From Shinobi（忍び）to Ninja（忍者）: Observations Focusing
on the Tatsukawa Bunko Edition of Sarutobi Sasuke
Katsuya YOSHIMARU“Shinobi” refers to individuals who engaged in peacetime espionage andwartime reconnaissance and sabotage in Japan between the 14th and firsthalf of the 17th century. Well-known among the shinobi were Iga-mono andKoka-mono, which mean shinobi who were natives of Iga and Koka, respectively, the two provinces where many of the shinobi hailed from. During therelatively peaceful Edo period, shinobi maintained their existence as employees of daimyo, but their activities were seldom noticed by the general public.
At the same time, possibly because their mystery-shrouded existence
captured the people’s imagination, “ninja” (in this presentation, shinobi as
portrayed in works of fiction will be referred to as “ninja”) equipped withsuperhuman ninjutsu started to appear frequently in novels and drama.
The majority of ninja novels and plays dealt with 1) The use of ninjutsu to procure somethingimportant, or 2) The use of ninjutsu to take over the right of succession, or for subversion. Less
common were stories of ninja performing the activities of the shinobi (intelligence gathering, reconnaissance, sabotage) in a military context, as was the case in history.
Among the well-known ninja is Sarutobi Sasuke. Recent studies have identified the earliest
known mention of Sarutobi Sasuke in Enshokutaiheirakki, a novel written in the second half of the18th century. Sarutobi Sasuke made frequent appearances in subsequent war novels and kodan(storytellings) dealing with the Siege of Osaka.
The name of Sarutobi Sasuke was made famous by the Tatsukawa Bunko series, published in
Osaka during the Taisho period (1910s). Sarutobi Sasuke, published in 1913 as issue 40 of the Tatsukawa Bunko, completely altered the popular perception of the ninja.
Sarutobi Sasuke was recruited by and studied ninjutsu under Tozawa Hakuunsai, a Koka school
ninjutsu master. Sasuke went on to become a vassal of Sanada Yukimura, whom he served using
ninjutsu. As opposed to the majority of previous fictional works, which described ninja as shady individuals employing dubious ninjutsu, the Tatsukawa Bunko portrayed Sarutobi Sasuke as a loyal
person, who worked hard for his master, Sanada Yukimura. the Tatsukawa Bunko was also the firstto portray Sarutobi Sasuke, or any ninja, as a righteous, heroic figure, who punishes bandits andother villains and saves those in distress. Following the precedent
set by the Tatsukawa Bunko, ninja in later novels, plays andmovies came to be portrayed as the good heroes.
The Tatsukawa Bunko’s Sarutobi Sasuke is said to have beenstrongly influenced by the character Sun Wukong from the Chinese
novel Journey to the West. Perhaps more significantly, Sasuke isportrayed as a samurai who is also capable of ninjutsu, a scenario
possibly chosen in conformity to the other works in the Tatsukawa
Bunko series, which dealt with samurai protagonists. the Tatsukawa
Bunko, with its stories of family loyalty and camaraderie of allies,
had a wide readership among teenage decchi (live-in apprentices andshop boys) employed by traders and craftsmen. Although publicationof the Tatsukawa Bunko ceased in 1924, Sarutobi Sasuke has subsequently appeared in numerous novels, manga, movies and games,
and to this day remains one of the best-known ninja.

Lecture and performance in London, Alicante, Valencia, Barcelona, Madrid and Rome, November 2014
Presented by Mie University and the Japan Foundation

The Truth about Ninja
A comparison of the historical 忍び（Shinobi）and 忍者（Ninja）as a cultural
phenomenon

Ninja culture research at Mie University Faculty of Humanities, Law and Economics
Mie University conducts ninja research in partnership with the municipal government, the local chamber of commerce andindustry, and the tourist board of Iga City, home of the ninja.
1. Study of the ninja (or shinobi, to be more accurate) as a historical presence, based on ninjutsu literature never before
made public.
2. Study of the ninja as portrayed in Japanese literature and drama. Study of the ninja in animation and movies around theworld.
3. Scientific analysis of the physical qualities and ability of the shinobi/ninja, in partnership with natural science researchersand departments. Interdisciplinary study of ninja knowhow described in ninjutsu literature.

To learn more about Ninja●Ninja Bungei Kenkyu Dokuhon, published by Kasama Shoin, 2013This is the first piece of academic literature in Japan on the historical shinobi, and the ninja
created by Japanese literature.
http://kasamashoin.jp/2014/04/post_2888.html
http://kasamashoin.jp/shoten/ninja_set.pdf●Iga Renkei Field Ninja Culture Conference : University-Community Partnership Program in Iga
The conference is in the process of creating a database of literature, animation and movies
pertaining to the ninja. It also holds monthly lectures on ninja in Iga City, and creates reprints ofninjutsu literature. The conference also has plans to publish its research outcomes in English (indigital form).
http://www.human.mie-u.ac.jp/kenkyu/ken-prj/iga/

About Iga City
Situated roughly the same distance from Kyoto, Osaka, and Nagoya, as well as Ise Shrine, Iga City, the birthplace of theninja, was one of the most strategically important locations in the country during the Sengoku period (Warring States period,16c). The Ninja Museum of Iga-ryu in Iga City collects andexhibits materials related to the ninja, and puts on ninja shows.
● KYOTO● NAGOYA
http://www.iganinja.jp/ (in Japanese and English)●
http://www.ninja-museum.com/ (in Japanese and English.)
OKAZAKIFor more on Iga City, please visit the following
websites.
http://tourismmiejapan.com/municipality/iga.html (in English）
http://tourismmiejapan.com/spanish/recommend/ninja.html(in Spanish)
http://tourismmiejapan.com/italian/recommend/ninja.html(in Italian）
http://igakanko.net/ (in Japanese）
http://www.igaueno.net/ (in Japanese)

IGA●OSAKA●● Ise shrine

NARA●Kumano-Kodo

The Body and Mind of the Ninja

A History of Shinobi（忍び）Jinichi KAWAKAMI

Yuji YAMADA

The existence of “Ninja” are widely known, even outside
Japan. It is a recognized form of Japanese culture, but it isalso the victim of misconceptions. Accurate historical clarification based on historical sources and investigation into thetrue art and spirituality of the ninja are neglected, preventing accurate understanding.
Ninjutsu is a classic military tactic comprising espionage,reconnaissance, disruption and plotting, among others,
which originated as a means of self-preservation and selfdefense (“sogo seizon gijutsu,” lit. “comprehensive survivaltechniques”). It is also a practical method for avoiding battle
and instead building “wa,” a peaceful, stable, equilibrium ofcoexistence. Ninja are by no means dark warriors of dubious
integrity, as is often imagined.
A viable ninja needs to be equipped with the intelligence to
spy on and plot against the enemy, and the physical strength and agility to act appropriately under
all kinds of situations. Essential above all are the perseverance to endure adversity, and seishin (lit.
correct mindset), which enables a ninja to maintain integrity unswayed by self-interest. Ninja are
not born equipped with these qualities or learn them merely through books, but develop themthrough rigorous physical and mental training, which begins from an early age.
Would-be ninja develop the mindset of a ninja in the course of training to attain a state ofshinshin-funi (lit. unity of body and mind). The training is carried out in accordance with traditional
methods, for the purpose of mastering theoretical and practical knowhow. Only through rigoroustraining that stretches the limit of one’s ability is it possible to develop the mindset of the ninja,
which comprises perseverance, seishin, and the spirit of wa. The prescribed training method,referred to as “苦行” or “九業” (both pronounced kugyo, the former meaning “penance” and the latter“nine tasks”), when followed consistently and diligently, is believed to bestow on the would-be ninja
superhuman abilities. Considered to be of even greater importance than the physical ability toemploy “superhuman” skills, however, is the underlying mindset.
The Chinese character “忍” for shinobi or the nin of ninja, is made up of “刃” (blade) and “心”(heart), denoting an unshakable heart, but also brutality. The term “shinobi” also has the meanings“clandestine” and “endurance.” “Nin”, when written “仁”, means benevolence. The essence of theninja, attainable only through rigorous training, resides in the attitude of gratitude and coexistenceencapsulated in the word “nin/shinobu.”
Coordination of body and mind is essential for a ninja. Daily physical and mental training, military preparedness, avoidance of battle through information gathering, and harmonious coexistence
are the true aims of the ninja. A genuine ninja is an individual with mental and physical soundness,
who endures adversity while maintaining integrity, and seeks altruistic harmony with nature andpeople.

Ninja were historically referred to as “shinobi.” The earliest known written mention of shinobi
dates from the Nanbokucho period (1336 – 1392). Regional variants of the term include rappa,suppa, and kusa. Sengoku (the end of 15c the end of 16c) daimyo, or regioal lords, are known to have
employed their own shinobi, who engaged in intelligence wars as well as combat, often in the vanguard. One of the important tasks assigned to shinobi was breaking into enemy castles ahead ofothers by crossing moats and scaling walls, and to carry out sabotage, arson, or assassination.
Partly because of their proximity to Kyoto, and the natural defensive advantage provided bysurrounding mountains, the regions of Iga and Koka were kept
relatively free of the strong influence of feudal lords. This encouraged autonomy, and inhabitants eventually organized themselves
into armed groups called ikki. These Iga-shu and Koka-shu, as
these communities were known, at times took part in battles asmercenaries hired by neighboring provinces.
The autonomy of Iga and Koka suffered a crushing blow at thehands of Oda Nobunaga’s forces. Following the Honnoji Incident
on the 2nd day of the 6th month of Tensho 10 (1582), however,Iga-mono and Koka-mono (shinobi from Iga and Koka, respectively) aided Tokugawa Ieyasu’s undercover flight from Sakai(Osaka) to his home base in Okazaki (Aichi) via Shiroko (Suzuka,Mie), successfully escorting him through the mountainous
terrains of Iga and Koka. Iga-mono and Koka-mono also served
Ieyasu by fighting in the forefront of many subsequent battles. In
recognition of these services, Ieyasu awarded Iga-mono andKoka-mono residential land near Edo Castle after the bakufu wasestablished in Edo, and employed them as guards of Edo Castle.
Some of the Iga-mono and Koka-mono entered the employment of daimyo, while others remained inIga or Koka to become farmers.
The last battle involving shinobi was the Shimabara Rebellion in Kanei 14 (1637). Once peaceprevailed, and there were no more battles to fight, the main responsibilities of shinobi shifted togathering information on rival domains, and guarding the sankin kotai processions. It was also
around this time that many ninjutsu-sho, or treatises on shinobi knowhow and mindset, started toappear, possibly reflecting the fact that shinobi came to be perceived as a profession in its own right,
as opposed to a genre of military tactics.
Bansenshukai, which draws on the ancient Chinese military treatise The Art of War by Sun Tzu,
as well as many other pieces of military literature and ninjutsu-sho, was compiled in Enpo 4 (1676),prompted by an urgency to preserve for posterity the skills transmitted through generations ofshinobi.
The very last task ever assigned to shinobi is said to be the investigation of Matthew C. Perry’s“black ships” when they arrived off the port of Uraga in Kaei 6 (1853), late Edo period. Shinobi as aprofession ceased to exist thereafter.