STATUS AND TRENDS OF MANGROVESIN SOUTHEAST ASIA
I. Faridah-Hanum

Department of Forest
Management
Faculty of Forestry
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Serdang, MALAYSIAOUTLINE OF PRESENTATION• Brief introduction• Status and trend of mangroves by country in Southeast Asia
(before 2000)• Status and trend of mangroves in Southeast Asia
(after 2000)• Challenges

INTRODUCTION• Approximately 75% of world's
mangroves are found in just 15
countries, and only 6.9% areprotected under the existing
protected areas network• Southeast Asia has thegreatest diversity of mangrove
species in the world, andmangrove forests provide
multiple ecosystem services
upon which millions of people
depend•Carbon Storage by Mangroves• They also store substantiallyhigher densities of carbon, as
compared to most otherecosystems globally, thus playing
an important role in soaking up
carbon dioxide emissions andmitigating climate change• Mangrove forest sequesters asmuch as 50 times the amount ofcarbon in their soil per hectare as
inland forest(Pidgeon, 2009)

Economic values of mangroves in
Peninsular Malaysia(GEF/UNDP/IMO, 1999)

百万4% - direct use value (market)96% - indirect, option, non-use values (nonmarket)
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Direct use:

Indirectuse:

Optionvalue:

Non-usevalues

Use values

Gross value (RM)

Use values

2,475,741,981

Direct use:

233,721,896(USD 58 million)

Charcoal and poles

91,365,205

Fish & prawn

16,266,907

Mud crabs

13,476,857

Tourism

112,612,927

Indirect use:

2,238,036,135

Nursery role

1,094,871,841

Carbon sequestration

480,729,717

Protection from erosion

662,434,577

Option value:

3,983,950

Biodiversity value

3,983,950

Non-use values

2,932,185,680

Existence value

2,932,185,680

Use and Non-use values

5,407,927,661

COUNTRIES WITH MANGROVESIN SOUTHEAST ASIA

• Mainland SEA
Vietnam
Cambodia
ThailandMyanmarPeninsular Malaysia• Maritime SEA
Indonesia
Philippines
East Malaysia
BruneiSingapore
East Timor

Status and trend of mangroves by country in Southeast Asia
(before 2000)

INDONESIA

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

Indonesia• Shrimp farming evidently is the cause of approximately 25 per cent loss ofmangroves in Indonesia• Conversion to agricultural, mainly paddy land, over-exploitation by coastal
communities, commercial logging and lack of effort on regeneration ofdegraded and over-exploited mangrove areas have been identified the reasonsfor 75 per cent of the mangrove loss
• Transmigration programme that facilitated human migration from overpopulated Java to Kalimantan and Papua also had made an impact on tidal
wetland extent (including mangroves) as they have been reclaimed for humansettlements and urban expansion to accommodate the migrants(Giesen et al., 2006)

CAMBODIA.

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

CAMBODIA• For fuelwood, charcoal and shrimp farming (mainly in Koh Kong Province) represent the mostimportant causes of mangrove losses since 1978, when the Department of Fisheries of theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries took the management of the mangrove forests• Before this 1978, during the Khmer Rouge regime all conservation and forestry activities
ceased, and although conservation has become important since then, there are no proposals
for the protection or active management of mangrove areas• Mangroves were first mapped for management purposes by the Department of Fisheries
after the Khmer Rouge Regime at the same time that the Fisheries Law was adopted, which
also protect mangroves as nursery area, and prohibited cutting of trees• In some areas, mangroves have been cleared for salt production.
• Rural communities still rely on mangroves for their livelihood and economy; timber is still
extracted for firewood and charcoal for domestic consumption and shrimps are produced
even if in smaller quantities than in the past
• Some mangrove forests in protected areas (Ream National Park, Batum Sakor National Parkand Peam Krasoap Wildlife Sanctuary)

BRUNEIFigure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

BRUNEI• In the past, the mangrove forests of Brunei were a major source of wood forthe charcoal industry, firewood for local use and for export and manufacture ofdye used in the tanning industry( Lim and Sharifuddin 1975)• Mangrove forests continued to be exploited for charcoal and poles for filling in
the construction work but later declined because of the increasing use ofnatural gas (Stewart 1986).
• Some mangrove areas are being developed as residential sites , aquaculture
shrimp sites in Brunei-Muara District and 154 ha resettlement project andecotourism• Now, the mangrove forests in Brunei are among the best preserved in theregion, rich with different types of flora and fauna

MALAYSIA

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time (MALAYSIA)
Source: FAO (2003)

Drivers of mangrove change in Malaysia
Agriculture• Cultivation of oil palm in Malaysia has been the most profitable of all the agricultural cropsand a vast amount of lands, including those of inland mangroves. In terms of productivity
and economic benefits oil palm plantations are many times more economical thanmangrove forests• In the next decade it is perceived that much of the mangrove forests in Sarawak will be
converted to oil palm plantations too as the state tries to eradicate poverty among the ruralcommunities and empower them as settlers depending on the plantation• Aquaculture
Fish and prawn cultures have been proven to he economically more profitable, especiallyfor overseas markets. The major sites for fish cultures are especially in the Langkawi,
Matang and Kuala Selangor mangroves• Urban development
Currently, there is large scale urban development in the south of Peninsular Malaysia
affecting the mangrovesAquacultureUrban development for Iskandar Malaysia- formerly known as Iskandar Development Region and South Johor Economic Region is themain southern development corridor in Johor, Malaysia- The Iskandar Malaysia was established on 8 November 2006.

Ecotourism Industry• Ecotourism sector in Malaysia has
shown rapid growth and has
tremendous potential to be further
developed including mangrove tourism• Some 8 million foreign tourists visited
Malaysia generating RM13.4 billion inforeign exchange earnings and is one of
the fastest growing industries which has
made a great contribution to the overallnational economy

MYANMAR

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

Figure 2. Area changes over time, the Ayeyarwady Deltamangroves, Myanmar(Source: FAO, 2003)

Ayeyarwady Delta mangroves• The mangroves in this area have suffered an alarming decline
overtime: over 140,000 ha of mangroves have disappearedbetween 1924 and 2001, ca. 56 % of the original extent• The major cause of this rapid decline is conversion ofmangrove areas into rice fields in line with government policies
to promote self-sufficiency in food production• Also, the overexploitation to produce fuelwood• Rehabilitation of mangroves and the establishment ofcommunity mangrove forests have been initiatedTHE PHILIPPINES.

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

The Philippines• Used to be covered by 400,000-500,000 ha of mangroves in 1920 but it declined toaround 120,000 ha in 1994, decline may be attributed to overexploitation by coastaldwellers, and conversion to agriculture, salt ponds, industry and settlements• Aquaculture development for production of shrimp, fish, and other aquatic
resources, is known to be the leading cause of mangrove loss in the country. For
instance, between 1968 and 1983, 237,000 ha of mangroves were lost for pond
construction. This was almost half of the total national mangrove area (Fernandez1978)• Shrimp aquaculture operates extensively normally for three to ten years after whichthe production decreases, and then abandonment occurs. Once the operation ishalted, aquaculture operators find another new location containing a healthymangrove ecosystem and again deplete the resources• If this trend continues, mangrove areas in the country will be in serious threat.
Although greater conservation and rehabilitation efforts have been in place, it isexpected that the mangrove ecosystem in the country will continue to facedegradation (Fortes 2004)• Conversion to Agriculture- especially rice paddies and palm oil plantations to sustain the growing
need for food not as significant as conversion to aquaculture• ca. 19% (49,363 ha) of the Philippines' total mangrove area is located within
existing protected area networks (International Union for Conservation ofNature (IUCN) protected areas categories, I-VI), with the greatest area ofprotected mangroves located in Palawan

SINGAPORE

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

SINGAPORE• Mangrove loss in mid-1970s was attributed to exploitation (timber, firewood andcharcoal production) and clearing for various development demands eg.housing,industry, refuse disposal, barraging of estuaries to increase freshwater supply (Chua1975)• By 1980, the mangrove forest was reduced to few patches of exposed habitats on themainland and comparatively undisturbed ones among the offshore islands• The sharp decline of Singapore’s mangrove habitat area from 7500 to 491 ha is
attributed to coastal development mangrove• Now, Singapore mangroves increased to 734.9 ha, ca. 1% of total area in Singapore
due to expanding land area through coastal reclamation and at the same time
reforestation efforts and the natural regeneration of mangroves in long abandonedprawn ponds may have contributed to the increased area (Chou, 2016)• The present mangrove patches are fragmented and limited in area but still support ahigh diversity of 35 ‘true’ mangrove plant species (Yang et al. 2011) with 15 locallylisted as “vulnerable” and five as “critically endangered” (Davison et al. 2008)

FUTURE THREAT• One of the most crucial threat is sea
level rise because of the interacting
balance between saline inundationand freshwater runoff• The worst case scenario is a 1m sea
level rise by 2100. Based on digital
elevation models, a 1m sea level
rise will inundate 25% ofSingapore’s mangroves and a slow
elevation rate will cause the habitat
to collapse.

Figure 1. Location of mangrove habitats in Singapore
Source: Chou (2016)

THAILAND

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

Thailand• ca. 50 per cent of mangrove areas in Thailand were converted to otherland uses before 1991
• 33-65% of mangrove loss due to clearing for shrimp pond between
1996- 2000 ; other causes include coastal zone development, urban
expansion, agriculture, resettlement, construction of harbours andports & establishment of salt ponds• Due to re-plantation of mangroves in abandoned shrimp ponds by theRoyal Forest Department, the total mangrove extent in Thailand has
shown an increase during the past decade
Giesen et al. (2006)

TIMOR-LESTE

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

Timor-Leste• ca. 1300 ha of mangrove forests with total of 19 true mangrove species• Despite their small size and fragmented distributed, these mangroves areheavily exploited as a source of food, and wood for housing and fuel• Timor-Leste mangroves face a very uncertain future in light of their small,fragmented distribution, heavy human encroachment, and forecasted risein sea level• Compared to the mangroves of other Southeast Asian nations, theTimorese mangroves remain little studied; require urgent management
and conservation• The most likely negative impact to Timor-Leste’s mangroves is climatechange predicted increase in sea-level(Alongi et al., 2009, Record, 2013)

VIETNAM

Figure 1. Trends in mangrove area extent over time(Source: FAO, 2003)

Vietnam• The extensive mangrove areas (400,000 ha) along the sheltered coasts ofVietnam have been destroyed during the war• In later years mangroves were felled for shrimp and fish aquaculture• Mangrove re-plantation programmes had successfully re-vegetated 96,876 ha of
the 155, 290 ha of degraded and destroyed mangrove areas by 1999
• UNESCO Biosphere Reserve dominated by mangroves and many rare species;
the forest's area is 75,740 ha

Status and trend of mangroves in Southeast Asia
(after 2000)

Source: Richards and Friess (2016)

AQUACULTURE
main driver of mangrove
deforestation in Southeast Asia
between 2000-2012

els (Perna viridis) were the dominant cultured species in Kota Marudu
e the disease outbreak in 2009

Sea-bass (Lates calcarifer) cultured in cages

Oyster (Ostrea spp.) culture38

• Since the 1960s and 1970s, conversion of mangrove forests to aquaculture ponds
was encouraged by the governments of Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and thePhilippines to enhance food security and improve livelihood; they are now someof the largest aquaculture producers in the world• Policies that encouraged expansion rather than intensification have now been
reversed; intensive production now accounts for the majority of production inThailand• Mangrove conversion to aquaculture now occurs mainly in Kalimantan andSulawesi; Indonesia’s aquaculture production increased three-fold by 2012 andhighest in Southeast Asia due to government encouraging growth of industry for
improving livelihood, generating foreign currency, and providing protein• Further mangrove conversion to aquaculture in Indonesia may be expected in thefutureFigure 1. Mangrove deforestation between 2000 and 2012
Source: Richards and Friess (2016)

Rice• the expansion of rice agriculture in Myanmar is responsible for driving thefastest rate of mangrove deforestation in Southeast Asia, moving away from thehotspot of rice cultivation in the Ayeyarwady Delta• the government of Myanmar aimed to increase rice production throughengineering assistance and village-level expansion targets to enhance national
food security• The Myanmar government provides few environmental safeguards for
mangrove forests; for example, the current protected area network is poorly
enforced and covers little mangrove forest• as a result of the lack of environmental safeguards and continuing economictransformation in Myanmar, the mangrove conversion to rice will continue todisplace large areas of mangrove in the future.

Malaysia: Oil Palm
• In Malaysia, the industry provides direct
employment for about 570,000 people;
the industry also offers a long-term andstable source of income for its
smallholders• Palm oil is Malaysia’s largest agriculturecommodity and has recently become
Malaysia’s second largest income earnerfrom exports• The Malaysian Government aims toincrease the annual export earnings
from palm oil by RM21.9 billion toRM69.3 billion by 2020
• It is difficult to see how this target can beachieved without having to open up newlands for oil palm cultivation including
the mangroves ( forest is state matters)

INDONESIA: OIL PALM
• Palm oil production in Indonesia is expected to continue toincrease by almost 30% by 2019 owing to increasing
global demand for foodstuffs and national targets toensure energy security• In May 2015, Indonesian President Joko Widodo
announced the development of 1.5 million ha of new
terrestrial agricultural land in Papua within the next 3years as part of the Merauke Integrated Food and Energy
Estate to increase food and energy security and stimulate
economic growth in Papua• Although there was a low deforestation rate in themangrove-rich Indonesian province of Papua before this,oil palm cultivation could be the potential driver ofmangrove loss since previously also planted in mangroves
besides terrestrial forest and peat swamps in Sumatra andBorneo

Table 1. Change in mangrove area and ecosystem service value inSoutheast Asia by country 2000–2050
Source: Brander et al. (2012)

CHALLENGES• There is increased awareness of the value of mangrove ecosystems, which has led in turn tothe preparation of new legislation, better protection and management and in somecountries to an expansion of mangrove areas through active planting or naturalregeneration• Mangrove loss in Southeast Asia still remains substantial. This not only results in negative
impacts on the mangrove diversity, but also undermines the ecosystem services thatmangrove forests provide, such as carbon storage.
• Despite its importance, mangroves in Southeast Asia are still exposed to many threats
especially from adverse economic activites upstream and the mangrove ecosystem itself,
which often lead to the decline of its quality. There still remains the issue of how toaddress mangrove health• The motivating factors and target commodity differs by country, and were influenced by tne
respective national economic policies. For instance, in Myanmar, rice production isconsidered critical for national food security, while palm oil production in Indonesia,
Malaysia

Issue of conservation of mangrove forest

Commitment from governments
Examples: Malaysia, Singapore• All the decisions made with regard to the implementation of forest management,
conservation and development activities in the state are carried out at the state level by
the respective State Authorities.
• Under National Forestry Act, 1984 (Amended 1993), Director of the State Forestry
Department is responsible to the State Government for the preparation andimplementation of the State forest management plan, reforestation and other programmes
relating to amenity forests.
When there is a will, there is a way!

Thank You