英語による授業実践ハンドブック
Active Learning Handbook for English-Medium Classes

Todd Enslen [著]東北大学 高度教養教育・学生支援機構

Active Learning Handbook
for English-Medium Classes

Institute for Excellence in Higher Education
Tohoku University

は じ め に
東北大学高度教養教育・学生支援機構は、東北大学旧高等教育開発推進セン
ター時代の平成 22 年から教育関係共同利用拠点の認定を受け、国際連携を活かした大学教育力の開発に取り組んできました。その一環として、大学教員を目指す大学院生をはじめとするすべての大学教員を対象に、大学教員の能力開発に役立つ PD (Professional Development) ブックレットを刊行してきました。
改めて申し上げるまでもなく、どの職業においても、入職してその役割を果たすまでには、長い時間と経験を要します。特に大学教員の場合は、高度な専門性が仕事全般に要求されますが、大学院までの訓練は研究に重点が置かれ、授業や学生指導など大学教員にとって不可欠な教育活動についての予備知識やスキルを身につける機会はほとんどありません。また、実際の教育現場では、個々の教員がさまざまに創意工夫を重ねた実践に取り組んでいますが、その手法や知見は必ずしも広く共有されておらず、議論される機会にも恵まれていません。
本 PD ブックレット Vol. 9 は、近年の大学の国際化の流れや留学生の増加に伴って、本学でもますますその機会が増している「英語による授業」、それをより効果的、魅力的に実施するためのヒント、学生の授業参加を促すための「英語のボキャブラリー」や「英語での質問の仕方」など、具体事例を多く含んだ内容となっています。
また、本書は、時間的な制約で、東北大学高度教養教育・学生支援機構で提供している同様の PD ワークショップに参加がかなわない方だけでなく、英語での授業実施に関係なく、「Student Centered Learning」：アクティブラーニ
ングを授業へ導入する際のガイドブックとしても参考にしていただける内容となっています。
すべての皆さんにとって本ブックレットが、大学教員としての新しいステー
ジに進む参考になるものと信じております。また、読後の感想やご意見をお寄
せいただければ、今後の改善にもなり、望外の喜びです。
東北大学 高度教養教育・学生支援機構長
花 輪 公 雄本ハンドブックの使い方「英語による授業実践ハンドブック」
をお手に取っていただきありがとうございます。本ハンドブックは、経験豊富な英語ネイティブ教員から「英語で授業をすることになった／している」教員の方々への激励とティップス（ちょっとしたコツやテクニック）がたっぷり詰まった一冊です。著者が Introduction（p.1～）で示しているように、次の点を重視してまとめられています。
 重要な概念に関する簡潔な解説
 もっと知りたい人におすすめする文献・ウェブサイト
 授業で使える実例集（英語でのいいまわし、活動例）
本ハンドブックの中には、Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL)ということばが何度か登場します。SoTL とは「教員による授業実践に関する学術的探究を通して教授・学習過程を改善する試み 1」を指し、日本語では「教授・学習の学識 1」または「教育と学習に関する学究的活動 2」と訳されます。
本ハンドブックで紹介しているティップスは、その多くがこれまでに蓄積されてきた SoTL に基づくものです。これらの情報が、読者の教育実践をより豊かなものにする一助となればうれしいです。
さて、一言で「英語で授業をする」といっても、これに関わる教員の方々のニーズは多岐にわたることでしょう。そこで、序章から順を追って読み進める以外にも、ご自身の課題意識や興味に合わせて、適時、必要なティップスに気軽にアクセスしてもらえるようなブックレットにしたいと考えました。ぜひ次ページからのシチュエーション／ニーズ別おすすめ項目を参考に、これからの教員生活のそれぞれの場面において、幾度となく手に取ってもらえる一冊にしていただければ幸いです。
吉良 直（2010）「米国大学の CASTL プログラムに関する研究」『名古屋高等教育研究』10，pp.98-116.
羽田貴史監訳（2014）『FD ガイドブック』（Gillespie et al. (2010) A Guide to Faculty Development, Jossey-Bass.）
玉川大学出版部．
1
2

本ハンドブックを効果的かつ効率的に活用してもらいたいという想いから、次の 3 つのシチュエーション／ニーズを想定しました。
 そろそろ英語で授業を担当することになりそう…
 既に英語での授業を担当しているけれど…
 あらためて基本的なことから学んでみたい…

そろそろ英語で授業を担当することになりそうなあなたに…
近い将来、英語による授業を担当することが予想されるあなたには、次のう
ち特に興味をひかれる項目から読み進めていくことをおすすめします。
 英語で授業を行うにあたって、まず踏まえるべき事項を知りたい☞ 1.1 Diversity (p.5)☞ 1.2 Organizational Features of English (p.8)☞ 1.5 Student Expectations (p.27)☞ 2.1 Individual Learning Experience (p.31)☞ 2.2 Teacher-centered/Student-centered (p.34)

 授業で使える便利な英語の言いまわしを知りたい☞ 1.2.3 Transitional words and phrases (p.16)☞ 1.3 Positive Reinforcement (p.18)☞ 1.4 Politeness (p.22)

 授業をデザインする際に踏まえるべき事項を知りたい☞ 2.3 Bloom’s Taxonomy (p.35)☞ 2.5 Curricular Alignment (p.45)

 英語でシラバスを作成する際にどうしたらよいか知りたい☞ 2.4 Outcome Statements (p.43)☞ 2.7 Student-centered Syllabus (p.52)

 英語の発音に不安がある☞ Having problem with English pronunciation? (p.4)
ii既に英語で授業を行っているあなたに…
現在既に英語での授業実践を積み重ねているというあなたには、次のうち特に興味をひかれる項目から読み進めていくことをおすすめします。
 自分の授業を改善したい／より充実したものにしたい☞ 1.5 Student Expectations (p.27)☞ 2.3 Bloom’s Taxonomy (p.35)☞ 2.5 Curricular Alignment (p.45)☞ 2.6 Benefits of Active Learning (p.48)

 シラバスや授業資料を拡充したい☞ 2.2 Teacher-centered/Student-centered (p.34)☞ 2.7 Student-centered Syllabus (p.52)

 授業で使える実践的なアクティビティやテクニックについて知りたい☞ 2.8 Community Building (p.61)☞ Chapter 3: Incorporating Active Learning into your Classroom (p.82)

 学生とのコミュニケーションをより豊かにしたい☞ 1.3 Positive Reinforcement (p.18)☞ 1.4 Politeness (p.22)☞ 2.1 Individual Learning Experience (p.31)☞ 2.8 Community Building (p.61)

 プレゼンテーションやエッセイを導入する方法について知りたい☞ 1.2.1 Organization of English (p.10)☞ 1.2.1 Outline format for presentation and essay (p.13)

 グループワークを取り入れているがなかなかうまくいかない☞ 2.8.3 Issues related to interaction and group work (p.70)☞ 2.8.4 Ways to build a community in the classroom (p.71)

 明確なニーズは思いつかないが、何か役立つティップスを得たい☞ Appendix (p.117～)を眺めて、気になる項目の本文を参照してみましょう☞ Index (p.142)を眺めて、気になるキーワードのページへどうぞ！
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あらためて基本的概念から学びなおしたいあなたに…
アクティブ・ラーニングに取組んでいるけれどいまいち…、FD 担当になった…というあなたには、
次のうち特に興味をひかれる項目から読み進めていく
ことをおすすめします。
 アクティブ・ラーニングとはそもそも何なのか問い直したい☞ 2.2 Teacher-centered/Student-centered (p.34)☞ 2.6 Benefits of Active Learning (p.48)

 ありがちな問題への対処法を確認したい☞ 2.8 Community Building (p.61)

 FD 担当者としてのネタを仕入れたい☞ 1.5 Student Expectations (p.27)☞ 2.1 Individual Learning Experience (p.31)☞ 2.2 Teacher-centered/Student-centered (p.34)☞ 2.3 Bloom’s Taxonomy (p.35)☞ 2.5 Curricular Alignment (p.45)

 自分の知識がどの程度のことをカバーしているか確認したい☞ Index (p.142)を眺めて、気になるキーワードのページへどうぞ！

ご自身の課題意識や興味に該当する項目は見つけられたでしょうか？本ハンドブックをきっかけとして、紹介しているウェブサイトや文献も活用しながら、よりポジティブな気持ちで英語による授業実践に取り組んでもらえたらう
れしいです。

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Table of Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Culture Considerations ...................................................... 5
1.1

Diversity ..................................................................................... 5

1.2

Organizational Features of English ............................................ 8
1.2.1 Organization of English............................................................ 10
1.2.2 Outline format for presentations and essay ............................. 13
1.2.3 Transitional words and phrases (signposting) .......................... 16

1.3

Positive Reinforcement............................................................ 18

1.3.1 Positively responding to correct answers .................................. 19
1.3.2 Positively responding to incorrect answers ............................... 20

1.4

Politeness ................................................................................. 22

1.4.1 Ordering/commanding versus requesting ................................. 23
1.4.2 Unexplained action versus asking for permission...................... 25
1.4.3 Direct suggestions versus indirect suggestions ......................... 25

1.5

Student Expectations ............................................................... 27

1.2.1 Respectful .................................................................................. 28
1.2.2 Knowledgeable .......................................................................... 29
1.2.3 Approachable ............................................................................. 30

Chapter 2: Teaching and Classroom Management..............................31
2.1

Individual Learning Experience ................................................ 31

2.1.1 What way do you learn best? .................................................... 31
2.1.2 Most effective in-class activities for the majority of learners ... 32

2.2

Teacher-centered/Student-centered....................................... 34

2.3

Bloom’s Taxonomy................................................................... 35

2.3.1 Remembering ............................................................................ 37
2.3.2 Understanding ........................................................................... 38
2.3.3 Applying ..................................................................................... 38

2.3.4 Analyzing .................................................................................... 39
2.3.5 Evaluating................................................................................... 39
2.3.6 Creating ...................................................................................... 40
2.3.7 Examples of Bloom’s Taxonomy ................................................ 41

2.4

Outcome Statements ............................................................... 43

2.5

Curricular Alignment ................................................................ 45

2.6

Benefits of Active Learning ...................................................... 48

2.7

Student-centered Syllabus ....................................................... 52

2.7.1 Student-centered syllabus contents .......................................... 54
2.7.2 First-day handout example ........................................................ 56
2.7.3 Syllabi expressions and vocabulary............................................ 58

2.8

Community Building................................................................. 61

2.8.1 Methods for forming groups...................................................... 63
2.8.2 Assigning roles within groups .................................................... 69
2.8.3 Issues related to interaction and group work ............................ 70
2.8.4 Ways to build a community in the classroom ............................ 71

Chapter 3: Incorporating Active Learning into Your Classroom ...........82
3.1 Low Risk Active Learning Activities ................................................ 83
3.1.1 Introductory brainstorming ....................................................... 83
3.1.2 Note clarification ....................................................................... 86
3.1.3 Think-Pair-Share (TPS) ............................................................... 87
3.1.4 Opinion polling ........................................................................... 92
3.1.5 Incomplete outline ..................................................................... 94
3.1.6 Minute paper/Muddiest point ................................................... 98

3.2 Implementing High Risk Active Learning Activities .................... 102
3.2.1 Types of higher risk activities ................................................... 103
3.2.2 Homework completion check .................................................. 104
3.2.3 Pre-class quizzing ..................................................................... 106
3.2.4 Key elements of cooperative learning ..................................... 107

References ..................................................................................... 112

Appendix

Appendix 1: Completed Outline Example for Presentation and Essay ....... 117
Appendix 2: Completed Essay Example ...................................................... 118
Appendix 3: Slide Material for Lecture on U.S. University System ............. 120
Appendix 4: Positive Reinforcement ........................................................... 122
Appendix 5: Politeness in the Classroom .................................................... 123
Appendix 6: Creating Questions at Different Levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy 124
Appendix 7: Forming Groups ...................................................................... 126
Appendix 8: Assigning Roles within a Group............................................... 127
Appendix 9: Dealing with Overly Active Students....................................... 128
Appendix 10: Icebreakers (Examples) ......................................................... 129
Appendix 11: Possible Ways to Engage Students Informally before or afterClass ............................................................................................................ 130
Appendix 12: Low Risk Active Learning Activities ....................................... 131

Profile of Author ............................................................................ 139
Afterword ...................................................................................... 140
Index ............................................................................................. 142

Introduction
With the growing interest in internationalization on
university campuses in Japan that has been brought about by
the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT) through various projects, such as Global 30,
Global Jinzai, and Super Global Universities, the educationallandscape in Japan is changing. In order to be able to attract
more international students, part of the international reshapingof Japanese universities has been introducing more classes, andeven undergraduate majors, that are conducted in English.
While some international faculty, both native and non-native
speakers of English, are being hired, many Japanese faculty
members with English language skills are being required toteach in English.
Obviously, with such drastic changes to the educational
system, there are bound to be some growing pains in the process.
There is an increasing body of research that has investigated the
problems that have arisen in similar contexts.

The British

Council, discussing English Medium Instruction (EMI) on a worldwide
scale, points out that few teachers have thought about the factthat teaching in English is not simply a matter of translatingfrom their native language into English (Dearden, 2014). Other
research has pointed out three distinct areas that need to beconsidered: linguistic, cultural, and structural (Tsuneyoshi, 2005;
Bradford, 2013). Bradford envisions this as language andacademic skills courses for students and international teachingskills instruction for faculty plus engagement in conferences that
help build upon these ideas through the structural aspect1

(administration) of the program. However, the details of thesecourses are left to one’s imagination.
Along with the research, the need to provide support for bothfaculty and students in these newly formed EMI classes andmajors has been highlighted by student course evaluations, atleast for the students enrolled in 4-year undergraduate EMI
courses at Tohoku University. While the results show thatstudents are more forgiving of linguistic issues that the
instructors may have, they are more critical of the delivery andteaching skills aspects of the classes.
Someuniversities

aredeveloping

their

own

facultydevelopment (FD) programs to address the issues of instruction
for faculty, but there is virtually nothing in the literature thatoffers a how-to approach, such as a resource guide, for faculty.
Thus, this handbook is intended to help faculty who are nonnative speakers of English understand the various componentsthat must be taken into consideration when teaching in English,
and to provide examples of the necessary language for
implementing activities in the classroom.
This handbook is not intended to cover the literature in depth
on each of the topic areas. Rather a brief explanation of theconcepts will be provided with some references should the reader
be intrigued to find out more. The intent is to provide ways, alongwith the language needed, to improve our instruction as teachers
based on sound practices supported by research from the
Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL).

EMI for international students at Japanese Universities
This handbook is meant to serve as a guide for faculty and toaddress the concerns they may have with teaching their subject
2

material in English. Thus, this text will not cover the structural
aspects that take into consideration the administrative support
necessary for implementing these types of programs. As teachers,
the linguistic and cultural aspects are key factors along with howteaching skills come into play. Thus, teachers need to focus onthree

aspects

when

conductingclassesin

Englishforinternational students: Culture, Teaching and Language Skills thatoverlap as illustrated below (Figure 1). EMI focuses on thecentral point where all three elements (Culture, Teaching andLanguage Skills) come together. However, many of the aspects
presented in this volume are not concepts that are exclusive tothe EMI classroom, but are rather good teaching principles thatcan be applied to teaching in any context and can help teachersin other classes that they teach in their native languages.

Figure 1: EMI – Where Culture, Teaching and Language Skills Intersect3

Having problem with English pronunciation?
A diagram similar to the one presented above appears in Gorsuch et al. (2010).
The authors identify three, overlapping, major components of classroom
communication that need to be addressed for successful communication between
teachers and students. They have labeled these components as “language,
pedagogy, and culture” (p.5) with the central point where all three components
overlap being identified as “discourse intonation”. This classification points out theimportance of pronunciation, especially intonation, for conveying the teacher’s
intended meaning to the students in the context of a foreign faculty member
teaching to native English speaking students. While the three elements ofintonation: thought groups, prominence, and pitch change (p.7) are important
aspects of communicating accurately, pronunciation is beyond the scope of this text.
In addition, the context of EMI teaching in Japan where non-native English
speaking teachers are often teaching to non-native English speaking students mightmake this aspect of communication less of a factor. However, I do not intend todiminish the importance of pronunciation, and I wholeheartedly encourage readers
to refer to Gorsuch et al. (2010) for a detailed explanation and practice of these key
elements of speech.
In addition to considering pronunciation and how it can help one communicate
effectively. It is important to identify problems that you, personally, have withpronunciation that hinder communication with others and use compensation
strategies to help the listener understand. Since improving one’s pronunciation
takes considerable time, in the short-term focusing on compensation strategies may
be of the most benefit. Smith et al. (1992, pp.21-22) identify six general strategies(listed below) to keep in mind.
Even if the meaning of a word is understandable when it is mispronounced, theodd way of saying it becomes a distraction to the audience and people may become
more interested in the way you are saying the word than the message you are trying
to get across.
1. Speak slowly and in short phrases.
2. Pronounce every sound as precisely as you can – perhaps even by
exaggerating the movements of your mouth.
3. Use the written word to back up the spoken word – on the blackboard,on overhead projector transparencies, on handouts.
4. Be redundant: say each important idea several times in different ways.
5. Avoid the words or types of sentences that you know cause problems
and find other ways to say the same thing.
6. Check the pronunciation of key vocabulary (common vocabulary fromyour field) before presentations.

Figure 2: Pronunciation Compensation Strategies (Smith et al., 1992)

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Chapter 1: Culture Considerations
1.1 Diversity

In any class, be it a homogeneous one (students from the same

cultural background) or a heterogeneous one (an internationalmix of students), diversity is ever-present and must be taken into
consideration to help every student feel that he/she is an equalpart of the class and to learn as effectively as possible. Whendesigning the curriculum and putting it into effect in any class,
the teacher has to think about a vast array of concerns related todiversity that includes, but is not limited to, the list of categories
identified below. A question about each topic has been provided
to help the reader consider each of these topics further in relation
to his/her teaching and classroom practices.
1) Gender - Differences between male and female students mayneed to be taken into account when we teach.
• How can we make a gender-neutral, bias-free classroom?
2) Race - Not every student in our classes will share the same
physical traits, ancestral heritage, or genetics.
• How can the classroom be less homocentric and moreinternational and global in perspective?
3) Sexual orientation - Students vary in their sexual preferences,i.e. being heterosexual or part of the LGBT community.
• What are ways in which we can help build understanding andacceptance of minority groups in general?
4) Political beliefs - The political doctrines and parties thatstudents follow can create tensions in the classroom.
• In what way can we address or avoid topics that may bepolitically charged, for example the tensions between Taiwan
and China?

55) Religion - Differing faiths need special accommodation attimes.
• What should we take into consideration when students comefrom differing religious backgrounds?
6) Prior knowledge - Depending on where students havepreviously studied, they may have much more or lessexposure to the subject matter than the average student.
• How can instructors know where to start teaching and how canthey help all of the students achieve the goals of the class?
7) Motivation - Students may come to our classes with curiosityand clear internal motivation, possibly understanding how
the material will benefit them in the future and eager tostudy, while others may be fulfilling requirements with anattitude that they just want to pass.
• In what ways can the instructor help build and maintain thestudents desire to attend the class and learn the subject matter?
8) Learning styles - Students have preferred ways of learning.
Some people learn better through seeing pictures or graphic
representations (visual learners), others can learn best bylistening (aural learners), while still others learn best whentouching and manipulating (tactile/ kinesthetic learners).
• How can teachers make learning easier for students with diverse
learning preferences?
9) Abilities - Some students pick up things more quickly thanothers.
• Are there ways instructors can help students who need moretime or more attention in order to understand the subject?
10)Expectations - What a student expects from a class depends
largely upon how the student was educated and the type ofclassroom instruction he/she has experienced.
• How can teachers design their classes in ways so that they
address the expectations students have of what should takeplace in a class?

6

More information regarding diversity: Introduction to College Teaching in the United States (Yale University)
https://goo.gl/MnX9Fa
 Diversity in the Classroom (University of Technology Sydney）
https://goo.gl/gGvUNf
 Diversity in the Classroom (UCLA Diversity & Faculty Development)
https://goo.gl/Njycyb

Thus, teachers have a great deal to consider even before
taking into consideration a more diversified class than they areused to teaching. Some good practices to develop in any kind ofclass would include treating students as individuals instead ofthinking of them as part of a specific group, incorporating avariety of ways to address various learning styles, setting rules
for student behavior in class, explaining clearly your teaching
philosophy and why you are incorporating certain activities into
the class, and using gender-free wording (“he/she” instead of “he”;
and “businessperson” instead of “businessman”).
More information on dealing with diversity in the classroom: 7 Practitioners’ tips for Teaching in the Context of Diversity (King’s
College London) https://goo.gl/dnjNRN
 Learning and Teaching Across Cultures – Good practice Principles andQuick Guides (Betty Leask and Jude Carroll, October 2013)https://goo.gl/ArPAxo

Though the challenges of addressing diversity are present inhomogeneous classrooms, in more heterogeneous classes certain
categories listed above become much more exaggerated. The
purpose of this handbook is to address those categories that are
magnified the greatest due to teaching in a more culturally

7

diverse classroom, the biggest of which is the difference in
Expectations (#10).
While it would be impossible to take into consideration every
cultural difference between all of our students and try to adapt
our teaching to each and every aspect, it is possible to take a more
macro-level approach to culture that can give the teacher
insights into how to help the students learn more effectively andefficiently. In the field of Cross Cultural Communication,
cultures have been classified in a variety of ways (Lewis, 2005;
Kluckhohn & Strodtbect, 1961; Hofstede, 1990; etc.), but one of
the simplest and most common is dividing them into “high-context”
or “low-context”. High-context cultures are ones that are morehomogenous sharing a more consistent cultural heritage andcommon set of beliefs like Japan. Low-context cultures, on theother hand, are cultures with a more diverse cultural heritage
where the beliefs and values are not shared as much between allof the citizens as in the United States of America (Hall, 1976).
Thus, Japan and most native English speaking countries would
be on opposite ends of the context spectrum with Japan on thefar side of the high context spectrum and most native-English
speaking countries such as the U.S. and Australia on the far sideof the low-context spectrum as depicted in Figure 3.

1.2 Organizational Features of English

One of the major differences between these cultural

distinctions is the very different style of communicationaccording to Hall (1976). A high-context culture is often implicit
in how they communicate, which is highlighted by an indirect
style where the main point does not come until the end.

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Figure 3: The Low-Context/High-Context Spectrum
Thus, the responsibility for understanding the meaning is the
responsibility of the reader. The organizational style of highcontext cultures is often represented graphically as a spiralmoving inward until it reaches a central point, which represents
the main point of their work.
In contrast, a low-context culture is more reliant on words andhas a very explicit and direct organizational style. The
responsibility of conveying the intended message lies with thewriter, and thus, the message must be more precise and accurate.
This is also commonly depicted as a straight line from point A topoint B in graphic representations (Figure 4).
Understanding the difference between high- and low-context
cultures can help teachers to organize their materials so thatthey are the most accessible to all of the students. The default
setting in the teacher’s mind should be a low-context style. While
students from high-context cultures might find this style overly
repetitive, it is important to remember that the majority of the

9

A

B

A

B

High-Context

Low-Context
Precise and direct, main point
Ambiguous, main point statedstated at the beginning andat the end
repeated
Figure 4: Organizational Features Base on Context
students in our classes will be at a disadvantage because they
are studying in a second language, and, thus, a more overt style
could be beneficial to them also.

1.2.1 Organization of English

A quick search of Google for presentation skills will invariably

present you with the age-old axiom attributed to Aristotle, “Tellthem what you are going to tell them, tell them, and tell them
what you just told them”. This organizational structure is very
apparent in the traditional five-paragraph essay that iscommonly used to help students learn and practice extended
forms of academic writing or presenting. Organization of ideas inEnglish follows a very standardized pattern beginning with an
introduction, followed by supporting information and ending
with a conclusion. Deviation from this pattern can cause
students to have difficulty following the intended written or
spoken message.

10

To illustrate, this organizational style will be explained
followed by an example. While the example provided below may
seem more applicable to writing, presentations are also based on
written texts, and the organizational features do not change.
Thus, this seems like a logical approach to any type of writing ororal presentation.
Introduction: After the title, which presents the overall topic of apresentation or essay, the introduction provides background informationon the topic followed by a thesis statement that explains what the main
point of the entire presentation/essay is. The background information
may start with an interesting fact or example related to the topic in orderto catch the readers’/listeners’ attention. It will then provide backgroundinformation about the topic that the reader may need to understand thecontext. This information will gradually become more focused tapering
down to the main point or thesis statement. The thesis statement isusually the last part of the introduction and often includes a preview ofthe subtopics in the form of a list of what will be discussed further.
Support: The three points that follow the introduction are referred to assupport. For each supporting point, the main idea should be provided in
the first sentence, and it often restates information from the thesis
statement and provides further clarity focusing on what will be discussed
further regarding this point. This statement is then followed by facts,
statistics, and examples that will provide support and clarity for the main
point that was put forth at the beginning of this section.

Conclusion: Lastly, the main point of the essay is restated usually in
different wording than in the thesis statement and closing comments or
future course of investigation is laid out. Thus, moving from a more
focused statement into more general statements once again.
A graphic depiction of a typical five-paragraph /presentation
essay is presented in Figure 5.

11

Figure 5: Graphic Representation of the 5-paragraph Essay/Presentation
One will notice that the graphic representation of theintroductory paragraph is wider at the top and tapers down at
the bottom. This symbolizes a broader, general statement at the
beginning of the paragraph, which gradually becomes more
specific leading to a focused thesis statement at the bottom of theparagraph.
The reverse is true in the concluding paragraph. The
narrower beginning of the paragraph indicates the restatementof the thesis statement. And the comments that follow show a12broadening outlook of what to consider in the future and thus
this paragraph widens at the base.

1.2.2 Outline format for presentations and essay
When preparing for a paper or presentation, it is best to put
your ideas into an outline form, such as depicted in the outline
format below, before writing out the essay or presentation toensure clarity and complete coverage of the topic.

Figure 6: Outline Format for Presentation and Essay

13

In the outline above, each main idea in each supporting
paragraph is followed by three supporting points: a, b, and c. Thisis because, in general, each paragraph needs to have at least
three sentences to support the main idea. The information, given
as support, often exceeds this number though.
To help clarify the essay/presentation process, the essay
outlinepresented

above

has

been

filled

in

for

an

essay/presentation on the benefits of studying abroad. For an
outline, it is not necessary to write in complete sentences, butrather to express the idea in a phrase as succinctly as possible.
Figure 7 , the outline above (Figure 6) has been partially filledin with the thesis statement in the introduction, the topic
sentences in the supporting points, and the conclusion for an
essay/presentation on the benefits of studying abroad to show
how these aspects of an essay/presentation are related to one
another. In addition, this partially completed outline helps toexemplify how transitional words and phrases connect ideas andunify the essay/presentation. Hopefully, the reader will notice
how the thesis statement provides the main idea for the entire
essay/presentation and the topic sentences serve as the mainideas for each of the supporting points.

☞Appendix
 Completed Outline Example: Appendix 1 (p.117)
 Completed Essay Example: Appendix 2 (p.118)

14

Figure 7: Example with Thesis Statement and Main Topics

15

1.2.3 Transitional words and phrases (signposting)As you can see from the example above (Figure 7),transitional words and phrases, like “first”, “second”, “third”, and“in conclusion”, are important aspects to help your audience follow
your writing or presentation and easily identify the key aspects
within it. These transitional words and phrases can also be usedwithin a paragraph to clearly connect the ideas from one
sentence to another. A list of words and phrases that one could
use to help the audience identify the major points within you
writing or presentation are listed below for your reference(Figure 8). The list provided is not comprehensive, it is meant toprovide the reader with a list of the most common transitions fora desired meaning.
A more complete list of transitional words and phrases: Linking Words (English Language Smart Words) https://goo.gl/xuadLH
 Transitional Devices (Purdue Online Writing Lab) https://goo.gl/NY7jzZ

As you can see in the essay (Appendix 2, p.119) transitional
words and phrases are used not only to highlight and connect thethesis statement with the main points presented in the topic
sentences and the concluding sentence. They are also used toconnect the ideas presented in the supporting sentences to one
another.
Other essays that highlight organizational structure: Writing: example essay in Education (University of South Australia)
https://goo.gl/5t7CDC
 Five Paragraph Essay Sample (John Langan, College Writing Skills with
Readings) https://goo.gl/BdEkKg
 The Five-Paragraph Essay (Guide to Grammar and Writing)https://goo.gl/JBgT5F

16

Examples of Transitional Words and Phrases
A. Showing agreement or additional aspects
first, second, third
in the first placein addition
additionallysimilarly

moreoveras well as
and
also…
likewise

B. Opposing or contradicting
in contrast
althoughhoweverbutdifferent fromafter allon the other hand
otherwise
despiteeven so

C. Introducing examples or support
for example
such aslike
includingfor instancein particularin fact
in general
namelychiefly

D. Giving cause or intentions
in order towith the intention
for the purpose ofas
so long as

on the condition thatin the event that
if…then…
when
while

E. Showing effect/result
as a result
therefore
hence
forunder thosecircumstances

thus
consequently
accordingly
in effect
for this reason

F. Concluding and summarizing
In conclusion
To sum up
In short
In brief
To summarize

on the wholegenerally speaking
in a word
given these points
in the long run

further moreequallyimportant
not only…but
too
likethen again
ratherbesidesregardlesseven though
to emphasize
to demonstratein fact
notablyespeciallybecausesince
so thatso as todue toin that casebecausehenceforth
thereuponthen

as can be seen
in fact
overall
all together
all in all

Figure 8: Examples of Transitional Words and Phrases (For Example:
Deane, 2015; Strunk et al., 1999; etc.)171.3 Positive Reinforcement
Having raised two children in Japan, I have watched them gothrough various extracurricular activities, such as horseback
riding, violin, flamenco dance, ballet, piano, and brass band, andthe one thing that stands out is the amount of negativity in thecoaches’orteachers’comments

about

the

children’s

performances. No matter how well they performed, the mostcommon reaction was on what was wrong rather than what wasright. This goes along with the concept of “kaizen”, or continuous

improvement that has become synonymous with high quality
products from Japan.
This negativity is in direct contrast to many other cultures
where positive reinforcement is the norm. For example, in the
United States, teachers and coaches focus on the good aspects ofa performance, no matter how poorly the person does, as a way
to encourage them to keep trying and working hard.
A definition of reinforcement is something done after abehavior to make that behavior more likely to be replicated in
the future. People feel good about themselves when they arecomplimented on what they are doing and thus more motivatedto do it again in the future. Students are turned off by negativity.
Student perceptions of good teachers include the category of
approachability. If the teacher is positive toward student
interaction, friendly, and happy, students are much more likely
to want to engage with their instructor than if they make thestudents feel stupid or unworthy of their attention in anotherway. This is much like the idea of positive reinforcement in othercontexts, too.
Our non-verbal communication is equally as important, if not
more important than the words we use to interact with our18

students. If we show the students that we are interested andenthusiastic about the subject matter and concerned about themenough to be attentive to them and concerned about theirlearning and lives in general, they will feel more comfortable tointeract with us. Thus, remember that how you say something tosomeone does carry a great deal of meaning, but the words that
we use are also important. In some cases, we may not intend tobe negative, but how we have expressed our instructions orcomments may inadvertently carry a negative connotation.
Being able to phrase things in a positive light is often difficult;however,understanding

how

to

phraseexpressions

appropriately can help convey the positive aspects that we want
students to receive.

1.3.1 Positively responding to correct answers

It is very easy to be positive toward student responses when

they are correct. Some common ways of doing this are listed
below. I am sure the reader can come up with many more
examples without too much difficulty.
• Good job!
• Excellent!
• That is exactly right.
• Great!
• You obviously know what you are talking about.
• I couldn’t have said it better myself.
It should be noted that receiving a correct response from a
student is wonderful, and we as teachers want to acknowledge
their efforts. However, if we do so immediately with one of theexpressions provided above, we will end any further discussion
19

on the topic. Thus, it might be advisable to withhold praising
students until after the other students have had a chance toponder the response. Consider the following exchange as analternative.
Teacher:
Student 1:
Teacher:
Student 2:
Teacher:

Could (“someone”, “you”, a specific student’s name) tell me…
Well, I believe it is … (The student provides a correct response.)
Thank you for your input. Let’s hear what some otherstudents think of your ideas. (a specific student’s name) what
do you think?
His answer sounds good. The only thing I would add is . . .
Okay, I see your point. Thank you. Well, (Student 1) was
correct. Great job! You must have really spent some time
considering this issue. (Student 2) also made an interesting
point that exemplifies what (Student 1) said earlier.

By withholding the fact that a given answer is correct until
later, the teacher is able to spend more time having the entire
class consider the completeness and positive or negative aspectsof the previous response.

1.3.2 Positively responding to incorrect answers

However, the difficulty arises when we as teachers need to bepositive to students when they provide incorrect responses toquestions. We want to encourage students to continue
responding to the teacher when a question is posed, but we also
want the student to understand that his/her response wasincorrect. Some suggestions about wording your response to take
into consideration this aspect of replying to incorrect answers arelisted below.

20• Thank you for your answer. Does anyone have something to add tothat?
• That’s an interesting idea. What do the rest of you think about it?
• Thanks for getting the discussion going. Let’s hear some other ideas.
By responding in such a manner, the instructor is able toshow appreciation to the students for the efforts they are making
at answering the question without directly pointing out theerrors in front of the entire class. By gathering input fromvarious students, the instructor can compile the various
responses at the end to formulate a completely accurate response
without pointing out any one person as incorrect, or correct forthat matter, but still provide corrections to any misconceptions
that exist.
Another issue regarding feedback to student responses is thecommon practice of using “but” to precede negative information.
Because of the understood or implied negativity of “but” it is best
to try to word responses to students in a way that avoids the useof this word.
Can you think of a way to rephrase the following comments in amore positive way without using “but”?
• Your thesis is very good, but you need to supply more sources.
• That is a good point, but your reasoning is faulty.
• Your answer was interesting, but it was completely wrong.
How about the following?
• Your thesis is very good. Do you feel that there are enoughsources to support your position? Why or why not?
• You make a very good point. Is there anything else you could addthat might help others understand your reasoning better?
• Your answer was interesting. Let’s see what other people have to
say about this question.

21

Rather than giving direct opinions or answers to student
papers or requests, it is often better to use an indirect approachby asking questions of the students. They can then often
understand the logic and answer their own questions.
As teachers, students look up to us and respect our views. Ifthey receive approval from us, they are more likely to continue
working hard and to feel good about their efforts, so it isimportant for us to think carefully about how we talk to students.

1.4 Politeness
Another aspect of culture is the manner in which we address

students. With the “kohai/senpai” relationships in Japan and theuse of “keigo” to speak with people of higher status, theimmediate reaction of an instructor in Japan might not be
focused on showing respect for the students. However, research
has shown that the number one perception from students of aneffective teacher is how “respectful” they are to their students(Delaney et al., 2010). While this term includes a variety of othernuances, such as the instructor understanding the challenging
situations students sometimes face, treating all of the students
equally and in the same manner, and showing that they careabout their students, using appropriate language to show this
aspect to students can go a long way toward making the right
impression. Many non-native speakers of English make errors in
the following ways without necessarily being aware of the issues.
Before discussing the ways to improve the language we use,
one thing that needs to be reiterated is the way we say somethingis often as important as the words we use. Thus, instructors
should try to maintain a calm, if not pleasant, delivery to what22

they are saying even if impatience or negativity toward thestudent starts entering their minds.

1.4.1 Ordering/commanding versus requesting
It is easy as an instructor to slip into the habit of telling
students what to do with directives or imperatives such as theones listed below when we want students to do something. Oneof the reasons for instructors to do this may be the need for time
efficiency. A classroom is a busy place and depending on how
much material needs to be covered, the instructor may want tomove the class along as quickly as possible. Imperatives, orcommands, are the shortest and most direct way to get things
done. Even if there are time constraints, taking a little bit moretime making requests rather than demands can have positiveeffects on the atmosphere in the class.
Order/Command• Hand in your homework.
• Turn to chapter 3 in your book.
• Don’t talk in class.
Requesting• I would like you to hand in your homework now.
• Could you (please) turn to page chapter 3 in your book?
• Would you (please) not talk during class?
There are a variety of other phrases that can be used torequest something politely. In general, the longer the question orstatement, the more polite it will be. Some examples of questions
and statements on the more polite end of the spectrum include:23• Would you mind…
• I wonder if you could…
• I was wondering if you would mind…
However, I suggest instructors avoid these phrases because
they could sound overly formal when interacting with students.
In addition, there is also the risk of confusion with the phrase“Would you mind…” since students tend to answer them opposite

from the way they actually should. For example, I often ask
students the following questions to illustrate the confusion withthese structures.
Teacher:
Student:

Would you mind closing the door?
Yes! (said with a smile as the student stands up to close the door)

However, “yes” to this question means, “Yes, I do mind,”meaning “I will not close the door for you.”
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:

Would you mind giving me 1,000,000 yen?
No!
Great! (Holding my hand out waiting for the 1,000,000 yen)Answering “no” to a “Do you mind” question shows awillingness to do something.
Politeness toward our students is a concern, but of course,
there are situations when commanding or ordering students isappropriate. Imperatives should be used when students areabout to do something that might be dangerous. For example, if
a student is about to mix the wrong chemicals together that could
have an adverse reaction in a laboratory experiment, the direct
approach is necessary.

241.4.2 Unexplained action versus asking for permission
When students are busy with an activity in class, the teacher
often needs to make a decision as to the appropriate amount oftime to give students to complete a task. In my own teaching, I
have found myself trying to determine if students havecompleted a task, such as copying notes from the blackboard, byinferring that they are done from a visual scan of the classroom,
and I have often been caught out when I have said something
like, “Okay, it looks like everyone is done, so let’s move on,” as I

begin erasing the board. One of the students will invariably
shout out “Wait! I am not done,” or more commonly gasps fromstudents who are still working will be heard. An easy way to
avoid such problems is to ask permission from the students asshown below.
Asking for permission• Is it okay if I erase the board now?
• May I erase the board now?
• Can I erase the board now?
Again, other phrases can be used for asking for permission,
such as:• Does anyone mind if I …?
However, as mentioned earlier, these can sound overly politeand can lead to confusion due to the opposite way of answering
these questions.

1.4.3 Direct suggestions versus indirect suggestions

A particular difficult aspect of English is giving suggestion.

Many English textbooks have a tendency to focus on the use of25

the modals: “should”, “ought to”, and “had better” to makesuggestions. While these terms are often used in writing to
express the necessity to do something usually by a third person,
they are never used in direct communication, especiallyconversation, because of the directness of the statement. When aperson uses these models in conversation, it sounds pretentious
in that the person giving the suggestion seems to beauthoritative or giving an order rather than a suggestion. Thus,in direct communication, indirect suggestions are almost
exclusively used.
Direct suggestion• You should include an explanation of how the experiment was
conducted.
• That’s not right. You ought to have referenced your sources bygiving the author’s last name, followed by a comma, and thenthe year.
Indirect suggestion• What about including an explanation of how the experiment was
conducted? It might make it easier for the reader to understand.
• Why don’t you double check the way to reference sources? I think
this might be expressed a different way.
Other possible ways to create indirect suggestions are listed
below.
••••

26

How about…?
Why not…?
I think that you should…
Perhaps you could…

• You/we can…
• It might be a good idea…
• If I were you, I would…

You might have noticed that by changing the directsuggestion to an indirect suggestion you are also giving
assistance without actually providing the answer to the student.
This provides the students with the opportunity to contemplate
what the instructor said, decide if the advice is useful or not, andif so, it often requires further research or effort, all of which
provide the student with further opportunity to internalize anddevelop more long lasting learning.

1.5 Student Expectations
Much of what students expect from a class is in response to

their previous experiences in the classroom. Delaney et al. (2010)
conducted a study at Memorial University in Canada where theyused an online survey to have students list five adjectives to
describe effective teaching and then explain in detail why they
selected these adjectives. Out of the 330 responses, 69 separate
adjectives were identified. These were then grouped based on
similarity into nine separate categories: respectful, knowledgeable,
approachable,

engaging,

communicative,

organized,

responsive,

professional, and humorous. These categories are listed from themost represented answers to the least. While all of them areimportant to take into consideration and I encourage the reader
to read this article in detail, I will focus on the top three
responses because, in part, they support and nicely show theimportance of my initial hypothesis that classroom management,
language, and culture are three key aspects to take into accountwhen teaching in English. Below, I provide more detail on theimportance of the three most common responses: respectful,knowledgeable, and approachable.

271.5.1 Respectful
As mentioned previously students, above all, want to feel
respected by the teacher, and the language that the teacher uses
in interacting with the students can affect how they feel about
their teachers. Along with the language of politeness, otheradjectives that were grouped together into this category included
open-minded, flexible, compassionate, and patient. This group of
adjectives touches further upon the affective issues. The gap
between the teacher and students is often quite wide, andtherefore teachers may have difficulty appreciating the students’perspective. Teachers can forget that students are often
balancing packed schedules, part-time work, and club activities,
and may have a host of other responsibilities. They havedifficulties and problems in life just like everyone else. Being
understanding of these issues while also being fair to all of thestudents is difficult to balance. Many of these issues will be
expanded upon further in the section on Community Building.
Special attention also needs to be given to patience. Students
are novices in the subjects that teachers are experts in and theymight not have the interest or motivations that their instructors
have. Having a great deal of knowledge may make it difficult tounderstand when students are struggling to grasp the subject or
may even cause impatience to creep in. We should try not to let
students know of this impatience or talk down to them in any
way that might make them feel inadequate. If a teacher were toact this way, it students wouldn’t want to face that situation
again, thus, making it unlikely that they will seek help eventhough they might need it. In addition, while we would like all of
our students to be enthralled in the subject, it might very well be28the case that students are required to take the course or might
have distractions outside of school.

1.5.2 Knowledgeable
Of course, as university instructors we all have spent years
studying our subject areas. Therefore, it should be a given thateveryone is knowledge, but some of the adjectives that aregrouped together in this category might give more insight as towhat the students were focusing their attention on in thiscategory. For example, “flexible” was often stated, which mightmake one wonder how knowledge can be flexible. However, what
students are referring to here is how that knowledge is presented.
For example, is the teacher willing to get off their scripted planand spend more time addressing a topic when students are notcomprehending the subject matter.
One other adjective that appears within this category that
may not be obvious is “reflective”. Students value teachers who
can adapt to feedback in order to change what they are doing tomeet the needs of the students. Later in this handbook, one of
the activities outlined is “the minute paper”, or a comment sheet,
which can be used to get feedback from the students on various
aspects of the class or content. One way of being reflective would
be to explain common comments brought up on these comment
sheets and to tell the students what changes you, the teacher,are willing to make in an effort to address these issues.
Other adjectives within this category that seem particularly
relevant are “practical” and “current”. If we can find ways toconnect the subject matter to the students’ future lives or careersand help them to understand how the information will be of
benefit, it will enhance their learning. The same could be said for29the adjective “current”. By presenting the information in thecontext of what is currently happening in the world, it will be
more meaningful. As we explore Active Learning later in thisbooklet, you will notice how “knowledgeable” aspects areincorporated into activities to make learning more meaningful.

1.5.3 Approachable

In this category, Delaney et al. (2010, p.10) identify “three main

themes: the positive interaction between the professor and students; thecomfort level of students to ask questions and to seek advice; and thesincere effort on the part of instructors to help students reach theiracademic goals”. Many of the aspects touched on in this section of
the article will be addressed in this handbook when discussing
the topic of building community in the classroom. It cannot be
overstated how much the affective aspects of a classroom impact
the students’ feelings about the class and their ultimate success.
“Retention studies conducted over the last two decades in higher
education suggest that one of the most crucial factors in helping students
complete their studies is creating an atmosphere of community.”(McGlynn, 2001, p.55)

30

Chapter 2: Teaching and Classroom Management
2.1 Individual Learning Experience

All teachers were once students, so we can often look back on

our experiences as students to provide insights as teachers.
Before explaining how good teaching is based on the researchthat is available through SoTL, I would like you to consider yourexperience of learning. To do this, look at the list of possibleclassroom activities listed below and order them from the mosteffective in helping you learn (1) to the least effective in helping
you learn (7), if we define “learning” as retaining information
long-term so that you can use it and apply it in the future. When
doing this exercise, one can assume that these activities arebeing incorporated into a lesson effectively, meaning the teacher
has organized the activity in such a way that students have theinformation and knowledge necessary to perform the requiredtask.

2.1.1 What way do you learn best?
Directions: List the classroom activities below from 1 to 7 with
1 being the most effective way of learning and 7 being the least
effective way of learning based on your experience.
_____ Discussing_____ Practicing doing something_____ Reading_____ Listening to lectures_____ Teaching others_____ Watching a video_____ Seeing a demonstration31

It is important to remember that students have different
learning styles meaning that some may learn better throughdifferent modes. While learning styles have been described in avariety of ways, Fleming’s (1995) classification of learning styles
is one of the easiest to understand, and thus I will rely on it inthis description. According to Fleming, there are four distinct
styles, which people may prefer for learning. Some learners may
be able to learn better by seeing something (visual learners), by
hearing something (auditory learners), by reading or writing
down information (read/write learners) and by touching andmanipulating something (kinesthetic learners). Thus, there is no“correct” order to the list above. This is also important toremember because as teachers we should try to incorporate avariety of different techniques that will help students that learn
in different ways. That being said, the majority of teachers who
have answered this question in my workshops come up with anorder similar to the one shown below.

2.1.2 Most effective in-class activities for the majority oflearners__1__ Teaching others__2__ Practice doing__3__ Discussing__4__ Seeing a demonstration__5__ Watching a video__6__ Reading__7__ Listening
Again, I will stress that if you ordered the way you learn
differently from the list provided above, you are not incorrect.
You just have a different learning style to the majority of32

learners. For example, if you have selected “Reading” as the mosteffective way of learning, you are probably an active reader, who
is always asking yourself questions that help you to stay engaged
with the text. As for myself, “Reading” would come low on my list
because my mind wanders as I read. We can think much fasterthan we can read meaning that the possibility of our minds
taking a detour is ever present. When I read, I often find myself
stopping and having to go back because I can’t remember what I
had just read.
It is understandable why pedagogical practices in higher
education have not changed much over the years. Until recently,
very little emphasis has been placed on the actual art of teachingespecially in large research institutions where research is themain, if not only, emphasis. This is beginning to change, but theinstitutions that stress improvement of teaching are few. With
little in the way of help with teaching and few faculty reachingout for help now that it is available, faculty have relied on theway they were taught, the way they learned best, the way they
believe they learn best, or familiarity and comfort to guide theirteaching practices. While this has been shown through a wide
variety of research, Cox (2014) synthesizes this research
extremely well. However, there are flaws with all of these.
Because of this situation, the majority of teaching remains in the
traditional lecture format, which is the least effective.
If you look at the list of activities above more globally, you candivide them into two distinct categories: Active (1-3) and Passive(4-7). The “Active” activities require the students to do something,while the passive ones have them just receiving information.
This shows that, intuitively, we are aware of the most effective
ways of learning.
33

2.2 Teacher-centered/Student-centeredResearch also supports our intuition. In summarizing theextensive research in this area, Felder & Brent (2016) state, “Of
all instructional methods, nonstop lecturing is the most common, theeasiest, and least effective. Studies show that most students cannot stay
focused throughout a lecture.” One such study by Bunce et al. (2010)
showed through student self-reporting that students’ attention
wandered the most in lectures vs. classes that used clicker
questions and classes that used demonstrations.
These research articles along with numerous others show thebenefits of engaging our students rather than spoon-feedingthem information. Based on educational research on goodteaching and learning in colleges and universities, Chickering &Gamson (1987) developed the following list of best practices.
Good practice in undergraduate education
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Encourages contact between students and faculty.
Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students.
Encourages active learning.
Gives prompt feedback.
Emphasizes time on task.
Communicates high expectations.
Respects diverse talents and ways of learning.

Figure 9:9. Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (Chickering &Gamson, 1987)
Although the list above is over thirty years old, thesepractices have withstood the test of time, and thus, best teachingpractices have moved from a teacher-centered approach to a3434

more student-centered approach where Active Learning (AL) is thefocus in the classroom.
There are various definitions of AL, but the one provided by
the University of Michigan on their homepage resonated with me.
It states, “Active Learning is a process whereby students engage
in activities, such as reading, writing, discussion, or problem
solving that promote analysis, synthesis and evaluation of classcontent.” For me this emphasizes a few things about AL that I
think are important to remember. Firstly, that although many
people associate AL with group-oriented activities, AL can also
be achieved individually as “reading, writing” would suggest. In
addition, this definition also stresses the need to use information
in someway with the clause, “…that promote analysis, synthesis
and evaluation of class content.”

2.3 Bloom’s Taxonomy
It is the latter part of the definition provided by the
University of Michigan that brings us to the importance ofBloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956). Bloom’s Taxonomy is merely aclassification of cognition, or thinking, into levels of complexity.
However, it is important because it can help teachers design
appropriate activities for students so that the students will beable to meet the course objectives and identify skills from thesimplest to the most difficult. In its original form, the six levelsof the taxonomy were represented using the following nouns:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, andevaluation. The wording was changed from nouns to verbs toshow the more active nature of the various levels, and areordering of the two most complex classifications of thetaxonomy was performed by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001).
35

The new classification used the wording that follows: remembering,understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. It is therevised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy that I will use throughout
this text. While Bloom’s Taxonomy is usually represented in atriangular shape as shown below with the least complex at thebottom and the most complex at the top, it should be noted that
this visual representation does not signify one level being any
more important than another. Every class will most likely wantto encompass all of the levels at some point since having thenecessary lower order thinking skills are necessary in order to
use this information for higher level thinking skills to beundertaken.

Figure 10: Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
In each category within Bloom’s Taxonomy, a variety of verbs
can be used to elicit the desired level of thinking that the teacher
would like an activity to elicit from the students. “Lower Order
Thinking Skills” refers to the categories that take less mental
processing and can lead to only surface learning. Surface
learning is often apparent when students cram for tests. They

36

keep the information in short-term memory long enough to callit forth for a test, but the knowledge disappears afterwards. “High
Order Thinking Skills” are those cognitive levels where mental
processes are put to work when students are asked to dosomething with the knowledge. This leads students to move that
information into long-term memory and makes it available foruse much further into the future. Below are listed some of theverbs associated with each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy along withhow these verbs might be incorporated into a question to elicit
the type of cognitive activity the instructor desires.
Below are listed some of the verbs associated with each levelof Bloom’s Taxonomy along with how these verbs might beincorporated into a question to elicit the type of cognitive activity
the instructor desires (For example: Pohl, 2000; Decker &Davidson, 2006; etc.).

2.3.1 Remembering - Recalling or recognizing specific information
Verbs that can be used to elicit this level of cognitive activity
include the following: describe, list, label, recall, name, find, identify,
and select.
Some activities that these verbs could be used with may
include: making a timeline of events, listing items from a story
or demonstration, creating a list of items students remember
from a previous lecture/demonstration/video, and making a chart
showing specific aspects of something.
Possible question and sentence forms• How would you describe…?
• Can you list four of the most important factors…?
• In the diagram below, label the parts of the…
• Can you recall the…?

37• Name the five steps to…
• Find the five… and identify each by name for your partner.
• Please select the most important factor for…

2.3.2 Understanding - Comprehending given information
Verbs that can be used to elicit this level of cognitive activity
include the following: explain, interpret, classify, paraphrase,summarize, compare, and infer.
Some activities that these verbs could be used with may
include: explaining the reason for something, interpreting achart or graph, outlining the important features of something,classifying a collection into specific components, summarizing astory or lecture, and providing examples.
Possible question and sentence forms• Can you explain what is happening in the experiment/
video/diagram?
• Interpret what is represented in the chart/graph.
• How would you classify the kind of…?
• How could you rephrase the main message of the…?
• Provide a summary of the…
• How would you compare and contrast this… (experiment/story)
to... (the one we did last week/the previous one)
• What can you infer about what will happen next based on
previous activities we have done in class?

2.3.3 Applying - Using information to achieve something

Verbs that can be used to elicit this level of cognitive activity

include the following: use, apply, carry out, execute, and implement.
Some activities that these verbs could be used with may
include: demonstrating something, illustrating a process,performing an activity, simulating a situation, and presenting
the process and results.
38

Possible question and sentence forms• Can you provide examples of…?
• How would you use… to do…?
• Can you make use of the facts to…?
• Apply what you have learned in today’s lecture to design…
• In what way would you implement an experiment to take into
account…?

2.3.4 Analyzing - Separating information into components
Verbs that can be used to elicit this level of cognitive activity

include the following: analyzing, attributing, outlining, organizing,
comparing, deconstructing, and integrating.

Some activities that these verbs could be used with may
include: analyzing a chart or graph, outlining the important
aspects, integrating multiple sources of information into a report,
and attributing information to specific categories.
Possible question and sentence forms• How would you compare certain ideas or people?
• Can you attribute the different parts of… and organize themaccording to importance?
• What evidence can you find for…?
• What is the relationship between the first three topics we
discussed?
• What motive is there to…?

2.3.5 Evaluating - Judging the value of something (ideas, methods,
materials)
Verbs that can be used to elicit this level of cognitive activity

include the following: evaluating, judging, critiquing, checking, testing,hypothesizing, and detecting.

Some activities that these verbs could be used with may
include: creating criteria to judge, debating an issue, evaluating

39

the merits/demerits of some research, and critiquing the effortsof other students’ presentations.
Possible question and sentence forms• How would you justify…?
• Make a judgment about…
• Which is better, to… or to…? Explain.
• What information would you use to support your view?
• How would you rate the…?
• Determine the pros and cons of doing…

2.3.6 Creating - Developing an original idea/creative thinking
Verbs that can be used to elicit this level of cognitive activity

include the following: creating, producing, constructing, designing,
inventing, making and planning.

Some activities that these verbs could be used with may
include: creating an advertisement, planning for an event,constructing a portfolio, inventing a new game, or producing a
new story.
Possible question and sentence forms• What would you do to improve…?
• Can you think of an alternative to…?
• What could be done to eliminate the negative effects of…?
• How would you test…?
• Design a…
• Create a similar story with different characters.

A useful graphic, “Bloom’s wheel,” which provides easy reference forteachers to create activities at each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy canbe found at the following website: Bloom’s Wheel (Johns Hopkins Whiting School of Engineering)https://goo.gl/KNPFSP

40

2.3.7 Examples of Bloom’s Taxonomy
In an effort to make the idea of developing questions at
different cognitive levels easier to understand, two examples areprovided below. The first is based on a common aspect of society
today, Twitter, that almost everyone is familiar with. The second
is from the natural sciences.
As can be seen in the example in Figure 12, by using the verbs
that are associated with different levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy,
the teacher can create questions that target specific cognitive
categories using the same information.
Another example regarding the solar system: Using Bloom’s Taxonomy in Science (Lesson Planet)
https://goo.gl/6tL2bV

41

Figure 11: 22 Ways to Use Bloom’s Taxonomy with Twitter. Source: Aditi
Rao (2013). TeachByte, March 25, 2013.
Accessed at: https://goo.gl/dEE7wf (on November 8, 2017).

42

Bloom’s Taxonomy and Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale(TCIS)- Remembering:

What are the six intensity classifications of the Tropical Cyclone
Intensity Scale (TCIS)?

- Understanding:Which TCIS level would a storm fulfilling the necessary criteria for atropical cyclone and having sustained wind speeds of 55 knots beclassified as?

- Applying:

Look at the data for a weather system, what (if any) classification
should it receive on the TCIS and why?

- Analyzing:

Compare and contrast the storm data provided with the six main
requirements for tropical cyclones. Do you believe there is a highlikelihood of a tropical cyclone developing? Why or why not?

- Evaluating:

You have been given the data and forecast made from that data for atyphoon. Critique the forecast based on the data provided.

- Creating:From the data sets provided, determine the typhoons path andpredicted intensity for a weather forecast

Figure 12: Examples of Questions based on Bloom’s Taxonomy

2.4 Outcome Statements
Using Bloom’s Taxonomy, the teacher can clearly describe
what he or she wants the students to accomplish in the class. For
most teachers, merely remembering the information is not thegoal, but rather using the information to accomplish somethingsuch as applying, analyzing, or creating, is the desired outcome. To
ensure that the teacher and the students are focused on what theteacher wants to accomplish in the class, the teacher needs towrite clear course objectives that will appear in the course
syllabus. It is now common to write course objectives starting43

with the phrase below to put the focus of the class on the students
and what they should be able to do with the information
presented.
“By the end of this course, student will be able to …”
Some examples of clear course objectives are provided below.
[Example 1]
By the end of this course, you will have an understanding of chemicals
and chemical transformations and their role in our society andeconomy. You will be able to analyze whether or not a
chemical/chemical product is “green” and sustainable or not. You’ll beable to make recommendations on how chemicals and chemical
products can be improved to be greener.
From: Yale Courses, Introduction to Green Chemistry (Paul Anastas)
Available at: https://goo.gl/v9V3PN (Accessed on 11/10/2017)[Example 2]
Learning Objectives:

Upon successful completion of 3.091SC, students will haveaccomplished the following general learning objectives.

General• Predict the properties and interactions of chemical substancesby understanding their composition at the atomic level, making
connections to structure, bonding, and thermodynamics asnecessary.
• Determine and apply principles of materials
science (specifically microstructure design and selection) to theselection of materials for specific engineering applications.
• Assess the quality of text and graphics in textbooks and otherpublished sources, and understand the advantages andlimitations of different models proposed to explain eachconcept.
• Understand and identify the similarities and differences among
important classes of materials including glasses, metals,
polymers, biomaterials, and semiconductors.
44

*Note: For this course, more specific objectives are also provided and canbe found on the following website. From: MIT 3.091 Introduction to Solid
State Chemistry, Fall 2010. Accessible at: https://goo.gl/QS6VGz
Video accessible at: https://goo.gl/5JyrkH

2.5 Curricular Alignment

Having clear course goals that express what the teacher

expects students will be able to do once they have finished thecourse will help dictate the activities that need to be done in class
to ensure that students can meet the objectives and theassessments set forth by the teacher. These activities will give
students practice, which is an essential component to learning.
This is referred to as constructive alignment, or curriculumalignment. A visual representation of this process is provided
below.

Figure 13: Curricular Alignment Diagram (Based on Biggs, 2003)
Two key aspects of constructive alignment are: 1) Learners areconstructing meaning by taking part in relevant activities, and 2) The
teacher is facilitating learning by aligning the outcomes with theclassroom activities and the assessments for the class. Teachers andstudents have different perspectives when viewing a class. A
teacher usually writes the learning objectives, followed by the45

activities, and lastly designs the assessments. These assessments
may even be designed later in the term right before the quiz ortest is given. However, there is a danger in approaching course
design in this way. It could cause the instructor’s assessments tonot be aligned with the overall goals of the course. It may be
helpful for the instructor to look at the course from the students’perspective (as seen below) when addressing course design(Biggs, 2003).

Figure 14: Teacher vs. Student Perspectives of Approaching a Class
Students first of all look at what the assessments in the classwill be and decide on what activities they will do to meet those
assessments most effectively.
A perfect example of what happens when a system is notaligned is English language education in Japan. Many people
question why, after six years of English language education, themajority of the students entering university are unable tocommunicate effectively in even the most basic conversations inEnglish. While there are likely a variety of factors at play, themajor one is the misalignment between MEXT’s stated goals andobjectives and assessments.

46

When compared with other countries, Japan ranks toward
the bottom in English proficiency. This fact leaves many baffledwhen they consider the amount of time students spend on
English language studies. Mulligan (2005, p.33) states,“Japanese students study 3-5 hours a week or more, anywherefrom 6 to 10 years, yet Japan has one of the lowest levels ofEnglish proficiency of any developed country in the world.”
MEXT has also shown concern about this issue since the late1980s when it placed importance on communicative ability. They
addressed this issue in part by starting the Assistant Language
Teacher (ALT) program, which hires native-English speakers towork with the English teachers in junior high schools and highschools. In 2004, Samimy & Kobayashi (2004, p.246) indicatedthat MEXT was emphasizing the importance of Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) activities in the classroom.
While MEXT is trying to make changes to the curriculum tomake the classes more communicative, the ultimate assessment
the stakeholders are focused on are the entrance examinations
for high school and university. The Center Test along with the
majority of entrance examinations into university do not haveany communicative aspects to them, rather the students are
required to know vocabulary and grammar for reading,translation, and writing. Thus, the stakeholders (the students,
the parents, the teachers, and the school), all of whom areaffected in some fashion by the students’ results on these
examinations, are focused on preparing for the entrance
examinations.

47

2.6 Benefits of Active Learning
Because we intuitively understand that learning for the
majority of students is accomplished better through active rather
than passive classroom activities, a fact that is also extensively
supported through research in SoTL, and our objectives in classtend to be on the more complex cognitive skills, a move has takenplace in education over the years from a traditional, teachercentered classroom where lecturing was the sole activity to amore student-centered classroom in which students are required
to be more active in their learning.
The benefits of incorporating Active Learning into theclassroom are clear through numerous studies and have been
enumerated in Prince (2004). These benefits include improved:1) Attention in class
A generally accepted believe in education is that students
can only concentrate for 15-20 minutes before their minds
begin to wander (Wankat, 2002; Hartley & Davies, 1978).
While various researchers have brought the length of time
students can concentrate into question, both teachers andstudents agree that staying engaged in a lecture becomes
more and more difficult over time. Common sense shouldtell us that a person will lose his/her ability to stay engaged
in any activity, especially a passive one, over an extended
period of time. By interjecting variety in the form of Active
Learning at intervals throughout a lecture, the teacher isbreaking from routine and bringing the students’ focus
back.

48

2) Student/Faculty interaction
The more students have an opportunity to interact with
their instructors, the more comfortable they will be talking
with their instructors. As mentioned earlier, students
value a teacher who is approachable and who they feel they
can talk with and ask questions of. Later in this handbook,the importance of building community in the classroom will
be explored. A key factor in helping students feel they areappreciated and valued, both of which foster this feeling ofcommunity, is their relationship with their instructor.
3) Student/Student interaction
Giving students the opportunity to talk with a number of
their classmates helps them not only build theirunderstanding of the material but also build relationshipsthat can help them throughout their studies at theuniversity. Both the relationships they have with faculty
and students alike helps students feel that they are part ofa community. It cannot be overstated how important thisis. “Retention studies conducted over the last two decades

in higher education suggest that one of the most crucial
factors in helping students complete their studies iscreating an atmosphere of community” (McGlynn, 2001,

p.55).
4) Academic Achievement
A growing number of studies (Desauliers et al., 2011; Hake,
1998; Redish et al., 1997) show that by incorporating Active
Learning into a more traditional lecture-style classstudents retain the information better and thus scorebetter on tests.
495) Attitude toward the subject and thus motivation to learn
As one would expect, with success comes an improvementin the way one looks at things and a belief that one cansucceed in the future.
6) Interpersonal/Teamwork skills
Havingroles

andunderstanding

the

rules

and

responsibilities the team must function under are key
factors identified in teams that perform well. Giving
students practice forming teams, and deciding on theleader and other key roles helps them see the importanceof these aspects of teams and be able to apply thisframework to other teamwork outside of the classroom.
The very act of working in a team gives them practice withinterpersonal skills and conflict resolution.
7) Communication skills
Being able to communicate effectively is very much related
to the interpersonal skills mentioned above. Students cangain practice making themselves understood through thepair and group work often associated with Active Learning.
8) Self-esteem
When students are actively constructing meaning in a
student-centered environment, they can more readily seethat they are capable. Active Learning allows them to build
not only their knowledge but also their skill in applyingthat knowledge. Wilke (2003) points out that with thedevelopment of these two aspects, students are likely tofeel confident which also leads to being more motivated.

509) Level of anxiety
Again, the idea of community building comes into play. As
students get to know their instructors and other students
in the class better and also understand the supportive
nature of a well-designed student-centered class, their
comfort level in the class improves dramatically. It
becomes a friendly environment rather one that is an
unknown quantity.
10) Class attendance
When students can perceive that they are valued as amember of a community and they are engaged actively intheir own learning, they are more likely to look forward toattending class rather than dreading it.
11) Understanding of professional environment
Part of the higher education experience is gaining maturity
and understanding of responsibility as working membersof society. Practice giving presentations, working in groups,
critically thinking about topics, and debating those topics
are all skills that apply directly to their working lives after
university.
While all of these things are attainable when Active Learning
is implemented effectively, frustration for the teacher and thestudents can be the outcome when AL is not done well. For Active
Learning to succeed, students need to be given enoughinformation so that they understand why the teacher is having
them undertake such activities and so that they can carry out thetask efficiently and effectively.

51

It is well documented in SoTL research that the more
information students are given the better they will perform.

Robert Diamond in the forward of Grunert O’brien et al. (2008,p.xi) “The Course Syllabus: A Learning-Centered Approach (2nd

Edition)” states, “The research on teaching and learning is

consistent: the more information you provide your students
about the goals of a course, their responsibilities, and the criteria
you will use to evaluate their performance, the more successful
they will be as students and the more successful you will be as ateacher.” While this quotation is referring specifically to syllabus

design, it holds true for classroom activities. Thus, teachers
should provide students with a detailed syllabus at the beginningof the term that includes most of, if not all of, the categories listed
below. However, the teacher should also provide detailed
explanation of activities for the students especially if an activity
is new.

2.7 Student-centered Syllabus

The statements below regarding syllabus design may very

well go against our beliefs of what a syllabus should be because
our institutions often dictate what our syllabi should look like fora course syllabus book and online course syllabus guide, which
are designed to help students when picking a course. I view these
institutional guides as skeletal outlines of what the students
actually need to know for my class and, thus, give the studentsmuch more detailed information when they arrive in my class on
the first day. In order to provide some perspective on the
difference in what is required by the institution and what should
be on a syllabus, below is an example of a class syllabus provided
in the course catalogue at one of the institutions where I teach.
52

53

Figure 15: Example of Syllabus for University Use
This is followed by a description of what actually a studentcentered syllabus could contain, and examples of what I provide
the students on the first day of class.

2.7.1 Student-centered syllabus contents

Below (Figure 16) is a list, which was created from theanalysis of numerous syllabi from universities in the US that areprovided online, of the types of information that can and possibly
should be provided to students at the beginning of the class. I
encourage the reader to consult “The Course Syllabus: A

Learner-Centered Approach (2nd Ed.)” by Grunert O’brien et al.
(2008) for a much more detailed analysis of the learner-centeredsyllabus.

54

Components of a Learner-centered syllabus• Course Title• General Information – Instructor, Instructor’s office, e-mailaddress, phone number, office hours• Course Description – May include questions that guide the course• Course Requirements – What, if any, prerequisites there are• Teaching Philosophy – Your personal beliefs about teaching andlearning• Learning Outcomes – What students should be able to do uponcompletion of the course.
• Readings – What textbooks and journal articles students must
read for the course.
• Classroom policies – attendance, etiquette, what technology isallowed or not allowed in class, etc.
• Late assignments and extensions – what rules there are regarding
delays in submitting assignments• Assignments – descriptions of assignments the students willsubmit during the term
• Grades – How the students’ scores will be calculated• Academic Integrity – a statement which defines cheating andplagiarism and the penalties involved for each• Disability Accommodation Statement – How physicalimpairments will be compensated in the class• Statement of Unity and Inclusion – Ways you intend to involve
everyone equally in class• Course Calendar – The dates of the classes with corresponding
topics and assignments• Advice for students for self-regulating their learning –suggestions for studying, reviewing and succeeding in class• General information about the teacher – A personal statement
about interests and life outside of academia
Figure 16: Components of a Leaner-centered Syllabus (Grunert O’brien etal., 2008)
Since syllabi are becoming multiple-page documents with ahostof information, someteachersarecompiling

this

information into course guides and providing more immediate55

concerns of the class on a first-day handout. Depending on yourown beliefs about which format will be most effective for yourstudents, you should select whichever format works best for you.
In my own discussion-based classes, I use a short first-day
handout to give the students the basic information about theclass, which includes the teacher’s contact information, a brief
description of the class, the general guidelines for evaluation andthe course schedule. This serves as a quick reference to the topics
that will be covered in class so that they can locate the necessary
materials easily. I have included a copy of this first-day handout
below. Please note that the topic selections are not included on
the handout because students are given a choice of which topics
out of the approximately 20 that have been prepared that theywant to discuss during the term. On the first day of class, thestudents review the topic guide that they are given for the classand vote on the topics that interest them the most. The topics
that receive the most votes are the ones that are used in thecourse.

2.7.2 First-day handout example
As one can see in Figure 17, my first-day handout closely
matches the syllabus that was submitted for the syllabus book,but it contains more details about instructor contact informationand specific dates.
However, this first-day handout clearly is lacking in many of
the categories detailed above in what a student-centered syllabus
should contain.

56

Figure 17: First-day Handout Example

57

Many of these categories along with more detailed
descriptions of the students’ roles and the teacher’s role in theclass are covered in the Course Guide that can be accessed at thefollowing website: Discussion-based 4-Skills English Course Guide (Daniel Eichhorst)
https://goo.gl/FGosEv

Useful information regarding syllabus writing and examples of studentcentered syllabi can be found at the following websites: Syllabus Sample (4Faculty.org) https://goo.gl/HFazDu
 Faculty Roles and Responsibilities (Kent State University)
https://goo.gl/vsSRj2
 History 185: Survey of Middle East History (by Dr. Stephen Cory)
https://goo.gl/Wrnvnx
 Syllabus Example – Classroom Course (University of Hawaii Honolulu
Community College) https://goo.gl/G111vM
 Writing a Syllabus (Cornell University) https://goo.gl/8dMEjX

2.7.3 Syllabi expressions and vocabulary
In an effort to help instructors understand importantterminology a list of words and expressions that might appear ona syllabus or may come up when students ask you about testingor grading for a course have been compiled. Match the terms on
the left with the definitions on the right. The terms (1-31) on theleft side of the page have been repeated on the second page forthe reader’s convenience. The answers are provided at the bottomof the second page.

58

1. Make-up policy
2. Grading on a curve
3. Rules of conduct
4. Supplementary readings
5. Rubric
6. Comprehensive exam
7. Objective questions
8. Prerequisite
9. Class roster
10. Open-book test
11. Closed-book test
12. Subjective questions
13. Outcomes
14. Participation
15. Excused absence
16. Review session
17. Elective
18. Extra credit
19. Drop
20. Summative assessment
21. Criterion-referenced
22. Take-home test
23. Norm-referenced
24. Accommodation
for disabilities
25. Intellectual integrity
26. Academic misconduct
27. Audit
28. Tentative schedule
29. Formative assessment
30. Pass/Fail31. Due datea. _____ A course that must be completed before amore advanced course can be taken.
b. _____ A course that is not required but can betaken to fulfill the number of hours needed tograduate.
c. _____ A test/assessment given during the course
to check on student progress on an assignment
before completion.
d. _____ The day and time when an assignment mustbe submitted to the teacher.
e. _____ Following academic standards and rules ofgiving credit for information one uses in theiracademic writing and speeches.
f. _____ An examination for which students can lookat their notes or textbook to help them answer thequestions.
g. _____ Taking a course without officially enrolling or
getting credit.
h. _____ A policy that takes account of students who
are at a disadvantage in the classroom due tophysical problems or handicaps.
i. _____ A situation when a student has permission
or a valid excuse to not attend class and to do anyof the work they missed while they were gone.
j. _____ A list of criteria, created by the teacher, thatspecifies what standards students need to meet inorder to get a specific grade.
k. _____ An exam that students do outside of classand submit at a later date.
l. _____ A student’s withdraw from a class bycanceling his/her registration
m. _____ A non-letter grade for completing a course
which is not included in the student’s grade point
average (GPA)
n. _____ A student’s grade is based on a normaldistribution curve, or how well they do comparedto other students in the class, not on set criteria.
o. _____ A test taken in class without the use of
textbooks or notes.
p. _____ Guidelines for students on how they should
behave in class, or what is appropriate andinappropriate in class.
q. _____ A list of all of the students in a class.

591. Make-up policy
1.
2. Make-up
Grading on
policya curve2.
3. Grading
Rules of on
conduct
a curve4.
3. Supplementary
Rules of conduct
readings
5.
4. Rubric
Supplementary readings
5.
6. Rubric
Comprehensive exam
6.
7. Comprehensive
Objective questions
exam
7.
8. Objective
Prerequisite
questions9.
8. Class
Prerequisiteroster9.
10. Class
Open-bookroster test
11.
10. Closed-book
Open-book test
test
11.
12. Closed-book
Subjective questions
test
13.
12. Outcomes
Subjective questions
14.
13. Participation
Outcomes
14.
15. Participation
Excused absences
15.
16. Excused
Review session
absences
16.
17. Review
Electivesession
18.
17. Extra
Electivecredit18.
19. Extra
Drop credit
19.
20. Drop
Summative Assessment
20.
21. Summative
Criterion-referenced
Assessment
21.
22. Criterion-referenced
Take-home test
23.
22. Norm-referenced
Take-home test
24.
23. Accommodation
Norm-referenced
fordisabilities
25.
24. Intellectual
Accommodation
integrity
26. Academic
for disabilities
misconduct
27.
25. AuditIntellectual integrity
28.
26. Tentative
Academic Schedule
misconduct
29.
27. Formative
Audit
Assessment
30.
28. Pass/Fail
Tentative Schedule31.
29. Due
Formative
Date Assessment
30. Pass/Fail31. Due Dater. _____ Additional credit students can earn by doing
extra work for a course.
s. _____ A set of rules that stipulates when students
will be allow to do work that they missed or to turnin work late.
t. _____ A list, which may possibly change in the
future, of the class meetings with what will be doneon each day.
u. _____ A test that comes at the end of the term, or
possibly a unit, that covers material for the entire
period.
v. _____ A test that covers all of the material
discussed in the class up to that point.
w. _____ A test on which the questions have one
correct answer and will be marked either right orwrong.
x. _____ A test on which the teacher must makejudgments as to how correct an answer is andpartial credit is often given.
y. _____ Printed materials that the students are notrequired to read, but the instructor recommends
for additional study.
z. _____ A student’s activity and involvement in thecourse as judged by the instructor.
aa. _____ A process of comparing students to peers
for the assigning grades and is the basis for curving
grades.
bb. _____ Stated goals about what the teacher
expects the students to be able to do uponcompletion of the course.
cc. _____ An optional extra class for students thatwant to go over material that will be covered on atest.
dd. _____ Behavior that does not follow the rules ofthe school or the class. It is also referred to as
cheating or plagiarism.
ee. _____ The assignment of grades based on a
specific set of criteria.

Answers: a-8, b-17, c-29, d-31, e-25, f-10, g-27, h-24, i-15, j-5, k-22, l-19, m-30, n-2, o11, p-3, q-9, r-18, s-1, t-28, u-20, v-6, w-7, x-12, y-4, z-14, aa-23, bb-13, cc-16, dd-26,
ee-21

6060

Along with explaining activities in detail, students need to
become accustomed to activities that will take place, especiallywhen the activities are unfamiliar. With the discussion classintroduced above, students are given a model on the first day ofclass so they understand how the discussions should proceed andthe role of each person in the group.
Active Learning often involves some type of pair or group
work and many first-year Japanese college students have had
little experience with this type of classroom activity. Thus, thestudents should get used to this style of education from the very
first day of class. This means getting comfortable with group
work and getting to know other students in the class. McGlynn(2001, p.55) points out that “...we need to pay attention to morethan how we best present course material.” “Effective teachers
create an atmosphere of trust and warmth between themselves
and their students.” This idea comes from retention studies thatindicate an atmosphere of community is one of the most criticalfactors in helping students to persevere throughout their studies.
“Community” refers to creating an environment where thestudents feel like valued members by the teacher and otherstudents in the class. Thus, much of the focus in education has
shifted to the affective aspects of the class.

2.8 Community Building

In order to build a community in the classroom, interaction

between the teacher and the students and among the students inthe class must take place. The idea behind community building
is to have students feel as though they are a part of the entire
class and feel a connection with the other students and theteacher in class. This can only be achieved if the students have61

an opportunity to interact with everyone in class not just a selectfew members. Thus, the way the teacher creates the groupingsin class is vitally important to whether a community is actual
built or not.
The interaction between students must be organized byassigning students to pairs or groups. All too often teachers who
have little experience with group work will form groups in what
they see as the easiest, least time consuming and least disruptive
way, which is having the students talk with other students nearthem. The teacher might say, “Please turn to the person next toyou and discuss…” However, this is problematic because there
are only four different people (the person in front, the person to

the left, the person to the right, and the person behind them)whom any one student can interact with in the class. In addition
to the limited number of people to interact with, students tend to
sit with people they already know when they first enter a class.
Therefore, having students interact with people near them often
does not help them meet others or get different opinions to theones they may already be exposed to.
Of course, in very large classes, the dynamics of having
everyone move make grouping within the class limited, so theteacher must stick with the method of students talking withpeople near them. However, for most teachers, our classes are ofmore manageable sizes, which permit more creativity with groupformation. I have personally used the methods outlined below
with classes of up to 50 students as long as the classroom is large
enough to allow rearranging to take place.

622.8.1 Methods for forming groups
First of all, the teacher must decide how many students pergroup are desirable. I, personally, like groupings of three because
the students can share information relatively quickly. The
methods described below can also be used for forming pairs ifthat is what the teacher prefers.
For the purposes of the examples below, we will imagine that
we have a class of 40 students that need to be grouped for classdiscussions. Since I want to group students in threes as much as
possible, I will divide the number of students by 3. This gives me
13 groups with one student left over. Thus, one of my groupings
will have to have four people. These thirteen groups can beformed in a number of ways, but two quick and easy methods forgetting students into randomly assigned groups are detailed
below.
Numbering Method
Since there are thirteen groups, the students can benumbered off in a random order from one to thirteen threetimes with the last student receiving the number one making
group number one the odd group with four members. The
teacher should show the position of each group in theclassroom by writing the numbers of the groups on theblackboard in the arrangement that is the most desirable. The
teacher should also indicate with a diagram on the blackboard
or a physical demonstration how the desks should bearranged in each configuration (3-member groups and 4member groups). If this is not done, students will do the least
work possible and just move their chairs making for odd
speaking arrangements and difficulty taking notes. My own

63preference for grouping students is shown in the diagram in
Figure 18.

Three-Person Grouping

Four-person Grouping

Figure 18: Grouping Configurations
Example Explanation from the Teacher“For the next activity, we will be talking in groups of three. However,since we have 40 students here today, one group will have four people.
There will be 13 groups with group 1 having four members and the rest
having three. I will give you a number from one to thirteen. Please
remember the number you are given. When everyone has a number,
you should group yourselves
according to the group numbers
listed on the board.”

Figure 19: Groupings by Numbers forStudent Reorganization
64

Using Playing Cards
Another method for grouping students is by using astandarddeckofplaying

cards.

Sincethedesiredconfiguration is three person groups. The teacher can use
three suits from the deck of cards, for example diamond, clubs
and hearts. With the example of 40 students, one extra card
(possibly the joker) could be inserted to make 40 cards. The
cards are then distributed to each student. The teacher canthen instruct the students to group according to the card they
are holding, for example 10s or kings. The groupings can beindicated on the blackboard much as in the diagram shown
below, but card names instead of numbers will need to be
written. One benefit of using this method is that the students
have the card in their possession, so there is never a problemof anyone forgetting which group he or she is in.
Example Explanation from the Teacher“For the next activity, we will be talking in groups of three. However,since we have 40 students here today, one group will have four people.
There will be 13 groups with group 1 having four members and the rest
having three. I will give you a playing card. You will receive a heart,
diamond, club or a joker. Once everyone has a card we will groupaccording to what appears on the face of your card. For example,
the aces plus the joker will
be group 1, the twos will
be group 2, etc. Use thediagramontheblackboard to determine
where your group islocated.”Figure 20: Groupings by Playing Cards

65

If you would like to have the students regroup during theclass period, just repeat the process above to form other randomly
assigned groups. As I alluded to earlier, randomly assigninggroups can lead to students not having a chance to interact withevery class member or students from the first group or pairmeeting up in the third pairing or there after if you changegroupings more often.
While the way the teacher puts students into groups mightseem like a minor or troublesome detail, I am always surprised
at how well received it is by the students, especially first-year
students. These students often don’t know anyone when theyfirst come to class and are shy and reserved because of theunfamiliar situation. These types of groupings allow them tomeet the vast majority of their classmates, which helps them tobuild connections that assist them even outside the classroom
and with other classes.
I have even had students express regret that they hadn’t hada chance to talk with all of the members of the class. Since
random assignment does not ensure that everyone has a chance
to talk with everyone else, I began changing the way I assigned
students to groups toward the end of the class.
To deal with this problem, I have incorporated a couple ofways to make groupings less random. I often use these grouping
methods at the end of the semester for some variety. First of all,if the students are working in pairs, the leaders can be required
to move back one seat, while their partner remains behind. The
person who remained behind is the then the leader for the next
discussion. When it is time to change partners again, the leaders
are told to move forward (the opposite direction from the lastgroup), thus ensuring the original pairings are moving in66

opposite directions from one another so that they will not meetagain. This rotation system can be used for however many
pairings the teacher desires without the fear of students meeting
previous discussion partners again. If an odd number of students
attend the class, one group can consist of three people. One of thestudents from this group should be considered the odd man out
and that person can be treated differently than the otherstudents who rotate in pairs. This “odd man out” can be rotatedamong groups so that he/she does not have the same speaking
partners. The language a teacher could use to introduce thisgrouping system is presented below.
Teacher: We will change our way of grouping today to ensure thateveryone talks with different people. I would like the leader of each pair
to please stand up. The people who are standing will move back one
place and the people at the back of each row will move to the front of
the next row over. The person in the back corner will move to the front
corner on the opposite side of the room. The person who did not move
will be the leader of the new pairing.

Teacher

Figure 21: Pair Rotation Method (Part 1)67After the discussion that follows the next grouping, the following
can be used:
Teacher: We will change groups the same way we did last time.
Therefore, the leader of the last group should stand. However, insteadof moving back to make your new pairing, you will move forward withthe person at the front of each row moving to the back of the next row
over. The person at the front of the last row will move to the back cornerof the row on the opposite side of the room.

Teacher

Figure 21: Pair Rotation Method (Part 2)
When the students are working in small groups of three orfour, the above mentioned rotation system does not work. Thus,in order to give students the opportunity to speak with students
they may not have otherwise been able to meet, I have theleaders of the groups stay behind and instruct the other students
to find a new group where they have not talked to or had few
opportunities to discuss with the leader. This gives the students
a chance to meet up with students they do not know well andhave not had a chance to talk with. A teacher can use thelanguage below to group students in this way.

68

Teacher: To give you a chance to talk with classmates, you may
have had little opportunity to talk with in class, we will do ourgroupings a bit differently this time. I would like the leaders to staywhere they are. The other members of the group should move toanother group where the leader is someone they have not talked tovery much in this class.

2.8.2 Assigning roles within groups
Another issue with groups is assigning roles within the group.
If the teacher just assigns a task, such as answering a question,and tells the students to talk about it in their groups, confusionand silence are usually what follows. When students are
unfamiliar with one another, they are reluctant to take the leadand organize the group; thus, it is up to the teacher to do so. In
my classes, a leader is decided through a game of “rock, scissors,
paper” where the loser of the game becomes the leader of thegroup. The teacher may also want to assign a note taker whose
responsibility is to report on what the members of his/her group
discussed. An example of the wording you might use to get
students to perform this task is provided below.
Teacher: Now that you are in groups, we need to decide on who willbe the leader for the group. In this class, we will use the lucky loser
leader system. Please play a game of “rock, scissors, paper”(jyanken) with your group members and the loser of the game willbe the leader. The person who comes in second to last will be thenote taker.

After the leader has been decided, the teacher can say something
like:
Teacher: The leaders role will be to ask the question of all of thegroup members and get their responses. The leader will then also
answer the question for the rest of the group. The note taker will
write a brief description of what everyone else replies and report on
this to the rest of the class after your discussions.

692.8.3 Issues related to interaction and group work
As the classroom becomes more interactive, problems willarise that the teacher will have to deal with. One issue that
invariably arises when asking students to respond to questions
posed in class is having students who are overly active wanting
to answer every question and other students who are passive andreluctant to answer questions even when specifically requested
to do so. The teacher must have strategies they can use to deal
with these problems.
Dealing with overly eager and passive students
The teacher might emphasize at the beginning of classthat everyone is expected to participate in class discussions,and therefore the teacher will try to call on all of the students
during class discussions. By setting the rules for engagement
at the very beginning of the class, it will be easier to stop
overly eager students from dominating the discussions and to
get passive students to more willingly participate. By making
your expectations of the class clear, students know what toexpect and can then figure out ways to adjust their behavior
to meet these expectations. The teacher might use thefollowing wording to emphasize this idea on the first day ofclass.
Teacher: It is my belief that everyone should participate equally inthe class. Therefore, I will try to call on all of the students to provide
responses when we have class discussions. Some of the students areless enthusiastic about participating than others, but we can help
each other come up with a response in our group discussions tomake the prospect of giving a response less threatening.

If problems arise after this introduction or a similar
introduction, simply say to the student:70[For overly active students]
Teacher: Thank you for your enthusiasm in class. However, please
remember that we need to give others a chance to answer in order tohelp them develop their thinking and speaking skills. I promise that you
will have a chance to answer in the near future.

[For passive students]
Teacher: Since these are not your ideas but rather ideas gathered byyour group, just use your notes to help you explain.
While each situation requires a different approach, the following websites
should provide you with some ways to help alleviate any situation thatmight arise.
 4 Ways for Dealing with Dominant Students (Teaching English in Berlin)
https://goo.gl/hx8vn4

2.8.4 Ways to build a community in the classroom
1) Begin the term with some type of icebreaker - The term “icebreaker”
refers to getting to know one another and thus breaking throughthe tension, “ice,” that often exists when one is with a group of
unfamiliar people. The activities that can be used as icebreakers
are numerous and can either focus on just getting to know one
another or can focus on the subject material of the class. I often
mix the two so that students can find commonality amongst
themselves on certain issues while the teacher can gain a bit of
information that will be helpful in organizing the class. In thissection, I will provide a few examples of different types of
icebreakers and also give websites where teachers can go for
more ideas on this topic.
Since icebreakers require students to get into groups for the
first time, the grouping method above can be used.

71

Example 1 Sharing something interesting or unusual about yourself
Teacher: In this activity, I would like you to introduce yourself by giving
your name, telling your partner where you are from, and the mostinteresting thing about your hometown. In addition, include somethinginteresting or unusual about yourself. For example, if I were introducing
myself, I would say,“My name is Todd Enslen, and I am from Charleston, Illinois in the
United States. Charleston is a very small Mid-western town of
about 20,000 people. The most interesting feature is a 30-footstatue of Abraham Lincoln. As for something unusual about myself,
my first job after graduating from college with a degree in zoology
was working on foreign fishing boats off the coast of Alaska as a
biologist.”
Now, it is your turn. Decide who will begin by playing a round of “rock,scissors, paper”. The loser will begin by introducing himself/herself basedon the information written on the board.

Note: It is best to write the list of things that you would like thestudents to talk about on the blackboard at the front of the roomor show them on a slide so that students can refer to it as they
are working. People tend to forget what they are being asked todo. In addition, you will notice in the example above that I
provided an example of how I would introduce myself. This not
only helps students to understand better how they should
introduce themselves, it also provides them with some personal
information about the teacher, which may help them to feel acloser relationship with him or her.
This can be extended into a more complex activity in a
number of ways. Below is a list of a couple of possibilities alongwith the language that might be helpful.
a. Sharing group member’s information with others: If you areplanning to do this extension activity with the students, thestudents should be informed at the very beginning that they72

should take notes about the other students in their groups
because they will have to share that information later. The
students can be regrouped by giving new numbers as
discussed earlier for ways of grouping students. Oncestudents have decided who will begin through playing “rock,scissors, paper”, the teacher should say:
Teacher: Now that you have a leader. The leader will begin byintroducing himself/herself followed by introducing the members
from the previous grouping. Members should ask questions. Oncethe leader has finished introducing the three people, the person to
the left of the leader will introduce his previous group members,
and so forth.

b. Sharing with the class: The teacher could also call on a few
students at random and ask them to introduce their groupmembers to the rest of the class. The teacher can use thefollowing language to extend this activity.
Teacher: I will now call on a few people to introduce their groupmembers. Listen carefully. If you have any questions, please speakup.

Note: If students ask questions that the speaker cannot answer
about his/her group members, the person who the question isreferring to should be asked directly. By doing this, you are
giving further opportunity for both the teacher and the students
to get to know others in the class better.
Example 2 What do you already know?
Teacher: In the next ten minutes, I would like you to introduce yourself
to your group and then explain what experience you have had so far withthe topics that will be covered in this (course/chapter/section). Someone
should take notes so that your group can report to the rest of the class.
Thus, the leader should assign someone as the note taker.
73

Teacher: Okay! Time is up. I will now ask each of the note takers to giveme a summary of what their group talked about and we can discussthese ideas further.
Below are a few links to websites that offer other ideas for icebreakeractivities for college students. A simple search of “icebreakers for college
students” on Google will provide you with numerous other possibilities.
 Icebreakers for College Students (Icebreaker Ideas)
https://goo.gl/4SYLbt
 12 Icebreakers for the College Classroom (The Ohio State University)
https://goo.gl/kU3SK6
 Pinterest: Results for a search on “大学 アイスブレーカー” (Pinterest)
https://goo.gl/TktMdp

While icebreakers are one of the first ways to start building acommunity amongst the students in the class, it is equally as
important to break the ice between the teacher and the students.
Often times, the gap between the teacher and the students
because of preconceptions the students may have about thestatus of the teacher or the unfamiliarity with the teacher can be
off putting. I have tried to alleviate this issue by devoting timeat the end of an icebreaking activity for students to ask questionsof me, their instructor. I often pose the following question to thestudents.
Teacher: Now that you know a bit about each other. I am going to give
you a chance to learn about me. Brainstorm with your group members
for two minutes to come up with a few things you would like to know
about me. At the end of the two minutes, I will ask the leader from eachgroup to ask me a question?

Many of the students will ask quite personal questions andyou can reserve the right to reject any question if it is too
personal. I generally try to turn their curiosity about me into a74

light-hearted game. If they ask me something personal, like myage, I might counter with a question like, “Well, how old do you

think I am?” before actually answering.

2) Learning students’ names - Another key to building a connection
between the teacher and the students is for the teacher to learn
the names of the students in the class and to promote otherstudents to learn the names of their peers. Students feel valued
when the teacher cares enough to try to learn their names. If you
have numerous classes or teach large introductory classes, yourimmediate reaction might be that it is impossible to learn
everyone’s name and that might be true. However, there areways in which you can help remind yourself. A few of the ways I
have done this over the years are listed below.
a. Have the students make name cards: This is my preferred
method of being able to call my students by name because I
don’t actually have to remember all of the students’ names
and it also helps the other students to know others’ names.
Because group discussion is a central component of my classand I have students form groups with different members
three times, tent cards not only help me to call students byname but they also eliminate the need for introductions
when new groups form. When I did not use name cards,
students tended to not introduce themselves, thus, making
the community building of group work less effective. They

75

would often just say“How about you?” or nod
toward the person they
were talking to rather
than use names. To
make

name

cards,

simply distribute index
cards to everyone in the

Figure 22: Name Cards

class and ask them to fold them in half lengthwise to form atent. On each side of the card, they can write their names inwhatever form you desire, just make sure to indicate how
they should write their names and any other information.
When I have them create name cards, I draw a rectangle on
the blackboard representing the card, show where thestudents should fold the card with a dashed line, write myname on the card in the appropriate place to show the nameorder that I want them to use, and have them put theirstudent numbers on the back of the cards. I also have themwrite the topic number choices they are interested in talking
about in class near their student numbers when voting on
topics. I do the last two things in this list so that I can use
their name cards as a class registration system and also
gather necessary information. At the end of the first class, I
collect the students’ name cards so that I can then create aclass roster. The cards are then returned to the students thefollowing week and they keep them in their folders from thenon.
b. Give student name tags: This is very similar to (a) but
instead of creating tent cards for their desks, the teacher can

76

print out name cards that fit into tags that pin onto clothesor have straps on them that fit over their necks. For large
classes, learning all of your students’ names is not an option.
However, you can still call them by name if they have some
type of identification card on them or near them.
c. Student ID card copies: Explain to the students that you
would like them to make a copy of their student ID cards andsubmit them in the next class so that it can help you
remember their names. Point out that this picture is for theteachers use only and that the students can cross out any
information they do not want the teacher to know. The only
information the teacher actually needs are the students’names and pictures. Once the teacher has received thesecopies, they can be organized in a folder for easy reference.
d. Seating chart: I have found it helpful in the past for
students to sit in the same seat at the beginning of class foreasy distribution of homework and learning student names.
By having students fill out a grid representing the seats inthe classroom with their names, I can easily associate nameswith faces and distribute homework before moving into
groupings. Of course, once students move into groupings, theseating chart is no longer of help. Thus, I also usually require
students to report on information that their partners havegiven by first stating their partner’s or group members’
names initially before giving their responses.
3) Engage students informally before and after classes - By going to theclass 5-10 minutes before class starts and walking around in theclass interacting with students, the teacher can help build a77

sense of camaraderie and familiarity with the students. The
students will invariably have something about them or be doing
something the teacher can comment on. For example, students
may have injuries, be working on other class assignments, or
eating lunch, which are all subjects that the teacher can ask
them about. Some common questions that I have used to strikeup a conversation with students are listed below. However, thelist of possibilities is endless.
• What happened to you? (Pointing out an injury)• You look really tired. Why?
• What is that book you are reading?
• That looks like an assignment for class. What is it about?
• What game are you playing on your smartphone?
• Are you doing anything for the school festival?
• Is that your breakfast? What is it?
• What does it say on your shirt? What does that mean?
4) Be responsive to students: Whatever the interaction with thestudents may be, the teacher needs to do things in a timely
manner to show that they value students’ time and theirconcerns.
a. Homework: The goal should always be to give feedback as
quickly as possible so that students’ misconceptions
regarding the subject matter do not have time to take root intheir minds. One of the main benefits of Active Learning isthat students are receiving immediate feedback. Thus, theyleave the classroom with a clearer, more accurate
understanding of what was covered in the class.

78

Of course, even in a classroom where Active Learning isbeing implemented to a high degree, students will haveassignments to complete outside of class to check on theirunderstanding

andprogress.

With

any

assignment

submitted to the teacher, the teacher should try to get theassignments graded and returned by the next class period if
possible. When teaching large classes, the use of teachingassistants becomes a necessity.
Talking with students over the years, I have beensurprised to learn that it is not uncommon for students not
to receive any feedback at all, not even a grade or the returnof their work, when they submit reports for class. This
makes me wonder what the point of doing the assignment
actually was since gathering information for the report was
the only possible learning that could have taken place insuch a situation. If learning and helping students to achieve
their academic goals is our main objective as teachers,
providing feedback is not an option. It is our responsibility.
b. Personal communication: With personal communication via
e-mail or any kind of messaging system, respond or post
messages as quickly as possible to acknowledge theirmessages/requests and to show attentiveness to the students.
It is also important to follow up on anything that you say
you will do in any type of personal communication. For
example, if you tell a student that you can’t give a complete
answer to a question without checking some source material,
you need to find the information and give the student a
response as quickly as possible.

795) Provide positive reinforcement - As explained earlier, how weinteract with students is important and can have a big impact on
their self-confidence and motivation in the course. By being
approachable and having a positive attitude towards thestudents, they are going to be more likely to try in the future.
Adapted from McGlynn, A. P. (2001). Successful Beginnings forcollege teaching: Engaging your students from the first day.
Madison: Atwood Publishing.
6) Give students a voice in their learning - In the typical classroom,
most, if not all, of the decisions about what will take place in theclassroom are made by the instructor. By giving students moreof a voice in their own learning, they will feel more invested in
the class. There are a few ways that I have used or have heard ofother teachers using to hand over some of their power to thestudents.
a. Students decide on the content of the class: Depending on what
you teach, it may be possible to allow the students to decideon the topics that will be discussed in the classes. In thediscussion-based English classes that I teach, a variety of
topics are prepared (usually about 20) and the students voteon which ones they would like to discuss in the class.
b. Groups form the policies adhered to in class: I have heard fromother teachers of the great success they have had with thisstrategy. On the first day of class, students are put into
groups to brainstorm rules that will be followed in the class.
The teacher may guide these discussions by giving them
topics to focus on, such as attendance, participation, the use

80

of technology, absence during tests and deductions for lateassignments. After brainstorming in groups, the teacher
calls on groups for their ideas regarding the topic areas andwrites them on the blackboard, a whole class discussion canfollow to negotiate a final agreement from everyone
regarding the rules.
Teachers have reported that students tend to be muchharsher on themselves than the teacher actually would havebeen. In addition, the rules are much easier to enforce since
the students feel there is less room for argument since theycreated the rules themselves.
c. Providing a choice of assessments: The teacher can provide
students with a choice in the way they are assessed. For
example, students may be able to write an essay on a given
topic or take a test over the material presented in class. Somestudents have test anxiety or feel they are not good at
examinations for other reasons and providing choices
regarding assignments would give especially these students
a sense of the teacher trying to give equal treatment to all of
the students in the class.

81

Chapter 3: Incorporating Active Learning into Your
your
Classroom
Active Learning activities are commonly divided into
activities that are simpler and easier to implement in theclassroom within a limited amount of time and thus likely to
succeed (Low Risk Activities) and more complex activities that
require a considerable amount of time and could span a numberof classes (High Risk Activities).
Along with the description provided above, these two types ofactivities can be further characterized as shown in the tablebelow.
Dimension

Low Risk Strategies

High Risk Strategies

Class Time Required

Relatively short

Relatively long

Degree of Structure

More structured

Less structured

Degree of Planning

Meticulously planned

Spontaneous

Subject Matter

Relatively concrete

Relatively abstract

Potential for Controversy

Less Controversial

Very Controversial

Better informed

Less informed

Familiar

Unfamiliar

Considerable

Limited

Between faculty &students

Between students

Students’ Prior
Knowledge of the
Subject
Students’ Prior
Knowledge of the
Teaching TechniqueInstructor’s Prior
Experience with the
Teaching Technique
Pattern of Interaction

Figure 23: Low Risk Activities and High Risk Activities Comparison (Bonwell& Eison, 1991, p.66)

8282

If you are new to Active Learning, it is probably best to begin
by adding some low risk activities to your usual approachinitially in order for you to become familiar and comfortable withways to engage students more actively in the classroom before
trying to make major reworks to your curriculum. By making
minor changes that may take only five or ten minutes in class,
the teacher can realize some of the benefits of Active Learning
mentioned earlier. For example, the teacher can regain theattention of the learners, which tends to wander after a mere 1015 minutes of lecture.

3.1 Low Risk Active Learning Activities
3.1.1 Introductory brainstorming (Individual/Pair/Small Group
Activity)
Many times as instructors, we enter the classroom withpreconceived notions about our students and their learning thus
far. In a traditional lecture, we may assume that they have noprior knowledge of the topic we are presenting and thus begin at
the most basic concepts. However, students often have someknowledge no matter how limited it may be. Cognitive sciencehas shown that by getting students to access the information
they already have about a topic it allows them to more easily fit
new information into the framework of knowledge they alreadyhave. Thus, giving students a chance to brainstorm in some way,
shape, or form before presenting new information in a class not
only helps the students understand better, but it also can provide
the teacher with a gauge as to how much the students alreadyknow about the material. This could help the teacher adjust whathe/she presents.

83Thus,

one

way

to

begin a class (that could
easily

tie

into

an

icebreaker)

isstudents

brainstorm.

This

be

done

individually

with

the

students

submitting

their

could

havingwriting

totheFigure 24: Concept Map

teacher, or it could then be used as part of a “think, pair, share”
activity. This could also be used prior to the beginning of eachnew section of the class. Before presenting a new topic, theteacher could give the students a few minutes to list what they
already know about the topic.
Students should be given a limited amount of time,
approximately five minutes to generate ideas. They should be
encouraged to do this in any way they see fit such as listing ideas
or creating a concept map. A diagram similar to the one above
can be used as a visual to help explain this concept if it
unfamiliar to anyone.
This activity can be introduced with the language provided
below.
Teacher: I would like to get some idea of how much everyone alreadyknows about the topics we will be discussing in this course, so on a pieceof paper we are going to brainstorm information that will be covered inthis course based on (the course title, weekly topics, …). I will give you fiveminutes to brainstorm ideas. You can do this by merely making a list on
your paper, free writing where you just write as much as possible in thetime allowed, or creating a concept map as indicated on the board. Onceyou have finished this activity, I will collect your papers and look throughthem to see what kind of base knowledge people in our class have. Thereis no need to write you names on the paper. Continue brainstorming and84

writing down ideas on your paper until I say “stop”. Okay, get out a paper
and pencil and let’s get started.

Students work for the designated time period. It is important
for the teacher to accurately stop the activity or to give extended
time if it looks like students aren’t finished at the designatedtime. Thus, if there is not a good clock in your classroom to keep
track of the time, be sure to bring a stopwatch or timer.
Teacher: Okay. Time is up. Please pass your papers to the front of the class.
I will collect them from the people in the front row. I will take a look atthese before the next class and summarize what the majority of you think
this class will cover. We will then straighten out any misconceptions andfill in the blanks.

An alternative to just collecting the papers, would be to ask
the students to share their ideas as the instructor lists them on
the board. The contributions should be accepted without
judgment and added to the expanding list. These ideas can thenbe examined, usually in a whole class discussion format.
If the teacher would like to use the students’ brainstormingin this manner, he/she can implement the whole class discussion
in the following way.
Teacher: I would like to create a list of some of the ideas, so look throughwhat you have written in the next two minutes and pick the one idea you
think is the most relevant. I will call on some students to share their ideas
after the two minutes are up.

This activity can easily be turned into a think, pair, share(described in 3.1.3) by having students get into pairs or groups
and sharing their ideas with other members of the group. If you
would like to do this, the activity described above would be the“think” portion of the task.

85

3.1.2 Note clarification (Pairs/Small Groups)
For teachers who are new to Active Learning and want togradually begin using Active Learning, this may be the easiest
way to get started. All one needs to do is pause periodically (every
20 to 30 minutes) during a lecture and give the students a few
minutes to check their notes with someone near them to makesure they noted all of the information and clearly understand theconcepts.
To implement this activity, the instructor can use thelanguage provided below.
Teacher: Let’s take a 5-minute break from the lecture. We have covered
quite a bit of material, so I would like you to make sure your notes arecomplete and that you understand them. Find someone near you andcompare what you have written down. If you are unsure of anything orneed further clarification, see if your partner can help.

The teacher has two options at this point, he/she can either
go directly back to the lecture if time is of the essence or the
instructor can address any remaining questions that thestudents might have. If possible, I would recommend using
option #2
Option 1
Teacher: All right, hopefully that provided some clarification. We needto return to the lecture now.

Option 2
Teacher: Okay! Time is up. Are there any questions that remain after
your discussion?

If one of the students does ask a question, it is best to restate thequestion for the class before answering it since the entire class86

might not have heard the question or could have misunderstoodit.
Teacher: Let me make sure I understand you correctly, you believe …
Teacher: I am not sure everyone in the class could hear you.
(student’s name) said that …

3.1.3 Think-Pair-Share (TPS) (Individual/Pair/Group Activity)

This is a relatively easy strategy to implement in a traditional

lecture style class with only a minimum level of time invested
prior to doing the activity in the classroom. While this activity
seemingly was first described in cooperative learning literature(Millis et al. 1995), it has gained popularity across thecurriculum. As the name suggests, the students will be given abrief amount of time (2-3 minutes) to think and write down someideas about a question/prompt that the teacher poses. Althoughwriting down what they are thinking does not have to be part of
the “think” phase to this exercise, having it written down will help
them remember their answers when they move to pair workwhere they will need to discuss their answers.
Teacher: We will be working with a partner in a few minutes to discuss
the question(s) that I have written on the board. However, I would like
you to spend three minutes writing down your answers on a piece of
paper so that it will be easier to discuss. Please get started. I will stop
you in three minutes and we will pair up to share our answers.

In the “think” phase, it is best for the teacher to set a specifictime limit to the activity, maybe two to three minutes for a
relatively straight forward question. This time frame can always
be adjusted if the teacher feels that more time is required. It isalways best to check with the students about their progress87

before proceeding with any activity. The teacher can do this byasking:• Does anyone need more time before we move on?
• Please raise your hand if you would like another minute to finish.
Once it is clear that everyone is ready to move on, thestudents will then be paired up with another student with whomthey will share their ideas. Again, it is best to group students ina variety of ways to help with community building as discussed
earlier. To group students for this activity, you might use thelanguage below.
Teacher: Since there are 25 of you today, we will need to have one groupof three while the rest of you will be in pairs. Thus, I will give you anumber from 1 to 12. Once everyone has a number, I want you toposition yourselves in the classroom as I have indicated on the board.
Group 1 should form their desk into a triangle. The other groups should
turn their desks so that they are facing one another.

Once students have moved into their pairs/groups with theteacher helping to make sure the students are arranging theirdesks as indicated, the teacher can instruct the students how toproceed with the pair work. The teacher will need to determine
who in the group will speak first and possibly the amount of timethey have to speak before the other member(s) share his/heranswers. For example, the teacher might say:
Teacher: Now that we are in our groups, we need to decide who will
share his/her answer first. Please play “rock, scissors, paper” (jyanken)
with your partner. The loser of the game will explain his/her answer first.
She/he will have three minutes to do this and for his/her partner to ask
questions before the other person answers in the next three minutes. In
the group with three members, you will each have two minutes. Please
make a note of what your partner is saying because I may ask one of you
to share your partner’s ideas at the end.
88

During the “Pair” phase of the exercise, students have theopportunity to hear what another person thinks about the topic,
and they can evaluate both their own and their partner’s ideas
and select which are the most correct, creative or unique.
Especially in a class of Japanese students, this helps to build
confidence in the students. The students are often reluctant tovolunteer their ideas if the teacher just asks questions without
giving students a chance to prepare an answer or to see how theirideas compare with others. By allowing them to share their ideas
with one another prior to doing so in front of the class, it is lessintimidating since the answers they are giving are not solely
attributed to them.
Teacher: Leaders please get started.

The students will discuss the question for five minutes.
During this discussion period, the teacher needs to circulate in
the classroom and make sure students are following thedirections and communicating with their partner correctly. The
teacher can make notes of difficulties that students are having or
exceptionally good answers to use as material for further
discussion at the end of the exercise.
Teacher: Okay. Has everyone come up with an answer to the questionthat you and your partner are both happy with? I will now ask a few ofthe leaders to present their answers to the class so that we can come toan agreement on this question.

Finally, students are ready to “Share” their ideas. The teacher
can ask students to raise their hands if they would like to give a
response to the question or ask specific groups to give theiranswers. Often students are reluctant to volunteer an answer.
Thus, it is often best to select students to answer. If you do this,89

try to give everyone a chance to answer questions throughout aclass. Students might view it as unfair if some students are asked
while others are not and they do notice these things.
The teacher will then call on specific students, preferably by
name, to give their answers. Having name cards or badges,
especially in a large class, can help the teacher call on thestudents by name. In order to facilitate a whole-class discussion,
the teacher should listen to the responses carefully along withthe rest of the class and even provide rephrasing of the answers
if the instructor believes the other students in the room might
not have heard the response or might not have understood it
clearly.
Teacher: Okay, let’s start with group one. Who is the leader of yourgroup? (Student’s name)? What was your group’s answer to thisquestion after sharing your ideas?

Student provides an answer.
Teacher: Let me make sure I understand you correctly, you believe …
Teacher: I am not sure everyone in the class could hear you. (student
name) said that …

The teacher should then provide follow up questions to clearly
understand the thinking behind the response. These might
possibly be:
Teacher: What do you mean by that?
Teacher: What makes you think that?
Teacher: Can you provide an example from your own experience?

While thanking the students for their answers, the teacher
should try to stay neutral to the responses that have been givenso that students have a chance to think through the answer on90their own before the instructor gives an explanation. He or she
can then invite other students to comment on the previous
responses that were given. The teacher might say the following:
Teacher: Would anyone like to add something to thoseanswers/comments?
Teacher: Is there anyone who would like to share an alternative opinion?

After the teacher has gotten several responses and indicated thegood aspects of each, or delicately pointed out errors in thinking,he or she can present the definitive answer for the class.
One of the benefits of Active Learning is that students arereceiving

immediatefeedback

on

their

ideas

and

any

misconceptions can be corrected before these ideas are able totake root in their memories. Students should always be provided
with feedback as quickly as possible to avoid this problem.
[Examples] If you would like to see an example of the think-pairshare in action, please check the links below.
1. Greg Hancock Think-Pair-Share Lecture (The Science Education
Resource Center, Carleton College) https://goo.gl/UJJhoR
 This provides access to a workshop where the presenter isproviding an example to the participants and discussing thebenefits of this method.
2. iBiology Scientific Teaching Series: Active Learning – Think Pair Share(iBiology.org, YouTube) https://goo.gl/UMVn1V
 This link is of a first-year biology class in university with theprofessor providing explanations.
3. Lecture Clip: Opportunity Cost, Think-Pair-Share (Shared video on
YouTube by dmateer) https://goo.gl/S2zB1W
 This is a lecture on opportunity cost from State University in Florida.

You can find other examples of “think-pair-share” activities by goingto YouTube and searching this subject.

91

3.1.4 Opinion polling (Individual Activity)
Although somewhat similar to the “think-pair-share”, opinion
polling has a slightly different format and can be achieved in avariety of ways: 1) by asking students to raise their hands if they think
one of the choices is correct; 2) by holding up one of four differently
colored cards each indicating one of the choices from the question; 3)
using an electronic clicker system, that automatically tallies students
votes and displays a graphic representation, just to name a few.
Other ideas for polling students can be found at socrative.com
and polleverywhere.com.
All of these methods can give the teacher a quick look atwhich answer to a multiple-choice question is the most chosen to
the least chosen. The teacher might use the following language
to explain the voting process:Raising Hands
Teacher: I would like you to take a look at the following multiple-choicequestion. Please hold up your hand if you think the answer is “a”. Okay,
it looks like about 50% chose “a”. How about “b”? Approximately 30%.
Now, what about “c”. Maybe 10% and lastly “d”. Only a couple ofpeople; not a popular choice.

Or
Holding up Colored Cards
Teacher: I would like you to take a look at the following multiple-choicequestion. Please make your choice by holding up the colored card that
corresponds to your choice. Okay, it looks like about 50% picked “a”,
30% picked “b”, 10% picked “c”, and only about 3-4% chose “d”.

Or
Using Electronic Clickers
Teacher: Please press the key on your clicker that corresponds to youranswer choice for the question being displayed.

After students have indicated their choices:
92

Teacher: Now, talk with the people near you for the next five minutes
about the question and the answer you picked and the reason why you
picked it. Try to come to a consensus as to what the correct answer
should be.

While the students are discussing their answers and trying tocome up with one that they can all agree upon, the instructor canlisten in on the group discussions and even provide some input
to one or two groups before bringing the attention of the classback to him/her at the front of the room.
Teacher: Okay, stop. Your five minutes are up. We are going to voteagain and see if the results are different. Please hold up your hand if
you think it is “a”. Okay, the vast majority have chosen “a” this time.
How about “b”? Approximately 20% still believe it is “b”. Now, what
about “c”? No one? And finally “d”. Again, no one? Well, we havenarrowed it down quite a bit. Let’s discuss “a” and “b”. Is there anyone
who chose “a” who would like to explain why?

Or
Teacher: Please vote again by holding up the colored card that
corresponds to your choice (by pushing the appropriate button on yourclicker). Okay, this time it looks like about 80% picked “a”, 20% picked“b”, and no one picked either “c” or “d”. Well, we have narrowed it
down quite a bit. Let’s discuss “a” and “b”. Is there anyone who chose“a” who would like to explain why?

After getting a response as to why they chose the answer
from a student who chose “a”, have someone who chose “b”
explain.
Teacher: All right, now how about someone who chose “b”. Could
someone explain his/her reasoning for us?
Teacher: Okay! Well, the actual answer is “a”. Follow this by thecorrect reasoning for the answer.
Teacher: Does everyone now understand why “a” is the correct
answer? Do you have any questions?

93

[Examples]
1. Cliclers: Eric Masur Shows Interactive Teaching (Harvard Magazine,
YouTube) https://goo.gl/LejrLt
 Harvard University physics class is using a clicker as an opinion
polling activity.
2. Hand Raising: Introduction, Financial Terms and Concept (MIT
OpenCourseWare, YouTube) https://goo.gl/qKfh2Q
 Topic: Risk Aversion (From 44:40~) – The instructor asks questions
and has the students raise their hands to get a general idea of what
the students think.
3. Student Response Cards (Elementary School Setting) (the teachetoolkit)
https://goo.gl/R7TE69
 Topic: Language class and gender adjectives

3.1.5 Incomplete outline (Individual Activity)
A common practice for academics is to distribute slides of
their presentations to the audience at speaking engagements,
and they have carried this practice over to the classroom as aservice to the students. At conferences, if you have done this or
have been to a presentation where this has been done, you might
have noticed how people tend to bury themselves in the printed
slides rather than direct their attention to the speaker and thepresentation he/she is giving with those very slides.
It is a natural reaction to start leafing through materials thatyou have been given and to find out what will be coming later on
in a presentation. Some people in the audience at a conference
might even decide that what is being presented is not of interest
to them, get up, and walk out possibly to find anotherpresentation at the conference that is more suited to their taste.
While this preview of material may be of benefit at conferences,
it is a definite disadvantage in the classroom. Students may
decide that since they already have received the information that94

will be talked about in the lecture, they can tune out, sleep
through the lecture, or even not come to the lecture at all.
This is the reason why I do not give handouts of my slides tothe audience until after my presentations/workshops are
finished. I tell the audience at the outset that I will be giving
them copies at the end of the workshop/presentation and present
the reason I just explained. That being said, I do prepare
handouts for any activities that I would like the audience to do
during my presentation. In this way, I can better keep theaudiences attention focused on me as the presenter and on thematerial that is being discussed at the moment.
This concept can also be applied to the classroom to keep ourstudents engaged in the material being presented. Rather thangiving the students a copy of the slides or an outline of thematerial being presented for the class, the teacher can prepare
an incomplete outline in which the students must listen carefully
to make note of the missing information from their papers. This
will keep them focused on what is being presented in class. This
also gives the lecturer opportunities to have the students
compare their notes with one another and to reinforce theimportant aspects of the class.
An example of an outline from a portion of one of my lectureson the U.S. university system has been provided below withinformation deleted to create an incomplete outline, which thestudents must complete while listening to my lecture.

95

Figure 25: Incomplete Outline Example
Note: The slides that accompany this portion of the lecture areprovided in Appendix 3 (p.120).
96

To introduce the concept of an incomplete outline to the class,
you can use the example below as a template.
Teacher: I am distributing a handout that contains a partial outline ofwhat I will present in today’s class. I would like you to notice that not allof the information has been provided. Your job is to listen carefully to thelecture so that you can fill in the blank spaces in the outline, thus,
creating a complete set of notes that will help you study for the test.

Once the lecture has begun, the teacher can take periodic breaks
to ensure that all of the students have the information they need.
This can be done by taking five-minute breaks after a certain
amount of time or after a certain amount of material has been
covered so that students can compare their outlines in pairs or
small groups. The teacher can use the language provided below.
Teacher: I am going to stop my lecture for a few minutes, so you cancompare your incomplete outlines with the students near you. If you
have any missing information, ask other students to help you complete
the outline. After three minutes, I will call on someone to present his/herincomplete outline to make sure we have all completed the outline
correctly.
Teacher: Okay! Our three minutes of discussion are over. Is there anyone
who would like to volunteer to give us the information from his or her
completed outline? If not, I will select someone to do it.

Be sure to wait a sufficient amount of time for students tovolunteer. Students may be reluctant, and, thus, it mighttake a bit of time for them to build up the courage tovolunteer. Thus, pausing to give students a chance torespond is important.
Teacher: Thank you for volunteering. Please tell me what you put for thethree main points that were left blank at the top of the paper. Explain
why they are important.

97

After the student gives his/her input, the teacher should
follow up by either (1) asking other students if there isanything that is missing from the information provided by
the other student, or (2) giving direct feedback on the
response herself/himself.
(1) Teacher: Thank you for your answers. Does everyone agree? Is
there anything that should be added?

After getting responses from the students, or no response
if they feel that the previous students’ responses werecorrect, the teacher should follow with his/her comments
so that everyone has the same information.
(2) Teacher: Your answers are very good. I would just add that…

One other way of addressing the need for making sure thatstudents have a complete outline is to post a complete outline
online after class. However, one should be careful doing this since
students may realize they don’t need to attend class or take notes.
Thus, this would not be my recommendation for addressing theneed for providing feedback regarding a completed outline. If you
do this from time to time for convenience it is fine, but if you do
it on a regular basis, students may tune out. In that way,
students won’t feel that it is something they can expect to receive
every class making it more likely they will pay more attention
while they are in class.

3.1.6 Minute paper/Muddiest Point
point (Individual Activity)
A good way for the instructor to judge how well students haveunderstood the lecture or class discussions is to take a breakduring the class and have them write down an answer to a9898

question the instructor is interested in knowing about that waspresented during the lecture or information that they did notunderstand well. My institution has printed special paper in avariety of colors for this purpose; however, you can have students
use their own paper if needed. The benefit of supplying the paper
is that every paper will be uniform and easy to handle.
Although minute paper is commonly used at the end of a classperiod, it does not really matter when this exercise is inserted
into a class. It is more a judgment of when the instructor wants
to receive feedback on the clarity of student understanding. Thus,
be it in the middle or at the end of class, the instructor can use
language such as that provided below to implement this activity.
Examples of the questions that you might want to pose in aminute paper are supplied in the form in Figure 26. Although
this example is given with the questions written on the paper,
the teacher could also write the questions on the board or show
them on a slide and have the students answer them on a blankpiece of paper. Depending on the amount of time you want todevote to this activity, you can vary the number of questions. If
you only want to spend a couple of minutes on this task, one
question is enough. However, if you were to use three questions
as depicted below, you might extend the time to somewhere
between 5 to 7 minutes.
In the following example (Figure 27), students answeredquestions regarding their views on the discussion class. The
three questions were: 1) How is this class different from other
English classes that you have had? 2) Which type of class do you
prefer and why? 3) In what way could this class be improved?

99Sample Minute Paper
In the space provided, please answer the three questions below as
concisely as possible.
1. What are the (one, two, three, four,…) most (important,meaningful, surprising, disturbing,…) aspects that you have identified
in today’s class?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What remains unclear about today’s discussion?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Is there anything that you did not completely understand?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 26: Minute Paper Example
Minute papers are usually anonymous so that students can feel
free to express themselves without fear of retribution if they say
something the instructor does not like. However, you may want
students to include their names and student numbers as a way
to monitor for class attendance or for the purpose of giving credit
for completing the questions well. One way to have students
submit their names and student numbers without the teacher
associating a name to a specific answer is to have the students
write their names on one side of the paper and the answer to thequestions on the other side. Should you do the later, it is best to
explain to the students why you are conducting the exercise in100

Figure 27: Examples of Completed Minute Papers
this format. This is also a way to ensure an unbiased way ofgrading.
To implement a minute paper activity in the middle of a class you
could use the language provided below.
Teacher: I will take a short break from lecturing to give you a bit of time
to reflect on what we have talked about so far. I would like to know how
you feel about the following questions (write them on the board, show
them on a slide, or read them from the paper you will distribute). I will
distribute paper for writing your answer(s). Based on your answers, I willaddress common concerns and difficulties in the next class.

To implement a minute paper activity at the end of class, thefollowing wording would be appropriate:
Teacher: Before ending the class today, I would like your feedback
regarding the material that was discussed. Thus, I will distribute a paperfor you to answer the following questions (write them on the board,101

show them on a slide, or read them from the paper you will distribute). I
will try to respond to your comments and concerns at the beginning of
the next class.

If you want the responses to be anonymous, you would add:
Teacher: Since this is just for my information, you do not need to write
your name or student number on the paper. All I need is your answer tothe questions.

If you want to give credit for the students’ responses in some way,
you would say:
Teacher: Please write your name and student number at the top of thepaper to ensure that you receive credit for this activity before answering
the questions provided.

If you only want the students’ names and student numbers as
a way of monitoring attendance in class, you might say:
Teacher: Before you answer the questions, please write your name andstudent numbers on the back of the paper. I don’t want to know who
wrote what, but I need your name and student number to record who
was in attendance today. Thus, I will only record your attendance after I
have looked through the anonymous responses, so feel free to honestly
answer the questions.

3.2 Implementing High Risk Active Learning Activities

Explaining each individual activity for high risk Active

Learning would be extremely difficult because they generally
cover an extended period of time and explanations vary greatly
depending on the type of task set and the field of study. Thus,
rather than try to give a detailed example of how to implement
an activity as I did above with the low risk Active Learning
activities, I will provide a list of the types of activities that could
be used in this category, and then elaborate on difficulties that102

often arise when implementing any kind of cooperative learningtask.

3.2.1 Types of higher risk activities

1) Student-centered Discussions - This type of activity can vary
drastically based on how much time one wants to devote
to the discussions. These discussions can be used as small
breaks in a lecture to check on understanding of thematerial presented or they can be the basis for the class.
In the latter case, students often prepare by reading
articles or watching videos outside of class and using that
information as the basis for their discussions.

2) Small Group/Big Problem Solving - Students work together
on open-ended problems (or parts of problems) with more
complex variables or solutions. This could be in the formof a case study or similar type of scenario.
3) Pair or Group Quizzes- Students can write two or threequestions from assigned readings or videos and students
can quiz one another in the first few minutes of class. The
teacher might also consider collecting the questions andpossibly using them as source material for tests in the
future.
4) Collaborative Learning Projects - Students work together inteams on long-term projects to create, analyze, or
research something.
5) The Flipped Classroom - Students watch online lectures orread source material outside of class and do what weretraditionally homework assignments in the classroom.

103One of the key issues for all of the activities in this section is
the preparation aspect. In many instances, the teacher assigns atask, such as reading or watching a video, as the basis for theactivity that will take place in the class. If the students do notcomplete this pre-class assignment, it creates a great deal of
difficulty when conducting the in-class activity.
Most teachers have experienced this dilemma in some form. I
have handled it in a variety of ways in the past. For example, I
have given students time in class to read the assigned homework,or have even shown the video that they were supposed to watch
for homework so that everyone had the information necessary fora discussion or debate. Of course, by compensating for theunprepared students in this way, the teacher is wasting the timeof the students who did do the homework. In addition, time
management of the activities in class becomes problematic sinceless time is available. Thus, getting students to come to classprepared is an issue that needs to be addressed. There are two
methods that I recommend, which I will explain below.

3.2.2 Homework completion check
In my discussion-based classes, the students must complete a
preparation worksheet, which consists of five or six questions,based on the source material (a reading or video). When thestudents first arrive at the beginning of class, I check theirassignments for completion. If the students have a form that iswell done, they will receive an “OK” stamp in the circle that isprovided for this purpose at the top of their paper. This indicatesto me when I am grading their assignments after class that thestudent can receive full credit (8-10 points based on his/heranswers). If the student has answered all of the questions but
104has not used the entire space and effort is lacking, I will put the“OK” stamp outside of the circle to indicate the student will
receive less than full credit (5-7 points based on his/her answers).
If the student has answered some but not all of the questions,he/she will receive a red “X” outside of the circle indicating to me
that he/she should receive less than 50% of the credit (3-5 points
based on his/her answers). And finally, if the student’s paper isblank or nearly blank, he/she will receive a red “X” in the circle
indicating that the student will not receive any credit. Thissystem ensures that students do not get more credit than they
deserve when grading their assignments after class since many
students will add more to their answers during the class period.
While this process of grading is explained in the course guidethat is given to the students on the first day of class, it is always
wise to explain the syllabus on the first day of class since many
students spend little time reading the syllabus on their own. In
my case, doing this also serves as an example of what thestudents will need to do each week to prepare for the class. Below,
I have provided the language that I use to introduce this system
to the students.
Teacher: For each class you will be required to answer the questions on
a preparation worksheet. You must do the homework so that you canparticipate in the class activities that are based on the reading and youranswers. You cannot write your answers during class and will not receive
any credit for those answers if you do. You will notice at the top of thepaper there is a circle for me to stamp. The first thing you should do when
you come to class is bring your paper to me so that I can check it forcompletion. If you have completed each answer and used the entire
space available you will receive a blue okay stamp in the circle meaning
you are fully prepared and will receive 8 – 10 points based on youranswers when I check your papers. If you answered all of the questions
but your answer(s) are too short to have given enough support, you will105

receive a blue stamp outside of the circle indicating that you will receive
5-7 points when I assess your paper. If some answers are finished andothers are not, you will receive a red “X” outside of the circle, meaningthat you will receive 3-5 points in the final assessment. Lastly, an
incomplete or nearly incomplete paper will receive a red “X” in the circle
meaning that you won’t receive any points for the assignment.

An unintended benefit of this type of stamping system, is theshame factor that it adds. Since the students must use their
preparation worksheet throughout the class period for the
discussions that we have in class, the other students can easily
see if they were unprepared and received a poor evaluation. It is
my own belief that rather than their scores students are moreconcerned about how they are perceived by other students, andthus it is rare to have anyone come to class who is unprepared.

3.2.3 Pre-class quizzing
Some teachers use online quizzes or ones administered at thevery start of class to ensure student compliance with completingthe homework assignments. Though I have never given quizzes
on the content of an assignment, I have quizzed students on the
vocabulary contained in an assignment to ensure that they arefamiliar with the vocabulary they will need to explain theiranswers during group discussions. If enough credit is given to thequizzes, the students will want to do well on them to ensure
getting a good grade in the course. I have provided the language
I use to explain these quizzes to the students as an example of
how you might introduce this type of activity to the students.
Teacher: At the start of each class, you will be given a quiz of thehomework. These quizzes are not difficult, but you will not be able to dowell on them unless you have completed the homework. Your quiz scores
are a substantial part of your grade to ensure that you come to class106

prepared. If you are not prepared for class, you cannot participate fullyin the discussions that will take place. Since your participation is also afactor in the discussion portion of your grade, you will also losesignificant points there. Thus, to do well in this class, you need to cometo class prepared.

3.2.4 Key elements of cooperative learning

In explaining the difference between students simply talking

in groups and cooperative learning, Johnson et al. (2006) describe

five key elements: “Positive interdependence, individual accountability,

face-to-face (promotive) interaction, interpersonal and small group social

skills, group processing.” Thus, the teacher must structure andorganize group projects in such a way to ensure that theseelements work well. Below, some possible techniques forpromoting each element are provided.
1) Positive interdependence - This is the process of building
interdependence so that group members must rely on othersin the group for reaching the goals.
• Jigsaw: Each member of a group has specificinformation that other members of the group do not
have, so they must teach the other students about
what they know. This may be accomplished byhaving the members of a group read different but
related material. For example, the teacher might
break up an article by subsections and each person
in a group is given a subsection to read andsummarize for the other group members.
• Peer review: This is often associated with process
writing. Students are taught how to give and receive107constructive feedback. This might be accomplishedby creating a rubric, a table of criteria defining how
grades are awarded, which students can use toevaluate

theirpeer’swriting

and

ways

to

communicate their evaluations to the peer. For
example, teachers often insist that students start byproviding the positive aspects and use indirectsuggestions

to

make

criticalcomments

lessthreatening.
Note: For an example of a rubric, please see the following
websites.
 Grading and Performance Rubrics (Carnegie Mellon University)
https://goo.gl/LL4to9- Carnegie Mellon University provides a brief description of
rubrics and the benefits of using them followed by examples
of rubrics for paper assignments, projects, oral presentations,and class participation/contributions.
 Grading Rubrics: Examples of Rubric Creation (University ofCalifornia Berkeley)https://goo.gl/8R7mmQ- Various examples with the problems/assignments they arebased on are provided by the University of California Berkeley.

2) Individual accountability - While group projects should have
output based on group work, one of the dangers is that somegroup members will rely on others to do the work for them.
Thus, grading of projects should include some individual
aspects. Some ways to do this are provided below.
a.

Individual testing: Tests can be given, or students canbe required to write reports on the project108

individually to show their understanding of what thegroup is doing.
b.

Peer assessment: A member of a group can beanonymously rated by the other group members withthe average score from all of the group members usedas part of the final score for the project.

c.

Self assessment: Students can also be required to judge
their own efforts in the class. This might be used asa way to reflect on the difference between how they
perceive themselves and how others perceive theirwork. Of course, there is always the concern thatstudents

will

over-inflate

theireffortandparticipation in the group, so the teacher may want
to give lower weight to this score in the overall
grading system or use some method of checking on
the accuracy of the individual’s self-assessment.
3) Face-to-face (Promotive) Interaction - Students need to be
encouraged to interact with one another to help build
cognitive and interpersonal capacities. The way the teacher
structures the project can help to promote this aspect. Somepossible ways to do this are outlined below.
a.

Assigning student roles: The instructor can assign roles
that require interaction to achieve the final product.
For example, by assigning such roles as checking
accuracy of data, verifying the source material,
writing meeting notes and keeping the group on task.

b.

Group contracts: Rather than the instructors assigningroles for the students, some teachers have turned to109the use of group contracts. These group contracts are
created by the groups themselves and outline theroles, rules, expectations and responsibilities of eachmember. The contract is a document that helps
maintain accountability and each member must sign
it upon completion to ensure agreement by all
members. This document can then be referred to at alater date to remind and reinforce compliance.
Hesterman (2016, p.5) points out that these contracts“motivate ownership of learning”.
For further information regarding the creation of groupcontracts, please refer to The University of Waterloo’s
Centre for Teaching Excellence’s website at: Making Group Contracts (University of Waterloo)
https://goo.gl/VtMrQzc.

Online message board: The teacher can require thatmembers of the group use online messaging and evenspecify the number of entries each member isrequired to make. The instructor can also monitor
this interaction.

4) Interpersonal Skills - Part of the reason for using group work is
to develop students holistically not just regarding the subject
areas that they are studying. Students need to learn and beable to develop effective ways to communicate, manage
conflict, lead others, make decisions, and build trust.
a.

Provide adequate information: As with any activity,
students are more likely to be successful and110participateinacooperative

mannerif

they

understand the purpose behind the activity.
b.

Practice: As mentioned earlier, it takes students sometime to adjust to new techniques. Thus, giving
students shorter group assignments with the groupmembers they will be working with throughout theterm can help them figure out how to handle eachothers’schedules

andspecific

strengths

andweaknesses.
5) Group Processing - Students should reflect on the dynamics oftheir group work after completing the project.
Reflection: By writing individual reflections of their group
work, which could possibly be based upon a rubric createdby the teacher, they can better understand their learning
process and use that to improve on future projects.
For more detailed accounts of issues that might arise with group
work and how to address them, please see the following
websites.
 Problem associated with group work (The University of
Queensland) https://goo.gl/ba1xgA
 Dealing with Group Work Issues (The University of New South
Wales Sydney) https://goo.gl/DAgt4M

Because the following website provides an example for teachersof children, the simplicity of the sample lesson may prove to beenlightening to the reader.
 Cooperative Learning Sample Lesson (ThoughtCo.)
https://goo.gl/PtXUtv

111

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114

Appendix

115

Appendix 1: Completed Outline Example for Presentation and Essay

117

Appendix 2: Completed Essay Example

Benefits of Studying Abroad
The idea of leaving everything behind, including family and friends,
to live for an extended period of time in a different and often confusing
and difficult situation may not sound very appealing. As a matter offact, it may even sound crazy. Not only will it cause difficulties for you,it will also cost a significant amount of money. While it is easy to see
the negative possibilities, the positives of confronting such a challenge
are often less obvious but can far outweigh the negatives that readilyspring to mind. Students should take the opportunity to study abroadwhile they are in university for three main reasons: to improve theirlanguage skills, to broaden their understanding of the world, and tounderstand their own culture better.
First, living in a foreign country is the best way to improve yourlanguage and communication skills. Obviously, being immersed in alanguage and being forced to find a way to communicate in that
language will help develop your communicative ability much faster thanjust taking a class in that language. When living abroad one has tofigure out ways to communicate intentions in an authentic situationthat the classroom could never provide. In addition, a person canexperience the variety within a language, such as dialects and slang,
aspects of language learning that are difficult to replicate in aclassroom. While many people might interpret language skills as justthe foreign language that they are studying, I see it in a much broader
perspective. Living abroad makes students pay closer attention to thepeople they are talking with trying to pick up on facial expressions,
gestures, and ways of expression to help interpret meaning, thus,
helping them to build effective communication skills in general. The
ability to communicate effectively is one of the top skills employers arelooking for according to the National Association of Colleges andEmployers.
Second, one can better understand the different issues other people
face and gain a new perspective by being immersed in a different
culture. It is one thing to read about or hear about another country andculture, and another to actually live somewhere and experience what is118

happening there. By studying abroad, you experience new possibilities.
For example, you might find new ways of approaching similar problems
or you may come across job possibilities you never considered or evenknew existed. These experiences help one to become well rounded anda better global citizen.
Third, many people never take the time to think about their own
culture until they are faced with explaining it to someone with noknowledge of it. Invariably when living abroad, people will be curious
about the country and culture from which you came. They will ask
questions about things that are such an ingrained part of you that you
just take those things for granted. In order to effectively respond tothese queries, one must often think back and analyze the situation andeven do a bit of research into his/her own background.
In conclusion, if university students can overlook the short-term costsof spending time away from their home institution, they can gain
valuable lessons including improvement to their language ability, abroader understanding of the world and a better understanding of theirown culture. Along with these major benefits a host of others are
waiting for the adventurous soul, who is willing to take a chance.

119Appendix 3: Slide Material for Lecture on U.S. University System

120

121

Appendix 4: Positive Reinforcement
A. Positively responding to correct answers• Good job!
• Excellent!
• That is exactly right.
• Great!
• You obviously know what you are talking about.
• I couldn’t have said it better myself** Extending the discussion when correct answers are given
Teacher:
Student 1:
Teacher:
Student 2:
Teacher:

Could (“someone”, “you”, a specific student’s name) tell me…
Well, I believe it is … (The student provides a correct response.)
Thank you for your input. Let’s hear what some other students
think of your ideas. (a specific student’s name) what do you think?
His answer sounds good. The only thing I would add is . . .
Okay, I see your point. Thank you. Well, (Student 1) was correct.
Great job! You must have really spent some time considering
this issue. (Student 2) also made an interesting point thatexemplifies what (Student 1) said earlier.

B. Positively responding to incorrect answers• Thank you for your answer. Does anyone have something to add to that?
• That’s an interesting idea. What do the rest of you think about it?
• Thanks for getting the discussion going. Let’s hear some other ideas.

C. Avoiding the use of “but”
Can you think of a way to rephrase the following comments in a morepositive way without using “but”?
•••

Your thesis is very good, but you need to supply more sources.
That is a good point, but your reasoning is faulty.
Your answer was interesting, but it was completely wrong.

How about the following?
•

•
•

122

Your thesis is very good. Do you feel that there are enough sources tosupport your position? Why or why not?
You make a very good point. Is there anything else you could add that might
help others understand your reasoning better?
Your answer was interesting. Let’s see what other people have to say about
this question.

Appendix 5: Politeness in the Classroom
A.

Requesting rather than Ordering/Commanding• I would like you to hand in your homework now.
• Could you (please) turn to page chapter 3 in your book?
• Would you (please) not talk during class?

B.

Asking for permission rather than unexplained action• Is it okay if I erase the board now?
• May I erase the board now?
• Can I erase the board now?

C.

Indirect Suggestions rather than direct suggestions/advice• What about including an explanation of how the experiment was
conducted? It might make it easier for the reader to understand.
• Why don’t you double check the way to reference sources? I think thismight be expressed a different way.

Other possible ways to create indirect suggestions are listed below.
• How about…?
• Why not…?
• I think that you should…
• Perhaps you could…
• You/we can…
• It might be a good idea…
• If I were you, I would…

123Appendix 6: Creating Questions at Different Levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
Remembering• How would you describe…?
• Can you list four of the most important factors…?
• In the diagram below, label the parts of the…
• Can you recall the…?
• Name the five steps to…
• Find the five… and identify each on by name for your partner.
• Please select the most important factor for…

Understanding• Can you explain what is happening in the experiment/ video/diagram?
• Interpret what is represented in the chart/ graph.
• How would you classify the kind of…?
• How could you rephrase the main message of the…?
• Provide a summary of the…
• How would you compare and contrast this… (experiment/story) to...
(the one we did last week/the previous one)
• What can you infer about what will happen next based on previous
activities we have done in class?

Applying• Can you provide examples of…?
• How would you use… to do…?
• Can you make use of the facts to…?
• Apply what you have learned in today’s lecture to design…
• In what way would you implement an experiment to take into
account…?

124

Analyzing• How would you compare certain ideas or people?
• Can you attribute the different parts of… and organize them according
to importance?
• What evidence can you find for…?
• What is the relationship between the first three topics we discussed?
• What motive is there to …?

Evaluating• How would you justify…?
• Make a judgment about…
• Which is better, to… or to…? Explain.
• What information would you use to support your view?
• How would you rate the…?
• Determine the pros and cons of doing…

Creating• What would you do to improve…?
• Can you think of an alternative to…?
• What could be done to eliminate the negative effects of…?
• How would you test…?
• Design a…
• Create a similar story with different characters.

125

Appendix 7: Forming Groups
A.

Assigning numbers
Teacher: For the next activity, we will be talking in groups of three.
However, since we have 40 students here today, one groupwill have four people. There will be 13 groups with group 1
having four members and the rest having three. I will give
you a number from one to thirteen. Please remember thenumber you are given. When everyone has a number, you
should group yourselves according to the group numbers
listed on the board.

B.

Using playing cards
Teacher: For the next activity, we will be talking in groups of three.
However, since we have 40 students here today, one groupwill have four people. There will be 13 groups with group 1
having four members and the rest having three. I will give
you a playing card. You will receive a heart, diamond, club ora joker. Once everyone has a card we will group according towhat appears on the face of your card. For example, the aces
plus the joker will be group 1, the twos will be group 2, etc.
Use the diagram on the blackboard to determine where yourgroup is located.

C.

Moving one member of a pair
Teacher: We will change our way of grouping today to ensure thateveryone talks with different people. I would like the leaderof each pair to please stand up. Everyone will move back one
place and the people at the back of each row will move tothe front of the next row over. The person in the back corner
will move to the front corner on the opposite side of the room.
The person who did not move will be the leader of the newpairing.
After the discussion that follows the next grouping:

Teacher: We will change groups the same way we did last time.
Therefore, the leader of the last group should stand.
However, instead of moving back to make your new pairing,
you will move forward with the person at the front of eachrow moving to the back of the next row over. The person at126

the front of the last row will move to the back corner of therow on the opposite side of the room.

D.

Leader remains behind
Teacher: To give you a chance to talk with classmates, you may have
had little opportunity to talk with in class, we will do ourgroupings a bit different this time. I would like the leaders tostay where they are. The other members of the group should
move to another group where the leader is someone they
have not talked to very much in this class.

Appendix 8: Assigning Roles within a Group
Teacher: Now that you are in groups, we need to decide on who willbe the leader for the group. In this class, we will use the lucky
loser leader system. Please play a game of “rock, scissors,
paper” (jyanken) with your group members and the loser ofthe game will be the leader. The person who comes in second
to last will be the note taker.
After the leader has been decided:

Teacher: The leaders role will be to ask the question of all of the groupmembers and get their responses. The leader will then also
answer the question for the rest of the group. . The note taker
will write a brief description of what everyone else replies
and report on this to the rest of the class after yourdiscussions.

127

Appendix 9: Dealing with Overly Active Students
First day of class introduction
Teacher: It is my belief that everyone should participate equally in theclass. Therefore, I will try to call on all of the students toprovide responses when we have class discussions. Some ofthe students are less enthusiastic about participating thanothers, but we can help each other come up with a response
in our group discussions to make the prospect of giving a
response less threatening.
When problems arise later:
Teacher: Thank you for your enthusiasm in class. However, please
remember that we need to give others a chance to answer tohelp them in order to help them develop their thinking andspeaking skills. I promise that you will have a chance toanswer in the near future.

128

Appendix 10: Icebreakers (Examples)A.

Sharing something about yourself (groups will already have been formed)
Teacher: In this activity, I would like you to introduce yourself by giving
your name, telling your partner where you are from, and themost interesting thing about your hometown. In addition,
include something interesting or unusual about yourself. For
example, if I were introducing myself, I would say, “My nameis Todd Enslen, and I am from Charleston, Illinois in the
United States. Charleston is a very small Mid-western townof about 20,000 people. The most interesting feature is a 30foot statue of Abraham Lincoln. As for something unusual
about myself, my first job after graduating from college witha degree in zoology was working on foreign fishing boats off
the coast of Alaska as a biologist.” Now, it is your turn.
Decide who will begin by playing a round of “rock, scissors,
paper”. The loser will begin by introducing himself/herself
based on the information written on the board.

(Extended versions)Teacher: Now that you have a leader. The leader will begin byintroducing himself/herself followed by introducing themembers from the previous grouping. Members should ask
questions. Once the leader has finished introducing the threepeople, the person to the left of the leader will introduce his
previous group members, and so forth.
Teacher: I will now call on a few people to introduce their groupmembers. Listen carefully. If you have any questions, pleasespeak up.

B.

What do you already know?
Teacher: In the next ten minutes, I would like you to introduce yourself
to your group and then explain what experience you have
had so far with the topics that will be covered in this course.
Someone should take notes so that your group can report to
the rest of the class. Thus, the leader should assign someone
as the note taker.

129

Teacher: Okay! Time is up. I will now ask each of the note takers togive me a summary of what their group talked about and we
can discuss these ideas further.
(Extended version)
Teacher: Now that you know a bit about each other. I am going to give
you a chance to learn about me. Brainstorm with your groupmembers for two minutes to come up with something you
would like to know about me. At the end of the two minutes,
I will ask the leader from each group to ask me the question?

Appendix 11: Possible Ways to Engage Students Informally before orafter Class• What happened to you? (Pointing out an injury)• You look really tired. Why?
• What is that book you are reading?
• That looks like an assignment for class. What is it about?
• What game are you playing on your smartphone?
• Are you doing anything for the school festival?
• Is that your breakfast? What is it?
• What does it say on your shirt? What does that mean?

130

Appendix 12: Low Risk Active Learning Activities
A. Introductory brainstorming (Individual/Pair/Small Group Activity)
Teacher: I would like to get some idea of how much everyone alreadyknows about the topics we will be discussing in this course,
so on a piece of paper we are going to brainstorm
information that will be covered in this course based on thecourse title,... I will give you five minutes to brainstorm ideas.
You can do this by merely making a list on your paper, freewriting where you just write as much as possible in the time,or creating a mind map as indicated on the board. Once you
have finished this activity, I will collect your papers and lookthrough them to see what kind of base knowledge people inour class have. There is no need to write you names on thepaper. Continue brainstorming and writing down ideas onyour paper until I say, “stop”. Okay, get out a paper andpencil and let’s get started.

Option 1:
Teacher: Okay. Time is up. Please pass your papers to the front of theclass. I will collect them from the people in the front row. I
will take a look at these before the next class and summarize
what the majority of you think this class will cover. We willthen straighten out any misconceptions and fill in the blanks.

Option 2:
Teacher: I would like to create a list of some of the ideas, so lookthrough what you have written in the next two minutes andpick the one idea you think is the most relevant. I will call onsome students to share their ideas after the two minutes areup.

Option 3:
Teacher: Now that you have some of your own ideas down on paper,
I would like you to share those ideas with a partner anddecide with your partner the ones you would like to sharewith the class. (Refer to Think-Pair-Share below)

131

B. Note clarification check
Teacher: Let’s take a 5-minute break from the lecture. We havecovered quite a bit of material, so I would like you to makesure your notes are complete and that you understand them.
Find someone near you and compare what you have written
down. If you are unsure of anything or need further
clarification, see if your partner can help.

Option 1:
Teacher: All right, hopefully that provided some clarification. We needto return to the lecture now.

Option 2
Teacher: Okay! Time is up. Are there any that remains unclear after
your discussion?
- Student question -Option 1
Teacher: Let me make sure I understand you correctly, you believe …

Option 2
Teacher: I am not sure everyone in the class could hear you. (student
name) said that …

C. Think Pair Share (TPS) (Individual/Pair/Group Activity)
Think
Teacher: We will be working with a partner in a few minutes to discuss
the question(s) that I have written on the board. However, I
would like you to spend three minutes writing down youranswers on a piece of paper so that it will be easier to discuss.
Please get started. I will stop you in three minutes and wewill pair up to share our answers.
Teacher: Okay, time is up. Is everyone finished? Does anyone needmore time before we move on? Please raise your hand if you
would like another minute to finish.

132

Pair
Teacher: Since there are 25 of you today, we will need to have one
group of three while the rest of you will be in pairs. Thus, I
will give you a number from 1 to 12. Once everyone has anumber, I want you to position yourselves in the classroom
as I have indicated on the board. Group 1 should form theirdesk into a triangle. The other groups should turn their desks
so that they are facing one another.
Teacher: Now that we are in our groups, we need to decide who will
share his/her answer first. Please play jyanken (“rock,scissors, paper”) with your partner. The loser of the game will
explain their answer first. They will have three minutes to do
this and for their partner to ask questions before theirpartner answers in the next three minutes. In the group withthree members, you will each have two minutes. Please
make a note of what your partner is saying because I may
ask one of you to share your partner’s ideas at the end.
Teacher: Leaders please get started.
Teacher: Okay. Has everyone come up with an answer to the questionthat you and your partner are both happy with? I will now
ask a few of the leaders to present their answers to the classso that we can come to an agreement on this question.

Share
Teacher: Alright, let’s start with group one. Who is the leader of yourgroup? Haruki? What was your group’s answer to thisquestion after sharing your ideas?
*Restating the students answers*

Option 1 (After the student answers)
Teacher: Let me make sure I understand you correctly, you believe …

Option 2 (After the student answers)
Teacher: I am not sure everyone in the class could hear you. (student
name) said that …

133

*Asking follow up questions*
Option 1
Teacher: What do you mean by that?
Option 2
Teacher: What makes you think that?
Option 3
Teacher: Can you provide an example from your own experience?
*Expanding on the idea*
Teacher: Would anyone likeanswers/comments?

to

add

something tothose

Teacher: Is there anyone who would like to share an alternative
opinion?

D. Opinion polling (Individual Activity)
1) Raising of hands
Teacher: I would like you to take a look at the following multiplechoice question. Please hold up your hand if you think theanswer is “a”. Okay, it looks like about 50% chose “a”. How
about “b”? Approximately 30%. Now, what about “c”.
Maybe 10% and lastly “d”. Only a couple of people; not a
popular choice.

2) Using of colored cards
Teacher: I would like you to take a look at the following multiplechoice question. Please make your choice by holding up thecolored card that corresponds to your choice (by pushing theappropriate button on your clicker). Okay, it looks like about
50% picked “a”, 30% picked “b”, 10% picked “c”, and only
about 3-4% chose “d”.

3) Using electronic clickers
Teacher: Please press the key on your clicker that corresponds to youranswer choice for the question being displayed.

134

After one of the choices above, the teacher will proceed with thefollowing.
Teacher: Now, talk with the people near you for the next five minutes
about the question and the answer you picked and thereason why you picked it. Try to come to a consensus as towhat the correct answer should be.
Teacher: Okay, stop. Your five minutes are up. We are going to voteagain and see if the results are different. Please vote again
by holding up your hand / the colored card that corresponds
to your choice or by pushing the appropriate button on yourclicker. (If you are having the students raise their hands oruse colored cards, you will need to go through each answer
choice as you did above.) Okay, the vast majority havechosen “a” this time. How about “b”? Approximately 20%
still believe it is “b”. Now, what about “c”? No one? And
finally “d”. Again, no one? Well, we have narrowed it downquite a bit. Let’s discuss “a” and “b”. Is there anyone whochose “a” who would like to explain why?
Teacher: All right, now how about someone who chose “b”. Could
someone explain his/her reasoning for us?
Teacher: Okay! Well, the actual answer is “a”. Follow this by thecorrect reasoning for the answer.
Teacher: Does everyone now understand why “a” is the correct
answer? Do you have any questions?

E. Incomplete outline (Individual/Pairs)
Teacher: I am distributing a handout that contains a partial outline ofwhat I will present in today’s class. I would like you to noticethat not all of the information has been provided. Your job is
to listen carefully to the lecture so that you can fill in theblank spaces in the outline, thus, creating a complete set ofnotes that will help you study for the test.
Optional Extension:

135

Teacher: I am going to stop my lecture for a few minutes, so you cancompare your incomplete outlines with the students nearyou. If you have any missing information ask other students
to help you complete the outline. After three minutes, I willcall on someone to present his/her incomplete outline to
make sure we are all on the same page.
Teacher: Okay! Our three minutes of discussion are over. Is there
anyone who would like to volunteer to give us theinformation from his or her completed outline? If not, I will
select someone to do it
Teacher: Thank you for volunteering. Please tell me what you put for
the three main points that were left blank at the top of thepaper. Explain why they are important.
(1) Teacher: Thank you for your answers. Does everyone agree?
Is there anything that should be added?
(2) Teacher: Your answers are very good. I would just add that…

F. Minute paper (Individual/Pairs)
a. Conducted during the class
Teacher: I will take a short break from lecturing to give you a bit oftime to reflect on what we have talked about so far. I would
like to know how you feel about the following questions(write them on the board, show them on a slide, or read themfrom the paper you will distribute). I will distribute paper for
writing your answer(s). Based on your answers, I will addresscommon concerns and difficulties in the next class.

b. Conducted at the end of the class
Teacher: Before ending the class today, I would like your feedback
regarding the material that was discussed. Thus, I will
distribute a paper for you to answer the following questions(write them on the board, show them on a slide, or read themfrom the paper you will distribute). I will try to respond to
your comments and concerns at the beginning of the nextclass.

136

For anonymous responses add:
Teacher: Since this is just for my information, you do not need to write
your name or student number on the paper. All I need is youranswer to the questions.
Giving credit for responses add:
Teacher: Please write your name and student number at the top of thepaper to ensure that you receive credit for this activity before
answering the questions provided.
Using names and numbers for attendance:
Teacher: Before you answer the questions, please write your nameand student numbers on the back of the paper. I don’t wantto know who wrote what, but I need your name and student
number to record who was in attendance today. Thus, I will
only record your attendance after I have looked through theanonymous responses, so feel free to honestly answer thequestions.

Ensuring students do preparation homework
1.

Completion check with stamps
Teacher: For each class you will be required to answer the questions
on a preparation worksheet. You must do the homework sothat you can participate in the class activities that are basedon the reading and your answers. You cannot write youranswers during class and will not receive any credit for thoseanswers if you do. You will notice at the top of the paper
there is a circle for me to stamp. The first thing you should dowhen you come to class is bring your paper to me so that I
can check it for completion. If you have completed eachanswer and used the entire space available you will receive a
blue okay stamp in the circle meaning you are fully prepared
and will receive 8 – 10 points based on your answers when I
check your papers. If you answered all of the questions but
your answer(s) are too short to have given enough support,
you will receive a blue stamp outside of the circle indicatingthat you will receive 5 – 7 points when I assess your paper. If
some answers are finished and others are not, you will137

receive a red “X” outside of the circle, meaning that you will
receive 3-5 points in the final assessment. Lastly, an
incomplete or nearly incomplete paper will receive a red “X”
in the circle meaning that you won’t receive any points forthe assignment.

2.

Assignment Quizzes
Teacher: At the start of each class, you will be given a quiz of thehomework. These quizzes are not difficult, but you will not
be able to do well on them unless you have completed thehomework. Your quiz scores are a substantial part of yourgrade to ensure that you come to class prepared. If you are
not prepared for class, you cannot participate fully in thediscussions that will take place. Since your participation is
also a factor in the discussion portion of your grade, you will
also lose significant points there. Thus, to do well in this class,
you need to come to class prepared.

138

Profile of Author
Todd Enslen:

Since receiving his MATESOL degree fromthe University of Illinois in 1998, Todd has
been teaching English at a variety of juniorcolleges, universities and graduate schools inJapan. In 2010, he became a lecturer at
Tohoku University where he teaches mainly
required English reading and communication courses to firstand second-year students. However, his role at the university has
steadily diversified.
Todd became a Research and Development Fellow in theCenter for Professional Development in 2012 and, since that time,
has been an advisor and mentor to new faculty and graduate
students enrolled in the Center’s professional development
programs. He also offers “Teaching in English” and “Active
Learning” workshops for faculty. In recent years, Todd has also
been giving similar workshops at various universities acrossJapan.
Todd’s main research interests are English for SpecificPurposes and Pragmatics, or the way language is actually usedand how that should change classroom pedagogy. In addition,
Todd’s work with the Center for Professional Development has
sparked his interest in how active learning strategies should be
adapted to cultural contexts.

139Afterword
This handbook is the fruitful product of a two-year project,“Development of a Program to Assist in the Improvement of
Education and Presentation Skills in English”, which isfinancially supported by the Faculty Vision Fund from theInstitute for Excellence in Higher Education (IEHE) at Tohoku
University, and furthermore is part of a broader project to help
non-native English speaking faculty members who are teachingin English to mostly foreign students.
The focus of university professors at research institutions,like Tohoku University, has traditional been solely on researchwith teaching relegated to a troublesome aspect of the job that
one must fulfill. This, however, is changing. Many universities
are now including teacher observations and evaluations as partof the criteria for performance review and the awarding of tenure.
There are also other factors causing faculty to become moreaware of the need to be effective teachers. One of the major
reasons is the fact that Japanese university campuses are
becoming diversified with a growing number of students who
received education abroad. These students bring with them
expectations of what should take place in the classroom.
While this handbook provides insight into the Scholarship ofTeaching and Learning (SoTL) research on what is good teaching,it also points out the fact that teaching in English is more thanmerely translating what one does in their native language even
if it falls within good teaching practices. When teaching in an
English Medium Instruction (EMI) context, the language andthese elements that are used within the English cultural context
also come into play.
140

In an effort to help faculty implement active learningtechniques in the classroom, this handbook not only describes thevarious aspects of teaching in English, but it also provides
examples of the language faculty can use to implement active
learning techniques. It is our hope that through our project andthis handbook faculty will have the resources that they need to
implement active learning techniques effectively in the classes
they teach in English as well as those in their native language.
Finally, I, as a project representative, do appreciate theassistance and tremendous efforts in the development of the
program from the project members, particularly Prof. Ohmori,Prof. Sugimoto, and Mr. Todd Enslen, the author of this book. I
would also like to thank both Ms. Yukino Inada from the Center
for Professional Development for her editorial assistance and Dr.
Fumiko Konno for reorganizing the handbook into a morereadable format and writing the “Way of using the handbook” inJapanese. Without the considerable time and energy both ofthese colleagues invested in this project, this handbook would not
be nearly as useful.
Yumiko Watanabe
Professor, Institution for Excellence in Higher Education,
Tohoku University

141IndexAbilities....................................................... 6

Classroom management ...........27, 31

Academic integrity ..............................55

Clicker........... 34, 92, 93, 94, 135, 136

Academic achievement .....................49
Academic misconduct........................59
Accommodation for disabilities....59
Active Learning..... 30, 34, 35, 48, 49,
50, 51, 61, 78, 79, 82, 83, 86, 91,
102, 132

Analyzing ....................... 36, 39, 43, 126

Classroom policies.............................. 55
Closed-book test .................................. 59

Commanding ....................... 23, 24, 124

Communication skill ................ 50, 119Community building .. 28, 51, 61, 75,
88Comprehensive exam........................ 59

Anxiety .............................................. 51, 81

Confidence .......................................80, 89

Approachable .................27, 30, 49, 80

Cooperative learning 2, 87, 103, 107

Assessments ................. 45, 46, 81, 109

Course guide ........................ 55, 58, 105

Applying ......................... 36, 38, 43, 125

Asking for permission ............ 25, 124

Assigning roles within group .........69
Assigning student roles ................. 109
Assignment ...55, 60, 78, 79, 81, 103,

Confusion ................................. 24, 25, 69

Course description ............................. 55
Course objectives ................. 35, 43, 44

Course requirements ........................ 55

Creating ..........................36, 40, 43, 126

104, 105, 106, 108, 111, 131,

Criterion-referenced ......................... 59

Attendance51, 55, 80, 100, 102, 138

Culture ............................................... 3, 5, 7

139

Attention in class .................................48

Audit ..........................................................59
Auditory learners ................................32
Aural learners.......................................... 6

Bloom’s Taxonomy .....35, 36, 40, 41,
42, 43, 125

Brainstorming ..... 81, 83, 84, 85, 132

Class roster ..................................... 59, 76
142

Cross cultural communication......... 8Curricular alignment ......................... 45
Disability ................................................. 55
Discourse intonation ............................ 4

Discussion-based class ..... 56, 58, 80,
104

Diversity ................................................ 5, 7

Drop ........................................................... 59

Due date................................................... 59

Elective .....................................................59

High risk activities .................... 82, 102

English Medium Instruction (EMI)

Homework......... 23, 77, 78, 103, 104,

Essay ........ 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 81, 118,

Icebreaker ............................... 71, 74, 84

Engage students .................77, 83, 131.................................................... 1, 2, 3, 4

119

Evaluating ..................... 36, 39, 43, 126
Examination ........................... 47, 59, 81

Excused absence ..................................59

Expectations................................. 6, 8, 27

High-context ............................................. 9105, 106, 124, 138, 139

Individual accountability ..............108

Individual testing ..............................108
Intellectual integrity .......................... 59

Interaction18, 30, 49, 61, 62, 70, 78,
82, 107, 109

Extra credit .............................................59

Interpersonal skills ....... 50, 107, 110

Feedback ...21, 29, 34, 78, 79, 91, 98,

Jigsaw......................................................107

Feeling............................................... 30, 49

Knowledgeable...................... 27, 29, 30

Face-to-face ......................................... 109
99, 101, 108, 137

Intonation .................................................. 4Kinesthetic learners...................... 6, 32

First-day handout ........................ 56, 57

Language ............................. 3, 16, 47, 94

Flipped classroom ............................ 103

Learning objectives ............................ 44

Forming groups ......................... 63, 127

Learning students’ names............... 75

Flexible ............................................. 28, 29

Formative assessment ......................59

Gender......................................................... 5
Gender-free wording ........................... 7

Goal. 6, 30, 43, 45, 46, 52, 60, 78, 79,
107

Grades .....................................55, 60, 108

Grading on a curve ..............................59

Group contracts ................................. 109
Grouping ...62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68,
69, 71, 73, 77, 127, 128, 130

High Order Thinking Skills ..............37

Learning experience .......................... 31

Learning outcome ............................... 55
Learning style ..............................6, 7, 32

Low risk activities........................82, 83
Low-context ......................................... 8, 9

Lower Order Thinking Skills ......... 36
Make-up policy..................................... 59

MEXT ............................................. 1, 46, 47

Minute paper .. 29, 99, 100, 101, 137

Motivation ................................................. 6

Name cards ..................... 75, 76, 77, 90

Name tags ............................................... 76
143

Non-verbal communication ............18

Read/write learners .......................... 32

Numbering method ............................63

Reflection ..............................................111

Norm-referenced .................................59

Objective questions ............................59

Online message board .................... 110
Open-book test......................................59

Opinion polling ...................92, 94, 135

Reading ......................16, 31, 32, 33, 55

Reflective ................................................ 29

Regroup ............................................66, 73
Religion ....................................................... 6

Remembering ..............36, 37, 43, 125

Ordering ......................... 23, 24, 26, 124

Requesting.................................... 23, 124

Outcomes .................................................59

Responding ...................19, 20, 21, 123

Outcome statements ..........................43

Respectful ........................................22, 27

Outline format .....................13, 96, 118

Review session ..................................... 59

Pass/Fail ..................................................59

Rules of conduct .................................. 59

Participation ...59, 80, 107, 109, 139

Peer assessment ................................ 109
Peer review.......................................... 107

Personal communication .................79

Rubric .................................. 59, 108, 111
Scholarship of Teaching and

Learning (SoTL) ......... 2, 31, 48, 52

Seating chart.......................................... 77

Playing Cards .............................. 65, 127

Self-assessment..................................109

Political beliefs........................................ 5

Sexual orientation.................................. 5

Politeness ...................... 22, 24, 28, 124

Positive interdependence ............. 107
Positive reinforcement ............. 18, 80

Prerequisite .................................... 55, 59

Presentation ...... 4, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16,
40, 51, 94, 95, 108, 118

Prior knowledge..................................... 6

Professional environment ...............51

Project ..... 4, 103, 107, 108, 109, 111
Pronunciation.......................................... 4

Quiz..................................... 103, 106, 139

Race .............................................................. 5
144

Self-esteem ............................................. 50
Silence ...................................................... 69

Stamp ...................... 104, 105, 106, 138
Student-centered .34, 35, 48, 50, 51,
54, 56, 58, 103

Students’ perspective.................28, 46
Subjective questions.......................... 59

Suggestion .... 20, 25, 26, 27, 55, 108,
124

Summative assessment .................... 59

Supplementary readings ................. 59
Syllabi ................................ 52, 54, 55, 58

Syllabus ... 43, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 105

Transitional words and phrases . 14,

Teacher-centered ........................ 34, 48

Twitter ..............................................41, 42

Take-home test .....................................59
Teaching philosophy ..................... 7, 55
Teaching skills................................1, 2, 3

Teamwork skills ...................................50

Tentative schedule ..............................59
Think-pair-share .. 84, 85, 87, 91, 92,

16, 17

Understanding........9, 38, 43, 51, 125
Video ..... 31, 32, 37, 38, 91, 103, 104,
125

Visual learners................................. 6, 32

132, 133

145

PDブックレット Vol.9
英語による授業実践ハンドブック
2018年3月31日発行
編 者
東北大学高度教養教育・学生支援機構
発行所
Institute for Excellence in Higher Education,
Tohoku University〒980-8576 仙台市青葉区川内41
TEL （022）795-4471
E-mail cpd_office@ihe.tohoku.ac.jp
印刷所 株式会社 ユーメディア〒984-0111 仙台市若林区六丁の目西町6番5号