But there is this to tell of Hermod that he rode for nine nights
through valleys dark and deep so that he saw nothing until hecame to the river Gioll and rode on to Gioll bridge. It is covered
with glowing gold. There is a maiden guarding the bridge called
Modgud. She asked him his name and lineage and said that theother day there had ridden over the bridge five battalions of deadmen.
‘ “But the bridge resounds no less under just you, and you do
not have the colour of dead men. Why are you riding here on theroad to Hel?”‘He replied: “I am to ride to Hel to seek Baldr. But have you
seen anything of Baldr on the road to Hel?”‘And she said that Baldr had ridden there over Gioll bridge,“but downwards and northwards lies the road to Hel.”‘Then Hermod rode on until he came to Hel’s gates. Then hedismounted from the horse and tightened its girth, mounted andspurred it on. The horse jumped so hard and over the gate that itcame nowhere near. Then Hermod rode up to the hall anddismounted from his horse, went into the hall, saw sitting there in
the seat of honour his brother Baldr; and Hermod stayed there thenight. In the morning Hermod begged from Hel that Baldr mightride home with him and said what great weeping there was amongthe Æsir. But Hel said that it must be tested whether Baldr was as
beloved as people said in the following way,
‘ “And if all things in the world, alive and dead, weep for him,
then he shall go back to the Æsir, but be kept with Hel if any
objects or refuses to weep.”‘Then Hermod got up and Baldr went with him out of the halland took the ring Draupnir and sent it to Odin as a keepsake, andNanna sent Frigg a linen robe and other gifts too; to Fulla afinger-ring. Then Hermod rode back on his way and came to
Asgard and told all the tidings he had seen and heard.
50

Gylfaginningl49-5°]‘After this the Æsir sent over all the world messengers torequest that Baldr be wept out of Hel. And all did this, the people
and animals and the earth and the stones and trees and every
metal, just as you will have seen that these things weep when theycome out of frost and into heat. When the envoys were travellingback having well fulfilled their errand, they found in a certain cavea giantess sitting. She said her name was Thanks. They bade her
weep Baldr out of Hel. She said:“Thanks will weep dry tears for Baldr’s burial. No good got
I from the old one’s son either dead or alive. Let Hel holdwhat she has.”‘It is presumed that this was Loki Laufeyiarson, who has done
most evil among the Æsir.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘It was quite an achievement of Loki’s
when he brought it about first of all that Baldr was killed, and alsothat he was not redeemed from Hel. But was he punished at all forthis?’High said: ‘He was requited for this in such a way that he will
not soon forget it. The gods having become as angry with him as
one might expect, he ran away and hid in a certain mountain, built
a house there with four doors so that he could see out of the housein all directions. But in the daytime he often turned himself into
the form of a salmon and hid in a place called Franangr waterfall.
Then he pondered what sort of device the Æsir would be likely tothink up to catch him in the waterfall. And as he sat in the house
he took some linen thread and tied knots in it in the way in whichever since a net has been. A fire was burning in front of him. Thenhe noticed that the Æsir were only a short distance away fromhim, and Odin had seen where he was from Hlidskialf. He
immediately jumped up and out into the river throwing the net
down into the fire. And when the Æsir reached the house then thefirst to enter was the wisest of all, called Kvasir. And when he saw
in the fire the shape in the ashes where the net had burned herealized that it must be a device to catch fish, and told the Æsir.
After that they went and made themselves a net just like what theysaw in the ashes that Loki had made. And when the net was
finished the Æsir went to the river and threw the net into the51Gylfaginning[50—51!

waterfall. Thor held one end and all the Æsir held the other andthey dragged the net. But Loki went along in front and lay down
between two stones. They dragged the net over him and could tellthere was something live there and went a second time up to thewaterfall and threw out the net and weighted it down so heavily
that nothing would be able to go underneath. Then Loki went
along in front of the net, and when he saw that it was only a short
way to the sea then he leaped up over the top of the net and slipped
up into the waterfall. This time the Æsir saw where he went, theywent back up to the waterfall and divided their party into twogroups, and Thor waded along the middle of the river and thus
they advanced towards the sea. And when Loki saw there were
two alternatives - it was mortal danger to rush into the sea, but so
it was also to leap again over the net - and this is what he did,leaped as swiftly as he could over the top of the net. Thor grabbed
at him and got his hand round him and he slipped in his hand sothat the hand caught hold at the tail. And it is for this reason thatthe salmon tapers towards the tail.
‘Now Loki was captured without quarter and taken to a certain
cave. Then they took three stone slabs and set them on edge andknocked a hole in each slab. Then Loki’s sons Vali and Nari or
Narfi were fetched. The Æsir turned Vali into the form of a wolfand he tore his brother Narfi to pieces. Then the Æsir took hisguts and bound Loki with them across the three stones - oneunder his shoulders, one under his loins, the third under the backsof his knees — and these bonds turned to iron. Then Skadi got a
poisonous snake and fixed it up over him so that the poison would
drip from the snake into his face. But his wife Sigyn stands next tohim holding a basin under the drops of poison. And when thebasin is full she goes and pours away the poison, but in the mean­time the poison drips into his face. Then he jerks away so hardthat the whole earth shakes. That is what you call an earthquake.
There he will lie in bonds until Ragnarok.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What information is there to be given
about Ragnarok? I have not heard tell of this before.’High said: ‘There are many important things to be told about it.
First of all that a winter will come called fimbul-vfinter [mighty or
mysterious winter]. Then snow will drift from all directions.
There will then be great frosts and keen winds. The sun will do no52

Gylfaginning[5i]

good. There will be three of these winters together and no summer
between. But before that there will come three other winters
during which there will be great battles throughout the world.
Then brothers will kill each other out of greed and no one willshow mercy to father or son in killing or breaking the taboos ofkinship. Thus it says in Voluspa:
Brothers will fight and kill each other, cousins will break thebonds of their relationship. It will be harsh for heroes, muchdepravity, age of axes, age of swords, shields cloven, age ofwinds, age of wolves, until the world is ruined.

Then something will happen that will be thought a most signifi­
cant event, the wolf will swallow the sun, and people will think
this a great disaster. Then the other wolf will catch the moon, andhe also will cause much mischief. The stars will disappear fromthe sky. Then there will take place another event, the whole earth
and mountains will shake so much that trees will become up­
rooted from the earth and the mountains will fall, and all fettersand bonds will snap and break. Then Fenriswolf will get free.
Then the ocean will surge up on to the lands because the Midgard
serpent will fly into a giant rage and make its way ashore. Then it
will also happen that Naglfar will be loosed from its moorings, theship of that name. It is made of dead people’s nails, and it is worth
taking care lest anyone die with untrimmed nails, since such aperson contributes much material to the ship Naglfar which gods
and men wish would take a long time to finish. And in this flood
Naglfar will be carried along. There is a giant called Hrym whowill captain Naglfar. But Fenriswolf will go with mouth agape
and its upper jaw will be against the sky and its lower one against
the earth. It would gape wider if there was room. Flames will burnfrom its eyes and nostrils. The Midgard serpent will spit so muchpoison that it will bespatter all the sky and sea, and it will be very
terrible, and it will be on one side of the wolf. Amid this turmoil
the sky will open and from it will ride the sons of Muspell. Surt
will ride in front, and both before and behind him there will beburning fire. His sword will be very fine. Light will shine from it
more brightly than from the sun. And when they ride over Bifrost
it will break, as was said above. Muspell’s lads will advance to the53GylfaginningBi]field called Vigrid. Then there will also arrive there Fenriswolf
and the Midgard serpent. By then Loki will also have arrived there
and Hrym and with him all the frost-giants, but with Loki will beall Hel’s people. But Muspell’s sons will have their own battle
array; it will be very bright. The field Vigrid is a hundred leagues
in each direction.
‘And when these events take place, Heimdall will stand up andblow mightily on Giallarhorn and awaken all the gods and they
will hold a parliament together. Then Odin will ride to Mimir’s
well and consult Mimir on his own and his people’s behalf. Thenthe ash Yggdrasil will shake and nothing will then be unafraid inheaven or on earth. The Æsir will put on their war gear, and so
will all the Einheriar, and advance on to the field. Odin will ride in
front with golden helmet and fine coat of mail and his spear called
Gungnir. He will make for Fenriswolf, and Thor will advance at
his side and be unable to aid him because he will have his hands
full fighting the Midgard serpent. Freyr will fight Surt and there
will be a harsh conflict before Freyr falls. The cause of his deathwill be that he will be without the good sword that he gave Skirnir.
Then will also have got free the dog Garm, which is bound in frontof Gnipahellir. This is the most evil creature. He will have a battlewith Tyr and they will each be the death of the other. Thor will be
victorious over the Midgard serpent and will step away from itnine paces. Then he will fall to the ground dead from the poison
which the serpent will spit at him. The wolf will swallow Odin.
That will be the cause of his death. And immediately after Vidar
will come forward and step with one foot on the lower jaw of thewolf. On this foot he will have a shoe for which the material has
been being collected throughout all time: it is the waste pieces thatpeople cut from their shoes at the toe and heel. Therefore anyone
that is concerned to give assistance to the Æsir must throw thesepieces away. With one hand he will grasp the wolf’s upper jaw andtear apart its mouth and this will cause the wolf’s death. Loki will
have a battle with Heimdall and they will cause each other’s
death. After that Surt will fling fire over the earth and burn thewhole world. Thus it is related in Voluspa:
Loud blows Heimdall, his horn is aloft. Odin speaks with
Mim’s head. The ash Yggdrasil shakes as it stands, theancient tree groans, and the giant gets free.
54

Gylfaginning
What is it with the Æsir? What is it with the elves? All
Giantland resounds. Æsir are in council. Dwarfs groan
before rock doorways, frequenters of rock-walls. Know you
yet, or what?

Hrym drives from the east holding his shield before him,
Iormungand writhes in a giant rage. The serpent churns thewaves, the eagle will screech with joy, darkly pale it tears
corpses, Naglfar is loosed.
A bark sails from the east, across the sea will come Muspell’s troops with Loki at the helm. All that monstrous
brood are there with the wolf. In company with them is
Byleist’s brother.

Surt travels from the south with the stick-destroyer [fire].
Shines from his sword the sun of the gods of the slain. Rockcliffs crash and troll-wives are abroad, heroes tread the roadof Hel and heaven splits.
Then Hlin’s second sorrow comes to pass as Odin goes tofight the wolf, and Beli’s bright slayer against Surt. There
shall fall Frigg’s delight.

Odin’s son goes to fight the wolf, Vidar on his way against
the slaughterous beast. With his hand he lets his blade pierce
Hvedrung’s son’s heart. So is his father avenged.
Goes the great son of Hlodyn, dying, to the serpent who
shrinks from no shame. All heroes shall leave the world
when Midgard’s protector strikes in wrath.

The sun will go dark, earth sink in the sea. From heavenvanish bright stars. Steam surges and life’s warmer [fire],high flame flickers against the very sky.

It also says here:

There is a field called Vigrid where shall meet in battle Surt
and the sweet gods. A hundred leagues each way it is; thisfield is marked out for them.’
Then spoke Gangleri: ‘What will happen then after heaven andearth and all the world is burned and all the gods and all Einheriar
55

Gylfaginning[ 5 2_3 J

and all mankind are dead? You said previously that everyone
shall live in some world or other for ever and ever.’
Then said Third: ‘There will then be many mansions that are
good, and many that are bad. The best place to be in heaven thenwill be Gimle, and there will be plenty of good drink for those thattake pleasure in it in the hall called Brimir. That is also in heaven.
That is also a good hall which is situated on Nidafioll, built of red
gold. It is called Sindri. In these halls shall dwell good and virtuous
people. On Nastrands is a large and unpleasant hall, and its doors
face north. It is also woven out of snakes’ bodies like a wattled
house, and the snakes’ heads all face inside the house and spit
poison so that rivers of poison flow along the hall, and wading
those rivers are oathbreakers and murderers, as it says here:

I know a hall that stands far from the sun on Nastrand.
North face the doors. Poison drops flow in through thesmoke-hole. This hall is woven from snakes’ backs. There
shall wade heavy streams men who are perjured andmurderers.
But it is worst in Hvergelmir:

There Nidhogg torments the bodies of the dead.’

Then spoke Gangleri: ‘Will there be any gods alive then? And
will there be any kind of earth or sky?’High said: ‘The earth will shoot up out of the sea and will thenbe green and fair. Crops will grow unsown. Vidar and Vali will bealive, the sea and Surt’s fire not having harmed them, and they will
dwell on Idavoll, where Asgard had been previously. And thenThor’s sons Modi and Magni will arrive, bringing Miollnir. Afterthat Baldr and Hod will arrive from Hel. Then they will all sit
down together and talk and discuss their mysteries and speak of
the things that had happened in former times, of the Midgard
serpent and Fenriswolf. Then they will find in the grass the golden
playing pieces that had belonged to the Æsir. Thus it is said:
Vidar and Vali will dwell in the gods’ holy places when
Surt’s flame goes dark. Modi and Magni shall have Miollnir
when Vingnir fights no more.
56

Gylfaginning[53-41

And in a place called Hoddmimir’s holt two people will lie hid
during Surt’s fire called Life and Leifthrasir, and their food will be
the dews of morning. And from these people there will bedescended such a great progeny that all the world will be in­habited. As it says here:
Life and Leifthrasir, and they shall lie hid in Hoddmimir’sholt. Dews of morning they shall have as their food, andfrom them shall grow mankind.

And this also will seem amazing to you, that the sun will havebegotten a daughter no less fair than she is, and she shall follow
the paths of her mother, as it says here:

A daughter shall Alfrodul bear before Fenrir catches her.
She shall ride, when the powers die, the maiden, hermother’s road.
And now if you know any more questions to ask further into the
future, 1 do not know where you will find answers, for I haveheard no one relate the history of the world any further on in time.
And may the knowledge you have gained do you good.’
Next Gangleri heard great noises in every direction from him,
and he looked out to one side. And when he looked aroundfurther he found he was standing out on open ground, could see
no hall and no castle. Then he went off on his way and came backto his kingdom and told of the events he had seen and heard
about. And from his account these stories passed from one person
to another.
But the Æsir sat down to discuss and hold a conference andwent over all these stories that had been told him, and assigned
those same names that were mentioned above to the people andplaces that were there [in Sweden], so that when long periods oftime had passed men should not doubt that they were all the same,
those Æsir about whom stories were told above and those who
were now given the same names. So someone there was given thename Thor - and this means the ancient Thor of the Æsir, that is
Oku-Thor - and to him are attributed the exploits which Thor
57

Gylfaginning[54](Hec-tor) performed in Troy. And it is believed that the Turks told
tales about Ulysses and that they gave him the name Loki, for theTurks were especially hostile to him.

58

Skaldskaparmal[The language of poetry]
There was a person whose name was Ægir or Hler. He lived on an
island which is now called Hlesey. He was very skilled in magic.
He set out to visit Asgard, and when the Æsir became aware of his
movements, he was given a great welcome, though many things
had deceptive appearances. And in the evening when they wereabout to start the drinking, Odin had swords brought into the halland they were so bright that light shone from them, and no otherlight was used while they sat drinking. Then the Æsir instituted
their banquet and twelve Æsir who were to be judges took theirplaces in their thrones and their names are as follows: Thor,
Niord, Freyr, Tyr, Heimdall, Bragi, Vidar, Vali, Uli, Hænir,Forseti, Loki; similarly the Asyniur, Frigg, Freyia, Gefiun, Idunn,Gerd, Sigyn, Fulla, Nanna. Everything there seemed to Ægirmagnificent to look at. The wall-panels were all hung withsplendid shields. There was also strong mead there and great
quantities were drunk. The person sitting next to Ægir was Bragi,
and they drank and conversed together. Bragi related to Ægirmany events in which the Æsir had been involved.
He began his account where three Æsir set out—Odin and Lokiand Haenir - and crossed mountains and wildernesses, and food
was difficult to come by. And when they came down into a certain
valley they saw a herd of oxen and took one of the oxen and set it
in an earth oven. And when they thought it must be cooked they
opened the earth oven and it was not cooked. And a second time
when they opened the oven after some time had passed, it was still
not cooked. Then they discussed among themselves what could be
the reason. Then they heard someone talking in the oak tree up
above them, saying that the one that was sitting there claimed tobe responsible for the oven not cooking. They looked up and it
was an eagle sitting there, and no small one. Then said the eagle:‘If you will grant me my fill of the ox, then the oven will cook.’
They agreed to this. Then it let itself drop from the tree and saton the oven and to begin with immediately put away the ox’s twohams and both shoulders. Then Loki got angry and snatched up a
great pole and swung it with all his strength and drove it at the59

Skaldskaparmal[56]

eagle’s body. The eagle jerked away at the blow and flew up. Thenthe pole was stuck to the eagle’s body and Loki’s hands to theother end. The eagle flew at such a height that Loki’s feet banged
down against the stones and gravel and trees, and his arms hethought were going to be wrenched from his shoulders. He
shouted and begged the eagle most earnestly for a truce but it said
that Loki would never get free unless he vowed solemnly to get
Idunn to come outside Asgard with her apples, and Loki accepted.
Then he got free and went up to his comrades. And nothing else
noteworthy was told for the moment of their expedition until
they got home. But at the agreed time Loki lured Idunn out
through Asgard into a certain forest, saying that he had foundsome apples that she would think worth having, and told her sheshould bring her apples with her and compare them with these.
Then giant Thiassi arrived in eagle shape and snatched Idunn andflew away with her to his home in Thrymheim.
But the Æsir were badly affected by Idunn’s disappearance andsoon became grey and old. Then the Æsir held a parliament andasked each other what was the last that was known about Idunn,
and the last that had been seen was that she had gone outside
Asgard with Loki. Then Loki was arrested and brought to theparliament and he was threatened with death or torture. Being
filled with terror, he said he would go in search of Idunn in
Giantland if Freyia would lend him a falcon shape of hers. And
when he got the falcon shape he flew north to Giantland andarrived one day at giant Thiassi’s; he was out at sea in a boat, but
Idunn was at home alone. Loki turned her into the form of a nut
and held her in his claws and flew as fast as he could. When Thiassi
got home and found Idunn was not there he got his eagle shape andflew after Loki and he caused a storm-wind by his flying. And
when the Æsir saw the falcon flying with the nut and where theeagle was flying, they went out under Asgard and brought there
loads of wood-shavings, and when the falcon flew in over thefortification, it let itself drop down by the wall of the fortification.
Then the Æsir set fire to the wood-shavings and the eagle wasunable to stop when it missed the falcon. Then the eagle’s featherscaught fire and his flight was ended. Then the Æsir were close by
and killed giant Thiassi within the As-gates, and this killing isgreatly renowned.
60

Skaldskaparmal[5 6-71

But Skadi, daughter of giant Thiassi, took helmet and mail-coatand all weapons of war and went to Asgard to avenge her father.
But the Æsir offered her atonement and compensation, the first
item of which was that she was to choose herself a husband out ofthe Æsir and choose by the feet and see nothing else of them. Thenshe saw one person’s feet that were exceptionally beautiful andsaid:‘1 choose that one; there can be little that is ugly about Baldr.’
But it was Niord of Noatun.
It was also in her terms of settlement that the Æsir were to dosomething that she thought they would not be able to, that was tomake her laugh. Then Loki did as follows: he tied a cord round thebeard of a certain nanny-goat and the other end round his
testicles, and they drew each other back and forth and bothsquealed loudly. Then Loki let himself drop into Skadi’s lap, andshe laughed. Then the atonement with her on the part of the Æsirwas complete.
It is said that Odin, as compensation for her, did this: he tookThiassi’s eyes and threw them up into the sky and out of themmade two stars.
Then spoke Ægir: ‘Thiassi seems to me to have been very
powerful, what was his origin?’
Bragi replied: ‘His father was called Olvaldi, and you will findwhat I have to say about him remarkable. He was very rich ingold, and when he died and his sons had to divide their inheri­tance, they measured out the gold when they divided it by each inturn taking a mouthful, all of them the same number. One of them
was Thiassi, the second Idi, the third Gang. And we now have thisexpression among us, to call gold the mouth-tale of these giants,
and we conceal it in secret language or in poetry by calling it
speech or words or talk of these giants.’
Then spoke Ægir: ‘This seems to me a very good way to conceal
it in secret language.’ And Ægir went on: ‘How did this craft thatyou call poetry originate?’
Bragi replied: ‘The origin of it was that the gods had a disputewith the people called Vanir, and they appointed a peace­
conference and made a truce by this procedure, that both sides
went up to a vat and spat their spittle into it. But when theydispersed, the gods kept this symbol of truce and decided not to let61

Skaldskaparmal[57-8]

it be wasted, and out of it made a man. His name was Kvasir, he
was so wise that no one could ask him any questions to which hedid not know the answer. He travelled widely through the world
teaching people knowledge, and when he arrived as a guest to
some dwarfs, Fialar and Galar, they called him to a private
discussion with them and killed him. They poured his blood into
two vats and a pot, and the latter was called Odrerir, but the vats
were called Son and Bodn. They mixed honey with the blood andit turned into the mead whoever drinks from which becomes apoet or scholar. The dwarfs told the Æsir that Kvasir had
suffocated in intelligence because there was no one there educatedenough to be able to ask him questions.
‘Then these dwarfs invited to stay with them a giant called
Gilling and his wife. Then the dwarfs invited Gilling to go out to
sea in a boat with them. But as they went along the coast the
dwarfs rowed on to a shoal and the boat capsized. Gilling could
not swim and was drowned, but the dwarfs righted their boat androwed to land. They told his wife what had happened and she wasgreatly distressed and wept loudly. Then Fialar asked her if itwould be some consolation for her if she looked out to the sea
where he had drowned, and she agreed. Then he told his brother
Galar that he was to go up above the doorway she was going outof and drop a millstone on her head, and declared he was weary of
her howling; and Galar did so. When Gilling’s son Suttung foundout about this, he went there and seized the dwarfs and took themout to sea and put them on a skerry below high-water level. They
begged Suttung for quarter and offered him as atonement incompensation for his father the precious mead, and they werereconciled on these terms. Suttung took the mead home with him
and put it for safe keeping in a place called Hnitbiorg, setting his
daughter Gunnlod in charge of it. That is why we call poetry
Kvasir’s blood or dwarfs’ drink or the contents or some term for
liquid of Odrerir or Bodn or Son, or dwarfs’ transportation,
because this mead brought them deliverance from the skerry, orSuttung’s mead or the liquid of Hnitbiorg.’
Then spoke Ægir: ‘I think it is an obscure way to talk to callpoetry by these names, but how did the Æsir get hold of Suttung’s
mead?’
Bragi replied: ‘There is this story about it, that Odin set out
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Skaldskaparmal

Í5»]from home and came to where nine slaves were mowing hay. He
asked if they would like him to hone their scythes. They said yes.
Then he took a whetstone from his belt and honed, and they
thought the scythes were cutting very much better and asked ifthey could buy the whetstone. The price he set on it was that he
who wished to buy must give what was reasonable for it, and they
all said they wanted to and bade him sell it to them, but he threw
the whetstone up in the air, and when all tried to catch it they dealt
with each other in such a way that they all cut each other’s throatswith the scythes. Odin sought lodging for the night with a giant
called Baugi, Suttung’s brother. Baugi reckoned his economic
affairs were going badly, and said his nine slaves had killed eachother, and declared he did not know where he was going to getworkmen from. Odin told him his name was Bolverk; he offered
to take over the work of nine men for Baugi, and stipulated as his
payment one drink of Suttung’s mead. Baugi said he had no say inthe disposal of the mead, said that Suttung wanted to have it all tohimself, but he said he would go with Bolverk and try whether
they could get the mead. Bolverk did the work of nine men for
Baugi during the summer, and when winter came he asked Baugi
for his hire. Then they both set off. Baugi told his brother Suttung of
his agreement with Bolverk, but Suttung flatly refused a single dropof the mead. Then Bolverk told Baugi that they would have to try
some stratagems to see if they could get hold of the mead, and Baugi
said that was a good idea. Then Bolverk got out an auger called
Rati and instructed Baugi to bore a hole in the mountain, if theauger would cut. He did so. Then Baugi said that the mountain
was bored through, but Bolverk blew into the auger-hole and thebits flew back up at him. Then he realized that Baugi was trying tocheat him, and told him to bore through the mountain. Baugi
bored again. And when Bolverk blew a second time, the bits flew
inwards. Then Bolverk turned himself into the form of a snakeand crawled into the auger-hole, and Baugi stabbed after him withthe auger and missed him. Bolverk went to where Gunnlod was
and lay with her for three nights and then she let him drink threedraughts of the mead. In the first draught he drank everything out
of Odrerir, and in the second out of Bodn, in the third out of Son,and then he had all the mead. Then he turned himself into theform of an eagle and flew as hard as he could. And when Suttung
63

Skaldskaparmal[58, i, Epilogue]

saw the eagle’s flight he got his own eagle shape and flew after
him. And when the Æsir saw Odin flying they put their containers
out in the courtyard, and when Odin came in over Asgard he spatout the mead into the containers, but it was such a close thing for
him that Suttung might have caught him that he sent some of themead out backwards, and this was disregarded. Anyone took itthat wanted it, and it is what we call the rhymester’s share. But
Odin gave Suttung’s mead to the Æsir and to those people whoare skilled at composing poetry. Thus we call poetry Odin’s bootyand find, and his drink and his gift and the Æsir’s drink.’
Then spoke Ægir: ‘In how many ways do you vary the vocabu­
lary of poetry, and how many categories are there in poetry?’
Then spoke Bragi: ‘There are two categories into which all
poetry is divided.’Ægir asked: ‘Which two?’
Bragi said: ‘Language and verse-forms.’‘What choice of language is used in poetry?’‘There are three categories in the language of poetry.’‘What are they?’‘To call everything by its name; the second category is the one
called substitution; and the third category of language is what iscalled kenning [description], and this category is constructed inthis way, that we speak of Odin or Thor or Tyr or one of the Æsiror elves, in such a way that with each of those that I mention, I add
a term for the attribute of another As or make mention of one orother of his deeds. Then the latter becomes the one referred to,and not the one that was named; for instance when we speak ofVictory-Tyr or Hanged-Tyr or Cargo-Tyr, these are expressions
for Odin, and these we call periphrastic terms; similarly if one
speaks of Chariot-Tyr [i.e. Thor].’But these things have now to be told to young poets who desire
to learn the language of poetry and to furnish themselves with awide vocabulary using traditional terms; or else they desire to beable to understand what is expressed obscurely. Then let such a
one take this book as scholarly inquiry and entertainment. But
these stories are not to be consigned to oblivion or demonstrated
to be false, so as to deprive poetry of ancient kennings which
major poets have been happy to use. Yet Christian people mustnot believe in heathen gods, nor in the truth of this account in any
64

Skaldskaparmal[Epilogue]

other way than that in which it is presented at the beginning of thisbook, where it is told what happened when mankind went astrayfrom the true faith, and after that about the Turks, how the peopleof Asia, known as Æsir, distorted the accounts of the events thattook place in Troy so that the people of the country would believethat they were gods.
King Priam in Troy was a great ruler over all the host of Turks,
and his sons were the highest in rank in his whole host. Thatmagnificent hall that the Æsir called Brimir’s hall or beer-hall,
was King Priam’s hall. And whereas they give a long account ofRagnarok, this is the Trojan war. The story goes that Oku-Thor
used an ox-head as bait and pulled the Midgard serpent up to thegunwale, but the serpent survived by sinking into the sea. This
story is based on the one about how Hector killed the splendid
hero Volucrontes while the great Achilles was looking on, andthus lured Achilles towards him with the head of the slain man
whom they saw as corresponding to the ox from which Thor hadtaken the head. And when Achilles had been drawn into thisdangerous situation by his impetuosity, then the only way for him
to save his life was to run away from Hector’s deadly stroke,
wounded though he was. It is also said that Hector pressed his
attack so violently, and that his valour was raised to such a pitchwhen he saw Achilles that there was nothing strong enough tostand before him. And when he missed Achilles and he had fled, heslaked his wrath by killing a hero called Roddrus. In the same way
the Æsir said thát when Oku-Thor missed the serpent, he killed
giant Hymir; and at Ragnarok the Midgard serpent came withfrightening suddenness against Thor and blew poison on him andstruck him his death-blow, but the Æsir did not like to admit that
Oku-Thor had died as a result of one person overthrowing him indeath even though such had been the case, and they exaggerated
the story beyond what was true, when they said that the Midgard
serpent suffered death there. But they adduced this, that though
Achilles gained victory over Hector, yet he was to lie dead on thesame field as a result. This was achieved by Helenus and Alexan­der. This Helenus was called Ali by the Æsir. They say that heavenged his brother and survived when all the gods were dead andthe fire, with which Asgard and all the possessions of the gods
were burned, was extinguished. As for Pyrrhus, they saw him as
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Skaldskaparmal[Epilogue, 2]

corresponding to Fenriswolf; it killed Odin, and Pyrrhus could besaid to be a wolf according to their religion, for he paid no respect
to places of sanctuary when he killed the king in the temple infront of Thor’s altar. What they call Suit’s fire was when Troyburned. And Oku-Thor’s sons, Modi and Magni, came to claim
lands from Ali or Vidar. The latter is Aeneas, he escaped from
Troy and later achieved great deeds. Similarly it is also said that
Hector’s sons arrived in the land of Phrygia and establishedthemselves in that kingdom, driving Helenus out.
We shall present further examples of how major poets havefound it fitting to compose using these kinds of terms andkennings, as for instance Amor, the earls’ poet, who gives Odin
the name All-father:

Now plan I to tell men — long takes my pain to ease — thevirtues of the hostile earl — All-father’s malt-surf [the meadof poetry] pounds [resounds].

Here he also calls his poetry All-father’s malt-surf. Havard thehalt said this:Now for sea-steeds’ [ships’] trunks [warriors] there is eagles’
flight over land in store [i.e. the birds of prey are gathering, abattle is taking place]. I guess they are getting Hanged-god’s[Odin’s] hospitality [in Val-hall] and rings [plunder].

Viga-Glum said this:The host with Hanged-Tyr’s [Odin’s] hoods [helmets] heldback — they thought it not pleasant to venture - from going
down the slopes.

Ref said this:Often the kind man brought me to the raven-god’s [Odin’s]
holy drink [instructed me in poetry]. Baldr [this man] of the
prow-land’s [sea’s] flashes [gold] is departed from the poet[i.e. dead].
Eyvind Skaldaspillir said this:66

Skaldskapannal[1]

And Sigurd, he who gave raven-beer [blood] from theflower of the Haddings to Cargo-Tyr’s [Odin’s] swans[ravens], him land-rulers deprived of life at Oglo.
Glum Geirason said this:It was Victory-Tyr [Odin] himself there in the attacking elf[viking] of Atal’s beasts [ships]. There were gods guidingthat wind-beam [ship] Beimi [viking].

Eyvind also said this:Gauta-Tyr [Odin] sent Gondul and Skogul to choose
among kings which of Yngvi’s line should go with Odin andbe in Val-hall.

Ulf Uggason said this:Far-famed Hropta-Tyr [Odin] rides to the mighty broad
pyre of his son, and from my jaws flow words of praise.

Thiodolf of Hvinir said this:The fallen lay there on the sand, destined for the one-eyeddweller in Frigg’s embrace [ie. for her husband Odin in
Val-hall]. We rejoice in such achievement.

Hallfrod said this:The keen wind-steed-[ship-]taker [sea-farer, Earl Hakon]lures under himself [wins] with the true language of swords[battle] the pine-haired deserted wife of Third [Odin; hisdeserted wife is lord, earth, i.e. the land of Norway].

Here there is an example of land being called Odin’s wife inpoetry. And we have here what Eyvind said:‘Hermod and Bragi,’ said Hropta-Tyr [Odin], ‘go to meetthe prince, for a king is coming who is to be considered ahero, here to this hall.’Kormak said this:67

Skaldskaparmal[2]

The land-getter, who binds the mast-top straight, honours
the provider of the deities’ fiord [the mead of poetry, whose
provider is the poet] with a head-band. Ygg [Odin] won
Rind by spells.
Steinthor said this:I am mightily proud of my ancient horn-cascade [mead of
poetry] of the meanness-avoiding cargo of Gunnlod’s
embrace [Odin], though it be meagre.
Ulf Uggason said this:

There I perceive valkyries and ravens accompanying thewise victory-tree [Odin] to the drink of the holy offering[Baldr’s funeral feast]. Within have appeared these motifs.

Egil Skallagrimsson said this:

I do not worship Vilir’s brother [Odin], god of earth,because I am eager; yet has Mim’s friend [Odin] granted mea grief-comforter which I count better — gave me, too,wolf’s enemy [Odin] battle-accustomed, skill without blem­
ish.

Here he is called god of earth and Mim’s friend and wolf’s enemy.
Ref said this:To you we owe Fal’s cup [the mead of poetry], noble
Slaughter-Gaut [Odin], practised controller of wave­
horse’s [ship’s] snow-road’s [sea’s] hall [sky],

Einar Skalaglamm said this:I shall succeed in bailing the draught of Host-Tyr’s[Odins] wine-vessel [the mead of poetry] before the ship­
impellers [seamen] — I need no urging to that.

As Ulf Uggason said:

Splendid Heimdall rides to the pyre raised by gods for thefallen son [Baldr] of the strangely wise raven-tester [Odin],on his horse.
68

Skaldskaparmal[z]

In Eiriksmal it says this:What sort of dream is that, Odin? I dreamed I rose up before
dawn to clear up Val-hali for slain people. I aroused the
Einheriar, hade them get up to strew the benches, clean thebeer-cups, the valkyries to serve wine for the arrival of aprince.

Kormak said this:
I who am young bid the excellent power-wielder of Yngvi’s
folk hold over me his quivering bow-land [hand]. Hropt[Odin] took Gungnir.
Thorolf said this:Hlidskialf’s king [Odin], shy of [reluctant to use] shield,
told the man himself his thoughts where Harek’s troops
were cut down.
Eyvind said this:... <the mead of poetry> which the speedy one [Odin]
flying bore from Suit’s deep vales.

Bragi said this:
It is conveyed to me that the son [Thor] of the father ofmankind [Odin] was determined soon to test his strength
against the water-soaked earth-band [Midgard serpent].

Einar said this:For most highly-gifted rulers achieve less in most matterswith Bestla’s son [Odin] than you. I have attempted poetry
about battle.
Thorvald Blonduskald said this:Now have I snatched much of the mead [made a lot of
poetry] of Buri’s heir Bor’s son [Odin].
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Skaldskaparmalbl

Now examples will be given of how the poets have referred topoetry using such terms as were noted above, as when it is called
Kvasir’s blood and dwarfs’ ship, dwarfs’ mead, giants’ mead,
Suttungi’s mead, Odin’s mead, Æsir’s mead, recompense for
giants’ father, liquid of Odrerir and Bodn and Son and theircontents, liquid of Hnitbiorg, Odin’s booty and find and cargo
and gift. Thus in this following verse composed by Einar Skalaglamm:Land’s magnanimous guardian I bid hear — hear, earl,Kvasir’s blood — fiord-bone’s [stone’s] men’s [dwarfs’]
yeast-surf [mead].
And as Einar Skalaglamm also said:

There flows over all Uli’s ash-ship’s crew [shield-warriors]
who follow him who excites the activity of strife’s defence­trouble [battle] the dwarfs’ mountain-kept liquid.
As Orm Steinthorsson said:... that the beer-plank’s [woman’s] body and mine to one
room be brought when dead; let men receive Dvalin’s drink[the mead of poetry].

And as Ref said:

I offer Thorstein feast [the mead] of rock-men’s [giants’]thought-land [breast]; fell-Maerir’s [giants’] wave [themead] crashes [poetry resounds], I bid mankind listen.
As Egil said:

The prince offered me hospitality; praise is for me a duty. I
bore Odin’s mead to the land of the English.
And as Glum Geirason said:

Listen! I begin the feast [the mead, a poem] of the gods’ ruler[Odin] for princes. We crave silence, for we have heard of
the loss of men.
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Skaldskaparmal[51

And as Eyvind said:
I desire silence for Har’s ale [Odin’s mead, poetry] while I
raise Gilling’s payment [the mead], while his descent in
pot-liquid [the mead, poetry] of gallows-cargo [Odin] wetrace to gods.
As Einar Skalaglamm said:

Wave of time’s sea rushes before the prince. Rognir’s[Odin’s] deeds [poetry] benefit me. Swell of Odrerir pounds
against song’s skerry [my teeth].
And as he also said:

Now it is that Bodn’s wave [poetry] starts to swell. In thehall let the king’s men make silence and hear rock Saxons’[dwarfs’] ship.
And as Eilif Gudrunarson said:
You must decide about kindly gifts, since about High kin [=Hakon] Son’s seed [the mead of poetry] grows on ourword-meadow [tongue].

As Volu-Stein said:

Hear, Egil, my streams [the mead] of Mim’s friend’s[Odin’s] joy-hill [breast] echo against gum-skerries [teeth].
Thund’s [Odin’s] find is granted me.

Orm Steinthorsson said this:No need for men to nurse fear about my poetry. In Vidur’s[Odin’s] booty I use no spite. We know how to orderpraise-works.

Ulf Uggason said this:I bring heart-glad Olaf Hild’s noise-maker’s [Odin’s] mindfiord-[breast-]liquid [mead]. Him will I greet with Grimnir’s [Odin’s] gift.
71Skaldskaparmal[3-4]

Poetry is called sea or liquid of the dwarfs, because the liquid in
Odrerir was Kvasir’s blood before the mead was made, and it wasmade in that cauldron, and hence it is called Odin’s pot-liquid, as
in the poem of Eyvind quoted above:... while his descent in pot-liquid of gallows-cargo we trace
to gods.
Poetry is also called the dwarfs’ vessel or lid. Lid is a word for ale
and lid is a word for ships. This is the origin of the expression
whereby poetry is now as a result called dwarfs’ ship, as it says
here:
I have ready both swollen wind of rock-earl’s [giant’s] bride[troll-wife’s wind is ‘thought’] and unforgettable dwarfs’ship to send the same way.
How shall Thor be referred to? By calling him son of Odin andlord, father of Magni and Modi and Thrud, husband of Sif,
stepfather of Uli, ruler and owner of Miollnir and the girdle ofmight, of Bilskirnir, defender of Asgard, Midgard, enemy andslayer of giants and troll-wives, killer of Hrungnir, Geirrod,
Thrivaldi, lord of Thialfi and Roskva, enemy of the Midgard
serpent, foster-son of Vingnir and Hlora. The poet Bragi said
this:Vidrir’s [Odin’s] heir’s [Thor’s] line lay by no means slackon Eynæfir’s ski [boat] when Iormungand uncoiled on thesand.
Olvir Hnufa said this:The encirder of all lands [Midgard serpent] and lord’s son
became violent.
Eilif said this:

Roskva’s brother [Thialfi] stood enraged, Magni’s father
struck a victorious blow. Neither Thor nor Thialfi’s power­stone [heart] shakes with terror.
And as Eystein Valdason said:
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Skaldskaparmal(41

Thrud’s father looked with piercing eyes on steep-way’s[land’s] ring [Midgard serpent] until red-fish’s dwelling[sea] surged over the boat.
Eystein also said:

Sif’s beloved quickly brought out his fishing gear with theold fellow. We can stir Hrimnir’s [giant’s] horn-flow[mead].
And he also said:

The coal-fish of the earth [Midgard serpent] responded
thus, that Uli’s relative’s [Thor’s] fists banged out on the
gunwale; broad planks pushed forward.
Bragi said this:Oflugbardi’s terrifier [Thor] lifted his hammer in his righthand when he recognized the coal-fish that bounds all lands[the Midgard serpent].

Gamli said this:While Bilskirnir’s lord, who never nursed treachery in hisheart, did quickly destroy the sea-bed-fish [Midgard ser­pent] with gorge-whale’s [giant’s] bane [Miollnir].
Thorbiorn Disarskald said this:Thor has with Ygg’s [Odin’s] angels [the Æsir] defended
Asgard with might.

Bragi said this:And the ugly ring [serpent] of the side-oared ship’s road[sea] stared up spitefully at Hrungnir’s skull-splitter.

Bragi also said:

Well have you, cleaver apart of Thrivaldi’s nine heads, heldback your steeds with notorious giant-feast drinker [Thrym= thunder].

73Skaldskaparmal[4-51

Eilif said this:The oppressor [Thor] of the kinfolk [trolls] of evening­
faring women [troll-wives] yawned with his arm’s mouth[fist] over the heavy red lump of tong-weed [iron].

Bragi said this:The stockily built stumpy one [Hymir] is said to havethought tremendous danger in the goat-possessor’s [Thor’s]
enormous heavy haul.

Ulf said this:The most mighty fell-Gaut’s [giant’s] feller made his fistcrash on the reed-bed-bone [rock] frequenter’s [giant’s] ear.
A mighty hurt was that.

Ulf also said:

Vidgymnir of Vimur’s ford struck the ear-bed [head] fromthe shining snake by the waves. Within have appeared thesemotifs.
Here he is called giant of Vimur’s ford. Vimur is the name of ariver that Thor waded when he was on his way to Geirrod’s
courts. And Vetrlidi said this:You broke Leikn’s bones, you pounded Thrivaldi, you castdown Starkad, you stood over the dead Gialp.

And Thorbiorn Disarskald said this:
There was a clang on Keila’s crown, you broke Kiallandi
completely, before that you slew Lut and Leidi, you madeBuseyra bleed, you halted Hengiankiapta, Hyrrokkin diedpreviously, yet was the dusky Svivor’s life taken earlier.

How shall Baldr be referred to? By calling him son of Odin andFrigg, husband of Nanna, father of Forseti, owner of Hringhorni
and Draupnir, enemy of Hod, Hel’s companion, god of lamen­tations. Ulf Uggason composed a long passage in Husdrapa based74Skaldskaparmal[5-8]

on the story of Baldr, and an account of the events which were theorigin of Baldr’s being referred to in this way was written above[in Gylfaginning],
How shall Niord be referred to? By calling him god of chariots
or descendant of Vanir or a Van and father of Freyr and Freyia,
the giving god. Thord Siareksson says this:Gudrun became herself her son’s slayer; the wise god-bride[Skadi] could not love the Van; Kialar [Odin] trained horses
pretty well; Hamdir is said not to have held back sword­
play.

Here reference is made to Skadi’s leaving of Niord, which was
written about above.
How shall Freyr be referred to? By calling him son of Niord,
brother of Freyia and him also a Vanir god and descendant of
Vanir and a Van, and harvest god and wealth-giver. Egil Skallagrimsson said this:For Freyr and Niord have endowed Griotbiorn with apower of wealth.
Freyr can be called Beli’s enemy, as Eyvind Skaldaspillir said:
When the earls’ opponent wished to live on Beli’s enemy’s
outlying land.

He is possessor of Skidbladnir and of the boar known as Gullinbursti, as it says here:
Ivaldi’s sons set to work in days of yore to construct
Skidbladnir, best of ships, for bright Freyr, bounteous sonof Niord.

Ulf Uggason said this:Battle-skilled Freyr rides in front to Odin’s son’s [Baldr’s]
pyre on golden-bristled boar and governs hosts.

It is also called Slidrugtanni.
How shall Heimdall be referred to? By calling him son of nine75

Skaldskaparmal[8-16]

mothers, guardian of the gods, as was written above, or the white
As, Loki’s enemy, recoverer of Freyia’s necklace. A sword is called
Heimdall’s head; it is said he was struck through with a man’shead. He is the subject of the poem Heimdalargaldr, and eversince the head has been called Heimdall’s doom: man’s doom is anexpression for sword. Heimdall is the owner of Gulltopp. He is
also the visitor to Vagasker and Singastein; on that occasion hecontended with Loki for the Brisingamen. He is also known as
Vindhler. Ulf Uggason composed a long passage in Husdrapa
based on this story, and it is mentioned there that they were in theform of seals. Also son of Odin.
How shall Tyr be referred to? By calling him the one-handed As
and feeder of the wolf, battle-god, son of Odin.
How shall Bragi be referred to? By calling him Idunn’s husband,
inventor of poetry (brag) and the long-bearded As. It is from hisname that the expression ‘beard-tragi’ comes for someone who
has a big beard. Also son of Odin.
How shall Vidar be referred to? He may be called the silent As,
possessor of the iron shoe, enemy and slayer of Fenriswolf, thegods’ avenging As, father’s homestead-inhabiting As and son ofOdin, brother of the Æsir.
How shall Vali be referred to? By calling him son of Odin and
Rind, stepson of Frigg, brother of the Æsir, Baldr’s avenging As,
enemy of Hod and his slayer, father’s homestead-inhabiter.
How shall Hod be referred to? By calling him the blind As,
Baldr’s slayer, shooter of mistletoe, son of Odin, Hel’s com­panion, Vali’s enemy.
How shall Ull be referred to? By calling him son of Sif, stepsonof Thor, ski-As, bow-As, hunting As, shield-As.
How shall Hænir be referred to? By calling him Odin’s table­companion or comrade or confidant and the swift As and the longfoot and mud-king.
How shall Loki be referred to? By calling him son of Farbautiand Laufey, of Nal, brother of Byleist and Helblindi, father ofVanargand, i.e. Fenriswolf, and of Iormungand, i.e. the Midgard
serpent, and Hel’s and Nari’s and Ali’s relative and father,brother, comrade and table-companion of Odin and the Æsir,Geirrod’s visitor and casket-ornament, thief from giants, of goatand Brisingamen and Idunn’s apples, relative of Sleipnir, husband
76

Skaldskaparmal[16-17]of Sigyn, enemy of gods, Sif’s hair-harmer, maker of mischief, thecunning As, accuser and tricker of the gods, contriver of Baldr’s
death, the bound one, wrangler with Heimdall and Skadi. As Ulf
Uggason says here:
Renowned defender [Heimdall] of the powers’ way [Bif­rost], kind of counsel, competes with Farbauti’s terribly sly
son at Singastein. Son of eight mothers plus one, mighty ofmood, is first to get hold of the beautiful sea-kidney [jewel,
Brisingamen]. I announce it in strands of praise.

Here it is mentioned that Heimdall is son of nine mothers.
Now there shall be told more of the underlying stories fromwhich those kennings just listed have originated, and of which theorigins have not already been told, just as Bragi told Ægir how
Thor had gone to eastern parts to thrash trolls, but Odin rode
Sleipnir into Giantland and arrived at a giant’s called Hrungnir.
Then Hrungnir asked what sort of person this was with the golden
helmet riding sky and sea, and said he had a marvellously goodhorse. Odin said he would wager his head on it that there would
be no horse as good to be found in Giantland. Hrungnir said it
was a good horse, but declared he had a horse that must be much
longer-paced, it was called Gullfaxi. Hrungnir had got angry andleaped up on his horse and galloped after Odin, intending to pay
him back for his boasting. Odin galloped so hard that he kept
ahead on the next rise in the ground, and Hrungnir was in such agreat giant fury that the first thing he knew was that he had rushed
in through the As-gates. And when he got to the hall doors, Æsirinvited him in for a drink. He went into the hall and demandedthat he should be given a drink. Then the goblets that Thor
normally drank out of were brought out, and Hrungnir drained
each one. And when he became drunk there was no lack of big
words: he said he was going to remove Val-hall and take it to
Giantland, but bury Asgard and kill all the gods, except that he
was going to take Freyia and Sif home with him, and Freyia was
the only one then who dared to bring him drink, and he declared
he was going to drink all the Æsir’s ale. And when the Æsir got
tired of his boasting they invoked the name of Thor. ImmediatelyThor entered the hall with hammer raised up and in great anger
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Skaldskaparmal[17]

and asked who was responsible for cunning giants being there
drinking, and who had guaranteed Hrungnir safety while he wasin Val-hall and why Freyia should be serving him drink as if at theÆsir’s banquet. Then Hrungnir replied, looking at Thor with nofriendly eyes, and said that Odin had invited him to a drink andthat he was under his protection. Then Thor said that Hrungnir
was going to regret that invitation before he got out. Hrungnir
said it would be no honour to Asa-Thor to kill him when he wasunarmed, whereas it would be a greater proof of his valour if hedared to fight with him on the frontier at Griotunagardar.
‘And it has been a very foolish thing for me to do,’ he said, ‘toleave behind at home my shield and whetstone, but if I had myweapons here, we would hold the duel now, but as it is I declare
you will be guilty of baseness if you go and kill me when I am
unarmed.’Thor was eager not to let anything stop him from going tosingle combat when he had been challenged to a duel, for no one
had ever done that to him before. Then Hrungnir went off on his
way and galloped mightily until he got into Giantland, and hisjourney was very widely talked of among the giants, together withthe fact that an appointment had been made between him andThor. The giants felt there was a great deal at stake for them as towhich one won the victory. They would have little good to lookforward to from Thor if Hrungnir died, for he was the strongest ofthem. Then the giants made a person at Griotunagardar of clay,
and he was nine leagues high and three broad beneath the arms,
but they could not get a heart big enough to suit him until they
took one out of a certain mare, and this turned out not to be
steady in him when Thor came. Hrungnir had a heart that isrenowned, made of solid stone and spiky with three points justlike the symbol for carving called Hrungnir’s heart has ever since
been made. His head was also of stone. His shield was also stone,
broad and thick, and he held the shield before him as he stood at
Griotunagardar waiting for Thor, and he had a whetstone asweapon and rested it on his shoulder and he did not look at allpleasant. On one side of him stood the clay giant, whose namewas Mokkurkalfi, and he was quite terrified. They say he wethimself when he saw Thor. Thor went to keep his appointment forthe duel, and with him Thialfi. Then Thialfi ran on ahead to where78

Skaldskaparmal[171

Hrungnir was standing and said to him:
‘You are standing unguardedly, giant, you’ve got your shield infront of you, but Thor has seen you and he is travelling by thelower route underground, and he is going to come at you frombelow.’
Then Hrungnir shoved the shield beneath his feet and stood on
it, and held the whetstone with both hands. Next he saw lightnings
and heard great thunders. Then he saw Thor in an As-rage, he wastravelling at an enormous rate and swung his hammer and threw
it from a great distance at Hrungnir. Hrungnir raised the whet­stone with both hands, threw it in return. It met the hammer inflight, the whetstone, and the whetstone broke in two. One piecefell to the ground, and from it have come all whetstone rocks. The
other piece crashed into Thor’s head so that he fell forwards to theground, but the hammer Miollnir hit the middle of Hrungnir’shead and shattered his skull into small fragments, and he fell
forwards over Thor so that his leg lay across Thor’s neck. Thialfi
attacked Mokkurkalfi, and he fell with little glory. Then Thialfi
went up to Thor and went to remove Hrungnir’s leg from him andwas unable to manage it. Then all the Æsir came up when theyfound out that Thor had fallen, and went to remove the leg from
him and could not move it at all. Then Magni, son of Thor andIarnsaxa, arrived. He was then three years old. He threw Hrung­nir’s leg off Thor and said:‘Isn’t it a terrible shame, father, that I arrived so late. I think I
would have knocked this giant into Hel with my fist if I had comeacross him.’
Then Thor stood up and welcomed his son warmly and said hewould grow up to be a powerful person.
‘And I have decided,’ he said, ‘to give you the horse Gullfaxi,
which used to be Hrungnir’s.’
Then spoke Odin and said it was wrong of Thor to give that finehorse to the son of a giantess and not to his own father.
Thor returned home to Thrudvangar and the whetstone re­mained in his head. Then there arrived a sorceress called Groa,
wife of Aurvandil the Bold. She chanted her spells over Thor until
the whetstone began to come loose. When Thor felt this and it
seemed likely that the whetstone was going to be got out, hewanted to repay Groa for her treatment and give her pleasure. He
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Skaldskaparmal[17I

told her these tidings that he had waded south across Elivagar
carrying Aurvandil in a basket on his back south from Giantland,
and there was this proof, that one of his toes had been sticking outof the basket and had got frozen, so Thor broke it off and threw it
up in the sky and made out of it the star called Aurvandil’s toe.
Thor said it would not be long before Aurvandil was home, andGroa was so pleased that she could remember none of her spells,
and the whetstone got no looser and is still stuck in Thor’s head.
And this is something that is taboo, throwing whetstones across aroom, for then the whetstone in Thor’s head stirs. Thiodolf ofHvinir has composed a passage based on this story in Haustlong.
It says there:

Also can be seen on the circle [of the shield], O cave-fire[gold-]tree [man], how the terror of giants [Thor] made avisit to the mound of Griotun. The son of lord drove to thegame of iron [battle] and the moon’s way [sky] thunderedbeneath him. Wrath swelled in Meili’s brother [Thor].
All the hawks’ sanctuaries [skies] found themselves burning
because of Uli’s stepfather, and the ground all low wasbattered with hail, when the goats drew the temple-power[Thor] of the easy-chariot forward to the encounter with
Hrungnir. Svolnir’s widow [lord, earth] practically split
apart.

Baldr’s brother [Thor] did not spare there the greedy enemy
of men [Hrungnir], Mountains shook and rocks smashed;heaven above burned. I have heard that the watcher[Hrungnir] of the dark bone [rock] of the land [sea] ofHaki’s carriages [ships] moved violently in opposition when
he saw his warlike slayer.
Swiftly flew the pale ring-ice [shield] beneath the soles of therock-guarder [giant]. The bonds [gods] caused this, theladies of the fray [valkyries] wished it. The rock-gentleman[giant] did not have to wait long after that for a swift blow
from the tough multitude-smashing friend [Thor] ofhammer-face-troll [Miollnir].

The life-spoiler of Beli’s bale-troops [giants] made the bear
[giant] of the noisy storms’ secret refuge [mountain fastnes­ses] fall on the shield-islet. There sank down the gully-land
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[mountain] prince [giant] before the tough hammer and therock-Dane-breaker [Thor] forced back the mighty defiantone.

And the hard fragment of the whetstone of the visitor[giant] of the woman of Vingnir’s people [the race of giants]
whizzed at ground’s [earth, lord’s] son into his brain-ridge,
so that the steel-pumice [whetstone] still stuck in Odin’s
boy’s skull, stood there spattered with Eindridi’s [Thor’s]
blood.

Until ale-Gefiun [Groa] began to enchant the red boaster ofbeing rust’s bale [whetstone] from the inclined slopes of thewound-giving god’s hair. Clearly I see these deeds on
Geitir’s fence [the shield], I received the border’s moving
cliff [shield] decorated with horrors from Thorleif.
Then Ægir said: ‘Hrungnir seems to me to have been very
mighty. Did Thor achieve any greater exploit in his dealings withtrolls?’Then Bragi replied: ‘The story of how Thor went to Geirrod’s
courts is worth detailed treatment. On that occasion he did nothave the hammer Miollnir or the girdle of might or the irongauntlets, and that was Loki’s doing. He went with him, for it had
befallen Loki, having gone flying once for fun with Frigg’s falcon
form, that out of curiosity he had flown into Geirrod’s courts andsaw there a great hall, and he alighted and looked in through thewindow. But Geirrod looked out at him and ordered that the bird
should be caught and brought to him. The person sent got withdifficulty up on to the wall of the hall, it was so high; Loki waspleased that it caused him trouble to get at him, and planned todelay flying up until the man had performed the whole of the
difficult climb. But when the fellow came at him, he beat his wings
and jumped hard upwards, and found his feet were stuck. Loki
was captured there and brought to giant Geirrod. And when hesaw his eyes, he had a feeling it must be a person and demandedthat he answer him, but Loki remained silent. Then Geirrod
locked Loki in a chest and starved him there for three months.
And when Geirrod took him out and demanded that he speak,
Loki said who he was, and to redeem his life he swore Geirrod
oaths that he would get Thor to come to Geirrod’s courts without81Skaldskaparmal[18]

his bringing either his hammer or girdle of might. Thor lodged forthe night with a giantess called Grid. She was Vidar the silent’s
mother. She told Thor the truth about Geirrod, that he was acunning giant and awkward to deal with. She lent him a girdle ofmight and some iron gauntlets of hers, and her staff, called Grid’s
pole. Then Thor approached the river called Vimur, greatest of allrivers. Then he buckled on the girdle of might and pressed down
on Grid’s pole on the side away from the current, while Loki held
on beneath the girdle of might. And when Thor got to the middleof the river, the river rose so much that it washed up over hisshoulders. Then Thor spoke this:“Rise not thou now, Vimur, since I desire to wade thee into
the giants’ courts. Know thou that if thou risest then willrise the As-strength in me up as high as heaven.”‘Then Thor saw up in a certain cleft that Geirrod’s daughter
Gialp was standing astride the river and she was causing it to rise.
Then Thor took up out of the river a great stone and threw it at her
and said:‘ “At its outlet must a river be stemmed.”‘He did not miss what he was aiming at, and at that moment hefound himself close to the bank and managed to grasp a sort ofrowan-bush and thus climbed out of the river. Hence comes thesaying that Thor’s salvation is a rowan. And when Thor got toGeirrod’s, he and his companion were first of all shown into agoat-shed as their lodging, and inside there was a single seat to sit
on and it was Thor who sat on it. Then he realized that the seat
was lifting under him up towards the roof. He pushed Grid’s pole
up into the rafters and pressed himself hard down on the seat.
Then there was a great crack accompanied by a great scream.
Under the seat it had been Geirrod’s daughters Gialp and Greipand he had broken both their backs. Then Geirrod had Thor
called into the hall for games. There were great fires there along
the length of the hall. And when Thor came into the hall opposite
Geirrod, Geirrod picked up with tongs a glowing lump of molten
iron and threw it at Thor, and with the iron gauntlets Thor caught
and raised the molten lump into the air, while Geirrod ran to theshelter of an iron pillar for protection. Thor flung the molten
82

Skaldskaparmal[i8]lump and it crashed through the pillar and through Geirrod andthrough the wall and so into the ground outside.’
Eilif Gudrunarson has composed a passage based on this story
in Thorsdrapa:
The sea-thread’s [Midgard serpent’s] father [Loki] set out tourge the feller [Thor] of flight-ledge-gods’ [giants’] life-net
from home. Lopt was proficient at lying. The not very
trustworthy trier [Loki] of the mind of war-thunder-Gaut[Thor] said that green paths led to Geirrod’s wall-steed[house].
The mind-tough Thor let vulture-way [air = lopt-, Lopt is aname for Loki] urge him only a little time to go — they were
eager to crush Thorn’s kin [giants] — when Idi’s yard­
visitor [Thor], mightier than White Sea Scots [giants], set
out once from Third’s [Odin’s, Asgard] to the seat of Ymsi’s
kind [Giantland].
Full of perjury, the cargo [Loki] of incantation-fetter’s[Sigyn’s] arms was on his way sooner with the company’s
leader than the battle-Rognir [Thialfi]. I recite Grimnir’s[Odin’s] lip-streams [mead of poetry]. The entrapper [Thor]of the shrill-crier-[eagle-]hall [mountain] Endil’s [giant’s]
girls [troll-wives] made his sole-palms [feet] span the heath[walked].

And the ones accustomed to the course [battle] of thebattle-wolf [sword] travelled; the heaven-targe-[sun-]dwelling’s [sky’s] blood [water] of the women [Gialp andGreip] of Frid’s first defiler [giant] was reached [i.e. the river
Vimur], when Loki’s bale-averter [Thor], guilty of hasti­
ness, wished, deed-unsparing, to open hostilities with thebride [Gialp] of rush-Grimnir’s [giant’s] kinsmen.
And the honour-lessener [Thor] of the wake-hilt-[rock-]
Nanna [troll-wife] caused the swollen rivers, rolling withhail over the lynx’s sea [mountains], to be foot-crossed. The
violent scree-villain-[giant-] scatterer very much disturbed
the broad staked-track-way [river] where mighty rivers
spewed poison.

There they pushed shooting-snakes [spears] in the fish-trap
83

Skaldskaparmal[18]

forest [river] against the talkative [noisy] fish-trap-forest
wind [current]. The slippery wheel-knobs [stones] did not lie
asleep. The clanging-file [ferrule] did bang on stones, andthe mountains’ falling-noise [river] rushed along, beaten bystorm, with Fedia’s anvil [rock].
The stone-land’s [sword’s] impeller [warrior, Thor], posses­
sor of thé strength-girdle, let the mightily-grown waters fall
over him. One could have found no better course foroneself. The diminisher of Morn’s children [giants] said his
might would grow as high as the world’s roof unless theviolent Thorn’s [Ymir’s] neck blood [water] diminished.
The fine oath-bound Gaut’s [Odin’s] residence [Asgard]
vikings [Æsir], battle-wise, waded hard while the sward­
flowing fen [river] flowed. The earth-drift-[mountain-]wave [river] raged mightily, blown by stormy weather, at
the ridge-land [mountain] room-[cave-]dwellers ’ [giants’]trouble-worsener [Thor].

Until Thialfi came flying on the shield-strap with the helperof men [Thor]; this was a mighty achievement for theheaven-king. Mischief-Mimir’s [giant’s] widows [Gialp andGreip] made the harsh current violent against the pole. The
feller of the dolphins of the steeps [giants] advanced withviolent temper with Grid’s pole.
Their hostility-acorns [hearts] did not fail these people,
firmly opposed to evil, at the wolf-home-league’s [moun­tain’s] deep-fall [river-gorge]. Atli [Thor] gained more
battle-bold, relentless purpose. Neither Thor’s nor Thialfi’svalour-stone [heart] shook with fear.
And then the allied sword’s help haters waged shield’s
hard-fetter-[strap-]board ’s [shield’s] din [battle] against
slope-Hords [giants], before the pool-riders [river-crossers,
Thor and Thialfi], destroyers of the strand-people [giants],
performed Hedin’s parting-bowl-[helmet-]game [battle]
with the cave’s kindred-Briton [Geirrod].

The hostile troop [giants] of Sweden of frost [Scythia]
scattered before the ness-court [giants] shatterer. The slab­
court [giants] took to flight in terror when the kin of Iolnir’s[Odin’s] blaze-wielder [sword-wielder, warrior] stood firm;
84

Skaldskaparmal

18]

the Danes [giants] of the distant flood-rib [rock] sanctuary[Giantland] had to bow before them.
Where the chieftains, filled with valorous purpose, went
forward into the Thorn-[giant-]building, there was uproar
among the Cumbrians [giants] of the cave’s circular wall.
The heaper of peak-Lister [mountain] reindeer [giants] wasbrought into dire straits on the hat of the wife of giants[Gialp’s head]. That was a black disturbance of the peace.

And they pressed their eye-lash-moon-flame-[eye-]sky[skull] against the roof-battens of the stone-plain’s [moun­tain’s] hall [cave]. The females were trodden down by longswords. The driver [Thor] of the hull of the storm’s hover­chariot broke each of the cave-women’s age-old laughtership-[breast-]keels [backbones].

lord’s son began to display unusual knowledge [skill], andthe men [giants] of the fiord-apple-[rock-]moor-lair [moun­tain cave] did not suppress their ale-joy. The bow-stringtroubler [warrior, Geirrod], relative of Sudri, struck with
forge-heated tongs-morsel [glowing lump of iron] at themouth of Odin’s sorrow-stealer [helper, Thor].
So that the speedy-hastener of battle'[Thor], the old friendof Throng [Freyia], swallowed in the quick bite of his hands
the raised drink of molten metal in the air, when the
sparkling cinder flew furiously from the grip’s breast [palm]of the passionate desirer [Geirrod] of Hrimnir’s lady to­wards the one who longs for Thrud in his heart [Thor].
Thrasir’s hall [giant’s cave] shook when Heidrek’s [giant’s]
broad head was brought under the old wall-leg [pillar] of
the platform-bear [house]. Uli’s splendid stepfather struck
the hurting-pin [piece of iron] hard down in the middle ofthe belt of the fishing-line-way-[sea-]tooth [rock] villain[giant].

Extremely angry, he destroyed with bloody hammer
Glaum’s descendants [giants]. The beater [Thor] of thefrequenter [giant] of hearth-stone-Syn’s [giantess’s] dwell­ing gained victory. No lack of support befell the doublewood-stave [bow-tree, warrior], the god of the wagon,
who inflicted grief on the giant’s bench-fellows.
85

Skaldskaparmal[18—22]

Worshipped by multitudes, he who overcomes the calves[giants] of the secret cave of elf-world’s shine [in the dark­
ness of mountains] wielded the forest’s handy fragment[Grid’s pole] mightily. Nor could the Rugiaris of falcon-lairLister [mountain-giants] stand up to the trusty stone-Ella[giant-Jpeople’s life-curtailer.
How shall Frigg be referred to? By calling her daughter ofFiorgyn, wife of Odin, mother of Baldr, rival of lord and Rind andGunnlod and Gerd, mother-in-law of Nanna, queen of Æsir andAsyniur, of Fulla and falcon form and Fensalir.
How shall Freyia be referred to? By calling her daughter ofNiord, sister of Freyr, wife of Od, mother of Hnoss, possessor of
the fallen slain and of Sessrumnir and tom-cats, of Brisingamen,
Van-deity, Van-lady, fair-tear deity. All Asyniur can be referred toby naming the name of another one and referring to them by theirpossession or deeds or descent.
How shall Sif be referred to? By calling her wife of Thor,
mother of Uli, the fair-haired deity, rival of Iarnsaxa, mother of
Thrud.
How shall Idunn be referred to? By calling her wife of Bragi andkeeper of the apples, and the apples the Æsir’s old-age cure. She isalso giant Thiassi’s booty in accordance with the story told above
about his abducting her from the Æsir. Thiodolf of Hvinir
composed a passage based on that story in Haustlong:

How can I provide a repayment for the war-wall-bridge[shield]? <1 received a well-decorated.. .> voice-cliff[shield] from Thorleif. I can see the uncertain situation of
three god-bold dieties and Thiassi on the brightly-finishedside of the battle-sheet [shield].

The lady-wolf [Thiassi] flew noisily to meet the comman­ders of the crew [the Æsir] no short time ago in an old
old-one’s [eagle’s] form. Long ago the eagle alighted wherethe Æsir put their meat in an earth-oven. The rock-Gefn[giantess-]refuge-[cave-]god [giant] was not found guilty of
cowardice.
Middlingly free of deceit, he was a slow provider of service
to the gods. The helmet-capped educator [Odin] of the86Skaldskaparmal

2.Z]

fetters [gods] declared there was something behind it. The
much-wise corpse-heap-wave-[blood-]gull [eagle] began to
speak from an ancient fir. Haenir’s friend [Loki] was notwell disposed to him.
The mountain-wolf [giant] asked step-Meili [Haenir] toshare out to him his fill from the holy table. The raven-god’s[Odin’s] friend [Loki] had to blow [the fire]. The battle-bold
Rognir [Odin, i.e. chief] of land-whales [giants] let himself
drop down where the guileless defenders of gods weresitting.
The gracious lord of earth [Odin] bade Farbauti’s son[Loki] quickly share the bow-string-Var’s [Skadi’s] whale[ox] among the fellows. But the cunning unyielding oppo­
nent of Æsir thereupon snatched up from the broad table
four ox-parts.

And Morn’s hungry father [the giant] was then eating
horribly the yoke-bear [ox] at the roots of an oak — thatwas long ago — until the deep-minded war-booty­
withholding god struck the most terrible enemy of earth[giant] down between the shoulders with a pole.

Then the burden of Sigyn’s arms [Loki], whom all thepowers eye in his bonds, got stuck to the ski-deity’s [Skadi’s]fosterer [father, Thiassi]. The pole clung to the mighty
haunter of Giantland and the hands of Haenir’s good friend[Loki] to the end of the rod.
The bird of blood [eagle], happy with its booty, flew a long
distance with the wise god, so that the wolf’s father [Loki]
was about to rip in two. Then Thor’s friend — heavy Lopt
[Loki] had collapsed — was forced to beg Midiung’s mate[the giant] as hard as he could for quarter.
The scion of Hymir’s race [giants] instructed the crew­
guider, crazy with pain, to bring to him the maid who knew
the Æsir’s old-age cure [Idunn]. The thief of Brising’s girdle[Brisingamen] afterwards caused the gods’ lady [Idunn] to
go into the rock-Nidud’s [giant’s] courts to Brunnakr’s
bench.

The bright-shield-dwellers [giants] were not unhappy after87

Skaldskaparmal[12-3]

this, now Idunn was among the giants, newly arrived fromthe south. All Ingi-Freyr’s kin [Æsir] became old and grey intheir assembly; the powers were rather ugly in form,— until they found ale-Gefn’s [Idunn’s] flowing corpse-sea[blood] hound [wolf, thief, i.e. Loki] and bound the thief,that tree of deceit, who had led ale-Gefn off. ‘You shall be
trapped, Loki,’ the angry one spoke thus, ‘unless by somescheme you bring back the renowned maid, enlarger of thefetters’ [gods’] joy.’

I have heard this, that the trier of Hænir’s mind [Loki]
afterwards tricked back the Æsir’s girl-friend with the help of
a hawk’s flight-skin; and with deceitful mind Morn’s father[the giant], energetic power of feather-blade-play [wing­
beating], directed a storm-wind against the hawk’s offspring[Loki in eagle form].
Shafts soon began to burn, for the great powers [gods] had
shaved them; and the son of Greip’s wooer [a giant] is
scorched. There is a sudden swerve in his travel. This is
depicted on my mountain-Finn’s [giant’s, Hrungnir’s] sole­bridge [pedestal, shield]. I received the border’s moving cliff[shield] decorated with horrors from Thorleif.

It is also normal to refer to Æsir by calling one by the name ofanother and referring to him by his deeds or possession or descent.
How shall the sky be referred to? By calling it Ymir’s skull andhence giant’s skull and toil or burden of the dwarfs or helmet of
Vestri and Austri, Sudri, Nordri, land of sun and moon and stars,
constellations and winds, helmet or house of air and earth andsun. Amor the earls’ poet said this:
Never will as generous a young ruler step on to shield-plank[ship] — this prince’s magnificence was ample — under
Ymir’s old skull.
And as he also said:

The bright sun will become a black one, earth will sink into
dark sea, Austri’s toil will split, all the sea will crash on thefells.
88

Skaldskaparmal[23]
And also as Kolli said:

Never any battle-keen land-ruler beneath the sun’s groundwill be more excellent or better than Ingi’s brother.

And as Thiodolf of Hvinir said:
lord’s son drove to iron-game [battle], and the moon’s way
thundered under him. Meili’s brother’s rage swelled.
As Orm Barreyiarskald said:

However mighty, goddess of Draupnir’s band [lady], I learn
the lord is — he rules his realm — the ruler of the constel­lation’s path will welcome me.
As the poet Bragi said:

He who threw into the wide winds’ basin the ski-goddess’s[Skadi’s] father’s eyes above the dwellings of the multitude
of men.

And as Markus said:
It is beyond expectation that there could be born a nobler
defender of seafarers on the ocean-bounded storm-vat’s[sky’s] base [earth]. Each man praises the ring-thrower’s[generous ruler’s] elevated life.
As Stein Herdisarson said:

I greet the holy ruler of the world’s high tent [sky] with thispoetry — praise is brought forth — rather than men, for heis more worthy.

And as Arnor the earls’ poet said:
Save, O thou dear king of day’s base [sky], the dear Hermund.

And as Arnor also said:

89

Skaldskaparmal[2-3—41

True ruler of sun’s tents [sky], save brave Rognvald.
And as Hallvard said:
Knut protects the land as the lord of all [defends] thesplendid hall of the mountains [sky].

As Arnor said:

Michael, full of wisdom, weighs what seems misdone andall the good. The ruler of sun’s helmet [sky] on his judgment
seat then divides men up.
How shall earth be referred to? By calling it Ymir’s flesh andmother of Thor, daughter of Onar, bride of Odin, rival of Frigg
and Rind and Gunnlod, mother-in-law of Sif, floor and base ofwinds’ hall, sea of the animals, daughter of Night, sister of Audand Day. As Eyvind Skaldaspillir said:

Now the river’s elf-disc [sun of river = gold] is hidden in the
body of giants’ enemy’s [Thor’s] mother [lord, earth].
Mighty are the undertakings of a powerful people.
As Hallfrod the troublesome poet said:

The match was later consummated by which that wise­
ruling king’s crony [the earl] married [gained possession of]
the tree-grown only daughter of Onar [lord, earth, thecountry of Norway],
And he also said:

The guider [earl] of harbour-horses [ships] managed to
draw to himself Baleyg’s [Odin’s] broad-faced bride [lord,earth, Norway] by tbe politics of steel [battle].

Compare the verse written above, ‘It is beyond expectation that
there could be born . . .’. As Thiodolf said:
The gladdener of lords [king] fastens men’s vessels aroundelk-sea’s [land’s] edge on the pure ocean’s hull-rowed bay.
90

Skaldskaparmal[M-51
As Hallfrod said:

So I think the famed distributor [ruler] — land comes under
necklet-diminisher [generous ruler] — very reluctant toleave Aud’s splendid sister alone.

Thiodolf said this:The spear-shy [unwarlike] wretch kept far off when thebattle-gleam-[sword-]impeller [warrior, ruler] once took
Rind’s rival [lord, the land] without bride-price [by vio­
lence].

How shall sea be referred to? By calling it Ymir’s blood, visitor
to the gods, husband of Ran, father of Ægir’s daughters, whosenames are Himinglæva, Dufa, Blodughadda, Hefring, Unn,
Hronn, Bylgia, Bara, Kolga; land of Ran and of Ægir’s daughtersand of ships and of terms for sea-ship, of keel, stem, planks,
strake, of fish, ice; sea-kings’ way and roads, no less ring of theislands, house of the sands and seaweed and skerries, land offishing-tackle and of sea-birds, of sailing wind. As Orm Barreyiarskald said:

Out on the sand-bank of good vessels Ymir’s blood roars.
Ref said this:The tame mast-top-beast [ship] bears wave-pressed shoul­ders eastwards over the sea — I expect land over the prow
— the whale-roof-ridge [wave] sprays.
As Svein said:

When hard gusts from white mountain-range teased apartand wove together the storm-happy daughters of Ægir,bred on frost.
And as Ref said:
Gymir’s spray-cold spae-wife often brings the twisted-ropebear [ship] into Ægir’s jaws [under the waves] where thewave breaks.
91

Skaldskaparmal[25]

Here it is implied that they are all the same, Ægir and Hler andGymir. And he also said:
But sea-crest-Sleipnir [ship], spray-driven, tears his breast,
covered with red paint, out of white Ran’s mouth [the sea’s
grasp].

As Einar Skulason said:
A hard storm-wind has driven the ship fast from land. The
swan-bank-steed [ship] makes snow-ground [Iceland] sinkin surf [beneath the horizon].
And as he also said:

Many a firm rowlock lifts and the fishing-tackle’s sounding
strand [sea] drives into bends in the land. Stays are some­times made tight by men’s grasps.

And he also said:
The stems of the king’s warships have golden ornaments.
This expedition is glorious for the prince. The island-fetter[sea] pushes forward Heiti’s horse [the ship].
As he also said:

Autumn-cold holm-circle [sea] impels frosted wake-ski[ship].

And also:
Cool lands’ roaring belt [sea] springs aside before theprows.

As Snæbiorn said:

They say the nine skerry-brides [Ægir’s daughters, waves]turn fast the most hostile island-box-mill [churning sea] out
beyond the land’s edge, they who long ago ground Hamlet’smeal-ship [Hamlet’s mill = sea]. The ring-damager [gener­ous ruler] cuts with ship’s prow the dwelling [sea] of theships’ slopes [waves].
92

Skaldskaparmal[25-9]

Here the sea is called Hamlet’s mill. As Einar Skulason also said:
The firm-driven nail flexes in the driving current where
Rakni’s moving ground [sea] whitens. Sail’s enemy [wind]pushes reefs against stay.
How shall the sun be referred to? By calling it daughter ofMundilfæri, sister of Moon, wife of Glen, fire of sky and air. As
Skuli Thorsteinsson said:

God-blithe bedfellow of Glen steps to her divine sanctuarywith brightness; then descends the good light of grey-cladmoon.

Einar Skulason said this:Wherever the world’s hall’s [sky’s] high wandering flame[sun] hovers above our precious friend, most cruel to theflame [gold] of Beiti’s stronghold [sea; cruel to gold =generous].
How shall wind be referred to? By calling it son of Forniot,
brother of Ægir and of fire, breaker of tree, harmer and slayer or
dog or wolf of tree or sail or rigging. In Nordrsetudrapa Svein said
this:Forniot’s ugly sons began first to send snow.
How shall fire be referred to? By calling it brother of wind andof Ægir, slayer and damager of tree and houses, Half’s killer, sunof the houses.
How shall winter be referred to? By calling it son of Vindsval
and snakes’ death, storm-season. Orm Steinthorsson said this:I shall devise joy for the blind man this Vindsval’s son.
Asgrim said this:The gold-generous battle-promoter was then that snake
woe [winter] in Thrandheim. The world knows your trueachievements.
93Skaldskaparmal[30—32.IHow shall summer be referred to? By calling it son of Svasud
and comfort of the snakes, growth of men. As Egil Skallagrimsson
said:
Stainer of wolf’s teeth [with blood, i.e. warrior], we shallwave our swords in the sun, we have something to achievein the valley-fish’s [snakes’] mercy [summer].

How shall a man be referred to? He shall be referred to by his
actions, what he gives or receives or does. He can also be referred
to by his property, what he owns and also if he gives it away; also
by the family lines he is descended from, also those that havedescended from him. How shall he be referred to by these things?
By calling him achiever or performer of his expeditions or activi­
ties, of killings or voyages or huntings, or with weapons or ships.
And because he is a trier (reynir) of the weapons and doer (vidr) of
the killings, which is the same thing as achiever - vidr is also aword for tree, there is a tree called reynir [rowan] - on the basis ofthese terms poets have called men ash or maple, lund [grove, tree]
or other masculine tree-names, and made reference to killings or
ships or wealth. It is also normal to refer to a man using all thenames of Æsir. Names of giants are also used, and this is mostly assatire or criticism. Using names of elves is thought com­plimentary. A woman shall be referred to by all female adorn­ment, gold and jewels, ale or wine or other drink that she serves or
gives, also by ale-vessels and by all those things that it is proper for
her to do or provide. It is proper to refer to her by calling her
dealer (selia) or consumer (log) of what she hands out, but selia[willow] and log are trees. Hence woman is called in kennings by
all feminine tree-names. And the reason a woman is referred to by
gemstones or beads is that there was in antiquity a female
adornment that was called ‘stone-chain’ that they wore roundtheir necks. Now it is made into a kenning, so that woman is now
referred to in terms of stone and all words for stone. Woman is
also referred to in terms of all Asyniur or valkyries or noms ordisir [(divine) ladies]. It is also normal to refer to a woman by anyof her activities or by her possession or descent.
How shall gold be referred to? By calling it Ægir’s fire andGlasir’s foliage, Sif’s hair, Fulla’s snood, Freyia’s weeping, mouth­
count and voice and words of giants, dripping from Draupnir and94

Skaldskaparmal[32.—31

rain or shower from Draupnir or from Freyia’s eyes, otter­
payment, Æsir’s forced payment, seed of Fyri plains, Holgi’s
mound-roof, fire of all kinds of waters and of the arm, stones androcks or gleam of the arm.
Why is gold called Ægir’s fire? The origin of it is this story:
Ægir, as was told before, went as a guest to Asgard, and when he
was about to return home, he invited Odin and all the Æsir to visit
him after an interval of three months. Undertaking this journey
were first of all Odin and Niord, Freyr, Tyr, Bragi, Vidar, Loki,and then Asyniur, Frigg, Freyia, Gefiun, Skadi, Idunn, Sif. Thor
was not there; he was away in eastern parts killing trolls. And
when the gods had taken their places, Ægir had glowing gold
brought into the middle of the hall which illuminated and lit up
the hall like fire, and this was used as lights at his feast just as in
Val-hall there had been swords instead of fire. Then Loki wrang­
led with all the gods there and killed a slave of Ægir’s called
Fimafeng. The name of another of his slaves is Eldir. Ran is thename of Ægir’s wife, and the names of their nine daughters are as
was written above. At this feast everything served itself, both foodand ale and all the utensils that were needed for the feast. Then theÆsir discovered that Ran had a net in which she caught everyone
that went to sea. So this is the story of the origin of gold being
called fire or light or brightness of Ægir, Ran or Ægir’s daughters,
and from such kennings the practice has now developed of callinggold fire of the sea and of all terms for it, since Ægir and Ran’s
names are also terms for sea, and hence gold is now called fire oflakes or rivers and of all river-names. But it has happened withthese terms and kennings as with others, that the more recent
poets have composed in imitation of the ancient poets, as things
were in their poems, and then extended into areas that they
thought similar to what had earlier been included in poetry, as
lake is to sea, and river to lake, and stream to river. This istherefore called allegory when terminology is extended further inmeaning than there are earlier examples of, and this is all consi­
dered acceptable when it is in accordance with probability and thenature of things. Thus the poet Bragi said:

I got from the prince fire of mackerel’s seat [sea] for
mountain-Fiolnir’s [giant’s] drink [mead of poetry]; theruler gave it me with a cup.
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Skaldskaparmal[34-51

Why is gold called Glasir’s foliage or leaves? In Asgard in frontof the doors of Val-hall there stands a tree called Glasir, and all its
foliage is red gold, as in this verse where it says that

Glasir stands with golden leaf before Sigtyr’s [Odin’s] halls.
That is the most beautiful tree among gods and men.
Why is gold called Sif’s hair? Loki Laufeyiarson had done thisfor love of mischief: he had cut off all Sif’s hair. And when Thor
found out, he caught Loki and was going to break every one of hisbones until he swore that he would get black-elves to make Sif ahead of hair out of gold that would grow like any other hair. After
this Loki went to some dwarfs called Ivaldi’s sons, and they madethe head of hair and Skidbladnir and the spear belonging to Odincalled Gungnir. Then Loki wagered his head with a dwarf called
Brokk on whether his brother Eitri would succeed in making three
precious things as good as these were. And when they got to theworkshop, Eitri put a pig’s hide in the forge and told Brokk toblow and not stop until he took out of the forge what he had put
in. And as soon as he left the workshop and the other was
blowing, a fly settled on the latter’s arm and nibbled, but he wenton blowing as before until the smith took his work out of theforge, and it was a boar and its bristles were of gold. Next he put
gold into the forge and told Brokk to blow and not stop theblowing before he came back; he went out. And then the fly cameand settled on his neck and nibbled twice as hard, but he went on
blowing until the smith took from the forge a gold ring called
Draupnir. Then he put iron in the forge and told him to blow andsaid it would turn out no good if there was any pause in theblowing. Then the fly settled between his eyes and nibbled hiseyelids, and when the blood dripped in his eyes so that he could
not see, he snatched at it with his hand as quick as he could while
the bellows was on its way down and swept the fly away. And
then the smith came back, saying it had come close to everything
in the forge being ruined. Then he took from the forge a hammer,then handed over all the precious things to his brother Brokk andtold him to take them to Asgard and fulfil the wager. And when heand Loki produced the precious things, the Æsir took their placeson their judgment seats and the decision uttered by Odin, Thor,
96

Skaldskaparmal[35—6]

Freyr was to be final. Then Loki gave the spear Gungnir to Odin,
the head of hair which was to be Sif’s to Thor, and Skidbladnir to
Freyr, and announced the features of all the precious things, thatthe spear never stopped in its thrust, the hair was rooted in theflesh as soon as it came on to Sif’s head, and Skidbladnir had a fairwind as soon as its sail was hoisted, wherever it was intended togo, and could be folded up like a cloth and put in one’s pocket if
desired. Then Brokk brought out his precious things. He gave thering to Odin and said that every ninth night there would drip fromit eight rings equal to it in weight. To Freyr he gave the boar andsaid that it could run across sky and sea by night and day fasterthan any horse, and it never got so dark from night or in worlds ofdarkness that it was not bright enough wherever it went, there
was so much light shed from its bristles. Then he gave Thor thehammer and said he would be able to strike as heavily as he liked,
whatever the target, and the hammer would not fail, and if hethrew it at something, it would never miss, and never fly so farthat it would not find its way back to his hand, and if he liked, it
was so small that it could be kept inside his shirt. But there wasthis defect in it that the end of the handle was rather short. Theirdecision was that the hammer was the best out of all the precious
things and provided the greatest defence against frost-giants, andthey decreed that the dwarf had won the stake. Then Loki offered
to redeem his head; the dwarf said there was no chance of that.
‘Catch me, then,’ said Loki.
But when Brokk tried to catch him, he was far out of reach.
Loki had some shoes with which he could run across sky and sea.
Then the dwarf told Thor to catch him, and he did so. Then thedwarf was going to cut off Loki’s head, but Loki said that the head
was his but not the neck. Then the dwarf got a thong and a knife
and tried to pierce holes in Loki’s lips and was going to stitch up
his mouth, but the knife would not cut. Then he said it would bebetter if his brother Awl was there, and as soon as he spoke hisname the awl was there, and it pierced the lips. He stitched the lips
together, and it tore the edges off. The thong that Loki’s mouth
was stitched up with is called Vartari.
Here you can hear how gold is referred to in terms of Fulla’ssnood, in this poem by Eyvind Skaldaspillir:
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Skaldskaparmal[36-7]

The falling sun [gold] of the plain [forehead] of Fulla’s
eyelashes shone on the poets’ Uli’s boat-[shield-]fells [arms]
throughout the life of Hakon.
Gold is called Freyia’s weeping, as was said above. Skuli
Thorsteinsson said this:Many a death-flame-[sword-]damage-[battle-]challenger[warrior] got the more Freyia’s tears in the morning where
we felled each other. We were there.
And as Einar Skulason said:

With Mardoll’s [Freyia’s] weeping lying between thegrooves [inlaid] we carry the damager [axe] of Gaut’s[Odin’s] mighty gate [shield], bulging with valley-trout’s[serpent’s] lair [gold, on which serpents lie].
And in this poem Einar has further referred to Freyia by callingher Hnoss’s mother or Od’s wife; thus it says here:
The strong ice [axe] of Rodi’s roof [shield] is not the worse
for Od’s bedfellow’s [Freyia’s] eye-rain [tears]. With suchactions [gifts] may the king reach old age.
And also:

I am able to possess Horn’s [Freyia’s] gold-wrapped
glorious child [Hnoss; hnoss = treasure]. We received avaluable treasure. Ocean’s fire [gold] rests on shield’s dama­ger [axe], Freyr’s niece [Hnoss] bears her mother’s eyelash­rain [tears]. Battle-swan’s [raven’s] feeder [warrior] granted
me Frodi’s servants’ [Fenia and Menia’s] seed [gold].

Here it is also implied that Freyia can be referred to by calling her
Freyr’s sister. And also:

The ruler’s helpful protection was all offered to me. Thiswas close to the sea-hall. I praise highly this child of Niord’s
daughter [Hnoss].
Here she is called Niord’s daughter. And also:98

Skaldskaparmal[37-9]The battle-gallant urger [warrior] of Vafud’s [Odin’s]
assembly [battle] who achieves doughtiness gave me amighty Van-bride’s [Freyia’s] daughter [Hnoss]. The
powerful controller of sword-meetings [battles] led Gefn’s[Freyia’s] maid to the poet’s [my] bed covered with Gautrek’s swans’ [ships’] road [sea] embers [fire, gold].

Here she is called Gefn and Van-bride. It is normal to qualify
weeping by any of the names for Freyia, and to call gold that, andthese kennings are varied in many ways, calling it hail or rain or
storm or drops or showers or cascades of her eyes or cheeks orjowls or eyelashes or eyelids.
Here is an example of gold being called words or voice ofgiants, as it was said above it could he; the poet Bragi said this:I had a third friend, blameless, who was hardest to the voiceof sea-bed-globe-[rock-]Ali [giant; harshness to gold isgenerosity], but kindest to me.

He has referred to rock as sea-bed-globe, a giant as rock-Ali, andgold as giant’s voice.
What is the reason for gold being called otter-payment? It issaid that when the Æsir went to explore the whole world - Odin
and Loki and Haenir - they came to a certain river and went along
the river to a certain waterfall, and by the waterfall there was anotter and it had caught a salmon in the waterfall and was eating itwith eyes half-dosed. Then Loki picked up a stone and threw it at
the otter and hit its head. Then Loki was triumphant at his catch,that he had got in one blow otter and salmon. Then they picked up
the salmon and the otter and took them with them, then came to acertain farm and went in. The farmer that lived there was called
Hreidmar. He was a person of great power and was skilled in magic.
The Æsir asked if they could have a night’s lodging there and said
they had plenty of provisions with them and showed the farmer
their catch. And when Hreidmar saw the otter, he called his sonsFafnir and Regin and said their brother Otter had been killed andalso who had done it. Now the family went up to the Æsir, andtook them prisoner and bound them, and then revealed about theotter, that he was Hreidmar’s son. The Æsir offered a ransom fortheir lives, as much wealth as Hreidmar himself wished to decide,99

Skaldskaparmal[39-40]and these terms were agreed between them and confirmed withoaths. Then the otter was skinned. Hreidmar took the otter-skinand announced to them that they were to fill the skin with red gold
and then cover it entirely, and these were to be the terms of theirsettlement. Then Odin sent Loki into the world of black-elves andhe came across a dwarf called Andvari. He was a fish in a lake, andLoki captured him and imposed on him as a ransom all the gold he
had in his cave. And when they came into the cave the dwarf
brought out all the gold he had, and that was a substantial amountof wealth. Then the dwarf slipped under his arm one small goldring. But Loki saw and told him to hand over the ring. The dwarf
asked him not to take the ring from him, saying he could multiply
wealth for himself from the ring if he kept it. Loki said the dwarf
was not going to keep one penny and took the ring from him andwent out, and the dwarf pronounced that this ring should be thedeadly destruction of whoever possessed it. Loki said that he was
happy for that to be so, and that it would have power to remain
valid, this pronouncement, inasmuch as he would bring it to theears of those who took possession of the ring. He went off back to
Hreidmar’s and showed Odin the gold. And when Odin saw thering he found it beautiful and removed it from the treasure, andstarted paying Hreidmar the gold. The latter then filled theotter-skin as tightly as he could and stood it up when it was full.
Then Odin went up to it and began covering the skin with thegold. Then he told Hreidmar to see whether the skin was now
fully covered, and Hreidmar looked and examined closely andsaw one whisker and said it must be covered, otherwise it was theend of any agreement between them. Then Odin took out the ringand covered the whisker and declared that they were now quit of
the otter-payment. And when Odin had taken his spear and Lokihis shoes and they had no need to have any more fear, then Lokipronounced that it should remain valid, what Andvari had pro­nounced, that the ring and the gold should be the death of him
who possessed it, and this was subsequently fulfilled. Now it has
been told why gold is called otter-payment or the Æsir’s forced
payment or strife-metal.
What more is there to tell about the gold? Hreidmar then took
the gold as atonement for his son, and Fafnir and Regin demanded
something of it for themselves in atonement for their brother.
100Skaldskaparmal[40]

Hreidmar would not let them have a single penny of the gold. The
brothers then undertook this terrible course of action that they
killed their father for the gold. Then Regin demanded that Fafnirshould divide the gold equally between them. Fafnir replied that
there was little likelihood of his sharing the gold with his brotherwhen he had killed his father for the gold, and told Regin to be off,
otherwise he would meet the same fate as Hreidmar. Fafnir had
now got hold of a helmet that had belonged to Hreidmar, and put
it on his head - it was known as cegis-he\m [terror-helmet], and all
creatures are afraid of it when they see it — and a sword called
Hrotti. Regin had a sword called Refil. Then he fled away, but
Fafnir went up on to Gnita-heath and made himself a lair there
and turned into the form of a serpent and lay down on the gold.
Regin then went to King Hialprek’s in Thiod and became
craftsman to him. Then he took into fosterage Sigurd, son of
Sigmund son of Volsung, and son of Hiordis daughter of Eylimi.
Sigurd was the most splendid of all war-kings in descent andstrength and courage. Regin told him about where Fafnir was
lying on the gold and incited him to go and try and get the gold.
Then Regin made a sword called Gram, which was so sharp thatwhen Sigurd put it down in running water, it cut in two a tuft ofwool that drifted with the current against the sword’s edge. Next
Sigurd split Regin’s anvil down to its base with the sword. Afterthat Sigurd and Regin went on to Gnita-heath. Then Sigurd dug a
trench in Fafnir’s path and got into it, and when Fafnir crawled
down to the water and he passed over the trench, Sigurd thrust thesword through him, and this killed him. Then Regin came up andtold him he had killed his brother, and said he was willing toaccept from him in atonement that he should take Fafnir’s heartand roast it on a fire, and Regin lay down and drank Fafnir’s
blood and lay down to sleep. But when Sigurd was roasting theheart and he thought it must be done, he tried with his finger how
tough it was. And when the juice ran out of the heart on to his
finger, he was scalded and put his finger in his mouth. And when
the heart’s blood touched his tongue, he found he knew a bird’s
speech, and understood what the tits sitting in the tree were
saying. One of them said:‘There sits Sigurd, spattered with blood, Fafnir’s heart at the101

Skaldskaparmal[40-41]

fire he roasts, wise I would consider the ring-spoiler [gener­ous man] if he ate the shining life-steak [heart].’‘There lies Regin,’ said another, 'planning with himself,
intending to trick the boy who trusts him. In his wrath hecomposes crooked speeches. The maker of mischiefs in­tends to avenge his brother.’

Then Sigurd went up to Regin and killed him, and then to hishorse, whose name was Grani, and rode it until he came toFafnir’s lair. Then he picked up the gold and tied it in packs andput them up on Grani’s back, and climbed on himself and rode on
his way. Now the story has been told that is the origin of gold
being called lair or abode of Fafnir or metal of Gnita-heath orburden of Grani.
Then Sigurd rode on until he came across a building on themountain. In it a woman was sleeping and she was wearing
helmet and mail-coat. He drew his sword and cut the mail-coat[brynie] off her. Then she awoke and said her name was Hild. She
is known as Brynhild, and was a valkyrie. Sigurd rode on andcame to a king called Giuki. His wife’s name was Grimhild.
Gunnar, Hogni, Gudrun, Gudny were their children. Gothorm
was Giuki’s stepson. Sigurd stayed there a long time. Then hemarried Giuki’s daughter Gudrun, and Gunnar and Hogni swore
oaths of brotherhood with Sigurd. After that Sigurd and the sonsof Giuki went to Atli Budlason to ask for his sister Brynhild as
wife for Gunnar. She was living on Hindafell and around her hall
was a flickering flame, and she had made a vow to wed only thatman who dared to ride the flickering flame. Then Sigurd and the
Giukungs — they are also known as Niflungs — rode up on to themountain, and Gunnar then tried to ride the flickering flame. His
horse was called Goti, but this horse dared not gallop into the fire.
Then they exchanged forms, Sigurd and Gunnar, and also names,
since Grani would move under no man but Sigurd. Then Sigurd
leapt up on to Grani and rode the flickering flame. That evening
he entered into marriage with Brynhild. But when they got into
bed, he drew his sword Gram from its sheath and laid it between
them. And in the morning when he got up and dressed, he gave
Brynhild as morning gift the gold ring that Loki had taken from
Andvari, and received from her another ring as keepsake. Sigurd
102

Skaldskaparmal[41—2-1

then leapt on his horse and rode to his companions. He andGunnar then changed back their forms and they returned to Giuki
with Brynhild. Sigurd had two children with Gudrun: Sigmund
and Svanhild.
It happened on one occasion that Brynhild and Gudrun went
down to the water to bleach their hair. When they got to the river,
Brynhild waded out into the river away from the bank and said
she did not want to pour over her head the water that ran out of
Gudrun’s hair, since she had the more valiant husband. Then
Gudrun followed her out into the river, saying it was her right towash her hair in the river higher up, since she was married to a
man whom neither Gunnar nor anyone else in the world was asbrave as, for he had killed Fafnir and Regin and succeeded to thewealth of both. Then Brynhild replied:‘It was a greater achievement for Gunnar to have ridden the
flickering flame when Sigurd did not dare.’
Then Gudrun laughed and said:‘Do you reckon it was Gunnar that rode the flickering flame? I
reckon that the one that went to bed with you was the one thatgave me this gold ring, and that gold ring that you are wearing andthat you received as morning gift, that is known as Andvari’s gift,
and I reckon it was not Gunnar that won it on Gnita-heath.’
Then Brynhild was silent and went home. After this she incited
Gunnar and Hogni to kill Sigurd, but because they had sworn
oaths to Sigurd, they incited their brother Gothorm to kill Sigurd.
He stabbed Sigurd through with a sword while he was asleep, butwhen Sigurd received the wound he threw his sword Gram after
Gothorm so that it severed the man in two in the middle. There fell
Sigurd and his three-year-old son called Sigmund, whom they
killed. After this Brynhild stabbed herself with a sword and she
was burned with Sigurd, while Gunnar and Hogni took overFafnir’s legacy and Andvari’s gift and went on ruling their lands.
King Atli Budlason, Brynhild’s brother, then married Gudrun,
formerly Sigurd’s wife, and they had children. King Atli invited
Gunnar and Hogni to visit him, and they complied with theinvitation. But before they left home they hid the gold, Fafnir’s
legacy, in the Rhine, and this gold has never again been found. But
King Atli met them with an armed force and fought Gunnar and
Hogni and they were captured. King Atli had Hogni’s heart cut
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out while he was alive. This brought about his death. He had
Gunnar thrown into a snake-pit, but he was secretly provided
with a harp, and he plucked it with his toes, as his hands were tied.
He played the harp in such a way that all the snakes went to sleep
except for the one adder that darted at him and struck at thebottom of his breastbone, burying its head in the hollow andhanging on to his liver until he died. Gunnar and Hogni are
known as Niflungs and Giukungs; hence gold is called Niflungs’
treasure or inheritance.
Soon afterwards Gudrun killed her two sons and had goblets
made out of their skulls with silver and gold. Then a funeral washeld for the Niflungs. At this feast Gudrun had mead served toKing Atli in these goblets, and it was mixed with the boys’ blood,and she had their hearts cooked and given to the king to eat. And
when this had been done, she told him of it to his face with many
unsavoury words. There was no shortage there of strong mead, sothat nearly everyone fell asleep where they sat. That night she
went to the king as he slept, and with her Hogni’s son, andattacked him. He died as a result. Then they set fire to the hall andthe people inside were burned up. After this she went down to thesea and leapt into the sea and tried to destroy herself, but she
drifted across the fiord and found herself in the land ruled over by
King Ionakr. And when he saw her he took her in and married her.
They had three sons called Sorli, Hamdir, Erp. They all had hair
black as a raven in colour like Gunnar and Hogni and other
Niflungs. Boy Sigurd’s daughter Svanhild was brought up there.
She was the most beautiful of all women. King Iormunrekk theGreat heard of this. He sent his son Randver to ask for her handon his behalf. And when he got to Ionakr’s, Svanhild was handed
over to him. He was to take her to Iormunrekk. Then Bikki said it
was more suitable for Randver to marry Svanhild, since he wasyoung, as they both were, whereas Iormunrekk was old. The
young people took well to this suggestion. Next Bikki told the
king about this. Then King Iormunrekk had his son taken and led
to the gallows. Then Randver got his hawk and plucked off thefeathers and asked for it to be sent to his father. Then he washanged. And when King Iormunrekk saw the hawk, it struck himthat just as the hawk was unable to fly and lacked feathers, so his
kingdom was disabled, he being old and having no son. Then King
104

Skaldskaparntal[4* J

Iormunrekk brought this about, as he was riding from the forest
after hunting with his men, and Queen Svanhild was sitting
bleaching her hair: then they rode over her and trod her to deathunder their horses’ hooves. And when Gudrun learned of this, she
incited her sons to vengeance for Svanhild. And as they werepreparing to set out, she provided them with mail-coats andhelmets that were so strong that iron could not penetrate them.
She told them what they were to do when they got to King
Iormunrekk’s, that they were to attack him at night while he wasasleep. Sorli and Hamdir were to cut off his arms and legs, and Erp
his head. But after they had started off, they asked Erp what
assistance they could expect from him if they got to King Iormun­
rekk. He replied that he would give them the help that an arm
gives a leg. They said there was no way at all that a leg could be
supported by an arm. They were so angry with their mother forhaving sent them on their way with spiteful words, they wanted to
do what would hurt her most, and they killed Erp, because she
loved him most. Shortly afterwards, as Sorli was walking, heslipped with one leg and supported himself with his arm. Then he
said:‘Now the arm has helped the leg. It would have been better now
if Erp had remained alive.’
And when they got to King Iormunrekk’s at night, while he wasasleep, and cut off his arms and legs, then he awoke and called tohis men, telling them to wake up. Then said Hamdir:‘The head would have been off by now, if Erp had been alive.’
Then the king’s men got up and attacked them and found they
could not overcome them with weapons. Then Iormunrekk
shouted that they must be stoned. This was done. They fell there,
Sorli and Hamdir. Thus the whole family and progeny of Giuki
were now dead.
There survived boy Sigurd a daughter called Aslaug who was
brought up at the home of Heimir in Hlymdales, and from her
important family lines are descended.
They say that Sigmund Volsungsson was so tough that he could
drink poison and not be harmed, while his son Sinfiotli and
Sigurd had such hard skins that poison did not harm them if it got
on to their bare flesh. Thus the poet Bragi has used the following
expression in his poetry:105

Skaldskaparmal

bp-31

When on the hook of the old Lit’s men’s [giants’] fight­
challenger [Thor] hung the coiling eel [Midgard serpent] of
the Volsungs’ drink [poison] coiled.

Most poets have composed poetry based on these stories and haveused various elements in them. Bragi the Old composed verses
about the fall of Sorli and Hamdir in the drápa [sequence withrefrain] he composed about Ragnar Lodbrok:
And then Iormunrekk did wake with an unpleasant dreamin a torrent of swords among blood-stained troops. Therewas uproar in Randver’s chief kinsmen’s [Iormunrekk’s]hall when Erp’s raven-black brothers avenged their injuries.
Corpse-dew [blood] flowed over the benches together withthe attack-elf’s [warrior’s, Iormunrekk’s] blood on the floor
where severed arms and legs could be recognized. Men’s
ale-giver [king] fell head-first into the pool mixed with gore.
This is depicted on leaf of Leifi’s lands [sea; the sea’s leaf isthe decorated shield].
There, so that they made a circle round the ruler’s floorhorse-[house-]tub [bed], the rivet-lacking sword-sail'[shield] masts [warriors] stand. Very soon Hamdir and Sorlicame to be struck by everyone at once with Hergaut’s[Odin’s] woman-friend’s [lord’s, earth’s] hard shoulder­
lumps [stones].

The steel-torrent-[battle-]impeller [king] caused Giuki’s de­scendants to be hit hard when they tried to deprive Birdhild’s [Swan-hild’s, Svanhild’s] delight [husband] of life.
And they all managed to repay Ionakr’s sons for the brightly
shining forehead-blows coming from dark-shirt’s [mail­coat’s] birch [warrior] and his sword-edge.

I can see this fall of warriors on the fair base of the shield.
Ragnar gave me the Rae’s chariot [ship] moon [shield] and amultitude of stories with it.

Why is gold called Frodi’s meal? The origin of that is this story,
that there was a son of Odin called Skiold, from whom the
Skioldungs are descended. His residence and the lands he ruled
over were in what is now called Denmark, but was then known as
Gotland. Skiold had a son called Fridleif who ruled the territory106

Skaldskaparmal[431

after him. Fridleif’s son’s name was Frodi. He succeeded to hisfather’s kingdom in the period when the emperor Augustus
established peace over all the world. It was then that Christ wasborn. But because Frodi was the greatest of all the kings innorthern countries, the peace was attributed to him throughout
all Scandinavia, and Scandinavians call it Frodi’s peace. No one
harmed anyone else, even if he came upon his father’s killer or his
brother’s killer, whether free or bound. Also at that time there
were no thieves or robbers, so that a gold ring lay for a long timeon Ialangr heath. King Frodi went as a guest to Sweden to visit aking called Fiolnir. There he purchased two female slaves whosenames were Fenia and Menia. They were big and strong. At thattime there were discovered in Denmark two millstones so hugethat there was no one strong enough to move them. But themillstones had this quality, that the mill ground out whatever thegrinder prescribed. This mill’s name was Grotti. Hengikiopt is thename of the person that gave King Frodi the mill. King Frodi had
the slave-girls brought to the mill and told them to grind gold andpeace and prosperity for Frodi. He did not give them any longer
rest or sleep than while the cuckoo was silent or a song might besung. The story goes that then they chanted the poem known as
Grottasong. And by the time the poem was ended, they were
grinding out an army against Frodi, so that during the night asea-king called Mysing came there and killed Frodi, taking muchplunder. Then Frodi’s peace came to an end. Mysing took awaywith him Grotti and also Fenia and Menia and told them to grindout salt. And at midnight they asked whether Mysing was not
tired of salt. He told them to go on grinding. They only went on
grinding a short time before the ships sank, and there was left awhirlpool in the sea where the sea flows down into the mill-hole.
It was then that the sea became salt.
‘Now we are come to a king’s buildings, two fore-knowing
ones, Fenia and Menia.’ They are at Frodi Fridleifsson’s, themighty maids, kept in thrall.
They were led to the mill-box and they demanded move­
ment from the machine of stone. He promised neither ofthem rest nor pleasure until he heard the sound of theslave-girls.
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They drew forth the sound of the silence-banished thing.
‘Let’s set up the mill-boxes, lift the stones.’ He bade themaids again that they should grind.
They sang and slung the swift stone until Frodi’s household
mostly slept. Then said Menia — she was come to thegrinding:‘Let us grind wealth for Frodi. Let us grind to the fulness of
blessedness a heap of riches on the happy mill-box. Let him
sit on wealth, let him sleep on down, let him awake to joy.
Then the grinding will have been well done.
‘Here shall no one harm another, plan him evil or work his
death, or strike with keen sword, even if he found his
brother’s slayer bound.’But he spoke no other word than this: ‘You shall not sleep
more than the cuckoos above the hall, or longer than justwhile I utter one song.’‘You were not, Frodi, acting entirely in your own interests,
speech-friend of men, when you bought serving-maids: youchose them for their strength and for their appearance, but
you did not inquire about their origins.

‘Hard was Hrungnir, and his father, yet Thiassi was migh­tier than they, Idi and Aurnir, our kinsmen, brothers ofmountain-giants, from them are we descended.
‘Grotti would not have come from the gritstone fell, northat hard rock out of the earth, nor would the mountain­
giants’ maid have been grinding thus, if we had known
nothing about it.
‘For nine winters we were play-fellows, mighty ones bredbeneath the earth. The maids undertook mighty works, we
ourselves moved the table-mountain from its seat.
‘We rolled the boulder over the giants’ dwelling-place sothat because of it the ground went shaking; we slung theswift stone, the heavy rock, so that men got it.

‘And we then in Sweden, two fore-knowing ones, marched
into battle, we challenged bears and broke shields, we went
through the grey-shirted troop.
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Skaldskaparmal[431‘We cast down a ruler, supported another, provided thegood Gothorm with help, there was no sitting quiet until
Knui fell.
‘We went on thus for those seasons so that we were re­nowned for heroism. There we scored with sharp spears
blood from wounds, and reddened swords.

‘Now we are come to a king’s houses, shown no mercy andkept in thrall. Mud eats our soles and cold the rest of us. We
drag war’s settler [GrottiJ. It is dull at Frodi’s.
‘Hands shall rest, stone will stand still. I have ground myturn. My spell has finished. Now no proper rest will be given
to hands until Frodi thinks enough has been ground.
‘Heroes’ arms shall be hard shafts, weapons corpse-bloody.
Awake, Frodi! Awake, Frodi, if you want to heed our songs
and ancient tales.
‘I see fire burning east of the city. War-tidings are awake,
what is known as a beacon. An army will come hither in a
moment and burn the town for the prince.

‘You will not keep the throne of Lejre, red rings and mighty
millstone. Let us grasp tighter, maid, the handle. We are notslaughter-maids in corpse-blood.
‘My father’s maid ground mightily, for she saw the doom ofa multitude of men. The great supports snapped from themill-box, enclosed in iron. Let us grind still more.
‘Let us grind still more. Yrsa’s son will avenge Frodi on the
Half-danes. He will be called her son and brother. We bothknow that.’

The maids ground, exerted their strength. The young ones
were in a giant fury. The shaft-poles shook, the mill-box
shot down, the heavy stone burst apart in two.
And the mountain-giants’ bride uttered words: ‘We haveground, Frodi, so far that we must stop. The women havedone their full stint at milling.’

Einar Skulason said this:109

Skaldskaparmal[43-4]

I have heard that Frodi’s maids ground with great energy
Grafvitnir’s bed [gold]. The ruler gives gold no peace [he isgenerous with it]. The fair cheeks of my axe, fastened tomaple, have on them this meal of Frodi [gold]. The gentle
king’s wealth adorns this turner of poetry.

Egil said this:He gladdens the multitude of men with Frodi’s meal.
Why is gold called Kraki’s seed? There was a certain king in
Denmark whose name was Hrolf Kraki. He was the most notableof ancient kings primarily for generosity and valour and humility.
There is one illustration of his humility which is much celebrated
in stories, that there was a little boy and a poor one whose namewas Vogg. He entered King Hrolf’s hall. At that time the king wasyoung in age and slender in build. Then Vogg went before him andlooked up at him. Then said the king:‘What is it you want to say, boy, since you are looking at me?’
Vogg said: ‘When I was at home, I heard it said that King Hrolf
at Lejre was the greatest man in the northern lands, but now theresits here on the throne a little pole (kraki), and they call it theirking.’
Then replied the king: ‘You, boy, have given me a name, that I
shall be called Hrolf Kraki, and it is customary to give a gift toconfirm a christening. Now I see that you have not got any gift toconfirm my christening that I could accept. Now shall he give tothe other who has something to give.’
He took a ring from his arm and gave it him. Then said Vogg:‘May you be blessed above all kings in your giving! And I
solemnly vow to be the death of that man who becomes yourslayer.’Then said the king, laughing: ‘It does not take much to please
Vogg.’
There is another story told of King Hrolf that illustrates hisvalour, that there was a king ruling over Uppsala called Adils. He
was married to Hrolf Kraki’s mother Yrsa. He was at war with aking called Ali who was ruling Norway. They fixed a battle
between themselves on the ice of the lake called Væni. King Adils
sent a request to his stepson Hrolf Kraki for him to come to his
110Skaldskaparmal[441

assistance, and promised a salary to all his army while they wereon the expedition, and the king himself was to get three treasuresof his choice from Sweden. King Hrolf was unable to go himself
because of the hostilities in which he was engaged against the
Saxons, but still he sent his twelve berserks. One of these was
Bodvar Biarki; there was also Hialti the Gallant, Hvitserk the
Bold, Vott, Veseti, the brothers Svipdag and Beigud. In this battle
King Ali and a great part of his army fell. Then King Adils tookfrom him as he lay dead the helmet Hildisvin and his horse, Hrafn.
Then Hrolf Kraki’s berserks asked to be given their salary, threepounds of gold for each of them, and in addition they requested
that they might take Hrolf Kraki the treasures that they weregoing to choose on his behalf. These were the helmet Hildigolt
and the mail-coat Finnsleif which weapons could not penetrate,
and a gold ring known as Sviagris which had belonged to Adils’sancestors. But the king refused all the treasures and did not pay
the salary either. The berserks left, greatly displeased with theirtreatment, and told Hrolf Kraki how things stood. He immedi­
ately set off for Uppsala, and when he had brought his ships into
the river Fyri he rode to Uppsala accompanied by his twelve
berserks, none of them waiting to negotiate terms of entry. His
mother Yrsa welcomed him and took him to a private room andnot to the king’s hall. Great fires were then lit for them and they
were given ale to drink. Then King Adils’s men came in andheaped wood on the fire, making it so huge that Hrolf’s and his
men’s clothes began to be burned off them, and said:‘Is it true that Hrolf Kraki and his berserks flee neither fire nor
iron?’
Then Hrolf Kraki jumped up, and so did all the rest. Then hesaid:‘Let us add more to the fires in Adils’s buildings.’
He took his shield and threw it on the fire and leapt over the fireas the shield burned, and went on:‘He flees not fires who leaps over them.’
Each of his men in turn did the same, and took those who had
been heaping up the fire and threw them on to the fire. Then Yrsa
came and gave Hrolf Kraki an animal’s horn full of gold and withit the ring Sviagris and bade them ride away to their troops. They
leapt on their horses and rode down on to the Fyri plains. Then
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they saw that King Adils was riding after them with his army fully
armed intending to kill them. Hrolf Kraki picked the gold out of
the horn with his right hand and sowed it all over the road. And
when the Swedes saw this, they leapt from their saddles and each
took what he could get, but King Adils ordered them to ride on
and rode himself at a furious rate. His horse’s name was Slungnir,
it was faster than any other horse. Hrolf Kraki saw that King Adils
was riding close behind him, and took the ring Sviagris and threw
it towards him and told him to take it as a gift. King Adils rode up
to the ring and picked it up with the point of his spear and made it
slide up on to the socket. Then Hrolf Kraki looked round and saw
how he stooped down. Then he said:‘Now I have made him who is greatest among die Swedes grovel
like a pig.’
So they parted. This is the reason why gold is called seed of
Kraki or of Fyri plains. Eyvind Skaldaspillir said this:Battle-leek [sword] Ull [warrior], we used to wear on
hawk-fells [arms] Fyri-plains’ seed [gold] throughout
Hakon’s life.

As Thiodolf said:
The prince sows his men’s bright-ploughed steep acres[arms] of limb-resting rings with Yrsa’s offspring’s [Hrolf
Kraki’s] seed. The fault-shunning land-director pours Kraki’s bright barley on to my own hawk’s lands [arms] which
provide security for flesh.

They say that a king known as Holgi, after whom Halogaland isnamed, was Thorgerd Holgabrud’s father. Sacrifices were offeredto them both, and Holgi’s mound was raised with alternately alayer of gold or silver - this was the money offered in sacrifice and a layer of earth and stone. Skuli Thorsteinsson said this:When I reddened Reifnir’s roof-fire [shield-fire = sword]
off Svold to gain wealth, I amassed warlike Holgi’s mound­roof [gold] in rings.

In the old Lay of Biarki many terms for gold are listed. It says
there:
112

Skaldskaparmal[45-6]The most munificent prince enriched his men with Fenia’s
labour, Fafnir’s Midgard, Glasir’s glowing foliage, Grani’sfair burden, Draupnir’s precious sweat, Grafvitnir’s pillow.

The generous lord pushed, men received, Sif’s scalp-strings,
ice of bow-forcer [arm], reluctant otter-payment, Mardoll’stears, fire of Orun [a river], Idi’s shining talk.
The battle-giver gladdened — we advanced beautifully
adorned — with Thiassi’s assembly-agenda [talk] the multi­
tudinous hosts, with the Rhine’s red metal, Niflungs’ strife,
the battle-bold ruler. The silent Baldr defended him.
In kennings gold is called fire of arm or joint or limb, since it isred, and silver snow or ice or frost, since it is white. In the sameway gold or silver should be referred to in terms of purse or
crucible or wire-drawing-plate, and either gold or silver may bemeant by rocks of the arm or neck-ring of some person whose
custom it was to wear a necklace. And rings mean both silver andgold if no other details are given. As Thorleik the Fair said:

The righteous prince throws the crucible’s load on tothanes’ adorned falcon-perches [arms]; the young ruler
gives arm-cinders.

And as Einar Skalaglamm said:

The valiant prince of Lund’s land does harm [gives away]
joint-brands. 1 do not think the ruler’s men will run short ofRhine’s rock.
Einar Skulason said this:Both purse snow and ocean fire lie on each side of theblood-ember’s [axe’s] head. I must praise the one that fights
destroyers [vikings].
And as he also said:
Sea-flame rests every day on white crucible-snowdrift. He
who adorns the sides of Heiti’s steed [ship] with shield ruleswith generous heart. Never can the scales-snow be melted
before the fire of the eel’s surging path [the sea; the gold is a
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fire that gives no heat]. The feller of hosts achieves all
glorious exploits.

Here gold is called fire of the eel’s surging path, and silver
scales-snow. Thord Mauraskald said this:Glad giver of hand-rock, it can be seen in the diminisher ofgold wire that sword-lair [shield] Hermod [the warrior] hada good father.

Man is called the gold’s, breaker, as Ottar the Black said:
I need the favour of the nobility who follow the battle-gold[sword] breaker. In here is a very active domestic troop witha wise prince.
Or gold-sender, as Einar Skalaglamm said:

Gold-sender lets ground-getter [king] — the prince glad­dens a host of men; I can receive his treasure — enjoy Ygg’s[Odin’s] mead [poetry].
Gold-thrower, as Thorleik said:
With a prince’s deeds the gold-thrower makes his court
loyal to himself.

Gold-harmer, as Thorvald Blonduskald said:
Gold-harmer throws arms’ embers, the king gives red
wealth, destroyer of evil people shifts Grani’s load.

Gold-prince, as here:
I gained a gold-prince. Togdrapa is made about the battlefire-[sword-]road-[shield-]hail-[battle-]flame-[sword-]tree[warrior].

Woman is referred to in terms of gold, called dealer of gold, as
Hallar-Stein said:

The thrower of the amber [gold] of Vidblindi’s boar’s
114

Skaldskaparmal[471[whale’s] salty cool land [sea] will long remember the dealerof reed-thong’s [serpent’s] league [land, i.e. gold].
Here whales are called Vidblindi’s boars. He was a giant and drew
whales out from the sea like fish. The land of whales is the sea,amber of the sea is gold. A woman is dealer (selia) of the gold thatshe gives, and selia [willow] is also the name of a tree, and as wasnoted above, woman is referred to by all kinds of feminine
tree-names. She is also said to be the consumer (log) of what she
gives. Log is also a word for a tree felled in a wood. Gunnlaug
Serpent-tongue said this:The lady was born to bring strife among the sons of men.
The battle-bush [warrior, her father] was the cause of this. I
was frantically eager to possess the wealth-log.
Woman is called forest. Hallar-Stein said this:I have smoothed with poetry’s plane my refrain-ship’s[poem’s] prow [beginning], careful in my craftsmanship, forale-vessel’s Bil [the woman], fair bowl-forest [lady].

Rod, as Stein also said:
You will, slender flood-fire-[gold-]keeping Sif [woman],strive against your good fortune like other rods of Hiadning’s rocks [gold].
Prop; Orm Steinthorsson said this:Fiord-bone-[(precious) stone-]prop was put into exceed­
ingly pure clothes. Spear-Freyr [warrior, man] threw new
tailoring over mead-Hrist [the woman].
Pillar, as Steinar said:

All dreams of the gentle Syn [woman] of soft necklace-stand[neck] have deceived me. This moving current-sun-[gold-]pillar has put me in the lurch.

Birch, as Orm also said:
For I have fixed the likeness of the birch of the hand’s
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hollow clanging fire [gold ring] in the Billing’s son’s[dwarf’s] drirk [poem] that I am performing.
Oak, as here:
The fairly-adorned coin-oak stands in the way of ourpleasure.

Linden, as here:

Fiercely-attacking elm [warrior] of clashing metal-shower[battle], our heart’s courage shall not lessen in the land —thus did linen-linden instruct.
Man is referred to as trees, as has been written above, calledrowan (reynir) of weapons or battles, of expeditions and activi­
ties, of ships, and of everything he has in his power or puts to thetest (reynir), as Ulf Uggason said:

But the sharp-looking stiff earth-rope [Midgard serpent]stared over the gunwale at country-bone-[rock-]folk’s[giants’] tester/rowan [Thor] and blew poison.
Tree and beam, as Kormak said:

Beam of the killing-twig [sword] is better than many inspear-din [battle]; the sword wins land for the battle-keen
earl Sigurd.

Grove; Hallfrod the troublesome poet said this:The powerful shield-danger-[sword-]wielding grove withhair for foliage provides Uli’s ash [shield] firs [warriors] inthe east with great security.
Here the name fir is also used. Box; Amor said this:The pinnace-box bade the Rogalanders bring shields into
collision at the beginning of dusk; rain [battle] of strife­
clouds [shields] lasted through the autumn night.

Ash, as Ref said:
116

Skaldskaparmal(47-8]The gift-ready battle-Freyr [warrior] went into the goldadorned maiden’s bed. The ash of Har’s [Odin’s] storm[battle] achieves plenty of manliness.
Maple:
Hello! Thus greeted maple of arm-ice [sword] the mail-coat.

Spruce, as Ref said:

Since I have determined to present Thorstein with sea [apoem] of battle-promoter’s [Odin’s] terror-home [breast]— spruce of swords proposes this.
Stave, as Ottar said:

Fierce battle-stave, you held territory against two princes
where raven was not short of food [there was battle]. You
are quick to act against mankind.
Thorn, as Amor said:Young wealth-thorn piled up heavy heaps of slain men for
the eagles; and his men greatly assisted the erne-feeder[warrior].

How shall battle be referred to? By calling it weather of
weapons or shields, or of Odin or valkyrie or war-kings, or theirdash or noise. Hornklofi said this:The prince waged storm of spears [battle] against men
where wound-goslings [arrows] clashed in Skogul’s din.
Red wounds spewed blood.
Eyvind said this:And this hero wore bush-grinner’s [wolf’s] grey coat [skin,form] in Har’s [Odin’s] weather.
Bersi said this:Once I seemed to bushes [warriors] of Gunn’s fire [sword],
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Skaldskaparmal[48-9]

so it is said, well suited to Hlokk’s snow, when we wereyounger.
Einar said this:The bold monarch lets Hild’s sail [shield] — sword clashes— receive most of Gondul’s crashing wind [battle] where
hail from strings [arrows] drives.

As Einar Skalaglamm said:

Firmly-seamed battle-birches’ [warriors’] shirts [mail­coats] did not protect bow-giants [warriors] from warHar’s [warrior’s] Hogni-showers [battle].
As here:Set points’ [spears’] net-band [shield-edge] against pointcrash-[battle-]urger [warrior].

And also this:The prince’s enemies sank beneath eagle’s claws in Gondul’s din.

Weapons and armour shall be referred to in terms of battle anc
Odin and death-maidens and war-kings, helmet called hood orcap, and mail-coat shirt or tunic, and shield curtain; and shield­
wall is called hall and roof, wall and floor. Shields are spoken of
and referred to in terms of warships, as sun or moon or leaf orgleam or fence of the ship. A shield is also called Uli’s ship andreferred to in terms of Hrungnir’s feet when he stood on his shield.
On ancient shields it was customary to decorate the border which
was called the circle, and shields are referred to by means of thiscircle. Cutting weapons, axes or swords, are called fires of bloodor wounds. Swords are said to be Odin’s fires, and people call axes
by names of troll-wives, and refer to them in terms of blood orwound or forest or tree. Thrusting weapons it is fine to refer to as
snakes or fish. Missiles are frequently referred to as hail orsnowfall or storm. All these kennings are varied in many ways, formost compositions are in the form of praise poetry, where these118

Skaldskaparmal[49]

kennings are particularly required. Viga-Glum said this:The host with Hanged-Tyr’s [Odin’s] hoods held back —they thought it not pleasant to venture — from going down
the slopes.
Einar Skalaglamm said this:Helm-capped battle-bold Bui, who went north to Gunn’s
din, and war-keen Sigvaldi offered battle.

Rodi’s shirt, as Tind said:
When he had to discard his ring-short [damaged] Hangi’s[Odin’s] tinkling shirt; tossing horses [ships] of Rodi’s
league [sea] were cleared of mail-coat trees [warriors].

Hamdir’s tunic, as Hallfrod said:

Hard clashing-hail of Egil’s weapons [bows] crashes withno little force on the outside of some wave-beast-[ship-]bushes’ [warriors’] Hamdir’s tunics.
Sorli’s clothes, as he also said:
As a result Sorli’s bright clothes must be reddened bywound-fire — I learn precisely of this — in arrow-showers
with men’s blood.
As Grettir said:

The raisers of Hlokk’s curtains held their noses together,and Hild’s wall’s storm-Niords [warriors] rubbed beards[held a conference].

Rodi’s roof, as Einar said:
The strong ice [axe] of Rodi’s roof is not the worse for Od’s
bedfellow’s [Freyia’s] eye-rain [tears, i.e. gold]. May thisking reach old age.

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Hild’s wall, as Grettir said and was quoted above. Ship-sun, as
Einar said:

Olaf’s kin reddens ship-sun-flame [sword] at sea.

Bows-moon, as Ref said:
That was a fine day that flingers away of forearm-flame[gold rings] thrust upon my rings’ hanging-road [arm] a fairbows-moon.
Ships’ fence, as here:
The righteous spears’ din sweller [warrior] shot through thepaint-covered vessel’s fence — he was violent in battle — asthrough bark.

Uli’s ash(-ship), as here [Thiodolf]:
Storms of Uli’s ship rage totally round the prince, where
rivet-masts [swords], sheath-rigged, wave.

Hrungnir’s sole-blade, as Bragi said:

Will you hear, Hrafnketil, how I shall praise the sole-bladeof the thief of Thrud [Hrungnir], which has fine colour
planted on it, and the prince?

The poet Bragi composed this about the circle on the shield:
Unless it be that the renowned son of Sigurd should desire
good recompense for the resounding wheel [shield] of Hogni’s maid [Hild; also the name of a valkyrie and for battle],
which is circle-hubbed.
He called the shield Hild’s wheel, and the circle the hub of thewheel. Land of the circle, as Hallvard said:
The urger of the movement of points [warrior] sees redbright circle-land fly in two, the white curved-edged discbreaks apart.

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It is also said:

A circle is most proper for a buckler, arrows for a bow.

A sword is Odin’s fire, as Kormak said:

Battle raged when the feeder of Grid’s steed [wolf], he who
waged war, advanced with ringing Gaut’s [Odin’s] fire.
Weird rose from the well.
Helmet’s fire, as Ulf Uggason said:
The most powerful mountain-Hild [giantess] made thesea-Sleipnir [ship] lumber forward, while Hropt’s [Odin’s]
helmet-fire-power-investors [berserks] felled her steed.

Mail-coat’s fire, as Glum Geirason said:
The land’s defender, who defended himself against men
mighty strongly, made the hone-scraped ringing fire of the
mail-coat swish after that.
Shield’s ice and damager of protective armour, as Einar said:
I received red shields’ ice [an axe], covered with Freyia’seyelid-moisture [gold], from the ruler careful of his actions.
We carry helmet’s damager in our hand.

An axe is called troll-wife of protective armour, as Einar said:

Riders [seafarers] of Ræfil’s land’s [sea’s] horses [ships] cansee how beautifully engraved dragons lie just by the brow of
the Grid of the life-protector.

A spear is called snake, as Ref said:

My fierce dark forest-dragon [snake] of the board [shield]
can play savagely in the man’s hands where warriors meet.
Arrows are called hail of bow or string or defensive armour orbattle, as Einar Skalaglamm said:

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Skaldskaparmal[49-501

Sword-crash-Rognir [warrior] shook bows’ hail from
Hlokk’s sails [shields]. The one who does not spare wolves[criminals] saved his life bravely.
And Hallfrod:
And spear-storm gear, sewn with iron, did not protect thehanged one’s [Odin’s] goslings’ [ravens’] hunger-assuagers[warriors] from bowstring’s hail.
And Eyvind Skaldaspillir:

Little, they said, you let your spirits waver, defender of theHords’ land, when mail-coat hail crashed in wounds andbows were bent.

Battle is called the Hiadnings’ weather or storm and weapons
Hiadnings’ fires or rods, and there is a story that tells the origin of
this. A king whose name was Hogni had a daughter called Hild.
She was abducted in a raid by a king called Hedin Hiarrandason.
At the time King Hogni was away at a conference of kings. And
when he learned that his kingdom had been raided and his
daughter carried off, then he set out with his army to find Hedin
and got wind of him, that Hedin had sailed north along the coast.
When King Hogni got to Norway he discovered that Hedin had
sailed over the sea to the west. Then Hogni sailed after him all theway to the Orkneys, and when he got to the place called Hoy, hefound Hedin there with his army. Then Hild went to see her father
and offered him a neck-ring as atonement on Hedin’s behalf, but
in the next breath said that Hedin was ready to fight and that there
was no chance of him giving way to Hogni. Hogni’s reply to hisdaughter was curt, and when she got back to Hedin she told himthat Hogni was not interested in a settlement and told him toprepare for battle. And this is what both sides did, went up on to
the island and marshalled their armies. Then Hedin called out tohis father-in-law Hogni and offered him atonement and a great
deal of gold to make amends. Then Hogni replied:‘You have offered this too late, if you want atonement, for I
have now drawn Dainsteif, which the dwarfs made, which has tobe the death of someone every time it is unsheathed, and a stroke122

Skaldskaparmal[50]

from it never fails, and no wound heals if it is inflicted by it.’
Then said Hedin: ‘You can boast like this of your sword, but
not of victory. In my opinion whatever serves its master well isgood.’
Then they began the engagement that is known as the Hiadnings’ battle, and fought all that day, and at nightfall the kings
went to their ships. But during the night Hild went to the slain andwoke up by magic all those that were dead. And the next day thekings went on to the battle-field and fought, and so did all thosethat had fallen the previous day. This battle continued day afterday, with all those that fell, and all the weapons that lay on thebattle-field, as well as shields, turning to stone. And when day
came, all the dead men got up and fought, and all the weapons
were usable. It says in poems that the Hiadnings must thus await
Ragnarok. Bragi the poet composed a passage based on this story
in his drápa for Ragnar Lodbrok:
And the Ran who wishes too great drying of veins [Hild]planned to bring this bow-storm against her father withhostile intention, when the ring(-sword) shaking Sif [Hild],
filled with malice, brought a neck-ring on to the wind’s
horse [ship] to the battle-trunk [warrior].
This bloody-wound-curing Thrud did not offer the worthy
prince the neck-ring to give him an excuse for cowardice inthe meeting of metals. She always pretended to be against
battle, though she was inciting the princes to join thecompany of the quite monstrous wolf’s sister [He!].

The land-lacking ruler of men [sea-king] does not resist the
stopping of the wolf’s desire [hunger, i.e. he feeds it withfallen warriors] by battle on the sand — hatred rose up in
Hogni — when indefatigable edge-din-powers [warriors]
attacked Hedin instead of accepting Hild’s neck-rings.
This attack can be perceived on the penny [shield] of
Svolnir’s [Odin’s] hall [Val-hall]. Ragnar gave me the Rae’schariot [ship] moon [shield] and a multitude of stories withit.
And on the island, instead of the Vidrir [warrior] of the
mail-coat’s troll-wife [axe], the victory-preventing witch of
123

Skaldskaparmal[50—51]a woman had her way. The brig-elf’s [sea-farer’s] wholearmy advanced in anger under their unwavering Hiarrandi’s [Odin’s] hurdles [shields] from the swift-running
Reifnir’s horse [ship].

Battle is Odin’s weather, as was noted above. Viga-Glum said
this:
I used to win land for myself like earls of yore with staves of
the rod of Vidrir’s [Odin’s] weather. I had a reputation for
this.

Here battle is called Vidrir’s weather, and the sword rod of battle,
and men staves of the sword. Here both battle and weapon areused in a kenning for man. This is called extended when one
composes thus. A shield is land of weapons, and weapons are hailor rain of that land if one composes allegorically.
How shall a ship be referred to? By calling it horse or wild
animal or ski of sea-kings or of the sea or of ship’s tackle or of
weather. Wave’s steed, as Homklofi said:

The harsh clearer [attacker] of wave’s pale steed, a child inage, caused ships’ bows to be impelled on the sea at hightime.
Geitir’s horse; Erringar-Stein said this:Even though all people tell the poet of this war in the south— let us load Geitir’s horse with stones — joyful we travel.
Sveidi’s reindeer:

Battle-bold son of Svein, you have brought the longplanked Sveidi’s reindeer on the path [sea] of Solsi’s bench[ship], Straits-animals [ships] passed from shore.
This was composed by Hallvard; here straits-animals are referred
to, and the sea as Solsi’s bench. Thord Siareksson said this:The gunwale’s horse went tossing north of Sigg; a gust shot
the steed of Gylfi’s league south by Aumar. And afterwards
124

Skaldskaparmal[5i]

the horse of the gull’s track put both Kormt and Agdir past
the stern; the leek-horse waded past Lister.

Here a ship is called gunwale’s horse and the sea Gylfi’s land, thesea the gull’s track and the ship its horse, and also leek-horse; leek
is a word for mast-tree. And also as Markus said:
The winter-survivor of the current waded fast the drifts offiord-serpents [ships; their drifts are the waves]. The
greedy-tooth of the mast-head ran over the whale’s house­
tops [waves]. The flood-bear went forward on the old
sea-ski [ship] tracks. The shower-braving stocks-grizzly
broke the skerry’s roaring fetter [sea].

Here a ship is called bear of currents. Winter-survivor andgreedy-tooth and grizzly are names for bear, and stocks-bear isreferred to here. A ship can also be called a reindeer. Hallvard
used that expression, as was written above; and hart, as King
Harald Sigurdarson said:
The hull cut past broad Sicily; we were splendid then, as one
might expect. The poop-hart glided swiftly beneath men.

And elk, as Einar said:
A man cannot stay long with you, kind chaser of rings*
peace [giver of rings], unless something is given for it; let us
get the flood-elk ready.
Otter, as Mani said:

What will you, slouching, grey-cheeked old man, be able to
do with the fellows on the ocean-otter? For your strength isfading.
Wolf, as Ref said:
But the hoard-diminisher [generous man] was obedient toThorstein. I stand by the bush [man] of the slipway-wolf inangry hone-rod [sword] conference [battle].

And ox. A ship is also called ski or waggon or carriage. Eyiolf
Dadaskald said this:125Skaldskaparmal[51-1]

Young, he went very late in the day on ski of Meiti’s
fishing-station [sea] with the same sized troop against thebold lord.

Styrkar Oddason said this:And Hogni’s troop drove slipway-wagons over Heidi’s
snowdrifts [waves] in fury after the splendid flood-fire[gold-]scatterer.

And as Thorbiorn said:

The loader of the slipway’s sea-carriage was in the baptis­
mal pool, the hoard-robber [generous man] who received
White-Christ’s highest grace.

How shall Christ be referred to? By calling him creator ofheaven and earth, of angels and the sun, ruler of the world and the
kingdom of heaven and angels, king of the heavens and the sun
and angels and Jerusalem and Jordan and Greece, master of
apostles and saints. Early poets have referred to Christ in terms of
the well of Weird and Rome, as for instance Eilif Gudrunarson:

Thus has the powerful king of Rome increased his realm
with lands of heath-land divinities [giants; i.e. heathen
lands]. He is said to have his throne south at Weird’s well.
Skapti Thoroddsson said this:The might of the lord of monks is greatest. God has powerover most things. Great Christ created the whole world andbuilt Rome’s hall.
King of heavens, as Markus said:
Wind-hall’s [sky’s] prince created ground and heavens aswell as the virtuous host. Alone the ruler of men, Christ, cancontrol all things.

Eilif Kulnasvein said this:The host of the world’s roof [angels] and the troop of men
126

Skaldskaparmal[52.-31

bow to the holy cross. The sun’s king alone is finer than allother true glory.

Mary’s son, as Eilif also said:
The pure court of the heavens bows to Mary’s boy, the rulerof the host performs truly glorious works. He is man andgod.
King of angels, as Eilif also said:

The noble might of God’s son is better than men canimagine, yet the generous lord of angels is holier andworthier than everything.
King of Jordan, as Sighvat said:

Once Jordan’s prince did send four angels from the sky.
Falling water washed the holy locks of its lord.
King of Greeks, as Arnor said:
I lift prayers for the causer of men’s falling [in battle] to thewise guardian of Greeks and Russians. Thus I repay theprince for his gift.
Eilif Kulnasvein said this:The splendour of heaven praises the ruler of heroes, he isking of everything.

Here he has called Christ first king of men and secondly king of
everything. Also Einar Skulason said:
Bright in body the embracer of the whole world who keeps
watch over the men of earth made the kingdom of heaven
open for the brave lord.

Here kennings become ambiguous, and the person interpretingthe poetry has to distinguish from the context which king is beingreferred to. For it is normal to call the emperor of Constanti­
nople king of the Greeks, and similarly the king that rules
127

Skaldskaparmal[53l

Palestine, to call him king of Jerusalem; so also to call the Romanemperor king of Rome or him who rules England king of the
English [engla also = angels]. And the kenning that was quoted
above, calling Christ king of men, this kenning can be applied to
any king. It is normal to refer to all kings in such a way as to callthem land-rulers or defenders of the land or conquerors of land orcommanders of the court or defence of the people of the land.
Eyvind Skaldaspillir said this:... Cargo-Tyr’s.. .him land-rulers deprived of life at Oglo.

And as Glum Geirason said:
The helmeted prince reddened whetstone’s hollow [sword]
on Gauts. There in the din of spears was the ground’s
defender to be found.
As Thiodolf said:

May the high, joyful governor of the court bequeath to hissons inheritance and his native land. That is my wish.
As Einar said:

Brave in disposition the land-defender wears the snake’s
hood [helmet of terror] above his bold hair-fell [head; i.e. herules firmly]. The poet recounts before men the glory of theking of Hords.

It is also normal for a king who has tributary kings under him to
be called king of kings. An emperor is highest of kings, but after
him any king who rules over a nation is indistinguishable in all
kennings from any other in poetry. Next are the people that are
called earls or tributary kings, and they are indistinguishable inkennings from a king, except that those that are tributary kings
must not be called national kings. And this is how Amor the earls’
poet spoke of Earl Thorfinn:
Let the court learn how the keen-spirited king of earls
pursued the sea, the irresistible prince did not cease tooppose the ocean.
128

Skaldskaparmal[531

Next in kennings in poetry are those men called lords. They canbe referred to like a king or an earl, by calling them gold-breakers
and wealth-bountiful ones and standard-men and governors of
the host, or by calling them leaders of the army or of battle. For
every national king who rules many lands appoints tributary
kings and earls for governance of the land, together with himself,
to administer the laws of the land and to defend it from hostility inthose lands which lie far off from the king; and these judgments
and sentences are to be considered as valid as those of the kinghimself. And in a single land there are many districts and it is thecustom of kings to appoint administrators of justice over as manyof these districts as he delegates power over, and they are called
hersar [lords] or landed men in the Scandinavian language, but
Grafen in Saxony and barons in England. They are also supposed
to be proper judges and proper defenders of the land over therealm that is delegated to them for governance. If the king is notpresent, then a standard should be carried before them in battles,
and they are then as legitimate army commanders as kings or
earls. Next to them are the men called holdar [heroes]. These are
yeomen who have full status as regards their lineage and all theirlegal rights. They may be referred to by calling them payers andkeepers of money, and pledges of truce among men. Thesekennings can also be applied to chieftains. Kings and earls have intheir train men called hirdmenn [courtiers] and housecarls, butlanded men also have men in their service who in Denmark andSweden are known as hirdmenn, but in Norway housecarls, andyet they take oaths just as hirdmenn do to kings. Hirdmenn weregenerally referred to as kings’ housecarls in ancient times. Thorvald Blonduskald said this:Hail, battle-keen king, and also your brave housecarls. Men
have my poetry, filled with praise, in their mouths.
King Harald Sigurdarson composed this:Having complete power, he waits to occupy the prince’s
throne. I have often seen a smaller troop of housecarls
surging at the heels of an earl.

Hirdmenn and housecarls of chieftains can be referred to by129

Skaldskaparmal[53]

calling them a domestic troop or mercenaries or stipendiaries.
Sighvat said this:I have heard that such a battle was fought recently on waterby the prince’s mercenaries, that I count none of the least
point-storms [battles] second to it.

And also this:It was different then on the cable-steed [ship] before thegreeting of metals [battle] from when maiden served meadto these prince’s stipendiaries.

Stipend-money which chieftains give is known as wages and gift.
Ottar the Black said this:I need the favour of the nobility who follow the battleember-[sword-]breaker [warrior]. In here is a very active
domestic troop with a wise prince.

Earls and lords and hirdmenn are referred to by calling themkings’ confidants or gossips or bench-mates. Hallfrod said this:Battle-powerful king’s confidant, whom action pleases, lets, .
fury-hasty, Hogni’s clothes [mail], forged by hammer,
jangle round himself.

As Snæbiorn said:
Gossip of royalty makes the long-hulled rudder-tie-steed[ship] lean resounding stem-sword [prow] on hard wave.

Arnor said this:My young sons begin to suffer evident heavy hurt about me
because of the end of the killing-renowned prince’s bench­
mate.

King’s crony, as Hallfrod said:

The match was later consummated by which the wisespoken king’s crony married [gained possession of] the130Skaldskaparmal[531

tree-grown only daughter of Onar [lord, earth, the countryof Norway].
Men are also to be referred to by their descent; as Kormak said:
May the son of Harald’s true trier listen; I let be heard withliveliness my fen-teeth-[rock-]Syr’s [giantess’s] men’s[giants’] yeast-Rhine [mead of poetry].

He has referred to the earl as the king’s true trier, and to Earl
Hakon as son of Earl Sigurd. But Thiodolf spoke thus of Harald:
Every difficulty increases Iarnsaxa’s wind [courage] in
Olaf’s father, so that praise is due.

And also thus:
larizleif saw in what direction the prince developed. The
outstanding holy king’s brother came on.

And he also said:
Dead is he who outshone all, descendant of noblemen,
Harald’s brother’s son.
Amor also said this in his drdpa [formally constructed praise­
poem] for Rognvald:
Beneficial to the people, the kinsman of Heiti decided tobring about a family connection with me. As a result strong
links with the earl by marriage caused glory to be built up
for us.

And as he also said about Earl Thorfinn:
Thinly made swords bit the offspring of Rognvald the Old
south of Man, and a powerful host rushed beneath theirshields there.

And he also said:God, keep the splendid glory of the family of all-powerful131Skaldskaparmal[53-4]

Torf-Einar from harm, and I pray for true grace for theworthy prince.
And Einar Skalaglamm also said:

Never will there be a pillar of the family of the line of
Hilditonn who is a more generous battle-promoter. I am
under an obligation to pursue his praise.
What is the rule for poetry without periphrasis? To call every­
thing by its own name. What non-periphrastic terms are there forpoetry? It is called rhyme and praise, rhapsody, encomium,
eulogy. Bragi the Old spoke as follows when he was driving
through a certain forest late in the evening; then a troll-wifeaccosted him in verse and asked who was going there:‘Trolls call me moon of dwelling-Rungnir, giant’s wealth­sucker, storm-sun’s bale, seeress’s friendly companion,
guardian of corpse-fiord, swallower of heaven-wheel; what
is a troll other than that?’He replied thus:‘Poets call me Vidur’s [Odin’s] thought-smith, getter of
Gaut’s [Odin’s] gift, lack-nought hero, server of Ygg’s[Odin’s] ale, song-making Modi, skilled smith of rhyme;
what is a poet other than that?’
And as Kormak said:

I shall continue to compose more praise about the re­nowned son of Sigrod; I shall pay him the stipend [poetry]of the gods’ atoner [Odin]. Thor sits in his chariot.

And as Thord Kolbeinsson said:

The shield-maple frequently made many cruisers, as well as
freighters and cutters, thunder on the surf. The poet’s
rhapsody, liberal with encomium, develops.

Encomium, as Ulf Uggason said:132

Skaldskaparmal(5 4_6]

There the river reaches the sea, and I have again handed
over an encomium for the sword-rain-deliverer [warrior].
Thus I raise the eulogy of thanes.
Here poetry is also called eulogy.
What names are there for the gods? They are also called bonds,
as Eyiolf Dadaskald said:
Spear-weather-liberal [warlike] Eirik draws land underhimself to the pleasure of the bonds and organizes battle.

And fetters, as Thiodolf of Hvinir said:
Middlingly free of deceit, he was a slow provider of service
to the god. The helmet-capped educator [Odin] of thefetters declared there was something behind it.

Powers, as Einar Skalaglamm said:
I declare the most puissant powers imbue with strength therule of Hakon.
Yule-beings, as Eyvind said:

Again we have produced Yule-beings’ feast [mead of poet­ry], our ruler’s eulogy, like a bridge of masonry.
Deities, as Kormak said:

The land-getter, who binds the straight mast-top, honours
the provider of the deities’ fiord [the mead of poetry] with ahead-band. Ygg [Odin] won Rind by spells.
The following names for the heavens are written down, but wehave not found all these terms in poems. But these poetical terms
like others seem to me not proper to include in poetry unless one
finds similar terms already in the work of major poets: heaven,twin-lit, clouded-brightness, storm-Mimir, Andlang, light-bringer,
sprinkler, rich-wetter, wide-embracer, winter-Mimir, light­
ning, coverer, Vidblain. Sun: day-star, disc, ever-glow, all-brightseen, fair-wheel, grace-shine, Dvalin’s toy, elf-disc, doubt-disc,133

Skaldskaparmal(56-7]

ruddy. Moon: lune, waxer, waner, year-counter, clipped, shiner,
gloam, hastener, squinter, gleamer.
What terms for earth are there? It is called earth, as Thiodolf
said:

The earl, point-shower-[battle-]increaser, often causes hardring(sword)-storms [battles] to be made before he forces
earth under himself.
Field, as Ottar said:
Host-Baldr defends field, few kings have such ability. Olaf
gladdens the eagle [with corpses]. The lord of the Swedes isoutstanding.

Ground, as Harald said:
Broad ground, wrapped round by deadly-cold serpent [theMidgard serpent] lies beneath spruce [man] of holm-fetter’s[Midgard serpent’s] path [gold]. Hone-land’s [sword’s]
Hod [the warrior] harms hoards [is generous].

Surface, as Einar said:
Bold, bright men strongly defend princes’ surface withsword. Helmet often shatters before the furious edge-storm[battle].

Land, as Thord Kolbeinsson said:
And after the battle, land was subjected — careful is myword about the conflict — from Veig in the north to Agdirin the south or considerably further.

Territory, as Ottar said:

Fierce battle-stave [warrior], you held territory against two
princes where raven was not short of food [there wasbattle]. You were quick to act against mankind.
Hlodyn, as Volu-Stein said:
134

Skaldskaparmal[57-8]

I remember how the dark earth once yawned with dug-open
mouth for the disposer of green Hlodyn’s bones’ [rocks’]
Dane’s [giant’s] words [gold].

Country, as Ulf Uggason said:

But the sharp-looking stiff land-rope [Midgard serpent]stared over the gunwale at the country-bone-[rock-]folk’s[giants’] tester/rowan [Thor] and blew poison.
Fiorgyn:
I was loyal to the eager payer of Fiorgyn’s eel’s [serpent’s]
tinkling bed [gold], and honour be to the storm [destruc­tion, generous giver] of the river-anvil-[rock-]Eldir’s[giant’s] speech [gold].

There is an animal called a warg. It is normal to refer to it interms of blood or corpses in such a way as to call them its food or
drink. It is not normal to use such kennings with other animals. A
warg is also called wolf, as Thiodolf said:
Sufficient fare was brought to Geri, and the wolf came fromthe north out of the forest. Sigurd’s son provides wounds toentice it.

Here it is also called Geri. Freki, as Egil said:
When point-breaker [wave of points = blood] — Freki tore
wounds — grated on the prow of the raven’s head.

Watcher, as Einar said:
Deadly cold Elbe was reddened with hot wound-surge[blood]. The watcher’s warm ale [blood] flowed with water
into Kormt’s necklace [sea].

She-wolf, as Amor said:

Evil lineage of she-wolf swallowed much-harmed corpse,and green swell turned to red, mixed with blood;
135

Skaldskapamtal[58]

Warg, as Illugi said:

It was pleasure for the warg when my lord drove many arout. The neck-ring-diminisher [generous man, Sigurd]
stabbed with his sword the dark forest-trout [serpent,Fafnir].

Bear: forest-walker, cub, winter-survivor, grizzly, snarler,
greedy-tooth, hooded one, dark one, yellow-bum, shrivelled-gut,
she-bear, Iorek, scratcher, greedy one, mighty one, bustler.
Hart: moor-treader, antlered one, horned one, Dain, Dvalin,Duneyr, Durathror.
These are also terms for warg in this poem by Hall:
The heath-dweller’s hunger was sated, the grey howler fed
on wounds, the prince reddened Fenrir’s chops, the wolf
went to drink from wounds.

And also in this poem by Thord:

Gialp’s stud waded in blood, and the dusky one’s troop got
plenty of Freki’s meal [carrion]. The howler enjoyed Geri’sales [blood].
There are these names of horses listed; these horse-names are in
Thorgrim’s thula [list]:
Hrafn and Sleipnir, splendid horses, Vai and Lettfeti, Tialdari was there, Gulltopp and Goti, I heard Soti mentioned,
Mor and Lung with Mar, Vigg, and Stuf was with Skævad,Blakk was able to carry a thane, Silfrtopp and Sinir, also I
heard Fak mentioned, Gullfaxi and lor with the gods. There
was a horse called Blodughofi and they say he bore themighty Atridi. Gils and Falhofnir, Glær and Skeidbrimir.
Gyllir was also mentioned there.

These are also listed in Alsvinnsmal:
Dag rode Drosul, Dvalin Modnir, Hialmther Hod, andHaki Fak. The slayer of Beli rode Blodughofi and the princeof the Haddings Sktevad, Vestein Vai and Vifil Stuf, Menthiof Mor and Morgin Vakr; Ali on Hrafn, they rode to the136Skaldskaparmal[58-60]ice, and another one east under Adils, grey, it wandered,wounded with a spear. Biorn rode Blakk and Biar Kort, AtliGlaum and Adils Slungnir, Hogni Holkvir and Harald
Folkvir, Gunnar Goti and on Grani, Sigurd.

Arvak and Alsvinn draw the sun, as was written above. Hrimfaxi
or Fiorsvartnir draw the night, Skinfaxi or Glad go with the day.
There are these names of oxen in Thorgrim’s thula:Names of ancient oxen I have precisely heard, of Rufus andHæfir [hoofed], Rekin [driven] and Kyr, Himinhriot andApli, Arf and Arfuni.

These are names for serpents: dragon, Fafnir, Iormungand,adder, Nidhogg, snake, viper, Goin, Moin, Grafvitnir, Grabak,
Ofnir, Svafnir, masked one.
Cattle: cow, calf, ox, heifer, yearling, steer, bull.
Sheep: ram, tup, ewe, lamb, wether.
Swine: sow, pig, boar, hog, grice.
What terms for the sky and the weathers are there? The sky iscalled Ginnungagap and middle-world, bird-world, weather­world. Terms for weather are storm, breeze, gale, tempest, blast,wind. Thus it says in Alsvinnsmal:
It is called wind among men, but wanderer among the gods,
the great powers call it the neigher, giants call it howler, butelves noisy traveller. In Hel it is called boomer.
Gust is also a term for weather.
There are two birds that there is no need to refer to in any otherway than by calling blood or corpses their drink or food. These
are the raven and the eagle. All other masculine birds can bereferred to in terms of blood or corpses, and then it means eagle orraven, as Thiodolf said:

The prince lets blood-grouse delight in eagle’s barley. The
Hords’ king brings Gaut’s [Odin’s] sickle [sword] to thegore-swan’s harvest. The feeder of the vulture of the eagle’s
corpse-sea [blood] lets his men fence every shallow he has todefend in the south with spear-points.
137

Skaldskapannal[60]

These are names for raven: crow, Hugin, Munin, secure-mood,early-flier, year-counter, flesh-marker. Einar Skalaglamm said
this:
The army-musterer gave mountain-haunting ravens theirfill. The raven got full on she-wolf’s prey, and spears rang.

Einar Skulason said this:The splendid strengthener [feeder] of hostility-gulls [ravens]does wield the splendid gleaming-sun dog [weapon]. The
troubler of Hugin’s food [raven] finds an end to his trouble[gets fed].
And as he also said:

But the king’s heart swells, bulging with courage in battle,
where heroes sink down. Blue-black Munin drinks bloodfrom wounds.

As Viga-Glum said:
When we stood on the sand-bank, shielded, eager for thedin [battle] of the gore-jewel-[sword-]lady [valkyrie],
secure-mood got bloody food.

As Skuli Thorsteinsson said:
Hviting-Hlokk [woman] would not have found me last in acompany of a hundred where I provided sore wounds forthe early-flier.
Terms for eagle are: erne, old one, storm-cleaver, edged, one,deluder, wound-cleaver, shrill-crier. As Einar said:

He reddened with gore the chops of the dark-looking steedof Iarnsaxa [wolf]. Eagle tore Geri’s morsel. Eagle’s meat
was provided by irons.

As Ottar said:
Eagle gulps drink from corpses, she-wolf gets breakfast.
138

Skaldskaparmal[6o-6i]

Wolf often reddens his jaw, erne finds a meal there.
As Thiodolf said:

The lady-wolf [Thiassi] flew noisily to meet the comman­ders of the crew [the Æsir] no short time ago in an old
old-one’s form.
And as follows:
I will for storm-cleaver’s <feeder> work noble <Odin’s>
mead [poetry].

And also as Skuli said:
I stay awake early and late with sorrow, since things looked
good to the falcon of shrill-crier’s expanse [sea, i.e. blood;falcon = raven, looking forward to carrion]. The fellow [thepoet] listens now to good tidings.

What terms for sea are there? It is called mere, ocean (cegir),
engulfer (gymir), roarer (hler), main, road, depth, salt, water,swell. As Amor said and was quoted above:
Let the court learn how the keen-spirited king of earls
pursued the sea, the irresistible prince did not cease tooppose the ocean.
Here are mentioned sea and also ocean. Mere, as Hornklofi said:
When the man-harmful meeter of the sacred road [moun­tains] of the water’s teeth [rocks] drove out on the mere thesplendid fore-sheets-snake [ship] and boats.

Water is also mentioned here. Einar said this:Water washes the craft where the sea thuds on each side,and the fine weather-vanes rattle. Surf bathes the flood’s
horses [ships].
Here it is called flood. Ref said this, as was quoted above:139

Skaldskaparmal[61]

Gymir’s spray-cold spae-wifc [Ran] often brings thetwisted-rope-bear [ship] into Ægir’s [ocean’s] jaws when
the wave breaks.
The main, as Hallvard said:

You had the fore-stem of the tough steed [ship] of theencircling band of all lands [ocean] directed west to themain, sword-belt-ice [sword] shaker [warrior].

Road, as here:
We have passed on the road from territory skied over byFinns. From the craft’s path I can see mountains in the east
illuminated by a sunbeam.
Depth, as Egil said:

I go west over the depth, and I carry Vidrir’s [Odin’s]
thought-strand-[breast-]mere [mead of poetry]; this is myway.
Mere, as Einar said:

Cold mere washes many a day the black timbers under thegenerous prince. Storm-twisted elm-trouble [wind] digs
into Man’s encirder [sea].
Salt, as Amor said:
The valiant nation-king cut the salt from the east withfrozen strakes. Sharp weathers bore surf-flame’s [gold’s]
diminisher [generous man] to Sigtunir.

Swell, as Bolverk said:
You fitted out a fleet from the fair territory the next year.
Water went over the ships. You clove the swell with splen­
did surge-horses [ships].

Here the sea is also called surge. Expanse, as Ref said:140

Skaldskaparmal[6i]

The stock-nag [ship] touches with its breast the prow-cut
board-world [sea], but the expanse is thrown in over thefirm gunwale. Timber suffers pressure.
The dark, as Brennu-Nial said:

Together sixteen of us baled out, lady, in four stations, andthe surf rose. The dark was driven on to the main-ship’s
strakes.
The following are also terms for sea, so that it is normal to usethem in kennings for ship or gold: Ran, who, it is said, was Ægir’s
wife, as in this example:

The main’s embers were tossed up into the sky, the sea
moved with force. I think the prows cut the clouds. Ran’s
way hit the moon.
The daughters of Ægir and Ran are nine, and their names havealready been written: Himinglaeva, Dufa, Blodughadda, Hefring,Unn, Hronn [wave], Bylgia [billow], Drofn [comber], Kolga.
Einar Skulason listed six of their names - Himinglæva, Unn,
Dufa, Blodughadda, Kolga, Hefring - in this verse which wasquoted above:

Himinglaeva stirs up the roar of the sea against the brave...

Wave (Hronn), as Valgard said:

Froth was piled in heaps, the swollen main surged withgold, and waves washed the frightening warships’ heads.
Billow (Bylgia), as Ottar the Black said:

You cut with planed rudder the engulfing-high billows. The
sheet which women spun played against the mast-top on theslipway-reindeer [ship].

Comber (Drofn), as Orm said:
The spirited Thrud who keeps the mash-tub [woman]141

Skaldskaparmal[6x]

cultivates every good quality, and the comber-flame [gold]
Lofn, firm in friendship, rejects vices.
Bore, as Thorleik the Fair said:

The grey sea roars, and the bore carries bright froth over the
red timber where the slipway bison [ship] gapes with goldadomed mouth.

Offing, as Einar said:
The confident ones did not notice until sea fell heavily on
the wake-timber [ship]. I do not think the offing gave ourfriends any peace.
The overflowing, as Ref said:

Mountains of the overflowing crash down on the sheet-bear[ship] of Gusir’s gifts [flags]. The winter-survivor [bear] ofboards now storms forward over Glammi’s course [sea].

Shoal, as here:
The shoal broke fast around me. The emptiness [ocean]
invited me to its home. I did not accept the flat one’s [sea’s]offer.
Breaker, as Ottar said:

Thin board broke above the sea and breaker thundered.
Tree-killer [wind] increased. Men got harsh weather.

Bay, as Bragi said:
Breeze-sender [giant, Hymir], who cut the thin string[fishing-line] of gulls’ More [the sea] for Thor, did not wantto lift the twisted bay-menacer [Midgard serpent].

Sound, as Einar said:

I cut through the sound with the planking to the south ofHrund. My hand has been adorned as a result of my meetingwith the prince.
142

Skaldskaparmal[61-2]
Fiord, as Einar said:

Next I see a finely inscribed serpent on the splendid yeast­
flood [ale] tunic [horn]. May the offerer note how I treat of
the fiord-pyre [gold] maple [man] in words.

The thunderer, as Markus said:
I will by no means slander the loquacious flinger [generous
giver] of the thunderer’s sun [gold]. That sheath-eel [sword]
wielder is evil who misuses poetry.

What terms are there for fire? As in what follows:

The fire does not burn seldom which Magnus kindles. The
worthy prince singes dwellings. Buildings belch smoke be­cause of the ruler.

Flame, as Valgard said:
Furious flame quickly shot embers from the soot, andcolumns of smoke then rose vertically over the tottering
houses.
Pyre, as here:

Haki was burned on a pyre where.. ,<sea-animals,ships?>
waded surf-tracks [sea].

Gleeds, as Grani said:
I think gleeds felled ... <horses, i.e. ships ?> of Glammi’s
track [sea]. The prince so kindled ...
Ember, as Atli said:

Axe is reddened with blood, embers grow, very many
houses burn, halls flame, the sparkler rages, fine people fall.
Here the fire is also called sparkler. Smoke, as here [Thord
Siareksson):

The all-powerful one’s lodgings burned half-built by the143Skaldskaparmal[6z-3]

Nid itself. I think it was fire that felled the hall, smoke shot
grime on the host.

Burning, as Amor said:

The angry Island-Danes’ injurer did not soften his treatmentof the people of Romerike. The defiance of the Heinir
diminished. Burning rendered them submissive.

Beacon. Blaze, as Einar said:
The blaze was kindled quickly, and the Hising host, who got
the worst of it, fled in haste.
Flickering, as Valgard said:

The bright flickering caused by the strong ruler surged overthe city’s fortifications. The vikings destroyed rapaciously.
Sorrow afflicted the maiden.
Lowe, as Halldor Skvaldri said:

There you were able to divide their treasures. Shield’s lowe
[swords] thundered through homes. You were never bereftof victory.
These are words for times: age, formerly, period, long ago,
year, season, winter, summer, spring, autumn, month, week, day,night, morning, evening, nightfall, early, betimes, late, at once,
day before yesterday, next, yesterday, tomorrow, hour, while.
These are further terms for night in Alsvinnsmal:

Its name is night among men, but obscurity in Hel, it is
known as mask among the gods, giants call it sorrow-free,elves sleep-joy, dwarfs dream-Niorun.
From the equinox it is autumn until the sun sets in the position of
none. Then it is winter until the equinox. Then it is spring until themoving days. Then it is summer until the equinox. Harvest-monthis the name of the last one before winter, slaughter-month is thename of the first one in winter, then it is frost-month, thenram-month, then Thorri, then Goi, then single-month, then144

Skaldskaparmal[63—4]

cuckoo-month and seed-time, then egg-time and lamb-fold-time,then it is sun-month and shieling-month, then there is hay­making, then it is the month of corn-reaping.
What non-periphrastic names for men are there? Each one inhimself is simply man. The first and highest term for man is whena man is called emperor, after that king, after that earl. These
three men share all the following descriptions. All-powerful one,as it says here:

I know all the all-powerful ones east and south of the homeof clippers: Svein’s son is better than any fierce one to maketrial of.

Here the term fierce one is also used. He is called all-powerful
because he is sole ruler of all his realm. Marshal, as Gissur said:

The marshal gladdens giantess’s steed [wolf] and Hlokk’s
swan [raven] in battle [by providing them with carrion].
Olaf makes Ygg’s [Odin’s] goslings [ravens] happy with
Skogul’s storms [battles].

A king is called marshal because he marshals his army into troops.
Ruler, as Ottar the Black said:
The ruler will take for certain Oski’s [Odin’s] loveless[lacking a ruler] wife [lord = land] in the east. The one who
is all-powerful over men leads a good battle-Freyr’s [war­rior’s] life.
Lord or laird, as Amor said:

The lord of Shetland, who is highest of princes, gained
victory in every thundering of brands [battle]. The poetwishes to raise up the fierce one’s glory.
An earl can be called duke [hertogi, lit. army-leader], and a kingcan also be referred to thus, since he leads his army to battle.
Thiodolf said this:And the putter-down of dukes had the eyes put out of thehead of the captured mound-hastener [killer]. I bring for­ward his praise.
145

Skaldskaparmal[64]

Signor or seigneur, as Sighvat said:

Signor of Norway, let the poor just like the rich now benefit
from your laws, and give generously. Keep your word.
Munificent one, as Markus said:

The munificent one subjected the wicked people to fire,
death was then the fate of seafarers. Suppressor of robbers,
you kindled the highest brightness of burning south at lorn.
Illustrious one, as Hallvard said:
There is not under the pole of the earth [Yggdrasil] an
illustrious one closer to the lord of monks [God] than you.
The breaker [generous giver] of soil-ruler’s [giant’s] words[gold] saves Danes.

Land-director, as Thiodolf said:
Fault-shunning land-director pours out Kraki’s bright bar­ley [gold],

as was written above. The reason he is called this is that he directs
his army through the land of other kings, or directs an army awayfrom his own land.
There was a king whose name was Halfdan the Old, who was
the most renowned of all kings. He held a great sacrifice at
mid-winter and offered a sacrifice in order to be granted that hemight live in his kingdom for three hundred years. But the reply he
got was that he would live no longer than one long human life,
but that there would be three hundred years during which there
would be neither female nor non-noble male in his line of descent.
He was a great warrior and went far and wide through easternlands. There he killed in single combat a king called Sigtrygg.
Then he married a woman called Alvig the Wise, daughter of King
Emund of Novgorod. They had eighteen sons, and nine of themwere born together. Their names were as follows: one was
Thengil, who was known as Thengil [prince] of men; secondRæsir [impeller, ruler], third Gram [fierce one], fourth Gylfi, fifthHilmir [helmeter], sixth Iofur [prince], seventh Tiggi [noble],146

Skaldskaparmal[«41

eighth Skyli or Skuli [protector], ninth Harri or Herra [lord].
These nine brothers became so renowned in warfare that eversince their names have been treated in all records as honorifictitles, equivalent to the name of king or the name of earl. They had
no children and all fell in battles. Ottar the Black said this:Imbued with might, the thengil was already at an early age
vigorous in battle. I pray his life may last. I consider him asuperman.
Markus said this:The ræsir made the Rhine’s sun [gold] shine from the
red-coloured skull [figurehead] on the mere’s mountains[waves].
Egil said this:The gram has raised up the fence-cliffs [brows] of my<mask’s> ground [face].
Eyvind said this:He was merry with the sons of the people, he had to defend
the land, the cheerful gylfi, he stood beneath his golden
helmet.
Glum said this:The hilmir under his helmet reddened whetstone’s hollow[sword] on Gauts.

Ottar the Black said this:May the iofur hear the beginning of his rhyme. The king’s
eulogy shall be raised. May he note properly the forms of
my praise.
As Stuf said:
Glory-spurred tiggi hewed with both hands the troop of
147

Skaldskaparmal[64]

warriors there south of the Nissan. The host went cheerful
beneath their shields.

Hallfrod said this:I am parted from the skyli [protector]. The time of swords
has caused this. I look for the lord of men’s return. For mostthis is the greatest pious hope and delusion.

Markus said this:I summon to attend to the highly-wrought work of praise
the hawk-spirited lord (harri) of Danish ground.
Halfdan and his wife had a further nine sons, whose names
were: Hildir, whom the Hildings are descended from; second
Nefir, whom the Niflungs are descended from; third Audi, whom
the Odlings are descended from; fourth Yngvi, whom the
Ynglings are descended from; fifth Dag, whom the Doglings aredescended from; sixth Bragi, whom the Bragnings are descended
from - this is the line of Halfdan the Generous; seventh Budli,
whom the Budlungs are descended from — from the Budlung line
were descended Atli and Brynhild; eighth is Lofdi, he was a great
war-king, his following was a troop known as lofdar, his descen­dants are known as Lofdungs, from them is descended Eylimi,
Sigurd Fafnisbani’s grandfather; ninth Sigar, from him are de­scended the Siklings, this is the line of Siggeir, who was related bymarriage to Volsung, and the line of Sigar who hanged Hagbard.
From the Hilding line Harald the Red-whiskered, grandfather ofHalfdan the Black, was descended. From the Niflung line came
Giuki; from the Odling line came Kiar; from the Ylfing line came
Eirik the Eloquent. The following are also great kings’ lines: from
Yngvi, whom the Ynglings are descended from; from Skiold in
Denmark, whom the Skioldungs are descended from; from Volsung in Francia, they are called Volsungs. There was a war-kingcalled Skelfir, and his descendants are known as the Skilfing line.
That family is in eastern lands. These family lines that have justbeen named have been used in poetry in such a way as to treat
these all as honorific titles. As Einar said:

148

Skaldskaparmal[641

I have heard that the foldings [kings] went forward to hold aspear-parliament [battle] by the grey island [Holmengraa].
The green shield was made to spring in two.

As Grani said:
The dogling [king] gave eagles’ bairn Danish blood todrink.
As Gamli Gnævadarskald said:

The young odling [king] launched himself as a young man
out into the mighty word-activity [conflict] between haft’s
tongue [sword] and sword’s board [shield].
As Iorunn said:

The bragning [king] decided to redden weapons in thewicked people’s blood. The host suffered the king’s wrath.
Houses often fell because of embers [fire].
Einar said this:The budlung’s [king’s] blade bit, blood fell on darts, Hild’s
cloud [shield] was riven at Whitby.
Amor said this:The descendant of sittings [kings] accustoms the sea­dipping frigates to be out. He colours warships inside withblood. This is a benefit to the raven.
As Thiodolf said:

The brave sitting’s life ended in such a way that we are all ina difficult situation. The lauded lofdung [king] suffered
life’s destruction.
King Lofdi’s following was a troop known as lofdar. As Amor
said:

149

Skaldskaparmal[64—5]

Another skioldung [king] more excellent than you, gram[fierce one], will never be bom beneath the sun.

Volsung, as Thorkel Hamarskald said:
The descendant of volsungs [kings] decided to send me
gold-decorated weapons across the cool ocean.

Yngling, as Ottar the Black said:
No battle ardent yngling who subjected islands in the west
under himself appeared on the landscape in the east until
they got you.

Yngvi; this is also a word for king, as Markus said:
This generation must hear Eirik’s praise, no one knows of amore outstanding thengil in this world. The yngvi held thethrone of iofurs with long-lasting renown.

Skilfing, as Valgard said:

Skilfing [king], you took a great force south past the broadlands where cutters [warships] quivered. Sicily was devas­
tated in the end.
Signor, as Sighvat said:
Let the poor just like the rich now benefit from your laws,
signor of Norway, and give generously. Keep your word.
Poets are called greppar, and it is normal in poetry to refer thus
to any man if desired. The men in King Half’s following were
known as rekkar, and from their name warriors are known asrekkar, and it is normal to refer to all men thus. Men are also
called lofdar in poetry, as was noted above. The men in thefollowing of the king known as Skati the Generous were known asskatnar. From his name anyone that is generous is known as skati.
The following of King Bragi the Old were called bragnar. Men
who assess people’s cases are called virdar [virda = to assess].
Defenders of the land are called fyrdar and firar and verar.
150

Skaldskaparmal[65]

Vikings and sailors, these are a naval host. Beimar, this is what thefollowing of King Beimuni were called. Gumnar or gumar arenames for the leaders of a troop, just as there is what is called agumi [groom] in a bridal party. The term gotnar comes from thename of a king called Goti, whom Gotland is named after. He wascalled after one of Odin’s names, it was derived from the nameGaut, for Gautland or Gotland was called after this name of Odin,
while Sweden is from the name Svidur. This is also one of Odin’snames. At that time all the mainland that he ruled over was
known as Reidgotaland, and all the islands Eygotaland. These are
now known as the Danish realm and the Swedish realm. Young
men that have not settled down, while they are making theirfortunes or reputation, are called drengir; they are called fardrengir who travel from land to land, king’s drengir who are in
the service of rulers, and they are also called drengir who are in theservice of rich men or landowners. Manly and ambitious men
are called drengir.
There are ones called seggir and kniar and troopers, these aremembers of a retinue; thanes and holdar, this is what landowners
are called. Men that bring about settlement of disputes are called
lionar. There are men that are known as champions, paladins,
fighting-cocks, brave ones, valiant ones, tough ones, bravoes,
heroes. These terms are contrary to them in meaning: to call aman soft, weak, insipid, milksop, wet, craven, coward, skulker,
weakling, odious one, degenerate, wretch, riff-raff, scum, loafer,vagabond, poltroon, beggar, worthless one, caitiff. A generous
man is called munificent one, illustrious one, skati, splendid-s&ttt,
gold-skati, prince of men, man of wealth, affluent one, money­
bags, rich man, nobleman. The following names are contrary inmeaning: niggard, close one, stingy one, tight-fisted one, churl,gift-grudger. A sage is called decision-maker, and a man without
wisdom is called idiot, deranged, goose, dupe, blockhead, dolt,
booby, fool, raving, frantic, bewitched. An elegant man: showoff, dreng [gentleman], dandy, coxcomb, gallant. Then there iswhat is called a rough, blatherer, scrag, hewer of wood, clown,
good-for-nothing, yokel, sluggard, wastrel.
The folk of a country are called the people or community. And aslave is called captive, servant, labourer, serf.
151

Skaldskaparmal[66-8]

An individual is called a man, it is a duo if there are two, abunch if there are three, four are a company, a flock is fivemen, it is a troop if there are six, seven complete a crew,
eight deliver an accusation-tally, nine are mates, it is a corps
if there are ten, eleven make up an embassy, it is a visitation
if twelve go, thirteen is a crowd, fourteen is an expedition, it
is an assembly when fifteen meet, sixteen is an occupation,
seventeen is a congregation, his enemies seem plenty to one
who meets eighteen, he has companionship who has nine­teen men, twenty men are a household. Thirty is a people,
forty are a folk, fifty are a county, sixty are a muster, seventy
are an army, eighty are a population, a hundred is a host.
There are also those terms that are put in place of men’s names.
We call these vidkenningar [circumlocutions] or sannkenningar[(true) descriptions] or fomofn [substitutions]. They are circum­
locutions when one names something else by its normal name,and one calls the person that one wants to refer to its possessor; or
when one calls the person the father or grandfather of the onethat has been named. The third relationship is great-grandfather.
A son is also called heir, inheritor, child, bairn, boy, successor. A
brother is also called consanguinean, german, twin, cognate.
A relative is also called nephew, kindred, kin, kinsman, relation,
scion, posterity, stock, issue, kin-branch, family line, descent,offspring, agnate, lineage. Relations by marriage are also calledaffinitives, connections. A friend is also called counsel-sharer,
counsel-giver, gossip, confidant, crony, old bunkie, shipmate,bench-mate, bench-partner. A bunkie is one who shares the sameberth. One who is not a friend is also called enemy, adversary,
fiend, destroyer, injurer, slayer, oppressor, wrecker, antagonist.
We call these terms circumlocutions, as also if a man is referred toby his dwelling or his ship, when it has a name, or by one of his
possessions when it is given a proper name. We call them descrip­
tions (sannkenningar) when men are called sage, thinker, rhetori­
cian, mentor, munificent one, unsluggish, heedful man, dandy.
These are substitutions.
The following are non-periphrastic terms for women in poetry.
Women who are given to a husband are called wife and bride andmatron. Dame and lady are used of women who always goaround with pomp and finery. Those who are clever in speech are152

Skaldskaparmal[68-9]

called snotir. Those who are gentle in behaviour are called drosir.
Svarri and svark, these are arrogant women. A woman who is ofindependent character is called ristil. A woman who is very rich iscalled ryg. Feitna is the word for one who is retiring, such as young
girls or women who are timid. Sceta is the term for a woman
whose husband has left the country. Heel is what one calls awoman whose husband has been killed. Ekkia is the term for one
whose husband has died of sickness. Each one is first of all called
maiden, but kerlingar when they are old. There are also the terms
for woman that used in a condemnatory sense, and these can befound in poems, though examples are not copied down here. The
women who are married to the same man are called eliur. A son’s
wife is called snor. A husband’s mother is called sveera. There arealso the terms mother, grandmother, thirdly edda [great­
grandmother]. Eida means mother, and a daughter is also calledchild, bairn. A sister is also called dis [lady], bairn-dis. A woman is
also known as bedfellow, gossip, confidante of her husband, andthis is circumlocution.
On a man there is what is called a head. This shall be referred toby calling it toil or burden of the neck, land of helmet and hat andbrains, of hair and eyebrows, scalp, ears, eyes, mouth; Heimdall’ssword, and it is normal to use any term for sword you like andqualify it by one or other of Heimdall’s names. Without periphra­
sis the head is called skull, brainpan, temple, crown. Eyes arecalled sight and glance or look, aimers. They may be referred to bycalling them sun or moon, shields and glass or jewels or stone ofeyelashes or eyebrows, eyelids or forehead. Ears are called auri­cles and hearing. They shall be referred to by calling them land orby any of the terms for earth or mouth or channel or sight or eyesof the hearing, if allegory is being used. The mouth shall bereferred to by calling it land or house of tongue or teeth, words orgums, lips or something like that, and if allegory is being used,then people call the mouth a ship, and the lips the gunwale, thetongue the oar or rudder. Teeth are sometimes called rocks or
skerries of words, mouth or tongue. The tongue is often calledsword of speech or mouth. Facial hair is called beard, whiskers or
moustaches when it is on the lips. Hair is called locks, and in thecase of women, tresses. Hair is called curls. Hair is referred to bycalling it forest, or by some tree-name or other, describing it in153

Skaldskaparmal[69-72]

terms of skull or brainpan or head, or the beard by referring to it
in terms of chin or cheek or throat.
The heart is called bosom. It shall be referred to by calling itcom or stone or apple or nut or ball or the like, and referring to it
in terms of breast or thought. It can also be called house or groundor mountain of the thought. The breast shall be referred to bycalling it house or enclosure or ship of heart, spirit or liver, land ofenergy, thought and memory. Thought is called mind and tender­
ness (siafni), love, affection, desire, pleasure. Thought shall bereferred to by calling it wind of troll-wives and it is normal for thispurpose to use the name of whichever one you like, and also to use
the names of giants, and then refer to it in terms of his wife or
mother or daughter. These names form a special group. Thought
is also called disposition, attitude, energy, fortitude, liking, mem­
ory, wit, temper, character, troth. A thought can also be called
anger, enmity, hostility, ferocity, evil, grief, sorrow, bad temper,
wrath, duplicity, insincerity, inconstancy, frivolity, brashness,
impulsiveness, impetuousness.
The upper limb can be called hand, arm, fist, paw. On the upper
limb there is what is called the elbow, forearm, wrist, joint, finger,
grasp, palm, nail, finger-tip, side of the hand, quick. The upper
limb can be called the ground of weapons or shields, tree ofshoulder and sleeve, palm and wrist, ground of gold rings and of
falcon and hawk and of all terms for it, and allegorically the leg ofthe shoulder, bow-forcer. Legs can be called trees of the soles,
insteps, stocking-feet or the like, running-shaft of the path or ofwalking, of the pace. The leg can be called tree or pillar of thesethings. Legs are referred to in terms of skis and shoes andbreeches. On the leg is what is called thigh, knee, calf, shank, shin,instep, sole, toe. One can refer to the leg in terms of all these andcall it tree; and the leg is 'called mast and yard and referred to interms of these things.
Speech is also called words and vocabulary and eloquence, tale,story, wrangle, dispute, song, incantation, recitation, chat,quavering, conversation, talk, prating, banter, quarrel, mocking,prattle, blather, bragging, patter, inanity, cant, triviality, twaddle.
Noise is also called sound, voice, resonance, howling, clamour,din, clash, uproar, roar, crack, thud, report, clatter. By means ofthese expressions battle shall be referred to in terms of swords orother weapons or shields.
154

Skaldskaparmal[73-51

Wisdom is called sagacity, counsel, understanding, memory,deliberation, intellect, numeracy, far-sightedness, subtlety, elo­
quence, genius. Dissembling is called deception, guile, shiftiness.
Lceti means two things. Noise is called Iceti, disposition (cedi) is
called Iceti, and cedi also means fury. Reidi also has two meanings.
It is called reidi [wrath] when a man is in a bad temper, the gear
(fargervi) of a ship or horse is called reidi. Far also has twomeanings. Far is anger, far is a ship. People frequently use such
vocabulary so as to compose with concealed meaning, and this is
usually called word-play (ofliost [obvious]). People call it lid[joint] on a person where the bones meet, lid [fleet] is a word forships, lid [troop] is a word for people. It is also called lid [help]
when someone gives another assistance (lidsinni). Lid is a word
for ale. There is what is called a hlid [gateway] in an enclosure,and hlid is what people call an ox, and hlid is a slope. These
distinctions can be made use of in poetry so as to create word-play
which is difficult to understand, if it is a different distinction of
meaning that has to be taken than the previous line seemed before
to indicate. Similarly there are also many other such words where
the same term applies to several things.

Atli, Frodi, Ali, Glammi, Beiti, Ati and Beimuni, Audmund,
Gudmund, Atal and Gestil, Geitir, Gauti, Gylfi, Sveidi.

Gaeir, Eynef, Gaupi and Endil, Skekkil, Ekkil, Skefil andSolvi, Half and Hemlir, Harek and Gor, Hagbard, Haki,
Hraudnir, Meiti.

Hiorolf and Hraudung, Hogni, Mysing, Hunding, Hviting,
Heiti, Mævil, Hialmar, Moir, Haemir, Maevi, Rodi, Rakni,
Rer and Leifi.
Randver, Rokkvi, Reifnir, Leifnir, Naefil, Ræfil, Nori,
Lyngvi, Byrvil, Kilmund, Beimi, Iorek, Iosmund, Thvinnil,
Yngvi, Teiti.

Virfil, Vinnil, Vandil, Solsi, Gautrek and Hun, Giuki, Budli,
Homar, Hnefi, Horvi, Sorvi. I can see no more sea-kings.
I shall tell the names of giants. Ymir, Gang and Mimir, Idi
and Thi'assi, Hrungnir, Hrimnir, Hraudnir, Grimnir, Hvedrung, Hafli, Hripstod, Gymir.

Hardverk, Hrokkvir and Hastigi, Hraesvelg, Herkir and155

Skaldskaparmal[75]

Hrimgrimnir, Hymir and Hrimthurs, Hval, Thrigeitir,Thrym, Thrudgelmir, Thistilbardi.

Geirrod, Fyrnir, Galar, Thrivaldi, Fiolverk, Geitir, Flegg,
Blapthvari, Forniot, Spretting, Fialar, Stigandi, Som andSvasud, Svarang, Skrati.

Surt and Storverk, Sækarlsmuli, Skaerir, Skrymir, Skerkir,
Salfang, Oskrud and Svart, Ondud, Stumi, Alsvart, Aurnir,
Am and Skalli.
Kott, Osgrui and Alfarin, Vindsval, Vipar and Vafthrudnir,
Eld and Aurgelmir, Ægir, Rangbein, Vind, Vidblindi, Vingnir, Leifi.
Beinvid, Biorgolf and Brandingi, Dumb, Bergelmir, Dofriand Midiung, Nati, Sokmimir. Now there have been listed
the names of very powerful giants.

1 shall list the names of troll-wives. Grid and Gnissa, Gryla,
Bryia, Glumra, Geitla, Grima and Bakrauf, Guma, Gestilia,
Grottintanna.

Gialp, Hyrrokkin, Hengikepta, Gneip and Gnepia, Geysa,
Hala, Horn and Hruga, Hardgreip, Forad, Hryggda, Hvedra
and Holgabrud.
Hrimgerd, Haera, Herkia, Fala, Imd, larnsaxa, Ima, Fiolvor,
Morn, Ividia, Amgerd, Simul, Sivor, Skrikia, Sveipinfalda.
Oflugbarda and Iarnglumra, Imgerd, Ama and Iarnvidia,
Margerd, Ada, Eisurfala, Leikn, Munnharpa and Myrkrida.
Leirvor, Liota and Lodinfingra, Kraka, Vardrun and Kiallandi, Vigglod, Thurbord. We wish to name Ryg last, andRifingafla.

Thor is called Atli and Asabrag. He is Ennilang and Eindridi,
Biorn, Hlorridi and Hardveur, Vingthor, Sonnung, Veud
and Rym.

Names of Æsir:Odin’s sons are Baldr and Meili, Vidar and Nep, Vali, Ali,
Thor and Hildolf, Hermod, Sigi, Skiold, Yngvi-Freyr and
Itreksiod, Heimdall, Sæming.
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Skaldskaparmal(7S1

There still remain some names of giants: Eimgeitir, Ver, Im,
Hringvolnir, Viddi, Vingrip, Vandil, Gyllir, Grimnir,
Glaumar, Glam, Samendil.
Vornir, Hardgreip and Vagnhofdi, Kyrmir, Suttung andKaldgrani, Iotun, Ogladnir and Aurgrimnir, Grimling,
Gusir, Ofoti, Hloi, Ganglati and Helregin, Hrossthiof,
Durnir, Hundalf, Baugi, Hraudung, Fenrir, Hroar and Midi.

Yet shall be listed names of Æsir. There is Ygg and Thor andYngvi-Freyr, Vidar andBaldr, Vali andHeimdall. Then there
is Tyr and Niord, I list Bragi next, Hod, Forseti. Here is Loki
last.
Now shall all the Asyniur be named. Frigg and Freyia, Fulla
and Snotra, Gerd and Gefiun, Gna, Lofn, Skadi, lord andIdunn, Ilm, Bil, Niorun.

Hlin and Nanna, Hnoss, Rind and Siofn, Sol and Saga, Sigyn
and Vor. Then there is Var, and Syn must be named, but
Thrud and Ran reckoned next to them.
Freyia also wept gold for Od. Her names are Horn, Thrungva, Syr, Skialf and Gefn, and likewise Mardoll. Her daugh­ters are Hnoss and Gersemi.

There are yet others, Odin’s maids, Hild and Gondul, Hlokk,
Mist, Skogul. Then are listed Hrund and Eir, Hrist, Skuld.
They are called norns who shape necessity.
Now I shall list Nipt [sister] and Dis [lady]. Snot, bride, lady,svarri, sprakki, matron, dame, woman, feima, widow, ryg,
wife, dros, ristil, sceta, maid, svark and heel, maiden andkerling.

It is time to say the names for men. Greppar and gumnar,
gumar and drengir, gotnar, rekkar, fighting-cocks, seggir,

troop, brave ones and affluent ones.

Bragnar, thanes, beimar, holdar, firar and sailors, fyrdar,
holdar, company, household, flock, tough ones, kniar andchampions, paladins, mates.
Population and embassy and bravoes, troopers and lofdar,
people and crews, community, show-offs, lionar and expedi­tions, munificent one, illustrious one, prince of men, sage.
157

Skaldskaparmal[751

Then there is dandy and go\d-skati, then there are elegant
men and affluent ones and money-bags and show-offs, hostand helming [troop] and chieftains.
Folk and county, assembly, public. Now there is press andcrowd, bunch, wealth-sfcator, household guard and army,
corps, gallants, crew and muster, occupation, coxcombs,
being and brionar.

Still there are left some names of people: court and guests
and housecarls, domestic troop and household. If I mention
everything, confidant and bunkie and mentor.

Domestics, old bunkies, bench-mate and gossip, armoured
ones and retinues. Then there are fellows and relations
together, friend, shipmate, mercenaries, heroes.
Great-grandfather and kindred, grandfather, son, father,brother, german, consanguinean and cognate, bairn, lad,nephew and inheritor. Then there are twins and agnates.
Relative, connection, posterity and child, kin and kin­branch, kinsman, family line, boy, speech-mate, in-law andcrony, issue, genealogy, lineage and youth.
Bench-partners and affinitives, offspring is next and stock.
Then there is counsel-sharer. Servants, slaves, serf, labour­
ers, workmen, captives.

These are terms [for battle]: row and tumult, clangor,
spear-fight and spear-grab, strife and clamour, shield­
violence and stir, unrest and onslaught, victory, campaign,
fray.
Scrap, murder and slaying, attack and action, enmity,threat, tussle, broil and affray. Then there is battle anddoom, storm and pugnacity, host-taker, thunder.
I shall say the words for swords: glaive and Hrotti, useful,
Dragvandil [draw-wand], Groa [grower], Gram [angry],screamer, damourer and end-scored, scythe and polisher,honour, glinter.

Servant, clanger, cutlass, Skrymir, Laufi, ale-tarry, longbeard and worm-borer, legbiter and quiet and Leifnir’shurt, host-striker, Hneitir [wounder] and hafrakan.
158

Skaldskaparmal(751

Lotti, shover, thruster, mcekir, aimed, hand-waver and
Mistletoe, metal, thriver and striker and mid-decorated,
Fetbreid [broad-track], gate-flame and life-quencher.

Wavy, threaded, corpse-pain and brand, werwolf, corpse­maker, wind-bright and torment, ash, pain-wader, edge­
sharp, flitter and ugly-flitting, hall-fence, grip.
Keen, head-sharp, skull-crusher, corpse-Gaut, host-shining
and flesh-Mimir, wound-strip, deceiver, flickerer, rivetfailer, burnished, heaper, notched, gate-flame.

Mimung and feller and symbol-wolf, ringed, corpseenclosed, crane, twist-borer, crooked, millstone-biter, light,
hardened, wolf, overcomer, wall-damager.
Terrifier, pale-maker, router, notcher, shooter, trembler,
polished, tearer, breaker, white one, Bæsing, Tyrfing [tar­ry], hooked and ring. One will come across night-bringer.

Flame and hand-ringer, long-keen and fire, eagle andfrightener and rivetted, failer, jabber, ram and diminisher,
blaze and long-neck, exciter, inciter.
Feller, blancher, Fafnir [embracer], piercer, battler, flamer,
offspring, flexible, scyther, polisher, swallower, cutter andcorpse, Goin, guest-Moin [moor-guest] and mockery,crasher, Nidhogg [mean-striker].

Point, blood-band, wound-knuckles, blood-strip, blood­
warp and bloody-eddy, blood-waker, lying striker, blood­
grip, eddy-warp and brand, edge-strips, folk.
Cries, cutters and Olrod’s gift, mark, battle-rim and mis-hit,
fringe and burnished, under-drawer, wolf and Kaldhamar’s
gift, corpse-bast and shoulder.
Sword and clamourer and link-rivet, clench-plate, victory­
knob, hilt and tang, hand-grip, blow-polished and mid­stick.

Axe and iron-sparth, horny, scraper and bearded, cutter
and gaper, power-span, Gnepia [towering], giantess andFala [frightener], spiked and bulging, whiskered and Vigglod [battle-bright], hewer and stretched. Then there issoft-horned: this is considered the highest of names for axe.
159

Skaldskaparmal[75]

Dart, spear and sting, dof, lance and rod, spike, shaft andwearier, singed, corpse-sword, pike, javelin, stinger, glaive,
halberd, gavelock, Frankish, Gungnir, Poitou lance.

Arrow is also akka, point, white-mouth, Fenia and drift,
flight, noisy mover, bosl, bale, lancet, spike and Hremsa[claw], gain-flying and stormer, gain and shaft-quick.
Flight-bright, flight-swift, Fifa [lion’s tooth] and shot, weshall mention finder and Gusir’s work. There is Iolf’s work
but highest is whizzer.

Elm, curve, bow, yew and double-wood, bend, bright andnoisy, seemly, noisy clanger. But I declare that all weapons
together are called irons, arrow and strikers, isen andspears.

Shield, narrow-hall, cover, hall-binder, bender, lee-edge
and buckler, fight-bend, targe, storm-bright and protection,wide, pale, engraved, battle-bright and linden.
Clamourer, dew-scraper and jewel-shelterer, war-light,
stony and war-shelterer, cooled and edged, soiled, boarded,
protector, bordered, pure, double-boarded.
Battler and roarer, ever-protector, brilliant, circle, fair­dark, carried, mid-life-protector.
I shall say the names of Hropt’s hood [helmet]: helm,
gold-coloured, coverer, slaughter-rimy, stone-rimy, hol­lowed and protection, life-protector, fine-looker and eager­
brown.

Battle boar (Hildigolt), top, army-crest and warmer, mask,
terrifier, gleamer, dome.

Bymie, arriver, helm-ringer, coat and close, cold, Finn’s
legacy (Finnsleif), battle-goer, pliable, hindrance andblood-played.
Sea, ever-lying, salt, ocean (Ægir), main, wetness, swim, flat
one, dead calm and bay, resounding, overhang, emptiness,
brawler, rocker and mere, sucker, suck, same, swallower,
maelstrom and fiord.
Sound, creek, good passage, fluid and expanse, tempest,
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Skaldskaparmal[751

depth, breaker, dark, flood and surf, swell, sparkler, engulfer (Gymir) and flower, rumbier and unquiet, surge, fen,snatcher.

Crashing, wake, league, fishing-ground, inlet and fishing­bank, water, deep and submersion, cove, tarn and canal,
storm, ditch, pool, current, stream and brook, channel,
spring, fount, eddy, waterfall and firth.

Hefring [lifting], roller, white one and offing, Hronn[wave], Ran [plunderer], Kolga [cold one] and Himinglaeva[heaven-bright], Drofn [comber], Unn [wave] and sweller,
Dufa [dip], Bylgia [billow], shoal and bore, Blodughadda[bloody-haired].
[Rivers] Gioll [noisy], Glit [shining], Gera [greedy], Glod[glowing] and Valskialf,Van [hope], Vid [wide], Vimur, Ving
and Ysa [Ouse], Sid [low], Sudr [south], Freka [demand­ing], Sekin [pushing], Einstika [lone-progressing], Elbe, Ro[peace], Ekla [want], Ekin [driven], Rennandi [running].
Tyne [stormer], Rhine, Nid, Tholl, Rim, Ysia [hastener],Don, Ogn [water], Dyna, Dyn [thunderer], Hollfara [slop­
ing course], Orun and Bro, Audskialg, Lud, Mun, Merkrida, Mein and Sax-elbe.
Tiber, Durn, Dvina, Thames, Vond [difficult] and Strand,
Marne and Göta alv, Alin, Unn [wave], Olga and Euph­
rates, Ogn, Eidrennir [isthmus-runner] and Aberdeen.
Rogn, Hronn [wave] and Raun [test], Raumelf [Glomma],
Hnipul, Hnopul, Hialmunla, Humber, Dvina, Vil [trouble],Vin [drier up], Vella [welling], Valin, Semd, Salin, Dnieper,
Drammen, Strauma [torrent], Nissan, Mynt [mouthed],
Gnapa [leaning].

Gilling [resounding] and Nile, Ganges, Tweed, Luma, Vervada, Loire and Gunnthro [battle-trough], Vidsvol [widecool], Vegsvinn [way-swift], Yn, Thiodnuma [great con­tainer], Fiorm [hurrying], Strand and Spey and Fimbulthul[mighty mumbler].
Nyt [profitable], Hronn [wave] and Naud [need], Not[wet], Slidr [terrible] and Hrid [storm], Kormt, Leiptr [light­ning] and Ormt [armed], two Kerlaugs [baths], Gomul
161

Skaldskaparmal[751[old], Sylg [swallower] and Yn and Geirvimul [spear­swarming], Ylg [she-wolf], Vod [ford] and Flod [flood].
Jordan is last.
[Fish] Salmon and ling, whiting, cusk, sea-trout, milter sal­mon, perch and kelt, lobster, lumpsucker, milter, fluke,
mackerel, trout and Andvari [watcher; pike].

Herring, saithe, skate, launce, brown trout and redfish,
codfish and houting, roach, flounder, fylding, sturgeon andsea-scorpion, mackerel-shark, catfish and Greenland shark.
Weever, miller’s thumb and prawn, trout, shell-fish, sword­
fish and pollack, porbeagle, turbot and hornfish, bullhead,gurnard and fengrani.

Codling, coal-fish, cod, vartari, shallow-haunter, pike, gilled, torsk, eel and carp, crab, garfish, shark and moonfish,
stickleback, sea-urchin.
Buck-whale, pike-whale and sea-steamer, dolphin, hafstramb and porpoises, rorqual, rorqual-calf and red-crest,
sperm whale, walrus, nordcaper.

Greenland whale, cow-whale, narwhal and pilot whale,
humpback, fin whale and séwta-whale, right whale, killer
whale and sei whale, horse-whale, bottle-nosed whale,lesser rorqual and grampus.
Now I shall expound the names of ships. Ark, oar-daw, ash,
Sessrumnir, cutter, scout, ship and Skidbladnir, nave, Naglfari, row-boat, snack.

Freighter, buss, bow-cold and reindeer, bac, thole-strapfixed, rimy-bowed, cruiser, boat and pinnace, brig, Hringhornir, long-boat, keel, longship, Leifnir, carvel.
Ring, Gnod, greedy, fast, Modroi, thole-strapped, prowed
and pool-beater, owl, lighter and Askvitul, dinghy, cat­boat, cat, vessel and Skalp [cockle].
Merchantman, cog, knuckle, coble, dug-out, drake, Ellidi,
dromond and pram, fir, steed, galley, ferry, scow, bark,craft and delight, frequent-traveller and lid [fleet].

Sail, lap, mast, holdfast, steering-oar, clenching, rivet-row,
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Skaldskaparmal[75]

planking and sheet-rope, stay, stem, steering-tie, studdie
and buntline, pennant and black-strakes, bench, stem andcable.
Bow-rails, shrouds, reef-points and sheet, spike, mast-tree,
nails, poop-supports, leek [mast], mast-top, line, ears, flag,
flag-beard and plug.
Hound, mast-head-sheave and tiller, strake, bow, fifth
strake and hawse-stem, dew-line, hawse, hank and back­stays, tholes, heel, hammer, help-rope and leech.

Yard, parrel, reef, rib and thole-straps, windlass, poop,
wand, thole-pins, winch, tacking-boom, prow-carving,brands [bow-decorations], transoms, bowline, bulkheads.
Prow, knee, boarding, belt and bows, keelboard, (mast-)
wedge and garboard, bollards, carling, claws and thwarts,
tack, gunwales, cleats and decking.

Guys, halyard, dale, oars, braces, clinch-plates, bridge andpins, sand-strake, keel-heel and anchor, buoy-rope, bailer
and crow’s-nest.
Earth, landscape, glebe, marl and Hlodyn, humus, Sif, Fiorgyn, ground, surface and orb, field, meadow and Fife, coun­try, loam and coast, land, soil, march, territory and marsh.

Holt, ridge and fells, hillside and rise, knoll, heath andhollow, hillock and slope, crust, dale and wold, coomb andtongue, mould, flag, hogback, moor, depression and sand.

In addition shall be said names of oxen: Arvak [earlywakener], bellower and Iormunrek, neat, Freyr, Regin,smith, island-driller, Rufus and driven and dark-sided,
fighter, gorer, Vingnir, guide.
Himinhriot, cattle and hard-goer, Hæfir [hoofed], stout
one, roarer, stot, Hlid, Stuf and Lit, Hrid [storm], draught­ox, Arf [inheritance], Iormuni and mighty smith.
Spark, Apli [dapple] and goldenhorn, wealth, bullock, elder
and Arfuni, steer, stormer, yeller, noise and membered,yearling, bull, tarb, dirty.

A cow is called heifer, quey and lower and Audhumla; she is
the noblest of cows.
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Skaldskaparmal(751

Ram, mighty-horn, horn-squealer, gumar, glowing-hornand shining-horn, teg, Hallinskidi, berry, wretched-horn
and Heimdali, tup, middler, bleater, Mord and wether.

A goat is called Grimnir and Geirolnir, Tanngniost, kiappi
and Tanngrisnir, squinter and rusher; a buck is Grimcounted.
There is also one called Heidrun; nanny-goat and kidling.
Coal-muzzle is a kid as well.

Bear, grizzly, mighty one, she-bear, elgvidnir, dark-tooth,
ice-wolf and broadway, haltered, bassi, growler, leopard,rough, greedy one, robber, Iorek, mosni, forest-walker,
cub, snarler, winter-survivor, greedy-tooth, yellow-bum,hooded one, shrivelled-gut.

Hart, Durathror, hlid, Eikthyrnir, Duneyr, Dain, Dvalar,moor-treader.

Hog, slaughter-shiner, grice, Hrimnir, swine-tar, boar,
Saehrimnir, barrow, shoat, slaughter-bear, dirt-treader,thriver, warlike, skunp, Thrond [thriving], Van-child.
Warg, wolf, Geri, watcher and grey beast, Hati, Hrodvitnirand heath-dweller, Freki and forest-dweller, Fenrir,
leopard, Goti, worthy, noisy, howler, fighter, dusky, dread­
ful and dark-cheeked.
And moreover the names of the she-wolf are: wargin,
barker and dusky, faintness.
There are nine heavens on high that are listed. I know the
nethermost, it is Vindblain [wind-dark], it is Heidthornir[clouded-brightness] and Hregg-Mimir [storm-Mimir]. The
second heaven is Andlang [extended] — this you can under­
stand — the third Vidblain [wide-dark]. I declare that
Vidfedmir [wide-embracer] is the fourth, Hriod [coverer],and Hlyrnir [twin-lit] I think is the sixth; Gimir [fiery or
jewelled], Vet-Mimir [winter-Mimir]. I guess now that eightheavens have been enumerated. Skatymir [rich-wetter]stands higher than the clouds, it is beyond all worlds.

Sun and day-star, sight, fair-wheel, lightning, coverer, toy,
grace-shine, disc, lightning, doubt-disc and light-bringer,
sprinkler, elf-disc and Dvalin’s toy.
164

Hattatal[list of verse-forms]
which Snorri Sturluson composed about
King Hakon and Duke Skuli
What kinds of verse-form are there in poetry?
They are of three kinds.
What are they?
Those that are in accordance with rule, or licence, or prohibi­tion.
What kinds of rule for verse-forms are there?
Two.
What are they?
Normal and varied.
In what does the normal rule for verse-forms consist?
In two things.
What are they?
Number and distinction.
What kinds of number are there in the rule for verse-forms?
Three.
What are they?
One kind of number is how many verse-forms are found in the
poetry of major poets. The second is how many lines there are in
one stanza in each verse-form. The third is how many syllables are
put in each line in each verse-form.
What kinds of distinction are there in the rule for verse-forms?
Two.
What are they?
Distinction of meaning and distinction of sound.
What is distinction of meaning?
All meaning is distinguished by spelling, but sound is disting­uished by having syllables long or short, hard or soft, and there isa rule of distinctions of sound that we call rhymes, as in this verse:Lætr sár [= sá er] Hákun heitir(hann rekkir lid) bannat(iörd kann frelsa) fyrdum
fridrofs (konungr) ofsa.
165

Hattatal[i]
Siálfr raedr allt ok Elfar
ungr stiliir sá milli(gramr á gipt at fremri)
Gandvíkr iöfurr landi.

He causes, whose name is Hakon—he emboldens troops—
peace-breaking arrogance — the king knows how tofree the land — to be banned to men. Himself he rules theland from Gandvik, this young ruler — the king’s grace isthe greater — all the way to the Elbe, the prince.
Here there is one aspect of spelling that determines the verse-form
and creates the poetical effect, that there are twelve staves[alliterating sounds] in the stanza, and three are put in eachquarter-stanza. In each quarter-stanza there are two lines. Eachline contains six syllables. In the second line there is put first in theline the stave which we call the chief stave. This stave determines
the alliteration. But in the first line this stave will appear twice atthe beginnings of syllables. We call these staves props. If the chiefstave is a consonant, the props must be the same letter, as here:Lætr sá er Hákun beitir
f?ann rekkir lid bannat
But it is wrong if these staves come at the beginning of syllables
more often or less often than this in a quarter-stanza. And if thechief stave is a vowel, the props must also be vowels, and it is moreelegant that each of them should be a different vowel. It is thenalso acceptable for initial vowels to come more frequently in thequarter-stanza in pronouns or in particles of the following kinds:
ek [I], or: en, er, at, í, á, of, af, um [but, when, that, in, on, about,by, around], and this is licence and not the normal rule.
There is a second aspect of the spelling that is involved in therule of the sound which constitutes the verse-form and poeticaleffect. This distinction in the dróttkvcett [court-metre] form re­quires that the quarter-stanzas have the same arrangement ofletters and sounds. In the odd lines this rule is analysed thus:

iörd kann frelsa fyrdum
Here there is: lord... fyrd-. There is one syllable in each positionand each has a different vowel and also initial consonant, but
166

Hattatal[X]

there are the same letters after the vowel in both words. This ruleof assonance we call skothending [half-rhyme]. But in the evenlines it is thus:

fridrofs konungr ofsa

Here there is: -rofs . . .ofs-. There is the same vowel and all thesame sounds following it in both words, but the words are
distinguished by their initial letters. This is called adalhendingar[full rhymes]. The rhymes in dróttkvætt form must be so arranged
that the second rhyme in each line, which is called utdrhending,this must be in the last syllable but one. But the rhyme which iscalled frumhending [first rhyme] appears sometimes at the begin­ning of the line - then we call it oddhending; sometimes in the
middle of the line - then we call it hluthending. This is dróttkvattform. This is the form most often used for elaborate poetry. This is
the foundation of all verse-forms just as speech-runes are theprincipal sort of runes.
How is the rule for verse-forms varied?
In two ways.
How?
In meaning and in sound.
How may it be changed in meaning?
In two ways.
How?
By keeping or changing the forms.
How may the verse-forms be varied and the same form be kept?
By using kennings [periphrastic descriptions] or studning [sup­port] or extended kennings or literal kennings or by composingwith allegory.
What are the forms using kennings?
As follows:

Fellr of fúra stilli
fleinbraks limu axla
Hamdis fang thar er hringum
hylr ættstudill skylia.
Holt felr hildigelti
heila baes ok deilirgulls i gelmis stalli
gunnseid skörungr reidir.
167

Hattatal

Í3-4)

Hamdir’s tunic [a coat of mail] falls around the operator of
the fire of the spear-dash [user of the sword, warrior] where
the upholder of the king’s dynasty protects the limbs of hisshoulders with rings [mail]. The outstanding one covers thehill of the dwelling of die brain [his cranium] with abattle-boar [helmet] and the distributor of gold brandishes
the battle-fish [sword] in the hawk’s perch [hand].

Here in this verse all the concepts are expressed by kennings,
though the rhymes and length of lines and distribution of staves[alliteration] go as was prescribed above. Kennings are distin­
guished by three kinds of usage: first there are simple kennings,
second double, third extended. It is a kenning to call battle ‘spear­
dash’, and it is a double kenning to call a sword ‘fire of thespear-dash’, and it is extended if there are more elements:Úlfs bága verr ægisítr báls hati málu;
sett eru börd fyrir bratta
brún Míms vinar rúnu.
Orms váda kann eidu
allvaldr göfugr halda;
menstrídir niót módur
mellu dólgs til elli.
The splendid hater of the fire of the sea [he who likes to rid
himself of gold, the generous prince] defends the beloved ofthe enemy of the wolf [Odin’s wife lord, earth, i.e. land];ships’ prows are set before the steep brows [cliffs] of Mim’s
friend’s [Odin’s] wife [lord, land]. The noble mighty-ruler
knows how to hold the serpent’s attacker’s [Thor’s] mother[lord, land]. You who torment necklaces [by giving themaway generously], enjoy the troll-wife’s enemy’s [Thor’s]
mother until old age.
What are literal kennings [descriptions]?
As follows:

Stinn sár thróask stórum,sterk egg frömum seggium
hvast skerr hlifar traustar.
Hár gramr lifir framla.
168

Hattatal[4-51

Hrein sverd litar harda
hverr drengr. Göfugr thengill(ítr rönd furask undrum)
unir biartr snöru hiarta.

Severe wounds increase greatly, strong edge cuts sharply
trusty shields for bold men. The high prince lives honour­
ably. Each warrior dyes clean swords mightily. The noble
ruler, bright, rejoices in a bold heart. The fine shield isfurrowed amazingly.

It is a literal description when the word is supported with a literalepithet like this, for instance to call wounds severe, because great
wounds are heavy; and it is normal to say that they increase. A
second literal description is when the wounds increase greatly.
Here we have one line and two literal descriptions. In the secondline the edge is said to be strong and men bold. In the third, we
have cuts sharply, and the shield is trusty, and in the fourth line
the description of the king as great, and his life as honourable, andthen the description of the sword as clean and mightily reddened,
and a certain one of the troops, and it would be normal language if
the man were named. The king is said to be noble, the shield was
splendid and was furrowed wonderfully quickly, the king re­joiced, happy with valiant heart. Now there are here exemplified
sixteen literal descriptions in eight lines, but they add greatly tothe poetical effect even if this scheme is not imitated precisely.
There are three kinds of literal description: one is called ordin­
ary literal description, the second support, the third doubly
strengthened.

Odharda spyr ek eyda
egg fullhvötum seggium.
Dádrökkum veldr dauda
dreng ofrhugadr thengill.
Hamdökkum fær Hlakkar
hauk munnroda aukinn(veghraesinn spyr ek visa)
valdr ógnthorinn skialdar.
I hear that the mighty hard edge destroys very brave men.
The most valiant prince causes the death of the deed-bold
warrior. The battle-daring shield-wielder brings increase to169

Hattatal[6]

the mouth-reddening of Hlokk’s dark-coated hawk [theraven, whose mouth is reddened by carrion]. I hear that theruler has glory to boast of.

Here a support accompanies each literal description, as for in­
stance when the edge is said to be mighty hard, and the men very
brave. This is a literal description: hard edge, brave men. It is a
support when another confirmatory word accompanies the literaldescription.
What is allegory?
As follows:

Svidr lætr sóknar nadra
slídrbraut iöfurr skrida.
Ótt ferr rógs ór réttum
ramsnákr fetilhamsi.
Linnr kná sverda sennu
sveita bekks at leita.
Ormr thyrr vals at varmri
víggiöll sefa stigu.
The wise prince makes the adders of battle [swords] creep
the scabbard-path [be drawn]. The mighty war-snake goesswiftly from the straight strap-slough [scabbard]. The
sword-quarrel serpent can seek the stream of blood. The
worm of the slain rushes along the mind’s path to the warm
war-river.
This is allegory to call a sword a worm and use an appropriate
determinant, and call the scabbard its path and the straps andfittings its slough. It is in accordance with a worm’s nature that itglides out of its slough and then often glides to water. Here theallegory is so constructed that the worm goes to find the stream ofblood where it glides along the path of thought, i.e. men’s breasts.
Allegory is held to be well composed if the idea that is taken up ismaintained throughout the stanza. But if a sword is called a worm,
and then a fish or a wand or varied in some other way, this iscalled a monstrosity, and it is considered a defect.
Now the dróttkvætt form has been presented with five distinct
variants, and yet it has been the same verse-form, normal andwithout departure from it. And frequently some or all of these170

Hattatal[7-8]

variant features are found in a single stanza, and that is normal,
because kennings enlarge the vocabulary resources, literal de­
scriptions enhance and expand the sense, allegory displays art andverbal skill.
It is a licence in verse-forms to have slow or quick syllables sothat there is a drawing on or back from the normal number of therule, and they can be found so slow that there are five syllables inthe second and fourth line, as here:

Hiálms fylli spekr hilmir
hvatr Vindhlés skatna.
Hann kná hiörvi thunnum
hraes thiódár ræsa.
Ýgr hilmir lætr eigaöld dreyrfá skiöldu.
Styrs rýdr stillir hersum
sterkr iárngrá serki.
The bold king quietens men with Vindhler’s helmet-filler[Heimdall’s head, i.e. a sword]. He does make flow themighty corpse-rivers with slender sword. The terrible prince
makes men have gore-stained shields. The strong ruler
reddens lords’ iron-grey battle-shirts.
In this verse the first rhymes in each line are all oddhendingar[first-syllable rhymes], and yet this verse-form is dróttkvcett inform.
Now we shall demonstrate syllables that are so quick andplaced so close to each other, that as a result the length of the line
is increased:

Klofinn spyr ek hiálm fyrir hilmis
hiarar egg. Duga seggir.
Thví eru heldr thar er skekr skiöldu
skafin sverd litud ferdar.
Bila muna gramr thó at gumna
gular rítr nái lita.
Draga thorir hann yfir hreina
hvatan brand thrumu randa.

I hear that helmet is cloven before the prince’s sword-edge.
Men act well. So where shields are shaken troop’s burnished171

Hattatal[8]

swords are quite coloured. The king will not give way
though he gets to see men’s yellow shields. He dares to draw
keen sword over pure noise of shields.

Here there are nine syllables in the first and third lines, and sevenin the second and fourth. This is an example of the maximum
number of syllables that can be in a line in the dróttkvætt form,
and from this it can be seen that it is easily acceptable to haveseven or eight in the first and third lines. In this stanza the firstrhymes in each line are hluthendingar [middle of the line rhymes]
and this makes it possible to lengthen the line by putting as manysyllables as possible before the rhymes.
The second licence in verse-forms is to have in the dróttkvætt
form one or two lines in the stanza with álög [extensions] ordetthent [falling rhyme] or dunhent [echoing rhyme] or skiálfhent[shivering] or with some variation that does not spoil the poetic
form. A third licence is having adalhendingar [full rhymes] in thefirst and third lines. A fourth licence is shortening syllables so as tomake one out of two and take away the vowel from one of them.
We call this bragannál [poetical speech], as in this composition ofThorarin Mahliding:Vardak mik thars myrdir
mordfárs vega thordi.

[Vardak for varda ek; thars for thar es]

I defended myself <from women’s reproach> where thebattle-danger’s [sword’s] destroyer [warrior, here the poet]
dared to fight.

This category extends much further. It is the fifth licence to varytenses within the half-stanza. The sixth licence is having samhendingar [coincident rhymes] or lidhendingar [helping rhymes] indróttkvœtt. It is the seventh to have the same word in bothhalf-stanzas, and this is considered a defect in single-stanza
poems. The eighth is effective repetition of what has been utteredearlier, either a whole line or less. The ninth is extending akenning to a fifth determinant, but it is out of proportion if it isextended further. Even if it can be found in the works of ancient
poets, we no longer tolerate it. The tenth is when the stanza has a172

Hattatal[91

drag [appendage] or a studill [buttress, additional line at the end].
The eleventh is that er [is, who] or en [but] or at [that] may be put
more often than once in a half-stanza, as in Ref’s verse:
Sadi er hinn er hrannahádýra vel stýrir
(tíd erumk vitnis váda
vingerd) unir sinu.
Happy is that steerer of the tall animal of the waves [ship]
who is well content with his lot. I am practised in the wolf’s
danger’s [Odin’s] wine-making [poetry-composing].

And this also applies [i.e. it is a licence, a repetition] if it happensin the second half-stanza, when a person has been named or has
been referred to by a kenning in the first half, even if he is thenreferred to in no other way than ‘he’, or ‘the other’, or ‘thisperson’, or ‘that person’. The twelfth is atridsklauf [tmesis?].
What is variation of tense?
Of three kinds.
How?
That which was, that which is, that which shall be.
What is the rule for varying verse-forms by meaning only?
This may be done by giving a name to the variant forms andthus making a distinction in the first kind of number that relates toverse-forms, but keeping the second and the third numbers in therule. This means, in accordance with what was set down above,
having eight lines in the stanza, and the third kind of number ishaving six syllables in the line, with the same rule as before for the
rhymes. The verse-forms are altered by various turns of phrase,
and this is one form which is called sextánmæltr [sixteensentenced]:
Vex idn. Vellir rodna.
Verpr lind. Thrimu snerpir,
Faesk gagn. Fylkir eignask.
Fair hitnar. Sedsk vitnir.
Skekr rönd. Skildir bendask.
Skelfr askr. Gridum raskar.
Brandr gellr. Bryniur sundrask.
Braka spiör. Litask örvar.
173

Hattatal[io-ii]Labour grows. Field goes red. Shield is thrown. Battle grows
harsh. Victory is won. The prince gains. Dart grows hot.
Wolf is sated. Targe is shaken. Bucklers are bent. Ash[-spear] shivers. Peace is disturbed. Brand rings. Mail-coats
are split. Spears crack. Arrows are dyed.
Here there are two complete sentences in each line, but the lengthof lines and the syllables and alliteration as in dróttkvætt.
Next dróttkvœtt form is varied in another way, and again inmeaning only. This verse-form is called áttmælt [eightsentenced]:lord verr siklingr sverdum.
Sundr riúfa spiör undir.
Lind skerr i styr steinda.
Stökkr hauss af bol lausum.
Falla folk á velli.
Fremr mildr iöfurr hildi.
Egg bítr á lim lýti.
Liggr skör snidin hiörvi.
The king defends the land with swords. Spears tear wounds
open. The coloured shield is cut in battle. The head flies
from the separated body. Hosts fall on the field. The
generous prince wages war. The edge bites blemishes onlimbs. The scalp lies cut by sword.

Here a sentence is completed in each line. This is the third:Ýskelfir kann úlfum
audmildr búa gildi.
Lsetr gyldis kyn gáti
gunnsnarr una harri.
Faer gotna vinr vitni
valbiór afar stóran.
Vargr tér ór ben bergia
blóddrykk ok grön rióda.

The bow-shaker [warrior] generous with wealth knows
how to prepare the wolves a feast [make war]. The battle­
keen lord lets the wolf’s kin rejoice in prey. The friend ofmen gives the wolf a very great deal of corpse-beer [blood].
174

Hattatal[n-13]

The warg does taste blood-drink from the wound andredden its lips.
Here the sentence ends in two lines. The verse form that will be
written next is the fourth of those that have variation, but the fifth
in the number of verse-types. It is called stælt [inlaid]:
Hákun veldr ok höldum
(hardrádum gud iardar
tiggia lér med tfri)
teitr thiódkonungs heiti.
Vald á vidrar foldar(vindraefurs iöfurr gaefuödlingi skóp ungum)örlyndr skati giörla.
Hakon possesses as well as subjects — God grants thefirm-ruling prince land with glory — happy, the name ofgreat king. Power over a wide realm — the lord of thewinds’ roof [heaven] has bestowed grace on the young
nobleman — the generous prince has completely.

Here we have:

Hákun veldr ok höldum
teitr thiódkonungs heiti,
Hakon possesses as well as subjects, happy, the name ofgreat king,but the second and third lines belong together in sense, and this iscalled a stál [inlay]. This is the fifth:
Manndýrdir fá maerdar
mart öld fira gaetilýtr audgiafa itrumoil. Stód saer of fiöllum.
Riódvendils gat randa
raeki-Niord at saekia
hæf ferd var sú harda
heim. Skaut iörd ór geima.
175

Hattatal[14-15]

His virtues bring glory to the protector of men, all noble
mankind bows to the splendid wealth-giver. The sea lay
over the mountains. 1 was able to visit at home the Niord[king] who cultivates the reddening rod of shields [sword],that journey was very fitting. The earth sprang out of the sea.

This we call hiástcelt [abutted]. Here the first, second and thirdlines belong together in sense, and yet this sentence includes one
syllable comprising a complete word from the fourth line, and thefive syllables that follow complete a full sentence and the express­
ion has to be proverbial statements.
This is the seventh, langlokur [late conclusions]:
Hákun rædr med heidan—
Hefir drengia vinr fengit(lönd verr budlungr brandi
breidfeld) mikit veldi.
Rógleiks náir ríki
remmi-Týr at stýra
(öld fagnar thví) eignu—ordróm konungdómi.
Hakon rules with bright ... The friend of warriors has
gained great power, the prince defends his extensive lands
with the brand. The Tyr who encourages the play of hostil­ity [war, i.e. the king] is able to rule his own kingdom. Men
welcome this.... glory the kingdom.

Here a sentence begins in the first line and is completed in the last,
and they make up a separate statement. This is the eighth verseform, tiltekit [linked]:
Theim er, grundar grimu
gialdseids ok var faldinn,(drótt man enn thann) áttiádr hans fadir ráda.
Gunnhættir kná grýttu
(gramr býr of threk) stýra
(stórt rædr hann en hiarta
hvetr) budlunga setri.
... which his father had to rule before, being crowned withthe ground-gold-fish’s helmet [helmet of terror]; the court
176

Hattatal[16-17]still remembers him. He who risks battle is able to rule theprinces’ bouldered seat [Norway]. The king has great en­
durance. He rules mightily and his valour urges him.

Here the first half-stanza is dependent on the preceding stanza,
and the word that is known as afleiding [antecedent], which was
the last in the previous stanza, links with this half-stanza, and thishalf-stanza is otherwise not correct in expression.
This is the ninth verse-form, drögur [drawings]:
Setr of visa vitranvígdrótt—en thar hniga—(ýr dregsk) vid skotskúrum
skialdborg—i gras aldir.
Vápnriódr stikar vida
(vellbriótr á lög) spiótum(thryngr at sverda söngvi)
sóknhardr thrömu iardar.
The war-band sets a shield wall around the wise ruler
against missile-showers and men sink there into the grass;bow is drawn. The battle-hard weapon-reddener fences
widely the borders of the land with spears; the gold-breaker[generous king] presses over the sea to the song of swords[battle].

The word that is first in this stanza is the last in the preceding one,and thus the second is ‘drawn’ from the first. Hence it is called‘drawings’.
Next is the tenth verse-form, which we call refhvörf [‘fox­
turns’, antithesis]. In this verse-form those words are chosen to beplaced next to each other that have most dissimilar meanings, andyet both words should have the same cadence if it is to be mosteffective. But for this form it is difficult to find all words of
opposite meanings, and so in it for this reason some words are
stretched [in meaning] for convenience. But it is demonstrated inthis next stanza how words will be found if they are sought
carefully, and it will be apparent in it too that most first attempts
can bear improvement. The verse is as follows:

Síks glódar verr sækir
slétt skard hafi iardar.
177

Hattatal[17]
Hlifgranda rekr hendir
heit köld loga öldu.
Fliótt válkat skilr fylkir
fridlae; röduls szvar
ránsid raesir stödvar
reidr—gladr—frömum meidum.

The ditch-glede’s [gold’s] attacker [generous king] defends
the sea-smoothed land-deft [fiords, Firdir in Norway]. The
wave-flame [gold] thrower [generous king] drives away
cold threats with shield-harmer [sword]. The happy leader
perceives hastily-weighed peace-destruction [warfare]; theangry ruler puts a stop to the plundering habits of boldsea-sun [gold] trees [warriors].
Here in the first line are the words: stks glódar. Stk [ditch] iswater, glód [glede] is fire, and fire and water are contrary to eachother. Verr [defends] scekir [attacker/attacks]: it is different to
defend and to attack. The second line is: slétt skard haft iardar.
Slétt [smooth], that is even, skard [cleft], that is unsmooth, andsimilarly: haft iardar. Haf is sea, iörd is land. And so it says in the
one phrase that one goes from sea to land. The third line is thus:
hlifgranda [shield-harmer]. This is an obvious case of refhvörf,
and similarly rekr [drives] hendir [thrower/catches]. He who rekr
moves something away, while he who hendir stops something.
Similarly the fourth: heit [threat/hot] köld [cold], these words are
obvious and similarly: loga [flame] öldu [wave]. Logi is fire, alda
is sea. The fifth line is: flióttválkat. Fliótt [hastily] is what is quick,vdlkat [weighed/hovered] what is slow, and then: skilr fylkir. He
who skilr [perceives/divides] scatters, but he who fylkir [leader/musters] gathers. The sixth line is: fridlee. Fridr [peace] is recon­
ciliation, ke [destruction/fraud] is machination, and again: rödull
scevar. Rödull is the sun, and it is used for fire in all kennings. Seer
[the sea] is as before contrary to fire. The seventh line is: ránsid
[plundering habit/morality]. Ran is immorality. And then reesir
stödvar. He moves something who rcesir [ruler/impels] and holds
something back who stödvar [puts a stop to]. The eighth line is:reidr gladr [angry happy]. The meaning is obvious, and then:frömum [bold/advance] meidum [trees/injure]. It is quite different
to cause someone advancement or injury. Here are demonstrated
in this stanza sixteen phrases of contrary meanings, and most of178

Hattatal[18]

them have to be turned to their proper meaning by means ofword-play, and this is how it is to be understood: ditch-glede, i.e.
gold; attacker of gold, that is a man; he defends the cleft of landsmoothed by the sea, i.e. Firdir, this is the name of a district in
Norway; with shield-harmer, i.e. a weapon; thrower of wave­
flame is a man, who drives away cold threats with the sword, thatis to punish wickedness; hastily-weighed may be said of what isunpremeditated, he perceives this from the hostility; a king iscalled fylkir [leader]; the ruler puts a stop to the plundering habitsof bold sea-sun-trees. This is called the greatest refhvörf.
This is another refhvörf, and here there are only half as manylines that are composed with refhvörf, and there are two of themin alternate lines, and so it is known as the greatest also:

Blód fremr (hlökk at hádisk
heldr slitnar dul) vitni.
Skiöldr, en skatnar foldir,
skelfr hardr, taka varda.
Fal laetr of her hvitan
hollr gramr rekinn framdan,
en tiggia sonr (seggium
svalr brandr) dugir (grandar).
Blood benefits wolf, it rather breaks concealment that battle
is waged. Hard shield shakes and men begin to defend
lands. The true prince makes the white inlaid spear beadvanced over the host and the king’s son acts well; coolsword harms men.
Here there are these refhvörf in every other line: heldr [rather/holds] and slitnar [breaks], and dul [concealment] and vitni[wolf/witness]. Dul is hiding, but vitni is demonstration. In the
fourth line are these: skelfr [shakes/trembling) hardr [hard/firm],
taka [begin/seize] varda [defend]. In the sixth line is: hollr [true/
gracious] gramr [prince/angry], rekinn [inlaid/driven back] fram­dan [advanced]. In the eighth line is svalr [cool] brandr [sword/
brand]; brand is a word for fire; dugir [acts well/helps] grandar[harms]. This is composed using word-play. Here also it isanother signification of the words that must be taken for the sense
as follows, saying that blood benefits vitni, i.e. the wolf, andconcealment or secrecy is broken or breached in that hlökk, i.e.
179

Hattatal[19-20]

battle, is waged. And in the second couplet we have that hardshield shakes and men begin to defend the kingdom. And in thethird couplet we find that the true prince makes the white inlaid
spear be advanced over the host; that which is moved forward isadvanced. In the fourth couplet we find that the cool sword harms
men, but the king’s son acts well.
This is the third refhvörf form:

Segl skekr of hlyn—Huglar—(hvast drifa skip) rasta,
en foil—of gram—Gylli
grunn (diúp) hata unna.
Né Ran vidr hafhreinum
háraust—skapar flaustum—(hrönn fyrir húfi thunnum
heil klofnar) frid—deilu.

Sail shakes above the prince on the current-maple [ship];tall ships drive keenly; the shallows near Hugl are danger­
ous to the waves’ horse [ship]. Noisy Ran does not create
peace for the sea-deer [ships]; she causes conflict for cruis­
ers, the entire wave breaks before the slender bow.
This counts as the greatest refhvörf. Here there is one line in eachhalf-stanza that is composed with refhvörf, and there are two in
each, as follows: grunn [shallow] diúp [tall/deep], hata [aredangerous to/hate] unna [waves’/love]. And in the second half­stanza we have: heil [entire] klofnar [breaks], frid [peace] deilu[conflict]. This counts as one of the greatest refhvörf and is theleast of the type.
Now we begin the lesser refhvörf. Here there is one refhvörf 'm
the line.

Hélirhlýr atstáli,hafit felír, en svifr thelli(ferd dvöl firrisk) harda
fram mót lagar glammi.
Vindr réttr vádir bendir;
vefr rekr á haf snekkiur;
vedr thyrr; visa idiur(varar fýsir skip) lýsa.
180

Hattatal

11-1]

The bow [/warms] freezes at the prow, the sea [/lifted] falls
but the timber glides hard forwards against [/back] thewater’s uproar; the crew [/movement] is deprived of rest.
The direct [/straightens] wind [/twists] bends the sails; thecloth [/folds] drives [/unfolds] the warships over the sea; theweather [/paces] whistles [rushes]; the ship is eager for[/exhorts] harbour [/warns]; the labours reflect glory on theruler.

Here there is one refhvarf in each line and most involve word­
play. This is the second of the lesser:

Lung frá ek lýda thengils(lá reis of skut) geisa,
en svörd of her herda.
Hlióp stód und gram Róda.
Thiódfær thungra skeida
thröng rúm skipat löngum;
stál laetr styriar deilirstinn klökk í mar sökkva.
I have heard that the troops’ king’s ship rushed, the water[/lay down] rose up above the stern, and that the thongs
stiffened above the host. Rodi’s stallion [the ship/stood still]
galloped beneath the prince. People are able for a long time
to man the narrow benches [/spacious] of the heavy
warships; the battle-dealer makes prow which is stiff softly
sink into the sea.

Here there is refhvörf in every other line. This is the third:
Himinglæva strýkr hávar(hrönn skilia sog) thiliur.
Lögstíga vill lægir
liótr fagrdrasil brióta.
Lýsheims náir lióma(lídr ár) of gram blídum(udr rekkir kiöl klökkvanköld) eisa; far geisar.

Himinglaeva strokes the high planks, the keel parts thewave. The ocean tries to break, ugly, the fair horse of thesea-paths. There manages to shine around the happy prince
181

Hattatal[2-3—41the fish-home’s [sea’s] fire [gold], cold wave encourages
pliant keel; oar moves; vessel speeds.

Here there is refhvörf in each half-stanza. This is the least

refhvörf.

There is also the verse-form that we call refhvörfs brother:

Firrisk hönd med harra
hlumr. Lidr vetr af sumri,
en flaust vid log Lista
long taka hvild at göngu.
O1 mædir lid lýda(létt skipask höll) it rétta,en skál at giöf góla
gulls svífr (torn) in fulla.
The oar-handle is separated from the hand among the lord’smen. After summer comes winter, the long ships have a rest
from travelling over the sea near Uster. The company ofmen is made sleepy by the ale, so proper [/straight], the hall[/askew] soon gets crowded when empty, and the full goldcup glides readily as a gift.

Here in the second and fourth lines there are words of contrary
meaning like refhvörf, but they are not adjacent to each other andthere is a syllable between them and they do not have the same
rhythm. These verse-forms that have just been written are dróttkvætt in rhymes and length of line: they have six syllables in eachline and full rhymes in the second and fourth but half-rhymes in
the first and third.
What variations of dróttkvœtt affect rhymes and line-length?
As in this example, dunhenda [echoing rhyme]:
Hreintiörnum gledr homa
(horn náir litt at thorna,miödr hegnir böl bragna)
bragningr skipa sagnir.
Fólkhömlu gefr framlaframlyndr vidum gamlar,
hinn er heldr fyrir skot skiöldum,
skiöldungr hunangs öldur.
182

Hattatal[15—6]The prince gladdens the ships’ crews with pure lakes ofhorns [drink]. The horn does not get to dry out too much.
Mead keeps back men’s miseries. The bold-hearted kingwho holds shields in front of missiles gives generously oldhoney-waves [mead] to army-rod-[sword-]trees [warriors].

Here there are the same words at the beginning of the second andfourth lines as are at the end of the first and third. This is tilsagt[annotated]:
Röst gefr ödlingr iastar—öl virdi ek svá—fyrdum.
Thögn fellir brim bragna—biórr fom er that—homa.
Mils kann mildingr heilsu—miödr heitir svá—veita.
Strúgs kemr i val veiga—vin kallak that—galli.
The king gives currents of yeast—that is what I adjudge ale
to be—to men. Men’s silence is dispelled by surf—that is oldbeer—of horns. The prince knows how speech’s salvation—that is what mead is called—is to be given. In the choicest ofcups comes—this is what I call wine—dignity’s destruction.
Now we have ordskviduhdttr [proverb-form]:

Fúss brýtr fylkir eisu
fens—bregdr hönd á veniu.
Ránhegnir gefr Rinar
röf—spyrr ætt at iöfrum.
Miök trúir raesir rekka
raun—sér giöf til launa.
Rád á lofdungr lýdalengr—vex hverr af gengi.
The leader is eager to distribute fen’s fire [gold] — the handtends to act in accordance with custom. The punisher ofplundering gives' Rhine’s amber [gold] — princes become
famous among men. The ruler greatly trusts his men’s
experience — a gift looks to its recompense. The king has
power over men for the future — each man gains fromcompanionship.
183

Hattatal[27-8]

Iskalda skar ek öldueik—var súd in bleika
reynd—til raesis fundarriks—emk kudr at sliku.
Briótr thá hersirs heiti
hátt—dugir sæmd at vátta—auds af iarla prýdi
itrs—vara siglt til litils.
I cut the ice-cold wave with oak — the pale planking was
put to the test — to meet the powerful ruler — I am
renowned for such. The breaker of splendid wealth [man,the poet] received the noble name of hersir [lord] — it isworth reporting the honour — from the ornament of earls— the sailing was not for nothing.

This is álagsháttr [extension-form]. Here the second and fourthlines begin with a complete word of one syllable and this word
belongs in sense with the previous line, but the five syllables that
follow are a separate statement.
Next is the first verse-form to be written which is varied fromdróttkvatt form by a complete change of form, and from now on
we shall exemplify the distinctions by which dróttkvcett form isvaried when it is changed in alliteration or rhyme or length of line,
which is sometimes increased and sometimes shortened. This istviskelfi [double-shaken]:

Vandbaugs veitti sendir
vigrakkr—en giöf thakkak
skiaidbrags skylia mildum—
skipreidu mér—heida.
Fann naest fylkir unnaföldýr at giöf stýri
stálhreins. Styriar deilis
stórlaeti sá ek mæta.
The war-bold shield-wand [sword] provider [warrior] gave
me a ship-levy estate, and I thank the prince generous withshield-crash [battle] for the fine gift. The ruler next foundavailable as a gift wave-animals [ships] for the stem-deer[ship] steersman [the poet]. I saw the splendid munificenceof the hostility-controller [king].
184

Hattatal[i?-3o]Here the variation in the form is in the first and third lines: here
the alliterating syllables come so close to each other that there isjust one syllable between them. These studlar [props] constituteskiálfhendur [shiverings], and the first one is the beginning of theline, and the rhymes are placed as far apart as possible. But if thefrumhending [first rhyme] comes in the syllable next to the first, it
is still skiálfhenda.
This is the detthendr [falling rhyme] form:

Tvaer man ek hilmi hýrum
heimsvistir ótvistar,hlaut ek ásamt at sitia
seimgildi fémildum.
Fúss gaf fylkir hnossir
fleinstýri margdýrar,hollr var hersa still i
hoddspennir fiölmennum.
I remember two not unenjoyable visits to the cheerfulprince, I got to sit in company with the generous gold-payer.
The ruler gave eagerly most valuable treasures to the spear­
guider [the poet], the hoard-spender [the poet] was loyal tothe controller of lords with his great company.
Here the form is varied in the second and fourth lines, and it is the
fourth syllable [which is long and stressed] that is significant for
the form.
This is draugshdttr [ghost-form]:Tholl bid ek hilmis hylli
halda grænna skialda.
Askr beid af thvi throska
thiliu Hrungnis ilia.
Vígfoldar niót valdi
vandar margra landa—nýtr vartu oss—til itrar
elli—dólga fellir.

I pray that the green shields’ fir [the poet] may keep theprince’s favour. Hrungnir’s sole-plank [shield] ash [thepoet] has gained advancement from this. Battle-land[shield-]wand [sword] wielder [warrior], enjoy many lands
185

Hattatal

131-2-1

until splendid old age. You have been beneficial to us, fellerof enemies.

Here again the variation in form is in the fourth and second lines,
and here it is the third syllable [which is long and stressed] that issignificant.
Here begins the second poem.
Stáls dynblakka stökkvi
stinngeds samir minnask(aims bifsæki aukum
Yggs feng) á lof thengils.
Odds bláferla iarliörbriót né skal thrióta(Hárs saltunnu hrannirhrærum) ód at stæra.
It befits the impeller [sailor, the poet] of the noisy stem­
horses [ships] to recall the glory of the firm-minded prince.
We activate Ygg’s [Odin’s] gain [poetry] for him who seeks
to make the bow quiver [the warrior]. The eager breaker[warrior, the poet] of the point’s [arrow’s] dark paths[shields] shall not cease to increase eulogy for the earl. We
stir the waves of Har’s [Odin’s] hall-vat.

This is called bragarbót [poem’s improvement]. Here the form isvaried in the first and third lines. Here the props are placed as far
apart as possible, but the rhymes so that they are separated byonly one syllable. This distinguishes the form.
This form is called ridhendur [rocking rhymes]:

É1 threifsk skarpt of Skúlaskýs snarvinda lindar,
egg vard hvöss í höggum
hraes dynbrunnum runnin.
Sveimdireytir bid sveita
sniallr ilstafna hrafni.
Pall vard und fet falia
fram thrábami amar.
The sharp storm [battle] of the keen spear-wind cloud[shield] raged around Skuli, the sharp edge was flooded with186

Hattatal[33—41rushing corpse-streams amid the blows. The brave turmoil­
performer [warrior] covered the raven’s sole-stems [claws]with blood. Paul had to fall down beneath the tread of theeagle’s beloved offspring.

Here the form is varied in the second and fourth lines. There therhymes come both together near the end and they both have thesame sound in the ending and it is better that one of them isfollowed by a consonant.
This form is called veggiat [wedged]:
Lifs vard ran at raunum(réd sverd) skapat miök ferdum.
Stöng ód thrátt á thingi
thiódsterk, lidu fram merki.
Hraud of hilmis bródur
hvöss egg fridar ván seggium.
Spiót nádu blá bíta.
Búandmenn hlutu thar renna.

Robbing of life came to be made very much a reality forsoldiers, sword was the cause. Mighty strong standard
advanced irresistibly at the assembly [battle], banners went
forward. Sharp edges deprived men of hope of peace aroundthe king’s brother. Dark spears got to bite. Peasants there
had to flee.
Here there is variation of form in the second and fourth lines andthere one syllable is added just before the last two and thus thelength of the line is increased.
Now we have flagdaháttr [monster form]:
Flaust bió fólka treystirfagrskiöldudustum öldum.
Leid skar bragnings bródir
biartveggiudustu reggi.
Hest rak hilmir rasta
hardsveipadastan reipum.
Siár hlaut vid thröm thióta
thunghúfudustu lungi.

The tester of armies provided a craft with the most beautifully
187

Hattatal[35-6]

shielded men. The king’s brother cut the sea with the mostbrightly sailed pinnace. The prince drove the current-horsewith most tightly-twisted ropes. The sea had to resoundagainst the side of the most heavily planked long-boat.

Here the form is varied in the second and fourth lines: here there isboth a syllable added and the word extended to the superlative
degree, and three syllables come after this extra syllable and it isnormal dróttkvætt if it is taken out.
This form is the old skiálfhenda [shivering]:
Reist at Vágsbrú vestan(varrsima bar fiarri)
heitfastr hávar rastir
hiálm-Týr svölu stýri.
Stökr óx er bar blakka
brims fyrir iörd it grimma
herfiöld (húfar svöldu)hrannlád búandmanna.
The helmet-Tyr [warrior], true to his word, cut deep cur­rents with cold steering-oar from the west to Vagsbru. Theline of the wake stretched far. The peasants’ flight increased
when the grim wave-land [sea] bore a great multitude ofhorses of the sea [ships] past the coast. The planks weremade cold.

Here there is skiálfhent [shivering, i.e. alliteration separated byonly one syllable] with full rhyme in the third line in eachhalf-stanza, but in other respects as dróttkvætt. This form wasinvented by Veili. He was at the time lying on an outlying skerry,having escaped from a shipwreck, and they were badly off for
clothes and the weather was cold. Then he composed a poem
called the shivering poem or the refrainless drdpa [formallyconstructed poem], and it was based on the story of Sigurd.
This is called thrihent [triple-rhymed]:

Hristi hvatt thá er reistisk
herföng miök lðng véstöng.
Samdi folk en frömdusk
fullsterk hringserk grams verk.
188

Hattatal[36-8]

Hönd lék—herium reyndisk—
hiörr kaldr—allvaldr mannbaldr.
Egg- (frá ek breida bioggiu
bragníng fylking) stód -thing.
Armour was shaken violently when the very long standard
was raised. The army donned the mail-shirt and the prince’s
most mighty deeds were achieved. Cold sword waved inhand, the ruler proved outstanding to the hosts. I heard thatthe leader drew up the broad battle-line, the parliament ofedges [battle] took place.

There are here three full rhymes in the second and fourth lines andthey all have the same endings, and there is a syllable in front ofeach of them.
Now we have the precious [ornate] form:

Vann—kann virdum banna
vald—giald—höfundr aldar—
ferd verd fólka herdi
fest mest—sá er bil lestir.
Hátt thrátt hölda áttar—
hraud aud iöfurr raudum—(that) gat thengill skatna
thiód (stód af gram) bióda.
Deserving men caused to be made very great payment to theincreaser of battles. The judge of men who destroys hesita­tion knows how to stop men’s arrogance. The prince of men
was able to show the group of the clan of höldar [land­owners] powerfully how to behave. This arose from theruler. The chieftain has got rid of red wealth.

Here there are in the first and third line two full rhymes together,and the third as usual at the end.

Farar snarar fylkir byriar,
freka breka lemr á snekkium,
vaka taka visa rekkar,
vidar skridar at that bidia.
Svipa skipa sýiur heppnar
sömum thrömum í byr römum.
189

Hattatal[38-40]Haka skaka hrannir blökkum
hlidar, midar und kiöl nidri.

The ruler undertakes swift journeys, strong waves lash thewarships, the chieftain’s men begin to stay awake and thenurge on the timber’s movement. The fortunate planks flex
the fine ships’ gunwales in the powerful wind. The waves
shake the sides of Haki’s horses [ships], there is movement
down under the keel.
Here there are three rhymes in the line, with half-rhyme in the first
and third lines, and the third rhyme <as usual at the end>, andthere is a syllable next to each rhyme.
This verse-form is called tiltekit [linked]:Ok hialdreifan hófu
hoddstiklanda miklir(mordflýtir kná mætamálmskúrardyn) hiálmar
hialdrs thá er hilmir foldarhugdýrum gaf stýri—ógnsvellir faer allan—
iarldóm—göfugr sóma.
And great helmets enhanced the battle-happy treasure­thrower [generous lord]. The urger of killing [war-leader]can meet die metal-storm-clash [battle] when the king of theland gave the noble-hearted battle-controller an earldom.
The honourable war-sweller receives all glory.

Here it is the fifth line that varies the form and in this line thelanguage is dependent on the first half-stanza, and in the incidenceof alliteration this line becomes very similar to the new skidlfhenda [shivering].
This versé-form is called greppaminni [poets’ reminder]:Hverr fremr hildi barra?
Hverr er mælingum ferri ?
Hverr gerir höpp at stærri?
Hverr kann aud at thverra ?
Veldr hertogi hialdri,
hann er first blikurmanni,
190

Hattatal[40-42]
harm á höpp at sýnni,harm vélir blik spannar.

Who wages harsh war? Who is far from niggardly? Whoachieves greater success? Who knows how to diminish
wealth [be generous with gold] ? The duke brings about war,
he is furthest from being a miser, he has clearer success, hecheats the light of the palm [gives away gold].

This verse-form is a verbal variation of dróttkvætt form.
Now we have the form that we call lidhendur [helping rhymes]:
Velr ítrhugadr ýtumotrgiöld iöfurr snotrum.
Opt hefr things fyrir thröngvi
thungfarmr Grana sprungit.
Hiörs vill riódr at ridi
reidmálmr Gnitaheidar.
Vigs er hreytt at hættis
hvatt Niflunga skatti.

The splendid-minded prince selects otter’s payment [gold]
for wise men. Often has the heavy burden of Grani [gold]
broken [been distributed] because of the assemblycompeller [ruler]. The sword-reddener [warrior] desires theloaded metal of Gnita-heath [gold] to be scattered. The
Niflungs’ treasure is flung energetically with the battledarer.

It is lidhendur when there is the same sound in front of the rhymes,
and it is correctly composed lidhendr form when in the secondand fourth lines there is oddhending [rhyme in the first syllable ofthe line] and half-rhyme with the rhymes that are in the preceding
line, and then there is the same initial sound for all these threerhyming syllables.
Next is the verse-form that we call rétthent [consistently
rhymed]:Alraudum drifr audi,
ógnrakkr firum hlakkar,
veit ek, hvar vals á reitu
verpr hringdropa snerpir.
191

Hattatal[41-3]

Sniallr lætr á fit falla
fagrregn iöfurr thegnum(ógnflýtir verr ýtumarm) Mardallar hvarma.
There is scattering of the all-red wealth [gold], I know,
where the attack-bold battle-sharpener [warrior] throws
ring-droplets [gold] on men’s hawk-lands [arms]. The boldprince makes the fair rain of Mardoll’s lids [gold] fall on
subject’s limbs, the attack-hastener [warrior] covers men’s
arms.
Here there are full rhymes in the first and third lines, but care has
been taken to leave out the half-rhymes.
Now comes alhent [fully rhymed]:

Frama skotnar gram. Gotnum(giöf sannask) röf spannar—
menstiklir—vensk mikla—•
manndýrdir vann skýrdar.
Herfiöld—bera höldar—
hagbáls lagar stálafridask sialdan vid valdi—
vallands svala branda.
Glory befalls the prince. The necklace-thrower [generous
ruler] made virtues evident, palm’s amber [gold] becomesquite normal to men, the gift is made real. The multitude offinely-made sea-pyres [gold ornaments] is seldom left inpeace with the steel-wielder [warrior], yeomen wear coolhawk-land brands [gold ornaments].
Here there are two pairs of full rhyme in each line. This isconsidered to be the most beautiful and choicest, if it is composed
well, of the verse-forms that poems are composed in, and it isproper alhending if there is not found in it at [that], ek [I], en [but]or other particles of that kind, unless they form part of therhyme-scheme, but everyone has not avoided this, and so it is notwrong, as for instance in Bishop Klæng’s verse:
Bad ek sveit á glad Geitis,
gör er id at for tidum,192

Hattatal[44-51drögum hest á lög lesta,
lid flýtr en skrid nýtum.
I ordered the troop on to Geitir’s steed [ship], labour isperformed repeatedly in the journey, we drag the cargo­horse on to the sea, the vessel floats and we make use of
motion.
Next is the verse-form that we call the lesser alhenda, it has
half-rhymes in the first lines [of the couplets] in each half-stanza,
as follows:

Samthykkiar fremr sökkvi
snarr Baldr hiarar aldir.
Gunnhættir kann Grotta
gladdript hrada skipta.
Féstrídir kná Fróda
fridbygg lidi tryggva.
Fiölviniadr hylr Feniu
fair meldr alinveldi.

The swift sword-Baldr [warrior] benefits men with thedestroyer of unity [gold]. The battle-darer knows how toquickly share out Grotti’s bright snow [gold]. Money’s
enemy does entrust men with Frodi’s peace-barley [gold].
Fenia’s meal [gold], which has many resting-places, being
offered, covers the realm of the forearm.
The lesser alhenda is correctly composed if the pattern is main­tained throughout the stanza, but if it is mixed with full alhenda
so that in it some or all of the rhymes in a line are half-rhymes,
then it is not correct.
This is stamhendr [stammering rhyme] form:
Laetr undin brot brotna
bragningr fyrir sér hringa.
Sá tekr fyrir men menia
maett ord of sik fættir.
Armr kná vid blik blikna
brimlands vidum randa
thar er hönd at lid lidnarlýslódar berr glódir.
193

Hattatal[4^-7]

The chieftain makes twisted ring-fragments fragment be­fore him [distributes gold]. Because of the necklaces thisnecklace-diminisher receives fitting renown about himself.
The shield-trees’ limb does gleam with the gleam of thesurf-land [gold] where the hand wears fish-path-embers[gold] with which the arm is armed.

Here in the first and third lines one syllable is repeated and thisforms the rhyme, and thus we call this stamhent [stammerrhymed] because the rhyme is produced by stuttering, and therhymes are positioned in the line like ridhendur [rocking rhymes].
Now we have the verse-form that is called samhetit [coin­cidentally rhymed]:
Virdandi gefr virdum
verbal lidar skeria.
Gledr vellbrióti vellum
verdung afar thungum.
Ytandifremrýta
auds sæfuna raudum
thar er maetum gram maeti
marblakks skipendr thakka.
The valuer of limb-skerries [gold] gives men depth-pyres[gold]. The gold-breaker [generous man] gladdens the courtwith extremely heavy gold ornaments. The wealth-thrower
honours men with red sea-flame [gold] where the sea­steed’s [ship’s] crew thank the splendid prince for valuableobjects.

Here there are the rhyme-syllables that we call samhendur [coinci­
dent rhymes] because they all have the same initial sounds and in
the first and third lines they are in the positions of the half-rhymes
in dróttkvcett form.
Now comes idurmcelt [repeatedly said]:
Seimthverrir gefr seima
seimörr lidi beima.
Hringmildan spyr ek hringum
hringskemmi brott stinga.
Baugstökkvir fremr baugum
bauggrimmr hiarar drauga.
194

Hattatal[47-9]
Vidr gullbroti gulli
gullhættr skada fullan.

The gold-generous gold-diminisher gives the troop of men
gold. I hear the ring-liberal ring-spoiler throws away rings.
The bracelet-hating bracelet-flinger honours sword-trunks[men] with bracelets. The gold-breaker, dangerous to gold,
causes complete destruction to gold.
Here samhending [coincident rhyme] is used three times, twice inthe first and third lines, while in the second and fourth it is kept asafhending [off-rhyme] as in dunhent [echoing rhyme] form.
This verse-form is called klifat [repeated]:
Audkendar verr audi
aud-Týr boga naudir.
Thar er audvidum audit
auds i gulli raudu.
Heidmönnum býr heidis
heidmildr iöfurr reidir.
Venr heidfrömudr heidar
heidgiöf vala leidar.

The wealth-Tyr [prince] covers the easily-picked out bow­forcers [men’s arms] with wealth. There is granted wealth towealth-trees [men] in red gold. The payment-generous
prince adorns the soldiers’ hawk-carts [arms]. The
payment-performer accustoms the bright falcon-paths[arms] to payment-gifts.
Here the santhendingar [coincident rhymes] continue throughout
the half-stanza and link with the second full rhyme in the secondand fourth lines.
Now come the verse-forms that we call stúfar [docked, i.e.
catalectic]:
Hialdrremmir tekr Hildi—
hringr brestr at giöf—festa.
Hnígr und Högna meyiar
hers valdandi tiald.
Hedins mála býr hvílu
hiálmlestanda flestum.
195

Hattatal[49-51]

Mordaukinn thiggr mækimund Hiadninga sprund.
The battle-strengthener [ruler] engages himself to Hild [avalkyrie], the ring is broken as a gift. The ruler of the host
moves under Hogni’s daughter’s [Hild’s] tent [his shield].
Hedin’s beloved [Hild] prepares a bed [i.e. selects them fordeath] for most helmet-harmers [warriors]. The lady of the
Hiadnings receives a wedding gift, a sword famous for
slaying.

Here the fourth line is docked and the syllable which in dróttkvcett
form has to follow the [second] rhyming syllable is omitted.
This is the greater stúfr:
Yggs drósar rýfr eisa
öld módsefa tiöld.
Glód stökkr í hof Hlakkar
hugtúns firum brún.
Gedveggiar svífr gluggaglæs dynbrími hræs.
Hvattr er hyrr at slétta
hialdrs gnapturna aldrs.
The fire [sword] of Ygg’s maid [valkyrie] tears the tent of
men’s mood-thought [breast]. Hlokk’s burnished ember[sword] flies into men’s mind-field temple [breast]. The
clashing corpse-flame [sword] glides through the windowof the transparent wall of thought [breast-wound]. The
battle fire is made keen to slice off the high towers of life
[heads].

Here the second and fourth lines are docked. Now comes thegreatest stúfr. Here all lines are docked:

Herstefnir laetr hrafn
hungrs fullsediask ungr.
Ilspornat getr örn
aldrlausastan haus.
Vilia borg en vargr
vígsáraklífrgrár.
Opt sólgit faer ylgr—
iöfurr gódr vill svá—blód.
196

Hattatal[52-—31

The young battle-leader lets the raven fully sate its hunger.
The eagle is able to tread underfoot the completely deadskull. But the grey wolf climbs the battle-wounded will­stronghold [breast]. The she-wolf is often able to drink
blood, the good prince wishes it so.

These verse-forms that have just been exemplified are divided into
three types, because in the past poems have been composed so thatin the same stanza one half had one line docked and the other half
two lines, and that is a metrical inconsistency. The third type isalstýfdr [all-docked], for here all lines are docked.
Now we shall give an example of the form that is calledskothendr [half-rhymed]:
Sær skiöldungs nidr skúrum—sköpt—darradar—lyptask.
Hrindr gunnfana grundar
glygg of fraeknum tiggia.
Geisa vé fyrir visa,
vedr stöng at hlym Gungnis.
Styrk eru mót und merkium
malms of itran hilmi.
The prince’s spear-showers are strewn down, shafts arelifted. Storm pushes the battle-flags around the valiant lordof the land. The banners rush before the prince, the poleadvances to Gungnir’s din [battle]. The powerful meetingsof metal [battles] take place under the standards around thesplendid prince.

Here there are half-rhymes in all lines, but it is otherwise like thedróttkvætt form.
Now comes the verse-form that we call lidhendur (helping­rhymes):Stióri vensk at stæra
stór verk dunu geira.
Halda kann med hildi
hialdr-Týr und sik foldu.
Harri slítr i hverri
Hiarranda föt snerru.
Falla thar til fyllar
fiallvargs iöru thollar.
197

Hattatal[541

The spear-din-controller [ruler] becomes accustomed tocarry out great deeds. The battle-Tyr [warrior] knows how
to hold land under himself with warfare. The lord cuts
Hiarrandi’s clothing [coats of mail] in every fray. There fall
there combat-firs [warriors] as food for the mountain-wolf.
In this verse-form there are lidhendur [help-rhymes, rhyme andalliteration falling on the same syllables] in two ways: on the one
hand such that with the first rhyme-syllables in the first and thirdlines <there are full rhymes in the second and fourth, and on theother such that with the second rhyme-syllable there is half-rhyme
in the second and fourth lines>.
Now shall be exemplified those variations of form which earlypoets have used in composition and which are now made into
consistent verse-forms, though these poets have in some'cases
composed with metrical inconsistencies, and these variations inearly poems are called dróttkvætt, and some of them are foundin single-stanza poems, as when King Ragnar Lodbrok composedin this form:Skýtr at Sköglar vedri—en skialdagi haldask—
Hildar hlemmidrifu
of hvítum thröm ritar.
En í saefis sveita
at sverdtogi ferdarrýdr aldar vinr odda—
that er iarlmegin—snarla.

Hild’s resounding storm [rain of weapons] is shot in Skogul’s wind [battle] — but shields cannot be held — aroundthe white targe’s edge. But the friend of men reddens points
energetically in the queller’s [sword’s] sweat [blood] at thetroop’s sword-drawing. Such is the earl’s power.
Here form is lacking in the first and third lines, but in the secondand fourth there are full-rhymes, while the chief stave, the onethat determines the alliteration, is positioned in the second andfourth lines in such a way that it is preceded by one or twosyllables, but in other respects it is like dróttkvcett.
Now shall be exemplified Torf-Einar’s verse-form:
198

Hattatal[55-7]

Hverr séi iöfra ægiiarl fiölvitrum betra?
Eda giarnara at gædaglym hradsveldan skialda?
Stendr af stála skúrar
styrr ólítill Gauti
thá er folks iadarr foldir
ferr sig-Niördum varda.
Who could point to an earl better than this most wise
terrifier of kings? Or more eager to increase the quickswollen shield-din? No small tumult arises from the steelshower-Gaut [warrior] when the host’s protection goes todefend lands against battle-Niords [warriors].

Here form is lacking in the first and third lines, but in the secondand fourth it is half-rhymed and ridhent [rocking].
Now comes Egil’s verse-form:
Hverr ali blódi byrsta
bens raudsylgium ylgi
nema svá at gramr of gildi
grád dag margan vargi?
Gefr oddviti undir
egg nýbitnar vitni.
Herr sér Fenris fitiar
framkló lodnar rodna.
Who would nourish the bloody-bristled she-wolf with thewound’s red drink unless it were that the prince strengthens
the wolf’s greed many a day? The leader provides thewatcher [wolf] with wounds newly pierced by edge. The
army sees the front claw of Fenrir’s shaggy paw redden.

Here form is lacking in the first and third lines, but in the secondand fourth there are full rhymes and ridhent [rocking].
Now comes Flein’s verse-form:
Hilmir hiálma skúrir
herdir sverdi rodnu.
Hrióta hvitir askar,
hrynia bryniu spangir.
199

Hattatal[57-8]

Hnykkia Hlakkar eldar
harda svardar landi,
remma rimmu glódir
randa grand of iarli.
The prince gives power to the helmets’ showers with red­
dened sword. White ash-spears fly, mail-coat plates ring.
Hlokk’s flames [swords] wrench off violently the hair’s land[head], war-gleeds [swords] increase shields’ damagearound the earl.

Here the rhyme-syllables are arranged as in dróttkvcett form, but
the rhymes are placed close together at the beginning of the line.
Now comes Bragi’s verse-form:
Er til hiálma hyriar
herium styriar vaeni
thar svá at iarl til ógnar
egnir tognu sverdi.
Siá kná gard fyrir grundu
grindar Thundar iadra
er skatna vinr skialdar
skyldisk galdr at fremia.

The armies can expect the helmet-fire’s tumult [battle] sothat there the earl can bait the drawn sword for battle.
Thund’s gate’s [shield’s] edges’ fence [shield-wall] can beseen on the landscape when the friend of men pledges
himself to perform the shield’s chant.

Here in the first and third lines the last word is used as the rhyme
word, but the earlier word that ought to form half-rhyme with it islacking, but with this rhyme word there are rhymes in the secondand fourth lines, and one of these rhymes is half-rhyme andlidhending [helping-rhyme, a rhyming and alliterating word]<and the other is full rhyme> with the first one, and these rhymes
that come in the second and fourth lines are placed as in Flein’s
verse-form. It often happens in the work of early poets that there
are several variations or metrical inconsistencies in a single stan­za, and this ought not to be imitated though it is not considered afault in early poems.
200

Hattatal[59-6o]Now come those forms, divided into three types, which arecalled kimblabönd [bundle-bonds]. This is one:
Hiálmlestir skerr Hristar
hreggöld Sigars veggi.
Gramr lætr í byr brióta
brands hnigthili randa stranda.
Stálhrafna laetr stefnir
styrvind of sik thyria.
Thiggr at Göndlar glyggvi
gagn oddviti bragna sagna.

The helmet-harmer [warrior] cuts Sigar’s walls [shields] in
Hrist’s storm-time [battle]. The prince causes the shields’
giving planks to be broken in the brand-strands’[shields’] wind [battle]. The stem-ravens’ [ships’] steerer[seafarer] makes the war-gale rage around himself. The
troops of men’s leader gets victory in Gondul’s tempest[battle].
Here in the fourth line in each half-stanza there is added a fullrhyme with two syllables at the end of the line, but in otherrespects it is as dróttkvætt. Now comes the greater kimblabönd:
Almdrósar skylr ísaár flest meginbára sára.
Kænn laetr hvatt á hrönnum
hiálmsvell iöfurr gella fella.
Styriökla kná stiklir—
stinn—mens legi venia benia,lætr stillir frár fylla
fólk sund hiarar lunda unda.

The mighty wave of wounds [blood] washes nearly every
year the bow-woman’s [valkyrie’s] ice [swords]. The cleverprince lets the helmet-floe [sword] resound hard on thefellers’ [swords’] waves [blood]. The necklace-thrower[generous prince] does accustom battle-glaciers [swords] to
the wound-sea, the swift ruler lets the sword-woods’ [war­riors’] wound-sound [blood] fill the stiff swords.

Here there are two kimblabönd in each half-stanza. This is thegreatest kimblabönd:
201

Hattatai[6i-z]
Hraelióma fellr hrími (tímihár vex of gram sára ára)—frost nemr—of hlyn Hristar—Mistar
herkaldan thröm skialdar aldar.
Gullsendir brýtr grundar Hrundar
gunnveggs stöfum leggi hreggi.
Sóknvallar—spyr ek—svelli—elli—svá skotnar that—gotna throtna.

Corpse-light [sword] rime [battle] falls around Hrist’s
maple [the warrior], the noble wound-oar [sword] time
[warfare] grows around the prince, Mist’s frost [sword]
strikes men’s mighty cold shield-edge. The gold-giver
breaks battle-wall-[shield-]staves’ [men’s] limbs in Hrund’s
ground’s [shield’s] tempest [battle]. I hear men are deprivedof old age, thus this benefits the attack-field heaper [war­rior].

Here there is a kimblaband with each line.
Now we shall exemplify the hryniandi [flowing] forms. This is
the first:

Tiggi snýr á ógnar áru(undgagl veit that) sóknar hagli.
Yngvi drífr—at hreggi hlífa
hiörr vélir fiör—bryniu éli.
Vísi—heldr of fiörnis foldir—
fólk—skiptir svá boga driptum—
skúrum lýstr of hilmi hraustan—(hans fregnum styr) Mistar regni.
The chieftain makes it snow with battle-hail on the messen­
gers of war. The wound-gosling [raven] knows this. The
prince makes the mail-coat storm drive. The sword entraps
life in the shield-tempest. Over the helmet-lands comes
Mist’s rain [battle]. "Thus the leader organizes the bows’snowing [arrow-shots]. Sword-showers whip around thevaliant ruler. We hear of his warfare.

Here the first and third lines have two extra syllables at the
beginning which characterize the form, and if they are subtracted
then what remains is as dróttkvætt, and from the second and202

Hattatal[63-41

fourth lines can be taken out a word containing two syllables, thefifth and sixth in the line. Then these lines also are dróttkvætt. In
hrynhent [flowing rhyme] forms there are generally eight syllables
to a line, but the rhymes and alliteration go as in dróttkvcett form.
We call this the dróttkvcett hryniandi.
Now further arrangements of forms will be exemplified. Thishryniandi is called troll’s verse-form:
Stála kendi steykvilundumstyriar valdi raudu falda(rekkar stýrdu rétt til iardar
rodnu bardi) austan fiardar.
Oddum rendi eliunstrandirýta ferdar hringa skerdir.
Hilmir stærdi hvössu sverdi
heila grundar meginundir.

The battle-ruler forced the steel-throwing trees [warriors]
to put on red caps [gave them head-wounds] to the east of
the fiord. Warriors steered straight to land their redcoloured prow. The damager of rings [generous lord] madepoints run on to the troops of men’s valour-strands[breasts]. The prince increased mighty wounds with keensword on brains’ ground [heads].

Here there are eight syllables in each line. Here there are hluthendur [middle of the line rhymes] in all lines and three ordinary
syllables follow each of these rhyme syllables, and half-rhymes
and full rhymes and alliteration go as in hrynhenda [flowing
rhyme].
This is one kind of hrynhent form:
Vafdi lítt er virdum mætti
vígrækiandi fram at sækia.
Skerdir gekk í skúrum Hlakkar
Sköglar serks fyrir rodnum merkium.
Ruddisk land en ræsir Thrænda
Ribbungum skóp bana thungan.
Gunnarr skaut und Gera fótar
grimmsetta il hiarna kletti.
203

Hattatal[65-6]The battle-cultivator hesitated little to advance when he metmen. The harmer of Skogul’s shirt [mail-coat] went before
the reddened standards in Hlokk’s showers [battle]. The
land was cleared but the Thronds’ chieftain gave the Rib­bungs a heavy death. Gunnar put the brains’ cliff [men’sheads] beneath the grimly-equipped sole of Geri’s [thewolf’s] foot.

This is ordinary hrynhenda. The next is draughent [log- or
ghost-rhyme]:
Vápna hríd velta nádivægdarlaus feigum hausi.
Hilmir lét höggum mætaherda klett bana verdan.
Fleina lands fylkir rendi
fiörnis hlid meginskidi(öflugt sverd eyddi fyrdum
iöfri kent) holdi fenta.
The merciless weapon-storm managed to make the doomed
skull roll. The ruler let the death-worthy shoulders-cliff[head] meet blows. The chieftain made the flesh-covered
helmet-hill be run over by the spear-land’s [shield’s] mighty
rod [spear]. The mighty sword belonging to the prince
destroyed men.

In this form there are generally seven syllables in each line, but
rhymes and alliteration as in dróttkvætt form, and here if there issubtracted one syllable - the one that stands next after the first from the first or third lines, then all the sounds will fall out as indróttkvcett form. Similarly the same syllable can be subtracted in
the second and fourth lines and then they are dróttkvætt-, and insome ways this is not all that smooth.
This form we call munnvörp [improvisation]:

Eyddi úthlaups mönnum
ítr hertogi spiótum.
Sungu stál of stillis(stód ylgr í val) dólgum.
204

Hattatal[66-7]Hal margan lét höídi
hoddgrimmr iöfurr skemra.
Svá kann rán at refsa
reidr oddviti thiódum.
The splendid duke destroyed highwaymen with spears.
Steel weapons sang around the ruler’s enemies, the she-wolf
stood on the fallen. The prince, hater of hoards, made manya hero shorter by a head. Thus does the angry leader know
how to punish people for plundering.
Here form is lacking in the first and third lines, but in the secondand fourth there are half-rhymes. Now comes the verse-form thatis called formless:
Ortak old at minnum
thá er alframast vissakof siklinga snialla
med sex tögum hátta.
Sizt hafa veg né vellum
ervirdan mik létu
á aidinn mar orpit(that er oss frami) iöfrar.

I have composed as a memorial for men about the valiant
princes whom I knew to be quite the most outstanding withsixty verse-forms. In no way have the princes thrown to theold waves [wasted] the honour and gold with which theyhonoured me. This is a glory to us.
In this verse-form there are no rhymes, but the alliteration is as indróttkvætt form. Now there have been composed in two poems
examples of sixty verse-forms and, in addition, the eight sub­divisions into which the dróttkvcett form was divided at the
beginning by means of the distinctions in content that go with theform; and all these verse-forms are very suitable for composing
poems in if desired.
Now we shall begin the third poem, which is composed in thelesser verse-forms, though there are many examples of these
forms being used in praise-poems in the past. Here begins togdrápulag [journey-poem metre]:
205

Hattatal[68-9]

FremstrvardSkúli...
Skala lof dvala;sem ek mildum grammærd fiölsnærda.
Meir skal ek stæri
styrs hródr fyrir(kaerr var ek harra)
hersgnóttbera.

Skúli was most outstanding... [sentence completed in lastline of next verse but one]. The eulogy shall not be delayed; Iam putting together a many-stranded encomium for thegenerous prince. I shall continue to deliver glory tobattle’s increaser before the multitude of troops. I was dear tothe lord.
Here in the second and fourth lines there are four syllables andtwo full rhymes, and the chief alliterating stave positioned as indróttkvcett, but in the first and third lines there are also four
normal syllables and the fifth an enclitic syllable, i.e. ek or afor en
or er [I, of, but, when] or the like. They also have half-rhymes andone word alliterating with the chief stave.
This is the second toglag [journey-metre]:
Kunn bió ek kvædi
konungs bródur thiód—
thann veit ek thengil—
threnn—fiölmennan.
Fram skal in fiórda
fólkglads vadalióss elds lagar
lofun fridrofa.
I made the king’s brother three poems, known to men. I
know this prince has a large following. Forward shall step
the fourth eulogy of the battle-eager destroyer of the peaceof the bright sea-fire [distributor of gold].
The second and fourth lines here go as in the previous verse-form,
but the first and third lines here are without rhyme, and there are
two words alliterating with the chief stave as in dróttkvcett.
This is the third verse-form, which we call hagmcelt [skilfully
spoken]:206

Hattatal[70-71]

Mitt er of maeti
mart lag bragarádrókvedit
oddbraks spakan.
Hlýtr grams geta
greppr óhneppraskýrr skrautfara.
... skiöldunga ungr.
Many a poetic metre of mine has never before been com­posed in about a wise point-clash meeter [warrior]. The
clear-minded poet gets to mention the ruler’s successful
splendid expeditions.
... of chieftains when young [continuation of first line oflast verse but one].
In this verse-form there are half-rhymes in the first and third lines
and alliteration as in dróttkvætt form, but otherwise it is liketogmcelt [journey-spoken]. In any variety of toglag it is not wrong
if there are five syllables in the line when some of them are shortand quick. For togdrdpa form there must be a stef [refrain] for the
first line and its sense is completed in the last line of the poem, and
it is correct to construct the poem with as many stef sections as
one likes, and it is usual to make them all the same length, and foreach stef section the stef must form the opening and conclusion.
Now comes the Greenland verse-form:

Slód kann sneidir
seima geima
hnigfák Haka
hleypa greypa,hinn er af hlunni
hesta festalætrleyfdrskati
langa ganga.
The gold-cutter [generous prince] knows how to makeHaki’s bucking horse [ship] gallop over the ocean’s danger­ous path, that praised lord who makes the painters’ longhorses go from the slipway.

Here the first and third lines are as hagmælt, but the second and207

Hattatal(7i-41

fourth have full rhymes, and there are two syllables that rhyme
and both end with the same sound. Now comes the short verseform:
Gull kná—greppar—
glóa—róa,
váss eru seggir
samir framir.
Eik má und iöfri
una bruna.
Thánýtr visi
vidar skridar.

Gold can glow, men row, bold men are suited to hardship.
The oak can be happy to press forward beneath the prince.
Then the ruler enjoys the timber’s movement.

Here the first and third lines are without rhyme, but the secondand fourth are like the Greenland verse-form with shorter words.
Now comes the new verse-form:Ræsir glæsir
Rökkva dökkva
hvítum rítum
hreina reina.
Skreytir hreytirskafna stafnahringa stinga
hiörtum svörtum.

The ruler adorns the dark reindeer of Rokkvi’s land [ships]with white shields. The thrower of rings decorates thesmoothed stems of the black prow-harts [ships].
In this verse-form there are in each line four syllables and two fullrhymes which both end in the same sound and there are no
enclitics. This is stúfhent [stump-rhymed, having the rhyme
docked]:Hafröst hristir
hlunnvigg tiggia.
208Hattatal[74-6]

Bordgrund bendir
brimdýrs stýri.
Blá veit brióta
byrskíd vídibödhardr bördum
budlungr thungan.
Ocean-current shakes the prince’s slipway-steed [ship].
Plank-ground [sea] bends sea-beast’s steering oar. Battlehard ruler knows that the dark wind-spars [ships] breakheavy sea with prows.

In this verse-form there are four syllables in a line and rhymes andalliteration as in dróttkvcett form except that all rhymes arenáhent [dose-rhymed]. This is náhent-.
Hrinda laetr hniggrund
hafbekks snekkiur,
thá er falla, fleinthollr
frár, mál, stálum.
Hlumi lítr hergramr
hirdmenn spenna—
en raedi raungód—
rógálfr—skiálfa.
The speedy spear-fir [warrior] makes warships push thesea-bench’s [ship’s] tipping ground with prows when times
suit. The war-fierce hostility-elf [war-leader] sees courtiers
grasp oar-handles, and oars of tried quality shake.

In this verse-form there are four syllables in a line and it is notwrong to have five in the first and third. In those lines there arehalf-rhymes. In the second and fourth lines there are full rhymes,
both next to each other, and the first one is docked [i.e. mono­
syllabic], but the alliteration is as in dróttkvætt.
This is hnugghent [deprived rhyme]:
Hrannir strýkva hladinn bekk,
haflaudrskeflir,
kasta náir kialar stig
kalt hlýrsöltum,
209

Hattatal[76-8]

svörtum hleypir svana fiöllsniallmæltr stillir
hlunna of Haka veg
hrídfeld skídum.

Waves stroke loaded planks, sea-foam is heaped up, cold
bow gets to throw salty keel-path [sea], eloquent ruler
makes gallop black slipway-boards over stormy swans’mountains along Haki’s way [the sea].
Here in the first and third lines there are seven syllables and there
is no rhyme but normal alliteration, while the second and fourth
have four syllables and normal alliteration and half-rhyme andoddhending [rhyme on the first syllable] and the first rhyme
docked [monosyllabic].
Now comes half-curtailed:
Snydia laetr í sólrod
snekkiur á Manar hlekk—árlasér—ungriarl—allvaldr breka fall.
Lyptask kná lýdr opt
lauki of kialar raukn.
Greida náir glygg vád,greipum mæta dragreip.
The young earl makes warships speed at dawn on the fetterof Man [sea], the power-wielder sees early the falling of
breakers. The troop can often be lifted by the mast over the
keel’s ox [ship]. Wind gets to unfold the sail, halyards meet
handgrips.
In this verse-form there are six syllables in a line, but it is notwrong to have five or seven. In the first and third lines there arehalf-rhymes, and full rhymes in the second and fourth; with, inboth cases, the first rhyme just as in dróttkveett but the second
docked or curtailed, it is all the same thing.
This verse-form is all-curtailed:Hrönn skerr—hvatt ferr—
húfrkaldr—allvaldr.
Lábrýtr—lögskýtr—limgarmr—rangbarmr.
210

Hattatal[78—80]Bratt skekr—byrr rekr—
blán vegg—ráskegg.
Iarl lætr almætr
ósvipt húnskript.
Cold strake cuts wave, power-wielder goes fast. Branch-foe[wind] breaks sea, curved side pushes wave. Swiftly shakes
dark sail, wind drives yard-beard [sail]. Outstanding earllets the mast-head doth be unreefed.

In this verse-form there are four syllables in a line and two fullrhymes and they both end with the same sound and all rhymes arecurtailed [monosyllabic]. This is Hod’s metre:Læsirleyfdr visi
landa útstrandirblidr ok bláskídum
barda randgardi.
Ern kná iarl thyrna
oddum falbrodda
iörd med élsnærdum
iadri hraenadra.

Honoured gracious ruler locks out-coasts of lands withshield wall and dark prow-skis [ships]. Socket-point-[spear-]keen earl can spike the earth along its storm-bound coastwith corpse-adder tips [spear-points].
In this verse-form there are five syllables in a line and rhymes andalliteration as in dróttkvœtt form.
Now come the forms that are called runhendur [end-rhymed].
These all share the same characteristic: every runhent form musthave a pair of full rhymes with each rhyme-word in a separate
line. This is normal runhenda:

Lof er flutt fiörum
fyrir gunnörum(né spurd spörum
spiöll grams) snörum.
Hefi ek hans förum
hródrs örumyptóvörum
fyrir auds börum.
211

Hattatal[8i-z]

Praise is delivered before bold battle-keen men, nor do we
hold back tidings we have heard of the prince. I have madeknown his glory-prodigal expeditions before unhesitant
wealth-trees [men].
This verse-form maintains the same rhyme through every line;
there is also the kind of runhending which separates the rhymes
and changes the lines. It is for this reason it is called runhent [lit.
series-rhymed]. This is the lesser runhenda:

Fluttak frædi
um frama grædi
(tunga tædi)med tölu rædi.
Stef skal stsera
stilli Maera(hródr dugir hræra)ok honum faera.

I have delivered news about the gainer of glory—tongue
helped—with the oar of speech [tongue]. Refrain shall be
extended for the ruler of Mærir—it is good to movepraise—and presented to him.
Here the rhyme continues through half the stanza and there isanother one in the second half-stanza.
This verse-form is docked or curtailed from the previous one; itis the least runhenda:
Slíkt er svá,
siklingr á(öldthessann)ordróm thann.
Iarla er,
austanverskatna skýrstr,
Skúlidýrstr.

So it is, the prince has — men grant this — this glory. Most
intelligent of lords east of the ocean, Skuli is most valued ofearls.
In this verse-form there are three syllables in a line, and each pair212

Hattatal[83-51of lines has a separate rhyme; the alliteration as in dróttkvætt.
Moreover it is considered not wrong if the sound that determines
the alliteration comes only once at the beginning of a word.
These are further runhent forms:
Nadrs gnapa ógn alia,
eydir baugvalla,
hlunns of hástalla
hestarsvanfialla.
Orms er glatt galla
med gumna spialla,
iarl fremr sveit snialla;
slíkt má skörung kalla.
Swan-mountains’ [sea’s] horses [ships], O destroyer ofcircle-plains [shields], tower over high slipway-stands
throughout the adder’s terror [winter]. It is a joy to be in thecompany of the friend of men during the snake’s harm
[winter], the earl honours the bold troop; such a one can becalled a paragon.
This verse-form is composed with full runhending and it generally
has five syllables in a line, or six if they are quick. This is thesecond:Ord fekk gott gramr,
hann er gunntamr.
Miök er fullframr
fylkir rausnsamr.
Hinn er mál metr
mildingsiztgetr
thann er svá setr
seggi hvern vetr.

The prince got good fame, he is accustomed to battle. The
most bold leader lives in great splendour. One can scarcely
find a prince that adjudges affairs who treats men thus
each winter.
This is curtailed from the previous runhending.

Mærdvilkauka
Mistar lauka
213

Hattatal[85-7]

góma sverdi
grundar skerdi.
Dýrd skal segia(drottmáthegia)
styriar glóda
stökkvi-Móda.

I will increase with gum-sword [tongue] praise for Mist’sleeks’ [swords’] ground’s [shield’s] damager [warrior].
Glory shall be told — court must be silent — of the Modi
[warrior] who scatters the battle-glow [sword].
In this verse-form there are four syllables in each line and the chiefstave as in dróttkvætt form and with it there is one alliterating
word. This is the third runhent form:

Veit ek hrings hradaíhölllada(gotterhúsHlada)
hirdölsada.
Drekkr gramr glada—
enatgiöf vadavitarvalstada—
vandbaugskada.

I know the ring-flinger invites into his hall — good is thehouse of Hladir - the ale-sated court. The prince drinks theharmers [warriors] of the circle-wand [sword] happy andfalcon-perch [arm] fires [gold] rush to be given [are quickly
distributed].
This is normal runhending and this verse-form is based on toglag.
Here there are four syllables in a line or five if they are quick. Thisis the lesser runhenda:

Drifr handa hlekkr
thar er hilmir drekkr,
miök er brögnum bekkr
blídskálar thekkr.
Leikrhilmisher
hreingullitker(segiekalltsemer)
vid orda sker.
214

Hattatal[88-m?JThe hand clasp [ring] is driven [given freely] where the lorddrinks, very pleasant to men is the happy cup’s stream [ale].
The pure gold goblet plays against the word-skerry [teeth]of the prince’s army. I tell all as it is.

This is curtailed from the previous form. This is the least:
En thá er hird til hallarhers oddviti kallar,
opt tekr iarl at fagna
vid ótali bragna.
Búin er giöf til greizlu
at gullbrota veizlu,
thröngt sitr thiódar sinni,
thar er mestr frami inni.

And when the army’s leader calls the court to the hall, theearl often begins to rejoice at innumerable men. Gift is readyfor giving at the gold-breaker’s feast, the company ofpeople sits crowded, there is the greatest glory within.

This runhenda is based on dróttkvcett form and there are here thesame number of syllables and also alliteration as in dróttkvœtt.
Now begins the fourth group of runhendingar:
Hird gerir hilmis kátt,höll skipask thröngt at gátt,aud gefr thengill thrátt,that spyrr fram í átt.
Slfkt tel ek hilmis hátt,hans er rausn of mátt,iarl brýtr sundr í smáttslungit gull vid thátt.

The prince’s court becomes happy, the hall is filled tightly tothe doors, the lord gives wealth constantly, this is heard
from generation to generation. Such I declare is the ruler’sway, his splendour is of mighty proportions, the earl breaks
apart into small pieces gold twisted in strands.

This verse-form is curtailed from the previous one and is regularrunhent. Now comes a lesser runhenda:
215

Hattatal[90-91]

Mörg thiód ferr til sittings sala,sæmd er thar til allra dvala.
Tiggi veitir seima svala,satt er bezt of hann at tala.
Bresta spyrium bauga flata—
bragna vinr kann gulli hata—(ædri veit ek at giöflund gatagrundar vðrdr) fyrir hringa skata.

Many people go to the ruler’s halls, there is honour there in
every one’s stay. The lord gives cool gold, it is best to speak
truth about him. We hear that flat rings are broken with the
one generous with bracelets, the friend of men knows how
to hate gold, I know that no land’s guardian was gifted withgreater liberality.

This runhenda is based on hrynhent form.
Thiggia kná med gulli glöd
gotna ferd at ræsi miöd.
Drekka lætr hann sveit at sin
silfri skenkt it fagra vin.
Greipum mætir gullin skál,
gumnum sendir Rínar bál—eigi hittir aedra mann—iarla beztr—en skiöldung thann.

The happy band of men is able to receive mead together
with gold from the ruler. He lets the troop drink at his place
the fair wine served in silver. Golden cup meets hands, thebest of earls sends men Rhine-fire [gold]; a nobler man than
this chieftain cannot be found.
This is curtailed from the previous runhenda. Here begins the fifth
runhent group:
Getit var grams fara,gert hefi ek mærd snara.
Thengil mun thess vara,that nam ek litt spara.
Finnrat fræknarafædi gunnstaramann né mildara
merkir blódsvara.
216

Hattatal[93-41

Mention was made of the prince’s expeditions, I have madea fine eulogy. The lord will expect this, I held back little in it.
The marker of blood-birds [reddener of eagles, warrior] will
not find a more valiant feeder of war-starlings [feeder ofeagles, war-leader] nor a more generous man.
This is also complete runhenda. The next is the lesser runhenda
and based on the half-curtailed form or náhent [close-rhymed]:

Thengill laetr höpp hrest,
honum fylgir dad mest.
Visi gefr vel flest
verbál ólest.
Húfar brutu haf liótt,heim lét ek iöfur sótt,yngva lofar öll drótt,iarls sá ek frama gnótt.
The prince makes happy events flourish, he possesses most
initiative. The ruler gives easily the most sea-fire [gold]
unblemished. Strakes broke ugly sea, I paid the lord a visit,
all the court praises the chieftain, I saw the extent of theearl’s glory.
This is docked or curtailed from an earlier verse-form:. . .gramr.
Gulli söri Kraki framr.
Efla frágum Haka hialdr.
.. . aldr.
Ormi veitti Sigurdr sár.
Slíkt var allt fyr lidit ár.
Ragnarr thótti skatna skýrstr.
Skúli iarl er myklu dýrstr.

.. . prince. Noble Kraki sowed gold. We heard that Haki
waged war. .. . time. Sigurd gave the serpent wounds. All
this was in past times. Ragnar was considered the mostsplendid of lords. Earl Skuli is by far the worthiest.

Málaháttr [speech-form]:
217

Hattatal[95-7]

Munda ek mildingi,
thá er Maera hilmi
fluttak fiögur kvaedi,
fimtán stórgiafar.
Hvarvitiádrorta
med ædra hætti
mærd of menglötud
madr und himins skautum?
I bore in mind fifteen great gifts from the princely one when
I delivered four poems to the ruler of the Maerir. Where does
one know of praise previously composed with more splen­
did verse-forms about a necklace-destroyer [giver of jewels]
beneath the sky’s expanse?

Fomyrdislag [old story metre]:
Ort er of raesi
thann er rýdr granar
vargs ok ylgiar
ok vápn litar.
That munaelifa,
nema old farisk,bragninga lof,eda bili heimar.
Poetry has been composed about the ruler who reddens thelips of wolf and she-wolf [in waging war] and colours
weapons [with blood]. This will last for ever unless man­kind perishes or the worlds end, the princes’ praise.

Bálkarlag [Balk’s metre]:
Lypta ek liósu
lofi thiódkonungs.
Upper fyrirýta
iarls mærd borin.
Hverr muni heyra
hródr giöflata
seggr svá kvedinn
seims ok hnossa?

I raised bright eulogy of the great king. Earl’s laud is lifted218

Hattatal[98-100]

up before men. What man is going to hear praise thus
spoken of one slow to give gold and treasures?

This is the difference between these verse-forms that in fornyrdislag there is in the first and third lines only one prop, while in thesecond and fourth lines the chief stave stands in the middle of theline; but in Starkad’s metre there are two props and the chief stavein the middle of the line, and in Bdlkarlag the props and chief stave
are placed as in dróttkvætt.
Starkad’s metre:
Veitek verdaritháervellgefa,
bröndum beita
ok búa snekkiurhæra hródrar
en heimdrega—
unga iöfra—en audspörud.
I know of young princes that brandish swords and set up
warships who are worthier of higher praise than a stay-athome, ones who give gold than one sparing of wealth.

Their ró iöfrar
alvitrastir,hringum hæztir,
hugrakkastir,vellum verstir,
vigdiarfastir,
hird hollastir,happi næstir.
These princes are all-wisest, most dangerous to rings [gener­ous], most bold in heart, most hateful to gold [generous],bravest in war, kindest to the court, closest to good fortune.

Liódaháttr [song-form]:
Glöggva grein
hef ek gert til bragar,
svá er tírætt hundrad tali t.
219

Hattatal[i 00—102]
Hródrs örverdr
skala madr heitinn vera
ef sá fær alia háttu ort.

Close account have I given of poetic form so that ten tens are
told. A man must not be called unworthy of renown if he isable to compose in all verse-forms.

Galdralag [incantation metre]:
Sóttak fremd,
sótta ek fund konungs,
sóttak itran iarl,
thá er ek reist—
thá er ek renna gat—kaldan straum kili—
kaldan siá kili.
I sought honour, I sought meeting with a king, I sought asplendid earl when I cut cold current with keel, when I wasable to make keel run over the cold sea.

Nióti aldrs
ok audsalakonungr ok iarl.
That er kvædis lok.
Falli fyrr
fold i aegi
steini studd
en stillis lof.

May king and earl enjoy age and halls of wealth. This is theend of the poem. May earth, stone-supported, first sink into
the sea before the ruler’s praise [cease].

220

TEXT SUMMARIES(The figures for the prologue, Gylfaginning and Skaldskaparmal
refer to chapters in the 1848 edition, included in square brackets atthe top of each page of this translation [see p.xxiii]; those for
Hattatal refer to the numbers of the verses.)

Prologue
This begins with an account of how mankind forgot about theircreator and began to worship nature. From this arose heathen
religions (1—2). The author then tells of Troy, and how descendantsof the Trojans (the Æsir) migrated to Scandinavia and foundedvarious dynasties, and were so prosperous that they came to beconsidered gods (3-11).

Gylfaginning
Gylfaginning opens with an anecdote of how Gylfi, a Swedish king,was tricked out of some of his land by one of the Æsir newcomers(1). He goes to visit them, disguised as a beggar and calling himself
Gangleri, to find out whether their success was due to their own
nature or to the gods they worshipped. He is welcomed, but toldthat his life depends on his proving himself wiser than them (2). Hisquestions are answered by three speakers, High, Just-as-high andThird, and he is told first about the king of their gods, All-father(3), then about the beginning of the world and the origin of the
giants and the gods (of whom the chief, Odin, turns out to be thesame as All-father) and about the creation of the earth and of men(4-9). He is told about night and day, sun and moon, the bridge ofthe gods (Bifrost), the golden age, the creation of dwarfs, the world­ash (Yggdrasil), the norns, the dwellings of the gods, the wind,summer and winter (10—19). There follow descriptions of each of
the gods and goddesses in turn, including an account of Loki’s
offspring Hel and the story of the binding of Fenriswolf, and, with221

Text Summaries
the goddesses, the story of Freyr’s wooing of Gerd (zo-37). Gylfi
hears about Odin’s hall (Val-hall), the origin of Odin’s horse
Sleipnir (with the story of the giant builder of the gods’ stronghold),and Freyr’s ship Skidbladnir (38-43). Then follow two stories
about Thor, his expedition to the court of Utgarda-Loki and his
fishing for the Midgard serpent (44-8); the death of Baldr, his
funeral, the attempt to get him back from Hel; and the capture andpunishment of Loki (49-50). Finally Gylfi asks and is told about
the twilight of the gods (Ragnarok) in their last battle against thegiants, the destruction of the world, and its subsequent renewal(51—3). Before he can ask more there is a loud crash and the Æsirand their hall disappear: they are unable to answer further questionsand Gylfi has won the contest of wisdom, but is cheated of his
victory. He goes home and passes on the stories. The Æsir, however,decide to adopt the names of the gods in the stories they have told
so that people will think that they themselves are the gods. The
identities of the ‘historical’ Æsir, migrants to Scandinavia from
Asia, and the mythical ones in the stories, which have been kept
distinct up to this point, are thus finally merged, and the author
ends by suggesting that the myths told of them are really allegories
of events in the Trojan War (54).

Skaldskaparmal
This section on the language of poetry begins (55) with the settingof the scene of the conversation which forms the background to thediscussion. Ægir, personification of the ocean, is entertained to a
feast by the Æsir, and gets into conversation with the god Bragi(the first part of this section has chapter numbers that are acontinuation of those of Gylfaginning). Bragi tells first a story of
three Æsir on a journey who are tricked by the giant Thiassi in theform of an eagle into making it possible for him to abduct Idunn
and her apples of eternal youth from Asgard. Loki is forced to go
and rescue her, and when Thiassi chases them back to Asgard he iskilled by the Æsir. His daughter Skadi goes to seek vengeance but
is persuaded to accept compensation instead (56). Mention of his
brothers and the way they settled their claims to inherit theirfather’s gold leads to a mention of poetry, and Ægir asks about theorigin of this craft. Bragi tells how after the war between the Æsirand the Vanir the spittle that was the symbol of reconciliation wasmade into a person of immense knowledge. He was killed by two
dwarfs who made mead from his blood, whoever drinks of which222

Text Summaries
becomes a poet or a scholar. The dwarfs also killed a giant called
Gilling and were forced to hand over the mead in compensation tohis son Suttung, who hid it under a mountain and set his daughter
Gunnlod to guard it (57). These events have given rise to a numberof kennings (poetic circumlocutions) for poetry. In the next part ofthe story Odin tries to force Suttung’s brother Baugi to help him get
the drink as payment for doing the work of nine slaves for thesummer. When Suttung refuses to honour the bargain, Odin getsBaugi to bore a hole in the mountain and he creeps in to lie with
Gunnlod for three nights, after which she lets him drink all themead in three draughts. He escapes in the form of an eagle but ispursued by Suttung. Suttung comes so close to catching him that
Odin is forced to let some of the mead out backwards, which isscattered on the earth and becomes the rhymesters’ share. The rest
he spat out in containers back in Asgard and this was given to theÆsir and to those skilled in poetry (58). This part of the story has
given rise to further kennings.
Ægir then asks in more detail about the language of poetry, andBragi begins the analysis of poetic diction, giving examples ofkennings for Odin (1). This is interrupted by the so-called Epilogue,
an authorial statement of the purpose of the work, which is to
instruct young poets in the art of poetry, and a justification of theuse of pagan stories which are to explain the origin of kennings but
are not to be believed in as doctrine, since the author and hisreaders are Christians. An explanation of the origin of the stories isgiven which suggests that they are distorted or allegorical versionsof the events of the Trojan War. Asgard is really Troy, Thor is
Hector, the Midgard serpent is Achilles, the fall of Troy is Ragnarok, Ali/Vidar is Aeneas.
Further lists of kennings for Odin follow (2) and for poetry (3),with examples of their use quoted from the work of numerous
earlier poets. Then, with each section introduced by a token
question presumably addressed by Ægir to Bragi, there are given
lists, in some cases again with examples in verse, of kennings forother gods: Thor (4), Baldr (5), Niord (6), Freyr (7), Heimdall (8),Tyr (9), Bragi (although it is this god who is apparently giving theinformation) (10), Vidar (11), Vali (12), Hod (13), Ull (14), Haenir(15) and Loki (16).
The conversation is explicitly invoked again, and Bragi tells Ægirthe story of Thor’s encounter with the giant Hrungnir, who iskilled. Thor needs the help of his son Magni to get out from under
the giant’s dead body, and he is left with a fragment of the giant’s
223

Text Summaries
weapon (a whetstone) in his head. The sorceress Groa nearly removesit, 'not quite (17). Here there is a lengthy quotation from thepoem laustlong by Thiodolf of Hvinir which describes these
exploits. Bragi continues with the story of Thor’s visit to Geirrod’s
courts. On the way he has to cross the great river Vimur; when hearrives he kills both the giant Geirrod and his two daughters (18).
These achievements are celebrated in the poem Thorsdrapa by Eilif
Gudrunarson, 19 stanzas of which are quoted in this chapter.
Next are lists of kennings for the goddesses Frigg (19), Freyia(20), Sif (21) and Idunn (22). These are not illustrated by quo­tations, though in connection with the mention of Idunn’s abduc­tion by the giant Thiassi (Ch. 56 above), 13 more stanzas of
Thiodolf of Hvinir’s Haustlong are quoted.
Lists of kennings follow, with numerous verse quotations illus­
trating their use, for the sky (23), the earth (24), the sea (25), thesun (26), the wind (27), fire (28), winter (29) and summer (30);except for the first, these concepts are all at least partly personified.
Next is a chapter about kennings for man and woman, with some
explanations of their origins, but without any quotations (31). Since
gold is often used as part of such kennings, and can itself be referred
to in terms of something else, producing a compound kenning withthree or more elements, there follow a number of chapters about
gold, first a list of kennings (32), then stories explaining the origins
of some of them: the feast of the gods when they.were entertainedby Ægir (this took place after the conversation that is the back­ground to Skaldskaparmal, but the conversation is now referred toonly perfunctorily and the names of the speakers are no longer
mentioned), at which glowing gold was used in place of torches(33; here a verse is quoted to illustrate the use of allegoricalkennings), the nature of the tree Glasir with its golden leaves (34),the origin of Sif’s golden hair, made by dwarfs after Loki had cut
off her original hair (35; at the same time the dwarfs made Odin’s
spear Gungnir, Freyr’s ship Skidbladnir and his golden boar, thering Draupnir and Thor’s hammer Miollnir). Then there are illus­
trations of the use of some further kennings for gold (36—8),
followed by a history of the gold of the Niflungs. The history begins
with Odin, Loki and Haenir having to atone to Hreidmar for thekilling of his son Otter with gold forced from the dwarf Andvari,including a ring that Andvari lays a curse upon (39), then Fafnir
and Regin’s killing of their father Hreidmar in order to gain thegold for themselves, on which Fafnir then lays, turning himself into
a serpent. Then Sigurd son of Sigmund is introduced, and we are224

Text Summaries
told how he is brought up by Fafnir’s brother Regin, who gets him
to kill the serpent, providing him with the sword Gram. Sigurd
roasts Fafnir’s heart and drinks his blood, and understands thevoices of birds, who warn him that he must kill Regin. When hehas done so he takes away the gold, loading it onto his horse Grani(40). Next Sigurd finds the valkyrie Brynhild asleep on the moun­tain-top and wakes her. He goes on and stays with King Giuki,
eventually marrying his daughter Gudrun, and with her brothers
goes to woo Brynhild for Gunnar. Sigurd takes Gunnar’s place inorder to penetrate the flickering flame that protects her, and sleeps
with her with the sword Gram between them. He gives her the ringoriginally taken from Andvari. Later Brynhild and Gudrun quarrel
and Brynhild incites Gunnar and Hogni to kill Sigurd for his deceit,
subsequently killing herself and being burned with him. Gunnarand Hogni inherit the gold (41). Gudrun is then married to
Brynhild’s brother, King Atli Budlason. He invites Gunnar and
Hogni to visit him, and they do so after hiding the gold (which has
never since been found) in the Rhine. Atli has the brothers killed,
and is killed himself, together with his two sons, by Gudrun inrevenge. She afterwards marries King Ionakr. Her daughter by
Sigurd, Svanhild, is married to King lormunrekk, and is accused ofadultery with Iormunrekk’s son Randver, and he has them bothkilled. When Gudrun hears of this, she sends her sons (by Ionakr)
Sorli, Hamdir and Erp to avenge her; Erp is killed by his brothers
and although they cause Iormunrekk’s death they are themselves
killed by his men (42). At the end of this story five stanzas of Bragi
the Old addressed to Ragnar Lodbrok which relate to the last partof it are quoted.
Next comes the story of Frodi’s magic mill, Grotti, which first
grinds out gold, peace and prosperity, and then, when the giant
women who are turning it grow tired, an army which attacks andkills Frodi; it is taken away on a ship and grinds out salt whichsinks the ship and makes the sea salty. The poem Grottasong,supposed to have been recited by the giant women, is quoted entire(43). This story is followed by two about Hrolf Kraki. The first tells
how he gained his nickname, the second how, after his expedition
to plunder Uppsala, he escapes King Adils’s revenge by scattering
gold like barley on the Fyri plains to delay the king’s troops (44).All these stories in which gold figures have given rise to kennings
for gold. Then we hear how King Holgi of Halogaland was buried
in a mound of gold and silver, and examples of further kennings forgold are given from three stanzas of the old Lay of Biarki (45).
225

Text Summaries
More kennings for gold follow, with illustrative verses (46), thenexamples of how gold is used in kennings for man and woman, andof other kennings for man and woman in which tree-names areused (47).
The next series of kennings are for battle (48), weapons andarmour (49), and then there is the story of the eternal battle of the
Hiadnings which resulted from Hedin Hiarrandason abducting
Hild, daughter of Hogni, as a consequence of which battle is called
the Hiadnings’ weather (50), in connection with which five morestanzas of Brad’s poem for Ragnar Lodbrok are quoted. Thenfollow kennings for ship (51), for Christ (52) and for ldngs (53), allwith many illustrative verses, and the last with a lengthy discussionof the terminology of kingship and of the nobility.
So far the focus has been on kennings, or periphrastic expressions.
Next is a parallel account of heiti, or simplex terms that are used as
poetical synonyms for various concepts, beginning with poetry (54),the pagan gods (55), the heavens, sun and moon (56) and the earth(57). Then follow words and names for various animals, wolves,
bears, stags, horses, oxen, snakes, cattle, sheep, swine (58), the sky
and weather (59), birds of prey (60), the sea (61), fire (62), times
and seasons (63) and finally men (64-7, including long accounts of
the origins of words for kings in the names of legendary kings ofthe distant past in 64 and names of relations in 67, where
vidkenningar, sannkenningar and fomofn are exemplified), women(68, where there are more examples of vidkenningar) and parts ofthe body: head, eyes, ears etc. (69), heart, mind, emotions (70), limbs(71), speech (72), wisdom and other mental attributes (73). The
section ends with a discussion of homonyms and word-play (74).
There follow 106 stanzas of versified lists of names and synonyms
for sea-kings, giants, troll-wives, gods and goddesses, women, men,battle, various weapons, sea, rivers, fish, ships, earth or land andvarious animals, domestic and wild, the heavens and the sun.

Hattatal
The last section, Hattatal, begins with a dialogue with unnamed
speakers which discusses the categories of verse-form. The verses
nearly all constitute Snorri Sturluson’s poem in praise of King
Hakon (verses 1-30) and Earl Skuli (verses 31-66, 68-95; verses
67 and 96-102 are about both rulers). The praise is mostly rather
generalised, celebrating their generosity and valour, though there
are references to Skuli’s exploits in verses 32-7, 39 and 63-6.

226

Text Summaries
Snorri’s own visit to Norway and his poetical celebration of it ismentioned (mostly in connection with Earl Skuli’s hospitality) inverses 27-30, 67-70, 80-81, 93, 95,100-101. Verse 1 exemplifies
the commonest skaldic verse-form, dróttkvætt, which has a strict
structure of pairs of lines linked by alliteration and with internal
rhyme or assonance within every line (alternating half-rhyme withfull-rhyme). This structure is explained in the prose after verse 1,
and most of the following variations of verse-form are also
explained or commented on in the prose after each verse. Verses
2—6 are examples of the same verse-form with different regularpatterns of kennings in each line. Verses 7-8 and 33-4 illustratethe ‘licence’ of having lines with more or fewer than the usual six
syllables. In the prose after verse 8 two other forms of licence, akind of elision and the repetition of a particle, are exemplified infragments of verses by two earlier poets, Thorarin Mahliding andRef. Verses 9, 10 and 11 illustrate how in the same verse-form thelines can each contain two statements, one statement, or have astatement in each couplet. Verse 40 is like verse 10, but here eachline contains a different question. Verses 12, 13, 14, 25, 26 and 27
exemplify the use of parentheses consisting of two lines, parts oflines, or lines 2—7 of a stanza. Verses 15 and 16 illustrate two ways
in which a stanza can be linked to a preceding stanza, and verse 39
shows syntactical linking of the two halves of a verse (in dróttkvatt
this is uncommon). Verses 17-23 exemplify the use of refhvörf, adevice where two words of antithetical meaning are put next to (orclose to) each other (this device often depends an oflióst or word­play, where some of the words have two meanings, one of which is
required for the sense, the other providing antithesis) either 16, 8, 4
or 2 times in each stanza, and either once or twice in a line. Verse
17 is the only one in the poem that is fully interpreted word byword, though there are less complete explanations of the meaningof verses 6, 18 and 19. Verses 24, 41, 46, 47, 48 and 53 arevariations of dróttkvcett where the internal rhymes are arranged inparticular ways, involving repetition of complete syllables either
within the line or from one line to the next, or having half-rhyme
and alliteration falling on the same syllables both within one line
and between two successive lines. Verse 52 has only half-rhymes,verses 54-6 and 66 have internal rhymes only in alternate lines,
verse 57 has the second internal rhyming syllable placed early in theline instead of on the normal penultimate syllable, verse 58 has
internal rhyme between lines instead of within every line. Verse 67
has no internal rhymes, but normal alliteration.

227

Text Summaries
Verses 28 and 35 exemplify a particular way of arranging thealliterating staves in dróttkvcett, and also have a characteristic
placing of the internal rhyme on the second syllable of some lines.
Verse 19 has even lines consisting of pairs of three-syllable words,
verse 30 has a regular trochaic rhythm in the even lines. Verses 31,
32, 45 have particular placements of the internal rhymes (andsometimes of the alliterating staves). Verse 36 has three syllables
rhyming in the even lines, verse 37 has three syllables rhyming inevery line, verse 38 has three syllables rhyming or forming half­
rhyme in every line alternately.
Verse 42 has full rhyme in odd as well as even lines, verses 43—4
have two pairs of internal rhymes or half-rhymes in each line, andin the prose between these two verses a further example attributed
to Bishop Klæng is quoted.
Verses 49—51 show more fundamental departures from themetrical pattern of dróttkvcett, having one or more catalectic lines
in each half-verse that cannot be accounted for by any of theaccepted forms of licence. Verses 71—8 have only four syllables tosome or all lines instead of the usual six, and various arrangements
of internal rhymes. Conversely verses 59—61 have an additional
rhyming two-syllable word added after the normal six syllables ofsome or all of the lines. Verses 62-4 have eight-syllable lines withvarious arrangements of internal rhyme and alliteration. Verse 65
has seven-syllable lines. Verses 68-70 have rhythms similar to the
eddic fomyrdislag (see below), but with internal rhymes and arefrain split over the first line of verse 68 and the last of verse 70,
while verse 79 is similar in rhythm to the eddic málaháttr metrewith internal rhymes like dróttkvætt.
Verses 80—94 areexamples of forms with end-rhymes,
arranged according to the number of different rhymes in eachstanza (from one to four), with various rhythms that are similar to
many of the other metrical types in the poem that have internal
rhyme. Finally, the poem contains examples of the metres com­monly found in eddic poems, málaháttr (like Atlámál, 95), fornyrdislag (like Völuspá, 96) with minor variants (97-9), Ijódaháttr(like parts of Hávamál, 100) and galdralag with its extra seventhline echoing the sixth, as in parts of Hávamál and Sigrdrífumál(101). The last verse (102) is in kviduháttr like Egil’s Sonatorrek
and Arinbiamarkvida.

228

Annotated Index of Nantes
Figures in brackets indicate that the person or place is referred to
but not named. A question mark means that the identification is
uncertain.
Aberdeen, river (‘mouth of Don’), 161
Adam, 1
Achilles, Greek hero, 65
Adils, legendary kingin Sweden, 110—
12,137
Ægir, personification of the ocean, 5 9,61-2,64,77,81,91-5,141.
Translated as common noun ‘ocean’,128,139,140,150,160or‘sea’, 168,220. Alternative names: Hler, Gymir.
Often described by modern writers as
godofthesea, butheisnotinduded
by Snorri among the Æsir, while hisname appears amongthose of giants
onp. 156. His wife Ranishowever
listed as oneof the Asyniur.
Aeneas, Trojan hero identified with
Vidar, 66
Æsir, plural of As (i) the migratingkingsfrom Asia who came to be
worshipped as gods in northern
Europe, 4,5,7 (Æsir-people).
------ (ii) the mythical gods associatedwith (andmostlyoffspringof) Odin,vi, 13,14,17,18,21-9,34-7,39,40,
42-4,48-52,54-7,59-62,64-5,
70, (73), 76-9, (84), 86-8,94-6,99,
100,(139), 156—7. The term issometi mes used of heathen gods ingeneral withoutreference to the
distinction between Æsir and Vanir(seeVan).
Africa, 2Agdir, a district in southern Norway,
125,134
Ai, a dwarf, 17
Alexander, Trojan hero (i.e. Paris son of
Priam), 65
Alf, a dwarf 17. As a common noun theword means ‘elf’. In a kenning for
warrior, 209
AIfarin,agiant, 156
Alfheim, world of elves, 19229

Alfrodul, a name for the sun, 57.
Translated‘elf-disc’, 90,133,164(where masculine forms are used).
Ali (i) son of Odin, according to Snorri
identical with Vali, 26, but both arelisted separately on p. 156. Identified
with Trojan hero Helenus, 65, and(apparently) with Vidar/Aeneas, 66------ (ii) son of Loki, 76------ (iii) a sea-king, 155; in a kenningfor‘giant’, 99------ (iv) akinginUppland (Opland),Norway, 110,111,136
Alin, river, 161
All-father, a name for Odin (though not
identified with him until p. 13), 8,
13-17,20,21,27,28,30,33,66
Alsvart, a giant, 156
Alsvinn.ahorseof thesun, 14,137
Alsvinnsmal, an alternative name fortheEddicpoem Alvissmal, 137,144.
Used instead of Kalfsvisa (the namegiven in one of the other mss), 136.
The name means ‘speeches of the
all-wise one’; Alviss is the name of adwarf.
Althiolf, a dwarf, 16
Alvig the Wise, 146, (148). Called
Almveig in the Eddie poem
Hyndluliod.
Am, a giant, 156
Ama, a troll-wife, 156
Amgerd, a troll-wife, 156
Amsvartnir, a lake, 28
Andhrimnir, cook in Val-hall, 32
Andlang, a heaven, 20,133,164. The
word means ‘extended’ or ‘very
long’.
Andvari,adwarf, 17,100,102-3. In theform of a fish onp. 100,and given asa
name for a pike, 162. The wordmeans ‘watcher’.
Angrboda, a giantess, 26

230
Annar (i) equivalent of Old English(H)athra,3------ (ii) second husband of Night (theword is identical to the word for‘second’), 14. He is called Onaronpp.
90 and 131
Apli.an ox, 137,163
Arf.anox, 137,163. As a common
noun the word means ‘inheritance’.
Arfuni,anox, 137,163.Thewordis
among the words for ‘son’, translated‘inheritor’, 152
Amor, the (Orkney) earls* poet, an
Icelander, died about 1075. There arequotations from his poems on Earl
Thorfinn (ca 1065), 66,88 (second
quotation), 128,130-32,139 (= p.
128), 145; on King Magnus the Goodof Norway (Hrynhenda, 1046), 14950, and the verse attributed toMarkus on p. 146 is attributed toArnor in Heimskringla and isprobably from this poem; on Magnus
the Good after his death, 88 (first
quotation), 116,117,140; on
Hermund Illugason, brother ofGunnlaugSerpent-tongue, 89; on
Earl Rognvald (ca 1046), 89—90,
131; and on Harald Hardradi after
hisdeath (ca 1067), 127,135,144.
The second quotation on p. 90 is froman unknown poem, though it could
also be from Hrynhenda. The first on
p. 149 could be from another poem
on Harald Hardradi.
Arvak (i) a horse of the sun, 14,137------ (ii) an ox, 163
As (plural Æsir), one of the gods
associated with Odin; used of Loki,although he was son of a giant, 21,37,
77, and Niord, although he wasoriginally oneof the Vanir, 23, and ofothergods,24—6,64,76. As-bridge,
17,18; As-gates,i.e.thegatesof
Asgard,60,77;As-rage,79; Asstrength, 22,39,47,82
Asabrag, a name for Thor, 15 6
Asa-Thor (‘Thor of theÆsir’), 13,22,
39,42-4,57,78. SeeThor.
Asgard, the home of the Æsir in Sweden,
7; the home of the mythical Æsir (orthe fortification round it), 15,49,50,

56,59-61,64-5,72-3,77,(83,84),
95-6; Old Asgard, i.e. Troy, 8, 13,
15 (?)
Asgrim Ketilsson, Icelandic poet, 12th
century. The only known fragmentby him is quoted on p. 93 and may befrom a poem about KingSverrir of
Norway, composed about 1200.
Asia, 2,4,5,65. The men (people) of
Asia are identified with Æsir, 4,5,65
Ask, the first male human being, 13
Askvitul,name foraship, 162
Aslaug, daughter of Sigurd Fafnisbani(and Brynhild, accordingto The Saga
ofthe Volsungs), 105
Asynia (pl. Asyniur), a female As, agoddess,21,24,29,31,59,86,94-5,
157
Atal.asea king, 155; ina kenningfor‘ship’, 67Athra (Old English Hathra),3;
evidently associated by Snorri withthe word for ‘second*.
Ati,asea-king,155
Atla, a troll-wife, 156
Atli (i) a name for Thor, 84,156------ (ii) a sea-king, 155------ (iii) Budlason brotherof Brynhild(identifiable with Attila the Hun, died453), 102-4,137,148------ (iv) litli (the Small), Icelandicpoet,
11 th century. The only surviving
fragment of his work is quoted on p.
143.1tisfroma poem about King
Olaf Kyrri ofNorway.ca 1070.
Atrid, a name for Odin, 21
Atridi, a name for Odin or Freyr (who issaid to be rider of Blodughofi in thenext list), 136
Aud,son of Night, 14,90,91
Audhumla, a primeval cow, 11,163
Audi, son of kingHalfdan, 148
Audmund, a sea-king, 155
Audskialg, a river, 161
Augustus, Roman emperor (died AD14), 107
Aumar (plural), islandsoff Rogaland in
Norway, 124
Aurboda, a giantess, mother of Gerd, 31
Aurgelmir, a primeval giant, identified
by Snorri with Ymir, 10,15 6Aurgrimnir, a giant, 157

231
Aurnir, a giant, 108,156
Aurvandil the Bold, 79,80
Aurvangar (‘mud-fields’), 17
Austri, a dwarf (‘easterly’), 12,16,88
Awl, a dwarf, 97Bæsing, a sword (in Olafs sagahelga),
159
Bafur,adwarf, 16
Bakrauf, a troll-wife, 156
Baldr (i) equivalentof Old English
Beldegg,4------(ii) a god, son of Odin and Frigg,
18,23,26,48-51,56,61,(67,68),
74-7,80,86,113,156-7. In
kennings for‘man’, 66,134, (189 ?),193
Baleyg, a name of Odin, 21,90
Balk,apoet?, 218-19
Bara (‘wave’), daughter of Ægir, 91;
replaced by Drofn in the list on
p. 141. Translated‘wave’, 201,‘bore’, 142,161
Barey, an island; the name perhaps
connected with barr ‘barley’, 32.
Possibly identifiable with Barra in theHebrides (cf. Orm Barreyiarskald).
The story in the Eddie poem
Skimismalhis the form Barri anddescribes the place as a grove.
Baugi,agiant,63,157
Bedvig (Old English Bedwig), 3
Beigud, a berserk, 111
Beimar, a name for followers of King
Beimuni; a term for‘men’, 151,157,
194
Beimi, a sea-king, 155; in a kenning for‘warrior’, 67
Beimuni, a sea-king, 151,155
Beinvid,agiant, 156
Beiti, a sea-king, 15 5; in a kenning forthesea, 93
Beldegg (Old English Bældæg), 4
Beli, a giant killed by Freyr, who is thus
called his enemy or slayer, 32,55,75,
80,136
Bergelmir,agiant, 11,156
Bersi (Holmgongu-Bersi Veleifsson),
Icelandic poet, 11 th century. All his
surviving verses, including the one
quoted onpp. 117-18, are preservedin Kormaks saga.

Bestla, mother of Odin, 11,69
Biaf (Old English Beaw), 3
Biar,equivalent ofBiaf,3,137
Biarki, the old Lay of (Biarkamal infornu), 112-13. Cf. BodvarBiarki.
Biflidi, Biflindi, names for Odin, 9.
Cf.Blindi.
Bifrost, a bridge, 15,17,18,20,25,34,
53, (77). Cf. As-bridge. Called Biirost
in tbeEddicpoems Grimnismalmá
Fafnismal.
Bifur, a dwarf, 16
Bikki, counsellor of King Iormunrekk,
104Bil, companion of Moon, 14;counted
asanAsynia,31,157. Inakenningfor‘woman’,115
Bileyg, a name of Odin, 21
Billing, a dwarf or giant, in a kenning for‘poetry’,116. A dwarf of this name islistedin Voluspa-, the character in
Havamal is probably a giant.
Bilskimir, a hall belonging to Thor, 22,
72,73
Biorgolf,agiant, 156
Biorn(i), 137------ (ii)aname for Thor, 156
Bird-hild,apunon the name Svanhild,
106
Blain, a dwarf, or possibly a name forthe giant Ymir, 16
Blakk,ahorse, 136,137
Blapthvari,agiant, 156
Blindi, a name for Odin, 21
Blodughadda, personification of awave, daughter of Ægir, 91,141,161
Blodughofi, a horse (‘bloody-hoof’),136
Bodn, a vat, 62-3,70,71
Bodvar (i) Balti, Icelandic poet, 12th
century, see Kolli.
------ (ii) Biarki, a berserk, 111. Cf.
Biarki. Biarki means ‘little bear’.
Boll, river, 34
Bolthorn, a giant, 11. Corresponds toBolthor in the Eddie poem Havamal.
Bolverk (i), a name of Odin (‘evil­
work’),21,63
Bolverk (ii) Amorsson, Icelandicpoet,
11th century. Thequotation on
p. 140 is from a poem about
Harald Hardradi.

232
Bombor, a dwarf, 16
Bor, father of Odin, 11—13,69. In somepoems spelled Bur.
Bragi (i) god of poetry,25,34 (thismightbeBragi(ii)),59,61-2,64,67(perhaps Bragi (ii)), 76-7,81,86,95,
157. Probably related to the wordbrag‘chief’. Cf. Asabrag.
------ (ii) the Old, Boddason, Norwegian
poet, 9th century. There arequotations from his Ragnarsdrapa
on pp. 7,69,72-3,89,105-6,120,
123—4,142;thesecomprise all thatremains of that poem, which is
supposed to describe pictures on ashield given to the poetby Ragnar Lodbrok. There arequotations from other,
unidentifiable poems on pp. 73 (lastverse), 95,99,132. The verse
attributed to him on p.74 is probably
from Ulf Uggason’s HasJrapa; itis
attributed to Ulf in the Uppsala MS. It
may be this Bragi that is referred to on
pp. 34 and 67. A metre based on
occasional variations found in hisverses is constructed on p. 200.
------ (iii) legendary king, 148,15O.The
plural bragnar is used as a term for‘men’, 150,157,183,214and
elsewhere.
Bragnings, descendants of Bragi (iii)148. As common noun for ‘king’ or‘ruler’, 149 (Harald Harfagri), 182,
187,189,193 and elsewhere.
Brand, 4
Brandingi,agiant, 156
Breidablik (‘broad-gleam’), 20,23
Brennu-Nial, i.e. NialThorgeirsson,died 1010 by burning (brenna) as
recounted in Nialssaga. His only
known verse is quoted on p. 141.
Brimir, a hall, 56. In VoluspaBrimir ispossibly the name of the owner of thehall; Brimir’s hall on p. 65 is said tohave been in Troy. He was perhaps agiant.
Brisingamen (‘Brisings’ necklace’), a
mythical ornament, 30,76, (77), 86.
Described as Brising’s girdle, 87; its
thief is Loki.
Briton, inhabitant of Britain, in a

kenning for ‘giant*, 84
Bro, river, 161
Brokk, a dwarf, 96,97
Brunnakr, a place in the land of giants,
87
Bryia,atroll-wife, 156
Brynhild (i) a valkyrie, 102.
Corresponds to Sigrdrifa in the Eddie
poem Sigrdrifumal.
------ (ii)daughterofBudli, 102-3,148
Budli, father of Atli and Brynhild,
102-3,148. Perhaps the same as thesea-king onp. 155.
Budlungs, descendants of Budli, 148. As
a common noun for‘ruler’, 149(Eystein Haraldsson of Norway),
176,209
Bui Digri (the Stout), Danish hero in
Jomsvikinga saga and Heimskringla,
119Buri, grandfather of Odin, 11,69
Busey ra, a giantess killed by Thor, 74
Byleist, Loki’s brother, 26,55,76
Bylgia (‘billow’),daughterofÆgir,91,

141,161. As common noun, 141.
Byrgir, a spring or well, 14
Byrvil, a sea-king, 155
Cargo-Tyr, a name for Odin,64,67,
128. See Farmatyr, Farma-god.
Chariot-Tyr, a name for Thor, 64
Christ, (90), 107,126-8. Christian, 64
Coal-muzzle, a goat, 164
Constantinople, 127
Cumbrians, inhabitants of Cumbria, inkenning for ‘giants’, 85Dag, a legendary king, 136,148. The
name renderedas Day, 14,90,137
Dain (i) a stag, 19,136,164------ (ii)adwarf, 16
Dainsleif (‘Dain’s legacy’), a sword, 122
Danes, 146; Island-Danes (i.e. those
who live on the Danish Islands), 144;
Danish blood (the king killed Danes),
149. In kenningfor ‘giants’, 81,85,135
Day (personification of day, cf. Dag),
14,90. As common noun,137,144
Delling, father of Day, 14
Denmark,4,5,7,106-7,110,129,148.
Danish ground, 148; Danish realm,
151

233
Dis, name of a nom, or a poetical wordfor‘woman’, 157 (it is not clear
whether the line belongs with theprevious list or not). Cf. Thorbiorn
andp. 153
Dnieper, river, 161
Dofri.agiant, 156
Doglings, descendants of Dag, 148. As
common noun for ‘king’ (Harald
Hardradi), 149. Translated ‘prince’,
134
Dolgthvari, a dwarf, 17
Don, river, 161
Dori, a dwarf, 17
Dragvandil,asword (cf. Egils saga andDragvendil in Ketilssaga Hangs),
158
Drammen, river, 161
Draupnir(i)adwarf, 17------(ii) a ring, 50,74,94-6, (97).
Draupnir’s band, a ring, in a kenningfor‘woman’, 89; Draupnir’s sweat(with reference to the legend on
p. 50), a kenning for ‘gold’, 113
Drofn, personification of a wave,
daughter of Ægir, 141,161.
Replaced by Bara in the list on p. 91.
As common noun, translated‘comber’, 141-2
Dromi, name of a fetter, 27,28
Drosul, a horse, 136
Duf,adwarf, 17Dufa, personification of a wave,
daughter of Ægir, 91,141,161
Dumb,agiant, 156
Duneyr, a stag, 19,136,164
Durathror,astag, 19,136,164
Durin, a dwarf, 16
Durn, river, 161
Durnir,agiant, 157
Dvalar,astag,164
Dvalin (i) a stag, 19,136------(ii) a dwarf, 16; daughters of
Dvalin means descendants of dwarfs,
18. Dvalin’s drink is the mead of
poetry, 70; Dvalin’s toy is the sun,
133,164------(iii)alegendary person, 136
Dvina, river, 161. Cf. Vina.
Dyn,river, 161
Dyna, river, 161

Earth, see lord.
East Saxony, 4Edda, name of the book, vi. As common
noun for‘great-grandmother’, 153
Egil (i) Skallagrimsson, Icelandic poet,
1 Oth century, hero of Egils saga.
Quotations are from his Sonatorrek(on the death of his son), 68,
Hofudlausn (‘head-ransom’), 70,
110,135,140, Arinbiarnarkvida (onhis friend Arinbiorn), 75, and from
two independent stanzas, 94,147(both also included in Egilssaga).
Egil’s grief-comforter (68) is his
poetry. A metre based on occasionalvariations of normal dróttkvatt
metre in Egil’s poems is named after
himonp. 199------ (ii) son of Volu-Stein, 71------ (iii) brother of Volund (as in the
Eddicpoem Volundarkvida),&bowman, 119
Eidrennir, river, 161
Eikinskialdi,adwarf, 17
Eikthyrnir,astag,33,164
Eilif (i) Gudrunarson, Icelandicpoet, fl.
ca 1000. Thequotations are from anotherwise unknown poem about Earl
Hakon (ca 990), 71, an otherwise
unknown Christian poem, 126, andhis Thorsdrapa, on the god Thor, 72,
74,83-6. This poem too isonly
known from Snorri’s Edda.
------ (ii) Kulnasvein, Icelandicpoet,
12th century. The four quotations on
pp. 126-7 are probably all from apoem addressed to Christ.
Eimgeitir,agiant, 157
Einar (i) Helgason Skalaglamm (scale­tinkle), Icelandicpoet, 10th century.
Quotations are from his Vellekla(‘gold-dearth’) addressed to Earl
Hakon Sigurdarson (ca 986), 68—71,
114,118,119,121-2,133,138,andfrom a poem about a Danish ruler,perhaps Harald Bluetooth (ca 985),
113,132------ (ii) Skulason, Icelandic poet, 12th
century. Quotations are from a poem
perhaps about the four sons ofHarald Gilli of Norway, (composed
after 1142), 134, Geisli (composed

234
1153 in honour of St Olaf), 127,
Runhenda, on KingEystein
Haraldsson of Norway (ca 1155),
142 (second quotation), 144,149(second quotation) (where the two
couplets are from different stanzas), a
poem on King lngi Haraldsson of
Norway (after 1155), 148—9 (first
quotation), Elfarvisur (on thechieftain Gregorius Dagsson and hisbattle on theGötaálv in 1159), 135;
there is also a series of verses about anaxe, apparently a gift from a king,which are only preserved in MSS of
Snorri’s Edda, 98-9,109-10,11314,119 (sameverseasonp. 98), 121.
The other quotations are not fromidentifiablepoems: 92-3,118,120,
125,128,138-41 (the last verse
here was not quoted before; the restof it, lines 3-8, is however included at
thisplaceinsome other MSS of
Snorri’s Edda), 142 (first quotation),143.
------ (iii) Thambarskelfir, Norwegianchieftain, referred to in the verse of
Harald Sigurdarson (129).
Eindridi,anameofThor,81,156;
sometimes spelled without the d.
Einheriar, Odin’s warriors in Val-hall(‘unique warriors’?),21,31—4,
54-5,69
Einridi, descendant of Tror/Thor, 3Einstika,river, 161
Eir, an Asynia, 29; a valkyrie, 157
Eirik (i) the eloquent, legendary
person, 148------ (ii) Eigod, Danish king (died1103), (148), 150------ (iii) Hakonarson, earl in Norway(died 1013), 133
Eiriksmal, anonymous poem on thedeath of Eirik Bloodaxe (died inEngland954), 69
Eisurfala,atroll-wife, 156
Eitri,adwarf,96
Ekin,river,33,161
Ekkil, a sea-king, 155
Ekla, river, 161
Elbe (Göta alv), 135,161,166; see Elf,
Göta álv; Sax-elbe, Raumelf

Eld, a giant, 156 (the word means‘fire’;
cf.p.93).
Eldhrimnir, a pot, 32
Eldir, slave of Ægir, 95. In a kenning for‘giant’, 135
Elf, river (Göta álv), 166
Eliudnir, Hel’s hall, 27
Elivagar, mythical rivers, 10,80
Ella, kingin Northumbria, died 867; ina kenning for ‘giant’, 86
Elli, personification of old age, 44,45
Ellidi, a ship, 162. Ships in various
stories are called by this name, which
is derived from a Slavonic word for abarge; the word ledia, translated
lighter onp. 162,isderived from thesame word.
Embla, the firsthuman woman, 13
Emund, legendary king, 146 (where hecorresponds to Eymund in the Eddie
poem Hyndluliod).
Endil, a sea-king, 155; in a kenning for‘giant’, 83
Enea, a name for Europe, 2England,5,128,129
English, 70,128
Ennilang,anameofThor,156
Erp, son of Ionakr, 104—6
Erringar-Stein, Icelandic poet, 11th
century, 124. This quotation is allthat is known of this poet’s work.
Euphrates, river, 161
Europe, 2Eve, 1
Eygotaland, a name for the islands ofScandinavia, 151
Eyiolf Dadaskald, Icelandic poet, early
11 th century. The quotations on pp.
125-6 and 133 are from his
Bandadrapa, his only surviving
poem, about Earl Eirik, ca 1010.
Eylimi, legendary king, 101,148
Eynæfir, a sea-king, in a kenning for‘boat’, 72
Eynef, a sea-king, 155
Eystein Valdason, Icelandic poet, 1 Oth
century, 72-3. The three quotations,
all evidently from a poem about
Thor, are all that survives of his work,and areonly known from Snorri’s
Edda.

235
Eyvind Finnsson Skaldaspillir(‘destroyer of poets’ or ‘plagiarist’),
Norwegian poet, 10th century. The
quotations are from Haleygiatal(q.v.),66-7,69,71-2,75,117,128,
133; Hakonarmal (on King Hakon
the Good of Norway, composed961), 67,147; and from three
independent stanzas composed ca
962-5 onpp. 90,97-8,112,122.
These three, and the verses from
Hakonarmal, are also found in
Heimskringla.

Fafnir, son of Hreidmar, 99-101(transformed into a serpent), 102-3,
113,(136), 137,148 (Fafnisbani =slayer of Fafnir), (217). Used as namefor a sword, 159. A verse is quoted
from the Eddie poem Fafnismal onp.
18 (second verse).
Fak,ahorse, 136
Fal, a dwarf, 17,68 (in a kenningfor themead of poetry).
Fala(i)atroll-wife, 156------(ii) a name for an axe, 159
Falhofnir, a horse, 18,136
Famine, Hel’s knife, 27
Farbauti, a giant, father of Loki, 26,76,
77,87
Farma-god (‘god of cargoes’), a namefor Odin, 21. See Farmatyr.
Farmatyr (‘god of cargoes’), a name for
Odin, 21 .Translated as Cargo-Tyr,
64,67,128. Tyr in this name isprobably a common noun rather thanthenameofthe god Tyr.
Fedia, river, in a kenning for ‘rock’, 84
Fenia, a giantess (98), 107, (110). In
kennings for ‘gold’, 113,193. A namefor an arrow, 160
Fenrir, Fenriswolf, a mythical wolf, 15,25-6, (27-9,32), 53-7,66, (68), 76,(123),164,(168,173).Asacommon
noun for ‘wolf’, 136,199. Amongnamesof giants, 157
Fensalir (pl.) or Fensal (sg.), Frigg’s
dwelling (‘fen-hall (s) ’), 29,48,86
Fetbreid, a sword, 159
Fialar(i)adwarf,62------(ii) a giant, 156

Fifa, name of an arrow in Ketils saga
Hiengs, 160 (cf. Gusir)Fife, area in Scotland, among words for‘land’, 163
Fili, a dwarf, 16
Fimafeng, slave of Ægir, 95
Fimbulthul, a mythical river, 9,33,161
Finn (i) a dwarf, 17. Finnsleif, ‘Finn’s
legacy’, a mail-coat (made by adwarf?), 111,160------ (ii) inhabitant of Finland or
Lapland, 140.1nakenningfor‘giant’, 88------ (iii) legendary king, 3Fiolnir (i) a nameof Odin, 9,21. In akenning for ‘giant’, 95------ (ii) a legendary kingin Sweden,
107
Fiolsvinn, a name of Odin, 21
Fiolverk, a giant, 156
Fiolvor.atroll-wife, 156
Fiorgvin, Fiorgyn (i) Frigg’s father, 13,
86
Fiorgyn (ii) a name for lord, ‘Earth’,
Thor’s mother, and thus a word for‘land’, 135,163
Fiorm, a mythical river, 9,33,161
Fiorsvartnir, a horse, 137
Firdir (‘Fiords’), adistrictin Norway,(177-8), 179
Flaug (‘flight’), an arrow, see Gusir. Cf.
flug, translated ‘flight’, andgognflaug, translated ‘gain-flying’, inwords for‘arrow’, 160
Flegg, a giant, 156
Flein Hiorsson, Norwegian poet, fl. ca
800. Ametreisnamedafterhim, 199,
200, and he is mentioned in Skaldatal(a list of court poets) andLandnamabok (Book of
Settlements), but none of his work
survives.
Flod, a river, 162
Folkvang, Folkvangar (pl.), dwelling of
Freyia, 24
Folkvir, a horse, 137
Forad, a troll-wife, 156. Cf. the namefor Hel’s threshold, Fallanda Forad,translated Stumbling-block, 27
Forniot, a giant, father of wind,
93,156

236
Forscti, son of Baldr, an As, 26,59,74,
157
Franangr, a waterfall, 51
France, Francia, 4,148. Frankish(spear), 160
Freka, river, 161
Freki, a mythical wolf, 33,164. As acommon noun for ‘wolf’, 135; in a
kenning for ‘carrion’, 136
Freovin (Old English Freawine), 4
Freyia,agoddess,24,29,30,35,(36),50,59,60,75-8, (85), 86,94-5,
98-9, (119), 15 7. Her necklace is
Brisingamen, 76.Thename
originally meant ‘lady’. In kenningsfor‘gold’, 98,121 (her tears weregold, 30). Cf Syr. Her daughter isHnoss, ‘treasure’.
Freyr, a god, 24,28,31-2,37,50,54,(55),59,75,86,95,97-8.Ina
kenning for ‘man’ or ‘warrior’, 115,
117,145. A name for an ox, 163. Cf.
Ingi-Freyr, Yngvi-Freyr. The nameoriginally meant ‘lord’.
Friallaf (Old English Frealaf), 3
Frid, name of a goddess or giantess used
in a kenningfor ‘giant’, 83. As an
adjective the word means ‘beautiful’.
Fridleif (i) (Norse equivalentof
Friallaf), 3------ (ii) son of Skiold, legendary kingof Denmark, 4,106
Frigg(i) = Frigida, wifeof the‘historical’ Odin, the king who
migrated from Asia, 3------ (ii) an Asynia, wife of the god
Odin, mother of Baldr, 13,21,29,30,
48-50,55,59,67(ina kenningfor
Odin; those who are destined for him
are those who are killed in battle), 74,
76,81,86,90,95,157
Frigida, wife of the ‘historical’ Odin, 3(cf. Phrygia, a name for the landaround Troy).
Friodigar (Old English Freodegar), 4
Frodi (i) Norse equivalent of Friodigar,
4------ (ii) Fridleifsson, legendary king,
98,106-10. In a kenningfor ‘gold’,
193------ (iii) a sea-king, 155
Frosti,adwarf, 17

Fulla, an Asynia, 29,50,59,86,94,
97-8,157
Fundin, a dwarf, 16
Fyri, river in Sweden (Fyrisaa), 95, 111,
112
Fyrnir,agiant, 156

Gaeir, a sea-king, 155
Galar (i) a dwarf, 62------ (ii)agiant, 156
Gamli Gnaevadarskald, Icelandicpoet,
1 Oth century. The two quotations,73,149, apparently from a poem onThor and from one on an
unidentifiable king, are all thatremains of his work.
Gandalf, a dwarf, 16
Gandvik, the White Sea (q.v.), 166
Gang, a giant, 61,155
Ganges, river, 161
Ganglari, a name of Odin, 21
Ganglati, a giant, Hel’s servant (‘walklazy’), 27, 157
Gangleri, assumed name of Gylfi,
8-15,17-25,28-9,32-7,46,48,
51-2, 55-7 (also one of Odin’snames; ‘walk-weary’).
Ganglot, Hel’s serving-maid (‘walklazy’), 27
Gardrofa, a mare, 30
Garm, a dog (or a wolf ?), 34,54. Cf.
Moongarm. Translated ‘dog’ in a
kenning for ‘weapon’, 138
Gaupi, a sea-king, 155
Gaut, a name of Odin, 22,68(Slaughter-Gaut), 151. In kenningsforÆsir, 84, giant, 74 (fell-Gaut),
warrior, 199,poetry, 132,sword,
121,137,159(corpse-Gaut),shield,
98, Thor, 83
Gauta-Tyr, a name of Odin, 67. Cf .Tyr.
Gauti, a sea-king, 155
Gautland, i.e. Gotland or Gotland (orJutland?), 151
Gautrek, a sea-king, 155; in a kenningfor‘ship’, 99
Gauts, people of Gotland, 128,147
Gavir, Norse equivalent of Old English
Gewis,4
Gefiun (i) a woman of the ‘historical’Æsir-people in Sweden, 7------ (ii) an Asynia, 29,59,95,157. In a

237
kenning for giantess, 81
Gefn, a name for Freyia, 30,99 (hermaid = Hnoss, a treasure), 157. In akenningfor Idunn, 88, forgiantess,
86
Geirahod, a valkyrie, 31. As a common
noun, translated ‘spear-fight’, 158
Geirolnir, a goat, 164
Geirrod, a giant, 21,72,74,76,81-3,(84-5), 156
Geirvimul, a mythical river, 33,162
Geitir (i) a sea-king, 155; in a kenningfor ‘shield’, 81, for ‘ship’, 124,
192-3------(ii) a giant, 156
Geitla, a troll-wife, 156
Gelgia, a rope, 29Gera, river, 161
Gerd, beloved of Freyr, 31, among the
Asyniur, 59,157, rival of Frygg (hereperhaps a mistake for Grid), 86
Geri, a mythical wolf, 33,164. Asa
common noun for‘wolf’, 135,
203—4. In kennings for ‘blood’, 136,
‘carrion’, 138
Gersemi (‘treasure’), daughter ofFreyia, 157
Gestil, a sea-king, 155
Gestilia, a troll-wife, 156
Gewis,4
Geysa, a troll-wife, 156
Giallarhorn, Heimdall’s trumpet, 17,
25,54
Gialp, a giantess, daughter of Geirrod,
74,82, (83-5). In a kenning for ‘wolf’(the traditional mount of giantesses),
136; among names for troll-wives,
156
Giantland, 7,13,16,26—7,35—6,38,
49,55,60,77-8,80, (83,85-6), 87
Gilling (i) a giant, 62, 71------(ii) river, 161
Gils, a horse, 18,136
Gimir, a heaven, 164
Gimle, 9,20,56
Tinnar,adwarf, 17
Ginnungagap (‘the mighty or deceptive
gap’, the primeval firmamentl 10,
12,17,137
Gioll (i) a stone slab, 29------(ii) river atthe border of Hel, 9,50,
161; Gioll bridge, 50

Gipul, mythical river, 3 3Gissur the Black Gullbrarskald,
Icelandic poet, died 1030. The
quotation onp. 145isfroman
otherwise unknown poem about aKing Olaf, maybe the Swedish king(died ca 1022)orSt Olaf ofNorway(died 1030). Cf. Ref.
Giuki (i) father of Gunnar and Hogni,
102-3,105-6,148------ (ii) a sea-king, 155
Giukungs, sons of Giuki (i), 102,104
Glad, a mythical horse, 18,137(perhaps two different horses,
though Dag’s father is said to be oneof the Æsir) .Asa common noun forhorse in a kenning for ship, 192
Gladsheim, 16
Glatr, a horse, 18,136
Glam, a giant, 157
Glammi, a sea-king, 155; in kenningsfor‘sea’, 142,143
Glapsvinn, a name of Odin, 21
Glasir, a mythical tree, 94,96,113
Glaum (i) a giant, 85------ (ii) ahorse, 137
Glaumar, a giant, 15 7
Gleaming-bale, Hel’s curtains, 2 7
Gleipnir, a fetter, 25,28
Glen, husband of Sol, 14,93; his
bedfellow is thus the sun.
Glit, river, 161
Glitnir,20,26
Glod, river, 161
Gloin,adwarf, 17
Glomma, river, (161)Glora = Lora, 3. Cf. Hlora.
Glum Geirason, Icelandic poet, 10th
century. The quotations on pp. 67,
70,121,128,147 are all from his
poem on Harald Greycloak of
Norway, ca 970.
Glumra, a troll-wife, 156
Gna,anAsynia,30,31,157
Gnapa, river, 161
Gneip, a troll-wife, 156
Gnepia, a troll-wife, 156; a name for anaxe, 159
Gnipahellir (‘jutting cave’), 54
Gnissa, a troll-wife, 156
Gnita-heath, 101—3,191
Gnod,a ship, 162 (mentioned in238various' legendary sagas including
those of Grim Lodinkinni and Egil
Einhendi).
God, 1,126-7,131,(146), 175
Goi, name of a month, 144
Goin.asnake, 19,137;nameof asword, 159
Goll, a valkyrie, 31; as a term for battle,
translated‘clangor’, 158
Gomul, river, 33,161
Gondlir, a name of Odin, 21
Gondul, a valkyrie, 67,157; in kennings
forbattle, 118,201
Gopul, river, 33
Gor, a sea-king, 155
Götaálv, river in Sweden, see Elbe, 161
Gothorm (i) half-brother of Gunnarand Hogni, 102,103------ (ii),109
Gori (i) Gunnar’s horse, 102,136-7------ (ii)alegendaryking, 151. Pl.
gotnar as a common noun for ‘men’,
151,157,192 and elsewhere.
------ (iii)nameofawolf, 164
Gotland, partof Denmark (Jutland?),106,151 (orGötlandorGotland?).
Grabak,asnake, 19,137
Grad, river, 34
Grafvitnir, a snake, 19,110,113,137
Grafvollud,asnake, 19Gram (i) a legendary king, 146. Asa
common noun for king (‘fierce one’),147 (King Athelstan), 150 (Magnus
the Good of Norway), 171,176,179,
181andelsewhere.
------ (ii)asword, 101-3,158
Grani (i) Sigurd’s horse, 102,137;
Grani’s load or burden, a kenning for‘gold’, 113,114,191------ (ii) Icelandicpoet, 11th century.
Thetwoquotations(143,149)arefrom a poem about Harald Hardradiof Norway (died 1066).
Greece, 126
Greeks, 127
Greenland whale, 162; Greenland
shark, 162; Greenland verse-form,
207-8
Greip, a giantess, 82, (83-4); in a
kenning for ‘giant’, 8 8Grettir Asmundarson, Icelander, 11th
century, 119,120. The quotation isfrom a verse also preserved in G rettis
saga.
Grid, a giantess or troll-wife, mother of
Odin’s son Vidar, 82,84, (86), 156;
cf. Gerd on p. 86. In kennings for‘wolf’, 121 (steed of troll-wife),‘axe’, 121 (that which is dangerous
to the life-protector, i.e. shield orhelmet).
Grim (i)aname for Odin,21------ (ii) a goat, 164
Grima, a troll-wife, 156
Grimhild, wife of KingGiuki, 102
Grinding, a giant, 157
Grimnir (i) a name of Odin, 21. In
kennings for ‘poetry’, 71,83, for‘giant’, 83.
------ (ii)agiant, 155,157------ (iii)agoat, 164
Grimnismal, 22,31,34 (‘the speeches ofGrimnir, i.e. Odin’, the name of an
Eddicpoem). Also quoted on pp. 13,
18 (firstverse), 19 (first two verses),
21-2,23 (first verse),24(second andthird verses), 25,26,32 (secondverse),33 (both verses), 34 (third
verse), 75.
Griotbiorn, a name for Arinbiorn,
Norwegian chieftain, friend of Egil
Skallagrimsson, 75 (in the poem
Arinbiarnarkvida in his honour; thename is a pun,griót is a word forrocks, arinn means hearth(stones).
Griotun, Griotunagardar, on thefrontier of Giantland, 78,80
Groa(i),79,80,(81)------ (ii) name for a sword, 158
Grottasong, an Eddie-type poem 107;
text quoted, 107-9
Grotri, a hand-mill, 107,108, (109). Ina kenning for‘gold’, 193. Asa
common noun in a kenning for thesea, translated ‘mill’, 92 (the box ofislands is the sea, its mill is thechurning of the waves).
Grottintanna, a troll-wife, 156
Gryla,atroll-wife, 156
Gudmund, a sea-king, 155
Gudny, sister of Gudrun, 102
Gudolf, equivalent of Old English
Godulf,3
Gudrun, daughter of Giuki, 75,102-5

239
Gullfaxi,ahorse, 77,79,136
Gullinbursti, a boar, 50,75, (97)
Gullintanni, a name for Heimdall(‘golden-tooth ’), 25
Gull topp, Heimdall’s horse, 18,25,50,
76,136
Guma, a troll-wife, 156
Gungnir, Odin’s spear, 54,69,96—7,
160; in a kenning for ‘battle’, 197
Gunn, a valkyrie, 31; in kennings for‘sword’, 117, ‘battle’, 119; ascommon noun, translated ‘battle’,
121,130,193,197,202, ‘war’, 21617
Gunnar (i) son of Giuki, 102—4,137------(ii) Asuson, leaderof the rebel
Ribbungs, died 1221 (see the Saga ofHakon the Old), 203-4
Gunnlaug Serpent-tongue, Icelandic
poet,died 1008.In theverse quoted
on p. 115 (also preserved in
Gunnlaugssaga) he refers to Helga
the Fair and her father, Thorstein
Egilsson.
Gunnlod, a giantess, 62-3,68,86,90
Gunnthra,river,9
Gunnthrain, river, 34
Gunnthro, river, 33,161
Gusir (i) a legendary king of Lapps in
Finnmork in Ketils saga Hangs andOrvar-Odds saga who had owned
some magic arrows; one was called
Flaug (‘flight’), and ‘Gusir’s work’ isalso a name for an arrow, 160. Flaugalso means ‘flag’, so by word-play‘Gusir’s gifts’ means‘flags’, 142.
‘Gusir’s other arrows were Hremsa
andFifa.
------ (ii) a giant, 157
Gylfaginning(‘thetrickingofGylfi’),7,(75)
Gylfi (i) legendary kinginSweden,4,7,
8. SeeGangleri.
------(ii) a sea-king, 155; in a kenningfo;‘sea’, 124—5------ (iii) son of Halfdan the Old(perhaps the same as (ii)?), 146. Asa
common noun for ‘king’ (Hakon theGood), 147
Gyllir (i) a horse, 18,136. In a kenningfor‘ship’, 180------ (ii) a giant, 157

Gymir (i) father of Gerd, 31------ (ii) a name for Ægir, 91-2,140 (hiswife = Ran); as common noun for‘sea ’, translated ‘engulfer’, 13 9,161.
Among names for giants, 155

Habrok, a hawk, 34
Haddings, legendary heroes, 67; theprince of the Haddings(Haddingiaskati) was Helgi,
mentioned in the Elder Edda, 136
Haefir, an ox, 137,163
Hæmir, a sea-king, 155
Haenir,anAs,23,59,76,87,88,99
Haera, a troll-wife, 156
Hafli,agiant,155
Hagbard (i) legendary king, 148 (Saxo
Grammaticus book 7).
------ (ii) a sea king, 155, perhaps thesame as (i).
Haki, a sea-king, 136,143,155,217.In
kennings for ship, 80,190,207, forsea,210
Hakon (i) Earl Sigurdarson, the great,
Norwegian ruler, died 995 (67,71),
131.133------ (ii) the Good Haraldsson,
Adalsteinsfostri, king of Norway(died 961),98,112,(147)------ (iii) Hakonarson, the Old (kingof
Norway 1217-1263), vi, 165-6,
175-6. Most references to ‘the king’or‘the prince’in Hattata/verses 1-30
are to him. His father is referred to on
p.176
Hala, a troll-wife, 156
Haleygiatal (‘List, i.e. genealogy, of themen, i.e. earls, of Halogaland’), a
poem by Eyvind Skaldaspillir, tracing
Earl Hakon’s ancestry back tomythical times, 5. The poem is quoted
on pp. 66-7,69,71-2,75,
117.128.133
Half (i) legendary king (see Halfssaga),
93,150------ (ii) a sea-king, 155 (the same as(i)?).
Halfdan (i) the Old, legendary king,146,148------ (ii) the Generous, 148------ (iii) the Black, king in Norway, 9th
century, 148

240
Half-Danes, 109
Hall Snorrason, Icelandicpoet, 12th
century, 136.Thequotation maybe
from a poem on King Magnus
Erlingsson of Norway (1161-77).
Hallar-Stein (Stein), Icelandicpoet,
12th century. The quotations onpp.
114-15 are from a poem about an
unknown woman.
HalldorSkvaldri, Icelandicpoet, 12th
century, 144. Thequotation is fromhis Utfarardrapa, ca 1120, about
King Sigurd Magnusson’s expedition
to Jerusalem.
Hallfrod Ottarsson, the troublesome
poet, Icelandic, died ca 1007. The
quotation onp,148isfromhis poem
in memory of King Olaf Tryggvason(ca 1001). All the others(67,90,91,
116,119,122,130-31) are from his
poem on Earl Hakon (ca 990), of
which nothing survives elsewhere.
Hallinskidi, a name of Heimdall, 25; asa name for a ram, 164 (cf. Heimdali).
Hallvard Hareksblesi, Icelandic poet,
11 th century. The quotations on pp.
90,120,124,140,146, and thereferenceonp. 125,are all from his
poem on Knut the Great, about the
king’s expedition to England in 1016
and other achievements. It is his only
surviving poem. The verse attributed
to Harald onp. 134 is also probably
from this poem (attributed to
Hallvard in some manuscripts).
Halogaland,partof Norway, 112
Hamdir, son of Gudrun and Ionakr, 75,
104—6; in kennings for ‘mail-coat’,
119,167-8
Hamlet, legendary person, in kenningfor‘sea’, 92,93
Hamskerpir, a horse, 30
Hanga-god, Hanged-god (‘god of thehanged’), Hanged-Tyr (where tyr
was probably a common noun for‘god’), Hangi (‘hanged one’), names
forOdin,21,64,66;in kennings for‘ravens’, 122, ‘helmets’ and ‘mail­coat’, 66,119. To get his hospitality(p. 66) is to die in battle.
Hapta-god, a name for Odin, 21
Har(i)adwarf,17------ (ii) a name for Odin (‘hoary one’),in kennings for‘poetry’, 71,186,‘battle’, 117,‘warrior’, 118. Cf.
High.
Harald (i) the Red-whiskered,
Norwegian king in pre-historic times,
148------ (ii) Blue-tooth, 1 Oth century
Danish king, referred to (?) in verse ofEinar Skalaglamm, 132------ (iii) Hilditonn (‘war-tooth’),Danish kingin legendary times, 132,
137(?)------ (iv) poet, probably a mistake forHallvard, 134------(v) Harfagri (Finehair),
Norwegian kingca885-ca 935,131(apparently his ‘true trier’ is Earl
Sigurd Hakonarson, whose son was
Earl Hakon),(149)------ (vi) Hardradi Sigurdarson(‘Harsh-ruler’), King of Norway
1046-66; verses attributed to him,
125 (relating to his expeditions in the
Mediterranean, according to
Heimskringla addressed to theRussian princess Ellisif; described
there as gamanvisa, ‘fun-verse’) (ca1040);and 129 (about the
Norwegian chieftain Einar
Thambarskelfir,ca 1065). Referred
to onp. 131 as St Olaf’s brother andKing Olaf kyrri’s father (his brother’s
son was King Magnus the Good), andas Sigurd’s son on
p.135.
Harbard, a name for Odin, 21
Hardgreip (i) a giant, 157------ (ii) a troll-wife, 156
Hardverk,agiant, 155
Hardveur, a name for Thor, 156
Harek (i) unknown historical person, 69------ (ii) a sea-king, 155
Harri, Herra, son of Halfdan the Old,
147; as common noun for ‘king’(Eirik of Denmark, ca 1104), 148;translated ‘lord’ or ‘laird’, 145 (EarlThorfinn), 174 (Hakon), 182,197,
206 (Earl Skuli).
Hastigi, a giant, 15 5
HatiHrodvitnisson,awolf, 15,(53),
164

241
Hattatal (‘list of verse-forms’), poem bySnorri Sturluson, vi, 165
Haustlong (‘autumn-long’), a poem byThiodolf of Hvinir, 80,86. The text isquoted on pp. 80-81,86-8; someverses are quoted again on pp. 8 9,133,139. The extant verses describe
oneofThor’sexploitsandalsotell thestory of how the gods destroyed thegiant Thiassi.
Havard thehalt, Icelandicpoet (fl. ca
1000), 66. Apart from the quotation
here, all his surviving verses are to befound in Havardarsaga.
Hector, Trojan hero, associated with
(Oku-)Thor,58,65,66
Hedin Hiarrandason, legendary king,122-3; in a kenning for helmet, 84;
his beloved, i.e. Hild (hild - battle),
personification of ‘battle’, 195-6.
Hefring, personification of a wave, oneof Ægir’s daughters, 91,141,161
Heidi, a sea-king (more usually Heiti),in a kenningfor‘sea’, 126
Heidrek (perhaps a common noun,‘heath-ruler’ ?) a giant, 85
Heidrun,agoat,33,164
Heidthomir, name of a heaven, 164;translated ‘clouded-brightness’, 133
Heimdalargaldr (‘Heimdall’sspell’), an
otherwise lost poem, quoted on pp.
25-6,76
Heimdali,aram, 164 (cf. Hallinskidi).
Heimdall, an As, 25,50,54,59,68,
75-7,153,156-7,(171).Heimdall’ssword is a kenningfor‘head’, 153,
and Heimdall’s head for ‘sword’, 171
Heimir (see TheSagaofthe Volsungs),
105
Heinir, inhabitants of Heidmark(Hedmark) in Norway, 144
Heiti, a sea-king,T 55; in kennings for‘ship’, 92,113. Kinsman of Heiti, i.e.
one who is a spiri tual descendant, agreat warrior (of Earl Rognvald),131. Cf Heidi.
Hel (i) the abode of the dead, 9,50,51,
56,79,137,144. Hel’s gates, Helgates, 9,50. Road of (to) Hel, 10,49,
50,55.Cf.Niflhel.
------(ii) daughterof Loki, presiding
over the world of the dead, 26-7,

49-51,54,74,76,(123)
Helblindi (i) a name for Odin, 21------ (ii) Loki’s brother, 26,76
Helenus, Trojan hero, made equivalent
toAli(i),65,66
Helregin, a giant, 15 7
Hemlir, a sea-king, 155
Hengest,4
Hengiankiapta, a giantess, 74
Hengikepta, a troll-wife, 156
Hengikiopt, 107
Heptifili, a dwarf, 17
Heremod,3. Cf.Hermod.
Herfiotur, a valkyrie, 31
Hergaut, a name for Odin (‘HostGaut’),106. Cf. Gaut.
Heriafodr translated‘father of hosts’,i.e. Odin, 33
Herian, a name of Odin, 8,21
Herkia, a troll-wife, 156
Herkir,agiant,155
Hermod the Bold, son of Odin,49,50,
67,156. In kenning for‘warrior’, 114
Hermund Ulugason, 8 9, see underArnor.
Herra,seeHarri.
Herran, name for Odin, 8Herteit, name for Odin, 21
Hiadnings (Hedin’s followers), in
kennings for ‘gold’, 115, for ‘battle’and ‘weapons’, 122. Hiadnings’
battle, 123. Hiadningasprund, thelady of the Hiadnings, i.e. Hild (hild= battle) as a personification of
battle, 196
Hialmar, a sea-king, 155
Hialmberi, a name of Odin, 21
Hialmther, 136
Hialmunla, river, 161
Hialprek, legendary king, 101
Hialti the Gallant, a berserk, 111
Hiarrandi (i) a name of Odin; inkennings for ‘shield’, 124, ‘mail­coat’, 197-8------ (ii) father of Hedin, 122High(i)anameofOdin,21------ (ii) one of Gylfi’s informants, kingoftheÆsir,8-25,28-9,32-7,46,
48,51-2,56. The High one (Havi),
owner of Val-hall, 8. Cf. the name of
the Eddie poem Havamal (‘Speechesof the High one, i.e. Odin’) from

242
which the third verse quotation in
Gylfaginning(p. 8) comes. Cf. Har.
High kin, a pun for Earl Hakon, 71 (hdr
= high, konr= kin).
Hild (i) a valkyrie, 31,157. As
personification of battle, 195-6. In
kennings for‘battle*, 71 (Hild’s
noise), 198, ‘shield’, 118-20,149,‘giantess’, 121. As a common nounfor‘battle’, 190,197.Not always
distinct from (iii).
------ (ii) = Brynhild(i), 102------ (iii) Hogni’s daughter (120),
122-3. Cf.(i).
Hildigolt, Hildisvin (‘battle-boar,-swine’), a helmet, 111, 160, (167-8).
Hildings, descendants of Hildir, 148; ascommon noun for ‘kings’, 149
Hildir, son of Halfdan the Old, 148
Hilditonn, see Harald Hiiditonn
Hildolf, son of Odin, 156
Hilmir, son of Halfdan the Old, 146. As
common noun for ‘king’ (Harald
Greycloak of Norway), 147;
translated‘prince’or‘king’, 128,
171,185,187 (Ingi Bardarson) andelsewhere.
Himinbiorg, 20,25
Himinglacva, personification of a wave,
daughter of Ægir, 91,141,161,181
Himinhriot,anox,47,137,163
Hindafell, a mountain, 102
Hiordis, Sigurd’s mother, 101
Hiorolf, a sea-king, 155
Hising, island in the estuary of the Götaalv, 144
Hiuki, male companion of Moon, 14
Hladir, Lade, the seat of the earls at
Nidaros,Trondheim,Norway, 214
Hlediolf, a dwarf, 17
Hler, a name forÆgir, 59,92.
Translated‘roarer’(= sea), 139
Hlesey, 'Island of Hler’, 5 9
Hlid(i)anox, 163. Cf.155------ (ii)astag, 164
Hlidskialf, Odin’s watchtower, 13,20,
31,51,69
Hlin, an Asynia, 30,157.Onp.55 (inthe quotation from Voluspa) perhaps
another name for Frigg; her first griefwould have been thedeath of Baldr.
Hlodyn, a name for lord, ‘Earth’,mother of Thor, 55; in a kenning for‘rocks’, 134-5;asawordfor‘earth’,163
Hloi,agiant, 157
Hlokk, a valkyrie, 31,157. In kenningsfor ‘battle’, 118,203-4, ‘shield’, 119,122, ‘sword’, 196,200, ‘raven’, 145,
169-70,‘woman’, 138. Asa
common noun for‘battle’, 179,191
Hlora, Thor’s foster-mother, 72. Cf.
Glora,Lora.
Hlorridi.anameofThor, 156. Cf.
Loridi.
Hlymdales, 105
Hlymir, a heaven, 164. Translated‘twin-lit’, 133
Hnefi, a sea-king, 155
Hneitir, a sword, 158. A sword with thisname belonged to St Olaf.
Hnikar, a name of Odin, 8,21
Hnikud, a name of Odin, 9,21
Hnipul, river, 161
Hnitbiorg, a mountain, 62,70
Hnopul, river, 161
Hnoss, Freyia’s daughter, 29,86,98,
157. Referred to in kennings for atreasure (a precious axe), 98-9,
where she is also called Frey r’s niece(Freyr was Freyia’s brother; hnoss=treasure).
Hod (i) an As, 26 (his unlucky deed was
the slayingof Baldr),48,49,56,74,
76 (according to Voluspa he waskilled by Vali in vengeance for Baldr’s
death), 157. In a kenningfor‘warrior’, 134------ (ii) ahorse, 136------ (iii) an otherwise unknown poet,
to whom a verse-form is attributed,
211
Hoddmimir,57
Hofvarpnir, a horse, 30
Hogni(i)sonofGiuki, 102—4,137------ (ii) a sea-king, 155. In kennings for‘battle’, 118, ‘armour’, 130 (= Hogni(i)?)------ (iii) Hild’s father, 122-3,126. His
maid or daughter (Hild; hild = battle)
as a kenning for battle, 120,195-6.
Perhaps the same as Hogni (ii).
Holgabrud,atroll-wife, 156. Cf.
Thorgerd.

243
Holgi, legendary king, 95,112
Holkvir,ahorse, 137 (seeTheSagaof
the Volsungs).
Hollfara, river, 161
Holmengraa, island off Norway (in theVik), 149
Homar, a sea-king, 155
Hope, river, 29 (cf. Van).
Hor,adwarf, 17
Hords, inhabitants of Hordland in
Norway; in kennings for ‘Norway’,
122,forthe'kingof Norway’, 128,
13 7, for‘giants’, 84
Horn (i) a name for Freyia, 30,157;
mother ofHnoss,inakenningfora
treasure (a precious axe), 98------(ii)atroll-wife, 156
Homklofi (Thorbiom), Norwegian
poet, 9th century. The quotations on
pp. 117,124,139 are from his
Glymdrapa, about Harald Finehair’s
battles (glym = noise ofbattle).The
quotations attributed to Thiodolf ofHvinir on pp. 7 and 67are also
probably by Hornklofi (the first is
attributed to him in Heimskringla),
from his poem Haraldskvadi or
Hrafnsmal-, that on p. 7 refers
ironically to the rout of Harald’s
opponents at the battle of Hafrsfiord(ca 885); they used their shields toprotect their backs as they fled.
Horvi, a sea-king, 155
Host-Tyr, a name for Odin, 68 (HerTyr).
Hoy (Haey), island in the Orkneys, 122Hræsvelg, a giant, 20,155
Hrafn,KingAli’s horse, 111, 136
Hrafnketil (Norwegian, 9th century),
120. He was presumably the person
who brought the poet the gift of theshield described in the poem from the
kingwhogaveit.
Hraudnir (i) a sea-king, 155------(ii)agiant, 155
Hraudung (i) a sea-king, 155------(ii) agiant, 157
Hregg-Mimir, a heaven, 164.
Translated‘storm-Mimir’, 133
Hreidmar, father of Fafnir and Regin,99-101
Hremsa, an arrow in Ketilssaga Hangs,
160

Hrid (i) mythical river, 9,161------ (ii)anox, 163
Hrimfaxi (‘rime-mane’) Night’s horse,
14,137
Hrimgerd, a troll-wife, 156
Hrimgrimnir,agiant, 156
Hrimnir (i) agiant, 155. Asa common
noun for ‘giant’, 73,85------ (ii)aboar, 164
Hrimthurs (‘frost-ogre’), a giant, 156.
As common noun, translated ‘frost­
giant*, p. 9 and elsewhere.
Hringhomi, Hringhornir, Baldr’s ship,
49,74,162
Hringvolnir,agiant, 157
Hriod, a heaven, 164. Translated‘coverer’, 133
Hripstod, a giant, 155
Hrist, a valkyrie, 31,157. In kenningsfor ‘battle’, 201, ‘warrior’,202,‘woman’, 115
Hroar,agiant,157
Hrodvitnir.a wolf, 15,164.
Hrodrsvitnir is apparently a namefor Fenrir in the Eddie poem
Lokasenna.
Hrokkvir, a giant, 155
HrolfKraki,(109), 110-12. Cf.Kraki.
Hronn (i) river 34,161------ (ii) personification of a wave,
daughterofÆgir,91,141,161.As
common noun, translated ‘wave’,
141,180-81,201 and elsewhere.
Hropt, a name of Odin, 69,121.
Hropt’shood=helmet, 160
Hropta-Tyr, a name of Odin, 22,67.
His son is Baldr; the reference on
p. 67 is to Baldr’s funeral.
Hrossthiof,agiant, 157
Hrotti, name of a sword, 101,158
Hruga, a troll-wife, 156
Hrund (i) an island off Sunnmore in
Norway, 142------ (ii) a valkyrie, 157. Ina kenningfor‘shield’, 202
Hrungnir, a giant killed by Thor, 72-3,
77-81,108,155. In kennings for‘shield’, with reference to the story on
pp. 78-9, (88), 118,120,185 (notethe ‘shield-dwellers’ on p. 87). Cf.
Rungnir.
Hryggda, a troll-wife, 15 6
Hrym, a giant, 53-5

244
Hugi, personification of thought, 41,
42,45
Hugin, a raven (‘thought’), 33,138. In akenning for‘carrion’, 138
Hugl,island offNorway, 180
Hugstari,adwarf, 17
Humber, river, 161
Hun, a sea-king, 155
Hundalf.agiant, 157
Hunding, a sea-king, 155
Hunger, the name of Hel’s dish, 27
Husdrapa, a poem by Ulf Uggason(composed ca 983) in which the
depictions of myths on the walls ofOlaf Pa’s hall at Hiardarholt(described in Laxdcelasaga) were
described, 74,76. There arequotations from the poem on pp.
67-8,71,74-7,116,121,132-3,
135. The quotation attributed to
Bragi on p. 74 is attributed to Ulf in
the Uppsala MS and is probably fromthe same poem, which is only known
from MSS of Snorri’s Edda.
Hval (‘whale’), a giant, 156
Hvedra, a troll-wife, 156
Hvedrung, a name for Loki; his son is
Fenrir, 55. Among names of giants,
155.
Hvergelmir,aspringorwell,9,17,19,
33,56
Hvinir (Kvinesdal in the south of
Norway), 7,67,80,86,89,133
Hviting(i) nameoftwodrinkinghorns(Thorsteins thattr Bcejarmagns, seeSeven Viking Romances, tr. H.
Pálsson and P. Edwards, Penguin
Books 1985, p. 269); as a common
noun for‘horn’, 138------ (ii) a sea-king, 155------ (iii) the sea, translated ‘white one’,161
Hvitserk the Bold, a berserk, 111
Hymir, agiant, 46-7,65, (73-4), 87,(142), 156
Hyrrokkin, a giantess or troll-wife, 49,
74,156
Ialangr heath (Jellingin Jutland), 107
Ialg, lalk, names of Odin, 9,21
Iarizleif (Jaroslav),kingin Russia (died1054), 131

Iarnglumra, a troll-wife, 156
Iarnsaxa, giantess or troll-wife, 79,86,
156. In kenning for‘courage’ (windof troll-wife), 131, for ‘wolf’ (steed oftroll-wife), 138
Iarnvidia, a troll-wife, 156; plural
larnvidiur (‘ironwood dwellers’), 15
Iat (Old English Eat), 3
Iceland, (92)
Idavoll, 16,56
Idi, a giant, 61,108,155. As common
noun for ‘giant’, 83; in kenning for‘gold’, 113
Idunn, an Asynia, 25,59,60,76,86-8,
95,157
Illugi Bryndælaskald, Icelandic poet,
11th century. The quotation on
p. 136 is from a poem about Harald
Hardradi. The nickname means ‘poetof the people of Bryniudal (southern
Iceland)’. The poem alternates
statements about KingHarald’s
exploits in Russia and southern
Europe with someaboutlegendary
characters from the SigurdBurgundian cycle (seeTheSagaofthe
Volsungs).
llm, an Asynia, 157
Im, a giant, 157
Ima,atroll-wife, 156lmd, a troll-wife, 156
Imgerd, a troll-wife, 156
Ingi(i)adwarf, 17------ (ii) son of Harald Gilli, King of
Norway (died 1161), 8 9. The brotherreferred to is his half-brother Sigurd
Munn (died 1155).
Ingi-Freyr, a name for Freyr, 88. His kinmeans the gods.
Iofur, son of Haldan the Old, 146. As
common noun for ‘king’ (Olaf of
Sweden), 147, in plural, 150.
Translated ‘prince’ or ‘chieftain’,
166,170,189 and elsewhere.
Iolf, a name for Odin in disguise in
Orvar-Odds saga; he gave the herosome magicarrows; 160. See Seven
Viking Romances, tr. H. Pálsson and
P. Edwards, Penguin Books 1985, pp.
93-4
Iolnir, a name of Odin, 84. His swordwielder means ‘warrior’, whose kin

245
are all fighters.
Iom, island off the south Baltic coast(Iomsborg), 146
Ionakr, legendary king, 104,106
lor,ahorse, 136lord (personification of earth),daughter of Night, mother of Thor,
wifeofOdin, (13), 14,31,72,80,(81),85-6,89,(90,91), 157. Cf.
terms forearth, 90-91,134—5,163.
In kennings for‘land’ (91,145) or‘earth’ (80,106), ‘the land of
Norway’(67,90,91,131,168).Cf.
Fiorgyn, Hlodyn, Sif and p. 2.
lorek(i) a name fora bear, 136,164------(ii) a sea-king, 155
Iormungand, a name for the Midgard
serpent, 26,55,72,76,137
Iormuni, an ox, 163
Iormunrek (i) an ox, 163------(ii) Gothic king (= Ermanaricthe
great, died 3 76), 104-6
Iorunn Skaldmær (‘poet-maid’),
Norwegian poetess, 1 Oth century.
The quotation on p. 149isfromher
poem Sendibit about Harald
Finehair.
Ioruvellir (Tara plains’), 17
Iosmund, a sea-king, 155
Iotun (‘giant’), a nameof a giant, 157.
Often as common noun.
Ironwood, 15 (Iarnvid; cf. Iarnvidia).
Island-Danes, Danes of the Danish
islands, 144. Cf. Eygotaland.
Itreksiod, son of Odin, 156
Itrmann (Old English Iterman), 3
Ivaldi, a dwarf, 37,75,96. The verseon
p. 75 is from the Eddie poem
Grimnismal-, Ivaldi’ssons there may
be a kenning for dwarfs in general,descendants of Ivaldi.
Ividia, a troll-wife, 156

Jaroslav, see Iarizleif.
Jelling,see lalangr.
Jerusalem, 126,128
Jordan, river, 126-7,162
Just-as-high(i)anameofOdin,21------(ii) oneof Gylfi’s informants, 8,9,
10,12,17,21,37
Jutland(partof Denmark), 4

Kaldgrani,agiant, 157
Kaldhamar’s gift, usedof swords inBiamar saga Hitdalakappa, verse
30,159. The name means‘product of
the cold hammer’, though
Kaldhamar may have been taken to
be the name of a man.
Kalfsvisa, a poem containing a list ofhorses with their riders, mistakenly
called Alsvinnsmal, 136
Keila, a giantess, 74
Keriaug, name of two rivers, 18,161
Kialar, a name of Odin, 22,75
Kiallandi, a giantess or troll-wife, 74,
156
Kiar, legendary king (possibly related to
the name Caesar), 148
Kili,adwarf, 16
Kilmund, a sea-king, 155Klæng (i) Brusason, probably a
Norwegian chieftain, 11 th century,
to whom Thord Siareksson’s poem
quoted on pp. 143—4 is addressed.
The verse tells of Earl Svein’s burningof Nidaros (Trondheim) in 1014. The
all-powerful one is KingOlaf theSaint.
------ (ii) Thorsteinsson, bishop at
Skalholt, died 1176. The quotation
onp. 192,composed perhaps call52,
is all that remains of poetry by him.
Knui, legendary person, 109
Knut (i) the Great, king of Denmark andEngland (died 1035), 90, (124: son of
Svein Forkbeard), (134: referred to in
the verse attributed to Harald).
------ (ii) Sveinsson, saint,king ofDenmark (died 1086), (145?)
Kolga, personification of wave,
daughter of Ægir, 91,141,161
KolliPrudi, Icelandic poet, 12th
century. Thelinesattributed to him
on p. 8 9 can probably more correctly
be attributed to Bodvar Balti, as in the
Uppsala MS, from his poem about
King Sigurd Munn (ca 1150).
Kormak Ogmundarson, Icelandicpoet,
1 Oth century (see Kormaks saga). All
thequotationsonpp. 67-9,116,121,
131—3 may be from his poem on Earl
Sigurd Hakonarson (died ca962),
though some verses could be about

246
the latter’s son Hakon (cf. the words’son of Sigrod’ (= Sigurd?) on p. 132,
andSnorri’scommentonp. 131).
Several of the verses have a reference
to mythology in the last line, cf.
Snorri’s description of the verse-form
hidstcelt, (176).
Kormt (i) river, 18,161------ (ii) islandoff Norway, 125; in a
kenningfor’sea’, 135
Kort, a horse, 137
Kott,agiant, 156
Kraka, a troll-wife, 156
Kraki, i.e. Hrolf Kraki, 110,112,217.
In kenningfor’gold*, 112,146(referring to his ‘sowing’ of gold,
112).
Kvasir,51,62,70,72. Also appears in
Snorri’s Heimskringla.
Kyr, an ox (masculine form of word for‘cow’), 137
Kyrmir, a giant, 157
Laufey, Loki’s mother, 26,35,48,51,
76,96
Laufi.asword, 158. Aswordof thisname belonged to Bodvar Biarki
according to Landnamabok.
Leggbiti, a name of a sword belonging
to King Magnus Bareleg; translated‘legbiter’, 158
Leidi,agiant,74
Leifi (i) a sea-king, 155. In a kenning for‘sea’,106 (theleaf of thesea = shield).
------ (ii) a giant, 156
Leifnir (i) a sea-king, 155. Leifnir’s hurt,
name of a sword, 158------ (ii) a ship, 162
Leifthrasir(‘persistentremains’?),57
Leikn, a giantess or troll-wife, 74,156
Leiptr,river,9,161
Leirvor, a troll-wife, 156
Lejre, a place in Zealand, 109,110
Lerad,atree,33
Lettfeti, a horse (‘light-stepped’), 18,
136
Leyding, a fetter, 27,28
Life, female survivor of Ragnarok, 57
Liota,atroll-wife, 156
Lister, a district in southern Norway,
125,182. In kennings for'Giantland’, 85,86

Lit(i) a dwarf, 16,49------ (ii) a giant, 106------ (iii) an ox, 163
Lodinfingra, a troll-wife, 156
Lofar,adwarf, 17
Lofdi, son of Halfdan the Old, 148—9;
lofdar, his troops, 148-9 (asacommon noun for‘men’, 150,157);
Lofdungs, his descendants, 148 (asacommon noun sg. for ‘king’ (Harald
Hardradi),149,183).
Lofn, an Asynia, 30,157; in a kenningfor‘woman’, 142
Logi (‘flame’),41,45
Loire, river, 161
Loki, oneof the Æsir, though son of agiant, 21,26,29,35-8,41,45,48,
49,51-2,54-5,58 (made equivalent
to Ulysses), 59-61,76,81-3, (87),88,95-7,99,100,102,157. The
Eddicpoem Lokasenna (‘Loki’s
quarrelling’) is quoted dn p. 21
Lopt, a name for Loki, 26,83 (where
there is also a pun on the word lopt =air), 87
Lora or Glora, foster-mother of Tror/
Thor, 3. Cf.Hlora.
Loricus,Tror/Thor’sfoster-father,3Loridi,sonofTror/Thor,3. Cf.
Hlorridi.
Lotti, name for a sword, 159
Lud, river, 161
Luma, river, 161
Lund, in Skaane, part of Denmark, 113.
The prince of Lund’s land is kingof
Denmark (HaraldBluetooth?).
Lung,ahorse, 136
Lut,agiant,74
Lyngvi (i) an island, 28------ (ii) a sea-king, 155Mærir, people of More, a district in
Norway; in kennings for ‘the ruler of
Norway’, 212,218; for ‘giants’, fellMaerir,70
Maevi, a sea-king, 155Mævil, a sea-king, 155Magi,descendantofTror/Thor,3.
Cf. Magni.
Magni, Thor’s son,56,66,72,79
Magnus the Good, son of St Olaf, Kingof Norway 1035-46, (131: Harald’s

247
brother’s son), 143 (the poet of thisverse is unknown), (146,150: Signor
ofNorway).
Malar, lake in Sweden, 7Man, Isle of, 131. In kennings for ‘sea’(Man’s encirder, fetter), 140,210
Mani, Icelandic poet, fl, 1180-1220,
125
Mar, a horse, 136
Mardoll.a name of Freyia,30,157. In
kennings for ‘gold’ (her tears), 98,
113,192
Margerd, a troll-wife, 156
Markus Skeggiason, Icelandicpoet(died 1107). The quotations on pp.
89,147-8,150 are from his poem inmemory of King Eirik Eigod ofDenmark. The quotation onp. 126 isevidently from a poem addressed toChrist, those on pp. 125 and 143 are
isolated verses the contextof which is
unknown. The attribution on
p. 146 is probably a mistake forAmor,q.v.
Marne, river, 161
Mary, Saint, 127
Mediterranean Sea, 2Meili, Thor’s brother, son of Odin, 80,
87 (in a kenning for Haenir), 89,156
Mein, river, 161
Meiti, a sea-king, 155. In a kenningfor‘sea’, 126
Menia,agiantess(98), 107-8,(110)Mennon = Munon, 3
Menthiof, legendary person, 136
Merkrida, river, 161
Michael, archangel, 90
Midgard (‘middleenclosure’), therampart surrounding the world of
men and protecting it from giants, 13,
15,35,46,55,72; = ground, 113 (inkenning for ‘gold*, on which Fafnirlay). Midgard’s protector = Thor,
55.
Midgard serpent which lies in the sea
round Midgard, 26, (27), 45-7,53—
6,65, (69), 72, (73-4), 76, (83,106,
116,134-5,142,168). Cf.
Iormungand.
Midi, a giant, 157
Midiung,agiant,87,156
Mim,Mimir,17,54;Mim’s friend is

Odin,68,71,168. In a kenning for‘giant’, 84, amongnames for giants,
155. Names of heavens or for the sky:
Hregg-Mimir, 164, translated‘storm-Mimir’, 133,Vet-Mimir,
164, translated ‘winter-Mimir’, 133.
Flesh-Mimir, a name for a sword,
159. Cf. Hoddmimir, Sokmimir.
There is another account of Mimir in
Heimskringla.
Mimung,asword, 159
Miollnir, Thor’s hammer, 22,36,38—9,(47),49,56,72, (73,77), 79-82(96—7)
Mist, a valkyrie, 31,15 7. In kenningsfor ‘sword’, 202,213—14, for ‘battle’,202
Mistletoe, name of a sword, 159. Cf.
thedeath of Baldr, 48—9,7 6
Moda, adescendantofTror/Thor, 3.
Cf. Modi.
Modgud,50
Modi,Thor’sson,56,66,72. In
kennings for‘poet’, 132, for‘warrior’,214
Modnir, a horse, 136
Modroi,aship,162
Modsognir,adwarf, 16
Modvitnir, a dwarf, 16
Moin,asnake, 19,137.Guest-Moin,aname for a sword, 159
Moir, a sea-king, 155
Mokkurkalfi, 78,79
Moon, 14, (53), 93. Cf. p. 12, andnames for the moon onp. 134
Moongarm.awolf (‘dog of the moon’),15
Mor,ahorse, 136
Mord,aram, 164
More, a district in Norway; as a term for‘land’inakenningforthesea, 142
Morgin, legendary person, 136Mom, a giantess or troll-wife, 156;ina
kenning for ‘giants’, 84, for‘Thiassi’,
87-8
Mun, river, 161
Mundilfæri, father of Sun and Moon,
14,93
Munin, a raven (‘memory’), 33,138. As
common noun for'raven’, 138
Munnharpa, a troll-wife, 156
Munon, Mennon (probably a Norse248
form of Memnon), king in Troy, 3Muspell, the world of fire, 9,10,12,14;
sometimes apparently personified,
15,32,37,53—5 (Muspell’ssons,
troopsetc. areprobablygiants). Cf.
Old High German Muspilli,‘Doomsday*.
Mynt,river, 161
Myrkrida, a troll-wife, 156
Mysing, a sea-king, 107,155

Naefil, a sea-king, 155
Naglfari (i) husbandof Night, 14------ (ii) or Naglfar, a mythical ship, 37,
53,55,162
Nain,adwarf,16
Nal = Laufey,Loki’smother,26,76
Nanna, Baldr’s wife,26,49,50,59,74,
86,157;inakenningfor*giantess’,83
Nar,adwarf,16Narfi (i) = Norfi, 13------ (ii) = Nari, 26,52
Nari, Loki’s son,26,52,76
Nastrand(s) (‘corpse-shore’), 56
Nati,agiant,156
Naud, river, 161
Nefir,sonofHalfdantheOld, 148
Nep,father of Nanna,26,49,156
Nial, see Brennu-Nial.
Nid, river in Thrandheim, 144,161
Nidafioll, mountains, 56
Nidhogg(i) a serpent, 17,19,56,137------ (ii) a name for a sword, 159
Nidi, a dwarf, 16
Nidud, a legendary king; in a kenningfor‘giant’, 87
Niflheim (‘world of mist or darkness’),
9,10,17,27
Niflhel,9,36
Niflungs, a name for the sons of Giuki (i)(Giukungs), 102,104; in kenningsfor ‘gold’, 113,191. Said to bedescendants of Nefir, 148
Night, 13,14,90; cf. 137,144
Nikar, a name of Odin, 8
Nikuz, a name of Odin, 8
Nile, river, 161
Niord,aVan,23,24,31,59,61,75,86,
95,98 (Niord’sdaughterisHnoss,hnoss = treasure; itisaboutan axe),
157; in kennings for ‘warrior’ or'warriors’, 119,175-6,199
Niorun.anAsynia, 157;inakenningfor'night’, 144
Niping, a dwarf, 16
Nipt, name of a nom, or a poetical wordfor ‘sister’, ‘niece’, or ‘women’ ingeneral, 157 (see under Dis).
Nissan, Nisaa, river Niz, in Halland,
Sweden, 148,161
Noah, 1
Noatun ('enclosure of ships’), Niord’s
home, 23,24,61
Nonn, river, 34
Nordcaper,akindofwhale, 162
Nordri,adwarf (‘northerly’), 12,16,88
Nordrsetudrapa, a poem by Svein, 93,also quoted on p. 91. The nameimplies it was composed in northern
Greenland, perhaps on a whaling
expedition.
Norfi, a giant, father of Night, 13Nori (i) a dwarf, 16------ (ii) a sea-king, 155
Norway, 5, (67,90), 110,122,129,(131,177-8), 179. Thesignor of
Norway on pp. 146, ISOis Magnus
the Good (1035-46).
Not, river, 34,161
Novgorod,in Russia, 146. Itiscalled
Holmgard in Icelandic.
Nyi.adwarf, 16
Nyr,adwarf, 16
Nyrad, a dwarf, 16
Nyt, river, 34,161
Od, Freyia’s husband, 29,30,36,86,
98,119,157
Odin (i) = Woden, a kingin Asia, 3,4,5------ (ii)anAs,(8),ll,13,17,20,21,
23,24,26,29,31-4,49-51,54-5,
59,61-64,66-79, (80), 81,83-7,(89), 90,95-7, (98), 99,100,106,(114), 117-19,121-4, (128,132-3,
137,139-40,145), 151,156-7,(160,168,173,186,196-200).
Referred to as the old one, 51. To gowith Odin and be in Val-hall means todie, 67. Described as the gods’ atonerin a kenningfor‘poetry’, 132;hisname or an equivalent of itis veryfrequent in such kennings, referring
to his obtaining of the mead of poetry,249
63—4. Odin is also described in somedetail in Ynglingasagaatthe
beginning of Heimskringla.
Odlings, descendants of Audi, 148. As acommon noun for ‘king’, 149,175,
183.
Odrerir, a pot, 62-3,70-72. In the
Eddic poem Havamalit may be thename for the contents.
Oflugbarda, a troll-wife, 156
Oflugbardi, a giant, in a kenningfor‘Thor’, 73
Ofnir, a snake, 19,137
Ofoti,agiant, 157
Ogladnir, a giant, 157
Oglo, a districtin Trondelag, Norway,
67,128Ogn, river, 161
Oin,adwarf, 16
Oku-Thor (‘dri ving-Thor’), a name for
Thor, 22,37,41,57,65-6. The namerefers to his driving of his goat-drawn
chariot.
Olaf (i) 'the peacock’, Icelander, 10th
century (see Laxdæla saga), 71,(133:referred to in Ulf Uggason’s verse).
------(ii) king in Sweden (died ca 1022),
134,145(?)------(iii) Haraldsson, saint, king of
Norway (died 1030), 120 (his kin, i.e.
descendant, is an unidentified king of
Norway), (131: the holy king; his(half-) brother is Harald Hardradi),145(?)------(iv) kyrri, thequiet, king of
Norway 1066-1093 (his father was
Harald Hardradi), 131
OldAsgard(i.e.Troy),8,13
Olga, river, 161
Olrod’sgift,asword, 159
Olvaldi,agiant, 61
Olvir Hnufa, Norwegian poet, 9 th
century, 72. The quotation isevidently from a poem about Thor.
See Egils saga.
Omi, a name of Odin, 9,21
Onar(i)adwarf,16------(ii) = Annar, second husband of
Night,90,131
Ondud,agiant, 156
Ori,adwarf, 16,17
Orkneys, 122

Orm (i) Barreyiarskald (poet of Barrain
the Hebrides; he was perhaps from
Orkney), lOthorllthcentury.The
poem quoted on p. 89 may be about
Odin. This and the fragment on p. 91
are all that survives of this poet’swork. He is referred to in the accountof the wedding feast at Reykiaholar in
1119 in Thorgils saga ok Haflida.
------ (ii) Steinthorsson, Icelandic poet,
11 th century? 70,71,93,115-16,
141-2. Some of these verses seem tobe addressed to a woman. His poetry
is only preserved in MSS of Snorri’s
Edda.
Ormt, river, 18,161
Orun, river, 113 (in a kenning for‘gold’), 161
Osgrui, a giant, 156
Oski, a name of Odin, 9,21; in a
kenning for ‘land’ (Odin’s wife lord),
145
Oskrud, a giant, 156
Ottar the Black, Icelandic poet, 11th
century. The quotationsonpp. 114,
130,141,150 are from his head­ransom poem, composed for King
Olaf Haraldsson of Norway in about
1022 after incurring his wrath bycomposing poetry about the king’s
wife. Onpp. 117and 134 (second
quotation) a verse is quoted from his
poem about Knut the Great (ca1026). The other quotations, 134(first quotation), 138,142,145,147,
comprise all that remains of his poem
about King Olaf of Sweden (ca 1018)(inthatonp. 142 only two of the fourlines are in the Codex Regius; theremainder is supplied from other
MSS).
Otter,sonofHreidmar,99. Otter­
payment, 95,99,100,113,191
Palestine, 128
Pali (Paul), King’s steward, (died 1213),
186-7
Phrygia, Asia Minor, 66. Cf. Frigida.
Poitou (lance), 160
Priam of Troy, 3,65, (66)Pyrrhus, Greek hero (son of Achilles,
also known as Neoptolemus), 65,66

250
Radgrid, a valkyrie, 31
Radsvinn, a dwarf, 16
Rae a sea-king, in kennings for ships,
106,123
Raefil, a sea-king, 155; in a kenning forthe sea, 121
Raesir, son of Halfdan the Old, 146. As acommon noun for ‘ruler’, 147,178,
183,208 and elsewhere.
Ragnar Lodbrok, a viking in the ninth
century, 106,123,198,217
Ragnarok, the doom of the gods, theendoftheworld,25,29,52,65,123. .
Ragna is gen. pl. of rögn, translated‘powers’, 133. Snorri consistently
uses the form rökkr (‘twilight’), whilemost poems have the form rök(‘doom’).
Rakni, a sea-king, 155; in a kenningfor
thesea, 93
Ran, wife of Ægir, 91-2,95,141; listed
among the Asyniur, 157. As a nameforthesea, 141,161 (cf. 91-2,95,
140), personified, 180. In a kenning
forHild(iii), 123; Ran’s way = thesea, 141. Referred to as Gymir’s spaewife,91,140.The common nounmeans‘plundering’, 178,183,187,
205
Randgrid, a valkyrie, 31. As a term for‘battle’, translated ‘shield-violence’,
158
Randver (i) son of Iormunrekk, 104,106------ (ii) a sea-king, 155
Rangbein, a giant, 156
Ratatosk, a squirrel, 18Rati, an auger, 63
Raumelf (Glomma), river, 161
Raun, river, 161
Ref (Hofgarda-Ref) Gestsson, Icelandic
poet, 11 th century. There arequotations from a poem abouthis
foster-father Gissur Gullbrarskald(ca 1031),66,68(anotherverseof
this poem is quoted in Heimskringla);
from a poem about an otherwise
unknown Thorstein (perhaps the sonof Snorri godi), 70,117,125,173;
from a poem describing a journey,
91-2,139-42; two verses apparently
about weapons given him as a gift,120-21; and a fragment of unknown
context, 116-17
Refil.asword, 101
Regin (i) brother of Fafnir, 99-103------ (ii) an ox, 163
Reginleif, a valkyrie, 31
Reidgotaland, a name forjutland,4,
151
Reifnir, a sea-king, 155. In a kenningfor‘shield’ (Reifnir’sroof), 112,for‘ship’, 124
Rekin,anox, 137. Cf.rekning,translated‘driven’, 163
Rekk, a dwarf, 16. The pl. rekkar is aword formen,150,157,203
Rennandi, river, 161
Rer, a sea-king, 155
Rerir,4Rhine,river, 103,161. In kennings for‘gold’, 113,147,183,216; = liquid,
in a kenning for ‘poetry’, 131
Ribbungs, a party of rebels in 13 th
century Norway, 203—4
Rifingafla, a troll-wife, 156
Rim, river, 161
Rin, the river Rhine, q.v.
Rind, mother of Vali (and Odin’s
mistress; probably a giantess), 26,31,
68,76,86,90,91,133,157
Ring, a ship, 162Ro,river, 161
Roddrus, Trojan hero, 65
Rodi, a sea-king, 155; in kennings for‘shield’, 98,119, for ‘ship’, 181, for‘sea’, 119 (Rodi’s league; thoughaccording to the prose it ought to beRodi’s shirt, a kenning for ‘mail­coat’, but this will not make sense).
Rogalanders, 116. Cf. Rugians.
Rogn, river, 161
Rognir, a name for Odin, in a kenningfor ‘poetry’, 71, for ‘giant’, 87, for‘warrior’, 122, for ‘Thialfi’, 83
Rognvald (i) the Old, earl of More in
Norway, 131------ (ii) Brusason, earl of Orkney (died1046),90,131
Rokkvi, a sea-king, 155. In a kenningfor‘sea’, 208
Rome, 126.The king of Rome is Christ
onp. 126,theemperor, 128
Romerike, in Norway, people of, 144

251
Roskva, sisterofThialfi,38,72
Rota, a valkyrie, 31
Rufus (Raud, i ,e. red), name for an ox,
137,163
Rugians, inhabitants of Rogaland in
Norway; in a kenning for ‘giants’, 86.
Cf. Rogalanders.
Rungnir, a giant? in a kenning for ‘troll­wife’, 132. Cf.Hrungnir.
Russians, 127
Ryg, a troll-wife, 156; cf. 153,157
Rym, a name for Thor, 156
Sæg,atub, 14Sæhrimnir,aboar,32,164
Sækarlsmuli, a giant, 156
Sæming, son of Odin, 5,15 6
Saga,an Asynia,29,157
Salfang,agiant, 156
Salin,river, 161
Samendil,agiant, 157
Sann,anameofOdin,21
Sanngetal, a name of Odin, 21
Sax-elbe, the Elbe, river in Germany,
161
Saxons, 111. In kenningfor‘dwarfs’, 71
Saxony, 4-5,129. East Saxony, 4Scandinavia, 107 (Dönsk tunga);
Scandinavian language, 129,
Scandinavians, 107
Scialdun (Old English Scealdwa),3
Scots, in a kenning for ‘giants’, 83
Scythia, i.e. Giantland (84). Scythia (i.e.
the southern Russian area) was
known as Sweden the Great or theCold by Icelandic writers, and was
believed to be inhabited by various
kinds of monsters. Cf.Sweden.
Sekin, river, 33,161 (perhaps originallySækin).
Semd, river, 161
Sescef (Old English se Sceaf, ‘thisSceaf’), 3
Sessrumnir (i) Freyia’s hall, 24,86------ (ii) name of a ship, 162
Shetland, 145 (thelordof Shetlandhere
is Earl Thorfinn of Orkney).
Shorter Voluspa, 10 (seeVoluspa).
Siar.adwarf, 17
Sibyl, a prophetess, wife of Tror/Thor,
equivalent to Sif, 3Sicily, 125,150

Sick-bed, name of Hel’s bed, 27
Sid, river, 33,161
Sidhott, a name of Odin (‘low-hat’), 21
Sidskegg, a name of Odin (‘low-beard’),• 21
Sif (i) = Sibyl, wife of Tror/Thor son of
Munon,3------ (ii)wifeoftheAsThor,26,72-3,
76-7,86,90,94-7,113. Ina
kenning for ‘woman’, 115, for Hild(iii), 123------ (iii) a name for the earth, 163
Sigar(i) (Old English Siggar),4------ (ii) son of Halfdan the Old, 148------ (iii)descendantofSigar(ii), 148. Ina kenningfor ‘shield’, 201
Sig-father, anameof Odin (‘victory or
battle father’), 21
Sigg, Norwegian island, 124Siggeir, legendary king, 148 (seethe
Saga ofthe Volsungs)
Siggi,Sigi,sonofOdin,4,156
Sigh vat Thordarson, Icelandic poet,
11th century. One quotation may befrom his memorial poem for St Olaf
(ca 1040), 127 (it refers to thebaptism of Christ, and may have beena refrain emphasizing the king’s
sanctity). Onp. 130(second
quotation) there is a quotation fromhis Nesiavisur, about King Olaf’s
battle with Earl Svein Hakonarson at
Nesiar in Oslo Fiord in 1015. On pp.
146 and 15 0 a verse is quoted from his‘Plain-speaking verses’, addressed toKing Magnus the Good soon after hebecame kingin 1035waminghimto
use his power better (composed ca
1038).Onp. 130(first quotation)some lines are quoted the context ofwhich cannot be ascertained.
Sigi, see Siggi.
Sigmund (i) son ofVolsung, father of
Sigurd, 101,105------ (ii) son of Sigurd, 103
Sigrod = Earl Sigurd Hakonarson,
fatherof EarlHakon, 132(?).One
manuscript has the name Hakon
here.
Sigtrygg, legendary king, 146
Sigtunir (Sigtuna in Sweden),4,140
Sigtyr, a name of Odin (‘victory-god or252battle-god’),96. Cf. Victory-Tyr.
Sigurd (i) Hring, father of Ragnar
Lodbrok, 120------ (ii) Fafnisbani (‘slayer of Fafnir’)Sigmundsson, sometimes called ‘boy
Sigurd’, 101-5, (136), 137,148,217.
The story of Sigurd referred to on p.
188wasnotnecessarilya written one.
------ (iii) earl Hakonarson (died ca962), 67,116,131,(132: cf. Sigrod).
------ (iv) Syr Halfdanarson, father ofHarald Hardradi, 135------ (v) Munn, (89).
Sigvaldi,earl (seetheSagaofthe
Jomsvikings), 119
Sigyn, Loki’s wife, 26,52,77, (83), 87.
Listed among the Asyniur, 59,157
Siklings,descendantsofSigar(ii),148.
As a common noun for ‘rulers* or aruler, 149 (Harald Hardradi), 174,
205,212and elsewhere.
Silfrtopp,ahorse, 18,136
Simul(i)apole,14------ (ii)atroll-wife, 156
Sindri, a hall, 56. In Voluspa verse 37 itis the name of the ancestor of theowners or inhabitants of the hall,perhaps a dwarf. Cf.Brimir.
Sinfiotli, son of Sigmund (i), 105
Singastein (stein = stone; perhaps theplacewasacliff),76,77
Sinir,ahorse, 18,136
Siofn,an Asynia,30,157
Sivor, a troll-wife, 156
Skadi, daughter of thegiant Thiassi,
wife of Niord, 23,24,52,61,75,77(her wrangling with Loki is probablya reference to the Eddie poem
Lokasenna), (87: herwhaleisanox,
presumably a reference to giants*
keeping ofoxen, e.g. Hymir), (89:
Thiassi’s eyes were made into stars,
61). Listed with Asyniur, 95,157.
Accordingto Heimskringla, after
leaving Niord she was married toOdin,and in Grimnismalsheiscalled‘bride of gods’ (the verse is quoted onP-24).
Skaerir, a giant, 156
Sksevad, a horse, 136
Skafinn, a dwarf, 17

Skaldskaparmal (‘the language of
poetry’),vi,59
Skalli,agiant, 156
Skalp.aship, 162
SkaptiThoroddsson,died 1030,
Icelandic lawspeaker 1004-30. The
fragment of a religious poem quoted
onp. 126 is all thatsurvivesofhis
verse.
Skati the Generous, legendary king,150. Pl. skatnar as a term for his
fol lowers, 150, or for men in general,
179,189,200. Skati as a term for prince(‘generousman’), 150-51,158 (pl.
skatar) ,175,212,216 and elsewhere.
Skatyrnir, a heaven, 164; translated‘rich-wetter’, 133
Skefil, a sea-king, 155
Skeggiold, a valkyrie, 31
Skeidbrimir,ahorse, 18,136
Skekkil, a sea-king, 155
Skelfir, legendary king, 148
Skerkir,agiant, 156
Skialf,anameforFreyia, 157
Skidbladnir, a ship, 34,36-7,75,
96-7,162
Skilfing, a name of Odin, 22. The
Skilfings (a Swedish dynasty) are said
onp. 148 to be descendants of Skelfir;
as a common noun for ‘king’ (Harald
Hardradi), 150. Amongnamesfor‘sword’, translated ‘trembler’, 159
Skinfaxi, Day’s horse, 14,137
Skiold (i) son of Heremod, Norseeq ui valent of Scialdun, 3------ (ii)sonof Odin,4,106,148,156
Skioldungs, Danish dynasty,
descendants of Skiold (ii), 4,106,148. As a common noun for ‘king’,
150 (Magnus the Good), 182,
‘prince’, 197, ‘chieftain’,207,216
and elsewhere.
Skirnir, Freyr’s servant, 28,31,32,54.
The Eddie poem Skirnismalis quoted
onp.32(thefirstverse).
Skirpir, adwarf, 17
Skogul,a valkyrie,31,67,157. In
kenningsfor ‘battle’, 117,145,198,
for ‘mail-coat’, 203-4
Skoll, a mythical wolf, 15,(53)Skrati,agiant, 156

253
Skrikia, a troll-wife, 156
Skrymir, a giant (= Utgarda-Loki), 39,
40,156; as a name for a sword, 158(Egilssaga)
Skuld (i) a norn (‘future’; cf. skuld,‘debt’), 18,31------(ii) a valkyrie, 157 (cf. p. 31)
Skuli (i) Thorsteinsson, Icelandic poet,
11 th century. Apart from the lyricalfragment on p. 93, thecontextof
which is unknown, the quotations(pp. 98,112,138—9) are all from apoem about his viking exploits,
including those in Olaf Tryggvason’s
last battle, at Svold in 1000 AD, inwhich Skuli fought on the opposing
side. The poem was evidently
composed many years after the event.
------(ii) Bardarson, earl and duke,
father-in-law of King Hakon
Hakonarson, vi,165,186,206,212,
217; brother of King Ingi, 187-8,
206. Most of the references to theruler or prince in the second and third
sections of Hattatal (18 6-218) are to
Skuli.
------(iii)seeSkyli.
Skyli or Skuli, son of Halfdan the Old,
147. As a common noun for ‘king’,148 (Olaf Tryggvason), 167,184(Hakon).
Slaughter-Gaut, a name of Odin, 68
Sleipnir, Odin’s horse, 17,34,35,49,
76-7,136. In kennings for‘ship’, 92,
121.
Slidr,river,9,161
Slidrugtanni, a boar (= Gullinbursti),
50,75
Slungnir,KingAdils’shorse, 112,137
Snæbiorn, Icelandic poet, probably
11 th century, 92,130. Nothing is
knowneitherofthe poet or of thepoems from which the quotations
come.
Snorri Sturluson, vi, 165
Snotra,anAsynia,30,157
Sokkvabekk,29
Sokmimir, a giant, 156
Sol, an Asynia, personification of thesun,14,31,(53,57),157. Cf.pp.12,
93,133,137,164

Solsi, a sea-king, 155. Solsi’s bench, akenning for‘ship’, 124 (although theprose comment says it is a kenning for‘sea’, which is harder to fit into thecontext).
Solvi, a sea-king, 155Som,agiant, 156
Son, a vat, 62,63,70,71
Sonnung, anameofThor,156
Sorli, son of Gudrun and Ionakr, 1046;inakenningfor‘mail-coat’, 119
Sorvi, a sea-king, 155
Soti,ahorse, 136
Spey, river, 161
Spretting,agiant, 156
Starkad (i) Storverksson, the Old,
legendary hero and poet; a metre
named after him, 219. See Gautrekssaga and Saxo Grammaticus.
------ (ii) a giant, 74
Stein (i) = Hallar-Stein, 115------ (ii) Herdisarson, Icelandicpoet,
11 th century, 89.Thequotationis
probably from a poem about King
Olaf kyrri composed about 1070.
Steinar, Icelandicpoet, 11th century,
115. This quotation is all thatsurvives of his work.
Steinthor,Icelandicpoet, 11thcentury, 68.
Only this quotation survives of his work.
Stigandi,agiant, 156
Storverk, a giant, 156
Strand, river, 161
Strauma, river, 161
Stuf(i) ahorse, 136------ (ii) an ox, 163------ (iii) the blind, son of Thord Kott,
147-8. The quotation is from his
Stufsdrapa in memory of Harald
Hardradi, composed about 1067.
Stumbling-block, Hel’s threshold(Fallanda Forad: cf. Forad), 27
Sturm,agiant, 156
Sty rkar Oddason, Icelandic poet, 11 th
or 12th century, 126.Thisquotationis all that remains of his work; itseems to refer to the story of the
Hiadnings’ battle, 122-3. It may
have been the same Styrkar who waslawspeaker inIceland 1171-80.
Sudr, river, 161

254
Sudri.adwarf (‘southerly’), 12,16,88.
On p. 85 the giant Geirrod is called
relative of Sudri, perhaps because
dwarfs came from the body of the
giant Ymir,p. 16.
Summer (personified),21,94, (144)Surt, a fire demon, 9,10,20,53-7,66,
156(amongnamesforgiants).Surt’s
deep vales (p. 69) are the depths of themountains (Hnitbiorg), and here Surt
is used as a common noun for ‘giant’.
Suttung, Suttungi, a giant, 62—4,70,
157
Svadilfæri, a horse, 35,36
Svafnir(i)anameof Odin, 8. His hall­shingles are shields, such as were used
for roofing Val-hall.
—— (ii) a snake, 19,137
Svanhild,daughterof Sigurd, 103-6
Svarang,agiant, 156
Svarinshaug (‘Svarin’s mound’), 17
Svart,agiant, 156
Svarthofdi, 10
Svasud, a giant, father of Summer, 21,
94,156
Svebdegg (Old English Swæbdæg), 4
Sveidi, a sea-king, 155; in a kenning for‘ship’, 124
Svein (i) Icelandic or Greenlander poet,probably 11 th century, 91,93. The
quotations are both from his
Nordrsetudrapa (q.v.) which is also
quoted in the Third GrammaticalTreatise.
—_ (ii) Forkbeard Haraldsson, king ofDenmark (died 1014), 124 (hisson
was Knut the Great).
------ (iii) Ulfsson (Estridsson),kingof
Denmark (died 1076) (113: he is theprince referred to in Thorleik the
Fair’s verse), 145 (?-hisson wasSt
Knut, who may be the person referred
to in the anonymous verse).
Sveipinfalda, a troll-wife, 156
Sviagris (‘Swedes’ pig’), a gold ring,
111,112
Svidar, a name of Odin, 9
Svidrir, a name of Odin, 9,21
Svidur, a name of Odin, 21,151
Svinn, river, 34. Cf.Vegsvinn.
Svipal, a name of Odin, 21

Svipdag (i) Norse equivalent ofSvebdegg, 4------ (ii) a berserk, 111
Svivor, a giantess, 74
Svol,river,9,33. Cf.Vidsvol.
Svoid, an island or riverin the south
Balticarea, 112
Svolnir, a name of Odin,80 (his widow,
i.e. the wife he abandoned, was lord,the earth), 123
Sweden,4,5,7,(57),107-8,111,129,
151; Swedish realm, 151. Sweden of
frost (Svithiod in miklaeda in kalda,‘Sweden the great or the cold’ inHeimskringla) is a term for Scythia,
home of giants, 84
Swedes, 112,134. Cf. Sviagris.
Sylg,river,9,162
Syn, an Asynia, 30,157; in a kenning for‘giantess’, 85, for ‘woman’, 115
Syr, a name for Freyia, 30,157; in a
kenning for‘giantess’, 131

Tanngniost, one of Thor’s goats, 22,164
Tanngrisnir, one of Thor’s goats, 22,164
Teiti, a sea-king, 155
Thames, river, 161
Thanks (Thokk) .name assumed by
Loki, 51
Thegn, translated ‘thane’ but perhaps aname, 136
Thekk (i) a name of Odin, 21------ (ii) a dwarf, 16
Thengil,sonofHalfdantheOld, 146.
As a common noun for ‘prince’, 147(KingOlafofSweden), 150 (KingEirik Eigod), 169,181,189 andelsewhere.
Thialfi, Thor’s servant, 38,41-2,45,
72,78-9, (83), 84
Thiassi, a giant, 23—4,60,61,86, (87,89),108,113,(139),155
Thiod (Thy in Jutland), 101
Thiodnuma, river, 34,161
Thiodolf (i) of Hvinir, Norwegian poet,
9th century. The quotations on pp.
80-81,86-9,133,139 are whatsurvives of his poem Haustlong(q. v.). The quotations on pp. 7 and 67

255
are probably from Thorbiorn
Hornklofi’s Haraldskvcedi, see
Hornklofi.
------(ii) Arnorsson, Icelandic poet,
11 th century. The quotations on pp.
90,91,112,128,134-5,137,145-6,
and the unattributed verse on
p. 120 illustrating the kenning‘Uli’s
ship’, are from the poem Sexstefia inhonour of Harald Hardradi,
composed about 1065. The threequotations on p. 131 are fromanother, rhyming, poem on the same
kingcomposedaboutl055.
Onp. 149half of an independent
stanza quoted in full in Heimskringla
is given. It was composed after the
king’s death at Stamford bridge in1066 and, according to Snorri, before
the battleended.
Third (i) a name of Odin, 21,67,83------(ii) one of Gylfi’s informants,
8-10,12,21,37,56
Thistilbardi,agiant, 156
Tholl, river, 34,161
Thor(i) = TrorsonofMunon,3------(ii) as equivalent of Hector of Troy,
57,65------(iii) an As, son of Odin and lord,
13,18,22,26,31,35-40,42-4,
46-9,52,54, (55), 56-7,59,64-6,(69), 72-4,76-87, (89), 90,95-7,(106,116), 132,(135), 142,156-7,(168). Made equivalent to J upiter on
p. 66. See also Asa-Thor, Oku-Thor.
Thorarin Mahliding (of Mavahlid inwesterniceland), 10th century. His
Mahlidingavisur, including the one
quoted on p. 172, are preserved in
Eyrbyggia saga, in which he is aprominent person. The verses werecomposed in 983-4.
Thorbiorn Disarskald, Icelandic poet,
1 Oth or 11 th century. The quotations
on pp. 73 and 74 are evidently from apoem about Thor,thatonp. 126 is
Christian and describes the baptismof an unknown person; if the latter isby the same Thorbiorn, he evidently
became Christian and presumably
lived into the 11 th century. No otherpoetry by him has survived.
Thord (i) Kolbeinsson, Icelandic poet,
11 th century (prominent in Biamar
saga Hitdælakappa).The quotations
on pp. 132,134,136 are from his
poem about Earl Eirik Hakonarson,
composedafterhisdeathin 1013.
------ (ii) Mauraskald, Icelandic poet,probably 11 th century, 114. Nothing
but this one fragment survives of his
work.
------ (iii) Siareksson, Icelandicpoet,
11th century. Theversesquoted on
pp. 75 and 124—5 are from unknown
contexts, though the second may be
about one of St Olaf’s journeys, andthe first contains a series of legendaryand mythological statements. On pp.
143—4 an unattributed verse is gi ven
which is also in Heimskringla, where
itis said to be from a poem aboutKlæng Brusason (q.v.), and inFagrskinna the verse is attributed toThord Siareksson.
Thorfinn Sigurdarson, earl of Orkney,(diedcal064),(66),128,131
Thorgerd Holgabrud, legendary person(see the Saga oftheJomsvikings),
112. Cf. Holgabrud.
Thorgrim’srW«(‘list’), 136-7 (thepoem and poet are otherwise
unknown).
Thorin, a dwarf, 16
Thorkel Hamarskald, Icelandicpoet (ca1100), 150. The fragment quoted isevidently about a gift he had received
from a king, perhaps Olaf kyrri.
There also survives part of a poem by
him about Magnus Bareleg (died1103).
Thorleif the Wise, Norwegian, son of
Horda-Kari, ca 900 (seeHeimskringla), to whom Thiodolf’s
poem Haustlong is addressed, 81,86,
8 8. The poem is evidently an
expression of thanks for the gift of ashield, and the scenes described in thepoem were probably depicted on theshield (cf. Bragi’sRagnarsdrapa).
Thorleik the Fair, Icelandic poet, 11 th
century (the name written Thorleif on

256
pp. 113,142), 113-14,142. The
quotations are from his poem on KingS vein Ulfsson, composed 1051.
Thorn, a giant, 83,85. Used as
equivalentofYmirina kenning for‘water’ (Ymir’s blood, 91), 84
Thorolf (orThoralf) Icelandic poet,probably 11 th century, 69. The
context of the fragment is unknown,
and no more is known of the poem orpoet.Hisnameisgivenas Thorvald in
the Uppsala MS.
Thorri, name of a month, 144
Thorsdrapa, poem by Eilif
Gudrunarson,83 (drápa = a poem
with refrain).
Thorstein (i) thesubjectof Ref’spoem,
70,117,125.Hemaybethesonof
Snorri godi in Laxdælasaga andEyrbyggiasaga.
------ (ii) Egilsson, father of Helga theFair, referred toinGunnlaug’s verse
onp. 115.
Thorvald Blonduskald, Icelandic poet,
12th century. The quotations on pp.
114and 129 are the remains of his
poem on Sigurd Jerusalem-farer(king of Norway 1103—30), son ofMagnus Bareleg. The quotation on p.
69 seems to be the last lines of anotherwise unknown poem. This is allofThorvald’sworkthathassurvived.
Cf. Thorolf.
Thrace (part of present-day Greece andTurkey), 3Thrændir, i.e. Thronds, q.v., 203
Thrandheim, a district in Norway(Tr0ndelag),93
Thrasir,agiant,85 (or the word might
be a common noun, meaning‘stormer’, referring to Geirrod).
Thrigeitir, a giant, 156
Thrivaldi, a giant, 72—4,156
Throin,adwarf, 16
Thrond, a boar, 164
Thronds, the people of Thrandheim,
204 (their‘chieftain’meansSkuli).
Throng,anameforFreyia,85. Cf.
Thrungva.
Thror (i) a name of Odin, 22------ (ii) a dwarf, 16

Thrud (i) a valkyrie, 31------ (ii) Thor’s daughter, 72-3,85-6,
120; in list of Asyniur, 157; inkennings for Hild (iii), 123, woman,141. The story of Hrungir stealing her(120) has not been preserved.
Thrudgelmir, a giant, 15 6
Thrudheim (= Thrace), 3 (thehomeof
Thorin Grimnismal).
Thrudvangar, 22,46,79
Thrungva,anameforFreyia, 157
Thrym, agiant, 156. On p. 73 itappears
possible that the ‘giant-feast drinker"
is to be taken to be Thrym, which as acommon noun could mean ‘thunder’,so that Bragi is playing on the twomeanings of the word. The thunderwaspresumably caused by Thor’s
goat-drawn chariot, but the context
of the verse is not known.
Thrymheim (in Giantland), 23,24,60
Thund,anameofOdin,22. In
kennings for ‘poetry’, 71, and‘shield’, 200
Thunn, a name of Odin, 21
Thurbord, a troll-wife, 156
ThvinniL, a sea-king, 155
Thviti,astone,29
Thyn,river,34;translatedTyne, 161
Tialdari, a horse, 136
Tiber, river, 161
Tiggi, son of Halfdan the Old, 146.
As a common noun for ‘ruler’, 147(King HaraldHardradi), 175(Hakon), 179,197 (Skuli), 202,208,
216
Tind Hallkelsson, Icelandic poet (died1015orlater), 119. The quotation isfrom his poem on Earl Hakon
Sigurdarson, composed about 987.
The same verse is quoted in
Heimskringla, though the surviving
verses of the poem are mostly foundin the Saga oftheJotnsvikings.
Togdrapa, a poem by Thorarin
Loftunga, Icelandicpoet, 11th
century, quoted onp. 114.1twas
composed forKnuttheGreat about
1028 and deals with Knut’s
expedition to Norway in that year. It
may be from this that the name comes257(tog - journey, drdpa = poem withrefrain), and the name of the metre
toglag (togmcelt, togdrdpulag), see
205-7, may originate with this poem,
which was perhaps the first to use thismetre.
Torf-Einar, earl in Orkney ca 900,132;
metre named after him, 198
Troan,daughterofKingPriam,3Tror, son of Munon, 3Troy, 3,4,13,58,65-6; Trojan war, 65
Turkey, land of Turks, i.e. Trojans, 3
Turks, i.e. Trojans, 4,5 8,65
Tweed,river,161
Tyne,river(seeThyn), 161
Tyr, an As, 24-5,27,29,54,59,64,76,
95,157. In kennings for ‘Odin’, 64,
66-8,119,128, for ‘Thor’, 64(though in these expressions the word
Tyr may be simply a common noun
meaning ‘god’; cf. Cargo-Tyr,
Chariot-Tyr, Gauta-Tyr, HangedTyr, Sigtyr, Victory-Tyr); in kennings
for‘king’or‘earl’, 176,188,195,
197-8. The adjective týframr istranslated god-bold on
p.86.
Tyrfing, asword (see Hervarar saga),
159

Ulf Uggason, Icelandicpoet (fl. ca
1000),67-8,71,74-7,116,121,132-3,135. All the quotations arefrom his Husdrapa (q. v.); in addition
the quotation attributed to Bragi on
p. 74isalsoprobablyfrom the samepoem. Some of the verses (e.g. that on
p. 121) relate to Baldr’s funeral (p.
49).
Uli, an As, 26,59,72-3,76,80,85-6.
Uli’s ash(-ship) is a kenningfor‘shield’, 70,98,116,118,120 (thisunattributed verse is from Thiodolf
Arnorsson’s Sexstefia), though thestory that is the origin of theexpression has not survived. In akenningfor ‘man’, 112
Ulysses, Greek hero (Odysseus), 58
Unn (i) a name of Odin, 21------(ii) (‘wave’), daughter of Ægir, 91,
141,161;asacommon noun for‘wave’, 180,181-2 and elsewhere. Asa name of a river, 161
Uppsala (in Sweden), iv, 110,111
Utgard, dwelling of giants, 40. Cf.
Midgard.
Utgarda-Loki, a giant,40—44,46-7. Cf.
Skrymir.

Væni, a lake in Sweden (Lake Vánem),
110
Vafthrudnir, a giant, 10,156. There arequotations from the Eddie poem
Vafthrudnismal onpp. 10,11,20,34(second verse), 55 (lastverse),56(third verse), 57 (both verses).
Vafud, a name of Odin, 22,99
Vagasker (sker = skerry), 76
Vagnhofdi.agiant, 157
Vagsbru, a place in Thrandheim (brú —bridge), 188
Vakr (i) a name of Odin, 22------ (ii) ahorse, 136
Vai, a horse, 136
Valaskialf,20Val-father,anameforOdin, 17,21
Valgard of Voll (in the south of Iceland;
11th century poet), 141,143-4,150.
The quotations are from a poem on
Harald Hardradi.
Val-hall (‘hall of the slain’) thepalaceof
the historical Æsir in Sweden, 7; themythical palaceof thegods, 21,31-5,
48,69,77-8,95-6, (123: a kenningfor ‘shield’, cf. p. 7),Going to Val-hall(66), 67 means dying in battle.
Vali (i) son of Odin, 26,31,56,59,76,
156-7------ (ii) son of Loki, 52------ (iii) a dwarf, 16
Valin, river, 161
Valskialf,river, 161
Van (i) (‘hope’),river, (29), 161------ (ii) (pl. Vanir) a member of the raceof gods from which Niord, Freyr andFreyia come, 23,30,61,75; Freyia iscalled Van-bride, 99, Van-deity, 86,
Lady of the Vanir (Vanadis), 30, Van­
lady, 8 6. Van-child is a term for aboar, 164 (boars were sacred toFreyr).
Vanargand, a name for Fenriswolf, 76

258
Vandil (i) a sea-king, 155------ (ii) agiant, 157
Var, an Asynia, 30,157; in a kenning for‘Skadi’,87
Vardrun, a troll-wife, 156
Vartari, a thong, 97
Vasad, grandfather of Winter, 21
Ve, Odin’s brother, 11
Vedrfolnir, a hawk, 18
Veg, river, 34. This and the following
name sometimes appear as one, see
Vegsvinn.
Veggdegg (Old English Wargdæg), 4
Vegsvinn, river, 161. Cf. Veg and Svinn.
Veig, an island in the far north of
Norway, 134
Veili, Icelandic poet, died 999(Thorvald Veili). A verse by him ispreserved in Nialssaga andelsewhere, but the poem referred toonp. 188doesnotsurvive.
Vella, river, 161
Ver,agiant, 157
Veratyr, a name of Odin (cf. Tyr), 22
Verdandi (‘happening’, i.e. present?), a
nom, 18
Vervada, river, 161
Veseti, a berserk, 111
Vestein, 136
Vestri (‘westerly’), a dwarf, 12,16,88
Vet-Mimir, name of a heaven, 164;translated ‘winter-Mimir’, 133
Vetrlidi Sumarlidason, Icelandic poet,
died 999. The quotation on p. 74,
which is all that survives of his work,
is evidently from a poem addressed toThor. See Nials saga.
Veud, a name for Thor, 156
Victory-Tyr (Sigtyr), a name for Odin,
64,67. Cf. Sigtyr andTyr.
Vid, river, 9,33,161
Vidar the silent, an As, 26,54-6,59,76,
82,95,156-7.SonofOdin,55.
Equivalent of Aeneas, 66
Vidblain, a heaven (‘wide-dark’), 20,
133,164
Vidblindi, a giant, 114,115,15 6
Viddi,agiant, 157
Vidfedmir, a heaven, 164. Translated‘wide-embracer’, 133
Vidfinn, father of Bil and Hiuki, 14

Vidgymnir, a giant; in a kenningfor‘Thor’, 74
Vidolf, 10
Vidrir, a name of Odin, 9,72; in a
kenning for ‘warrior’, 123, for‘battle’, 124, for‘poetry’,140
Vidsvol, river 161. Sometimes as two
separate names, see Vid and Svol.
Vidur,anameofOdin,22. In a kenningfor‘poetry’, 71,for‘poet’, 132.
Vifil, 136
Vig,adwarf, 16
Viga-Glum, Icelandic poet, 10th
century,66,119,124,138.The
quotations are from independent
stanzas that are also quoted in VigaGturns saga, where the quotations on
pp. 124andl38 appear as two halvesof a single stanza.
Vigg,ahorse,136
Vigglod (‘battle-glad or -bright’), a
troll-wife, 156;asanameforanaxe,
159. The masculine form vigglad isalso a term for ‘shield*, translated‘battle-bright’, 160
Vigrid, a battle-field, 54,55
Vil,river, 161
Vili, Vilir, Odin’s brother, 11,68
Vilmeid, 10
Vimur, a riveron the border between
the worlds of gods and giants, 74,82,(83), 161
Vin,river, 34,161
Vina, river, 34; onp. 161 given as Dvina(twice).
Vind,agiant, 156. The name means‘wind’, cf. pp. 20 and 93
Vindalf,adwarf, 16
Vindblain, a heaven, 164
Vindhler, a name for Heimdall, 76,171
Vindloni, Winter’s father, 21
Vindsval = Vindloni, 21, 93; among
names of giants, 156
Ving, river, 161
Vingenir,descendantofTror/Thor,3.
Cf.Vingnir.
Vingethor, descendant of Tror/Thor, 3.
Cf.Vingthor.
Vingnir (i) a nameof Thor, 5 6. On
p. 72 Thor is said to be foster-son ofVingnir (perhaps Vingnir (ii) ?).

259------ (ii) agiant, 81,156------ (iii) an ox, 163
Vingolf (‘friend- or wine-hall’), 9,
16,21
Vingrip, a giant, 157
Vingthor.anameofThor, 156
Vinnil, a sea-king, 155
Vipar,agiant, 156
Virfil, a sea-king, 155
Virpir.adwarf, 17
Vitr.adwarf, 16
Vitrgils (Old English Wihtgils), 4
Vitta (Old English Witta), 4
Vod, river, 162
Vogg, legendary hero, 110
Volsung,father of Sigmund, 101,105,148. As a common noun for ‘king’,
150
Volsungs, descendants of Volsung, 4,
106,148
Volucrontes, Greek hero, 65
Voluspa (‘the sybil’s prophecy’), Eddie
poem, 9,12,15-17,20,36,53—4. Itis
the most frequently quoted poem in
Gylfaginning, and there are further
verses from it on pp. 17,19 (third
verse), 55,56 (first two verses). The
prophetess on p. 16 is the speaker inthepoem, the volva (‘sybil’), and thefollowinglistsof dwarfs arealsopartof the poem in the Elder Edda. The
Shorter Voluspa quoted on p. 10 ispart of the Eddie type poem
Hyndluliodpreserved in
Flateyiarbok.
Volu-Stein, Icelandic poet, (ca 950), 71,
134—5. The two quotations, which
are all that survives of his work, arefrom a poem in memory of his son
Ogmund. See Landnamabok (theBook ofSettlements).
Vond, river, 161
Vor,anAsynia,30,157
Vornir,agiant, 157
Vott, a berserk, 111

Weird (Urd), a nom (related to ordin‘happened’, i.e. past?), 18,121,126.

Weird’swell, 17,19,121,126
Westphalia (western Germany), 4
Whitby, town in England, 149
White-Christ, 126. Cf. Christ.
White Sea, in a kenning for ‘giants*(conceived as inhabiting the far northof Scythia), 83. Cf. Gandvik.
Wigg (Old English Wig), 4
Winter (personified),21,cf.93,144
Woden (Old English form of Odin), 3

Ygg, a name of Odin, 22,68,73,133,
157; in kennings for ‘the mead of
poetry’, 114,132,186,fora‘valkyrie’, 196, for ‘raven’, 145
Yggdrasil, an ash tree, 17,18,19,34,
54, (146). Cf. Ygganddrasi//‘horse’.
Ylfing (dynasty), 148
Ylg, river, 9,162
Ymir,agi ant,vi, 10-13,16,88,90,91,
155. A variant of the kenning Ymir’s
blood = seaorwaterisimpliedon
p. 84. Cf. Aurgelmir, Blain.
Ymsi,agiant,83
Yn,river, 161—2
Ynglings, Swedish and Norwegiandynasty, descendants of Yngvi, 5,148; as a common noun for ‘king’(King Olafthe Saint), 150.See
Ynglinga saga in Heimskringla.
Yngvi (i) son of Odin, 5,67,148;
Yngvi’s folk on p. 69 are Norwegians,
since Yngvi was ancestor of the kingsof Norway, though their ‘powerwielder’ is here Earl Sigurd or Hakon.
As a common noun for ‘ruler’ (KingEirik Eigod), 150, (Earl Skuli), 202,
217.Heissaidtobesonof Halfdan
the Old onp. 148.
------ (ii) a sea-king, 155
Yngvi-Freyr,anameforFreyr, 156-7
Yrsa, mother and sister of Hrolf Kraki,
109-12
Ysa, river, 161
Ysia,river, 161
Yule, 133
Zealand, Danish island, 7

Index of Metrical Terms

260(n. = neuter; pl. = plural)adalhending, 167,172 (pl.)
afhending, 195
afleiding, 177álagsháttr, 184
alhenda, 193
alhending, 192
alhent, 192
álög(pl-), 172alstýfdr, 197
atridsklauf, 173áttmælt, 174

Bálkarlag, 218-19
bragarbót, 186
bragarmál, 172
detthendr, 185; n. detthent, 172
drag, 173
drápa, 106,123,188
draughent, 204
draugsháttr, 185
drögur(p).), 177
dróttkvætt, 166-7,170-72,174,182,
184,188,191,194,196-8,200-07,
209-11,213-15,219
dunhenda, 182
dunhent, 172,195

flagdaháttr, 187
fornyrdislag, 218-19
frumbending, 167,185
galdralag, 220
greppaminni, 190
hagmælt, 206-07
hiastælt, 176hluthending, 167,172 (pl.)
hluthendur(pl.),203
hnugghent, 209
hrynhenda, 203-04
hrynhent, 203,216
hrvniandi, 202-03

íidhendr, 191
lidhendur (pl.), 191,197-8
liódaháttr,219

málaháttr, 217
munnvörp (pl.), 204

náhent.209,217

oddhending, 167,171,191,210
ordskviduháttr, 183
refhvarf, 181; pl. refhvörf, 177-82;
refhvörf's brother, 182
rétthent, 191
ridhendur (pl.), 186,194
ridhent, 199
runhenda,211-12,214-17; pi.
runhendur, 211
runhending, 212-14,215 (pl.)
runhent, 211-16
samhending, 195, pl. 172,195
samhendur(pk), 194
samhent, 194
sextánmæltr, 173
skiálfhenda, 185,188,190; pl.
skiálfhendur, 185
skiálfhent, 172,188
skothending, 167
skothendr, 197
stál, 175
stamhendr, 193; n. stamhent, 194
stef, 207
studill, 173; pl. studlar, 185
studning, 167, (169—70)
stúír, 196;pl. stúfar, 195
stúfhent, 208stælt, 175

kimblaband, 202; pl. kimblabönd, 201
kliiat, 195

thríhent, 188
tilsagt, 183
tiltekit, 176,190
togdrápa, 207
togdrápulag,205
toglag, 206-07,214
togmælt, 207
tvískeflt, 184

langlokurfpl.), 176
lidhending, 200; pl. lidhendingar, 172

veggiat, 187
vidrhending, 167

idurmælt, 194