Cross-border Human Flowsand Human Security in East
Asia: Implications for
Regional Governance
Tsuneo Akaha
Visiting Professor, Waseda University Graduate Schoolof Asia Pacific Studies
Professor, Monterey Institute of International Studies
August 29, 2008

Scope and Focus• Key concepts: human flows, human security,
regional governance• Human flows: (1) internal; (2) cross-border(Focus here is on [2].)• Human flows and human security: (1) humansecurity factors pushing cross-border flows;(2) human security issues resulting fromcross-border flows (Focus here is on [2].)• Human security impact: (1) on bordercrossing persons; (2) members of hostcommunities (Focus here is on [1].)• Definition of “human security” : (1) freedom from fear(political); (2) freedom from hunger (economic)• Emphasis varies depending on the history, culture,
hegemonic ideology, and economic development of
the society. Diversity among East Asian societies
defies the formation of a uniform definition of “humansecurity” in the region.
• How should the region deal with this reality? Whatrole can regional governance play, to develop ashared view of “human security”?
• Regional and global governance: To what extent has
East Asia accepted the globally shared ideas, values,
norms, rules, and institutions? What are theprospects in the region?

The State of Global Governanceregarding Human Flows andHuman Security• Universal human rights as seen in UN
human rights conventions, etc.
• International human rights conventions
regarding border-crossing individuals• International organizations, NGOs
actively promoting the human securityof border-crossing individuals

International Human Rights
Conventions• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights（Adopted in 1966, went into force in 1976)• International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural
Rights（Adopted in1966, went into force in 1967）• International Convention on the Elimination of All Formsof Racial Discrimination (Adopted in 1965, went into
force in 1969）• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women（Adopted in 1979, went
into force in 1981）• Convention on the Rights of the Child （Adopted in
1989, went into force in 1990）

International Conventions
regarding the Human Rightsof Border-crossing Persons• International Convention on the Protection of
the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Membersof Their Families（Adopted in 1990, went into
force in 2003）• Convention relating to the Status of Refugees（Adopted in 1950, went into force in 1954）• Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees（Adopted in 1967, went into force in 1967）• UN Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime（Adopted in 2001, went into force in
2003）• Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women andChildren, supplementing the United Nations
Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime (Adopted in 2000, went into force in
2003）• Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by
Land, Sea an Air, supplementing the United
Nations Convention against Transnational Crime（Adopted in 2000, went into force in 2004）• ILO Convention concerning Migration for
Employment （ILO Convention 97; adopted
in 1949, went into force in 1952）• ILO Convention concerning Migrations in
Abusive Conditions and the Promotion of
Equality of Opportunity and Treatment of
Migrant Workers（ILO Convention 143;
adopted in 1975, went into force in 1978）

Main International Organizations andGroups Concerned with the Human
Rights of Border-crossing Individuals• IOM (International
Organization for
Migration)• ILO (International Labor
Organization)• UNODC (United Nations
Office on Drugs andCrime)• UNFPA (United Nations
Population Fund)• UNICEF• UNHCR (United Nations
High Commissioner for
Refugees)• OHCHR (Office of theUnited Nations HighCommissioner for Human
Rights)Ratifications of International
Human Rights Conventions inEast Asia

Status of Ratifications by East Asian Countries of Principal International Human Rights Treaties(as of 09 June 2004) and Principal International Conventions concerning Migrants, Refugees, andHuman Trafficking and Smuggling (as of 30 June 2008)

Cambodia
China
DPRK
Indonesia
Japan
Laos
Malaysia
Mongolia
MyanmarPhilippines
ROK
RussiaSingapore
Thailand
Vietnam

CESCR
a
r
a

CCPR
a
r
a

CERD
r
a

r
r

r
r

a
a
a

r

r

r

r
a
r

r
a
r

r
a
a

a
a

a
a

a
a

CEDAW
a
r
a
r
r
r
r
r
a
r
a
r
a
a
r

CRC CMW
a
r
r
r
r
a
a
r
a
r
r
r
a
a
r

RC
a
a

RP
a
a

a

a

a
a
a

CTOC TIPPrr

MSP ILO C097
r

r
r
a
r

s
s
a

s
s
a

a
r
r
r
r
r
r

a
r
s
r

a
r
s

s

s

ILO C143r

CESCR: Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
CCPR: Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
CERD: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
CRC: Convention on the Rights of the Child
CMW: International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workes and Members of Their Families
RC: 1951 Refugee Convention
RP: Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees
CTOC: UN Convnetion against Transnational Organized Crime
TIPP: Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women andChildren, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime
MSP: Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations
Convention against Transnational Organized CrimeILO C097: ILO Convention concerning Migration for Employment (Revised 1949)
ILO C143: ILO Convention concerning Migrations in Abusive Conditions and the Promotion of Equality ofOpportunity and Treatment of Migrant Workers"r": ratification"a": accession"s": signature only
Sources:
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "Status of Ratifications of
the Principal International Human Rights Treaties, as of 09 June 2004," (accessed 30 June 2008).
"United Nations Treaty Collection, as of 5 February 2002"
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/treaty2ref.htm (accessed 30 June 2008).
"United Nations Treaty Collection, as of 5 February 2002," "Protocol relating to the Status of
Refugees" http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/treaty5.htm (accessed 30 June 2008).
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/countrylist.html(accessed 30 June 2008).
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/countrylisttraffickingprotocol.html (accessed 30 June 2008).
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/countrylistmigrantsmugglingprotocol.html (accessed 30 June 2008).
International Labor Organization, http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/ratifce.pl?C097 (accessed 30 June 2008).
International Labor Organization, http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/pdconv.pl?host=status01&textbase(accessed 30 June 2008).

International Human Rights
Conventions Slow in Being
Ratified in East Asia
• International Convention on the Protection of
the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Membersof Their Families• Convention relating to the Status of Refugees• Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees• ILO Convention 97• ILO Convention 143

East Asian Countries Slow in
Ratifying International Human
Rights Conventions• China＿Yet to ratify: CMW, CTOC, TIPP,
MSP, ILO Convention 97, ILO Convention
143• DPRK＿Yet to ratify: CERD, CMW, RC, RP,
CTOC, TIPP, MSP, ILO Convention 97, ILO
Convention 143• Indonesia＿ Yet to ratify: CESCR, CCPR,
CMW, RC, RP, ILO Convention 97, ILO
Convention 143

• Laos＿Yet to ratify: CMW, RC, RP, ILO
Convention 97, ILO Convention 143• Malaysia＿Yet to ratify: CESCR, CCPR,
CERD, CMW, RC, RP, TIPP, MSP, ILO
Convention 97, ILO Convention 143• Mongolia＿Yet to ratify: CMW, RC, RP,
CTOC, TIPP, MSP, ILO Convention 97, ILO
Convention 143• Burma＿Yet to ratify: CESCR, CCPR, CERD,
CMW, RC, RP, ILO Convention 97, ILO
Convention 143

• ROK＿Yet to ratify: CRC, CMW, RP, ILO
Convention 97, ILO Convention 143• Russia＿Yet to ratify: CMW, RP, MSP, ILO
Convention 97, ILO Convention 143• Singapore＿Yet to ratify: CESCR, CCPR,
CERD, CMW, RC, RP, TIPP, MSP, ILO
Convention 97, ILO Convention 143• Thailand＿Yet to ratify: CMW, RC, RP, ILO
Convention 97, ILO Convention 143• Vietnam＿Yet to ratify: CMW, RC, RP, TIPP,
MSP, ILO Convention 97, ILO Convention
143

The State of Cross-border
Human Flows in East Asia

Total Population, Migrant and Refugee Populations
in East Asian Countries
Net migration
Migrant stock
Total
Number of(average annual)
Percentage
Population
refugees a/
NumberLetterNumberRate perCountry or areaof(thousands) (thousands)(thousands)
Code(thousands) 1,000 pop.
population
2005
2005
2004
2000-2005
Eastern Asia
1,524,380
6,497
0.4
303
-300
-0.2
China
1,315,844
596
I
0.0
299
-390
-0.3
China, Hong Kong SAR
7,041
2,999
B
42.6
2
60
8.8
China, Macao SAR
460
257
B
55.9
..
2
4.4
DPRK
22,488
37
I
0.2
..
0
0.0
Japan
128,085
2,048
C
1.6
2
54
0.4
Mongolia
2,646
9
C
0.3
..
-10
-3.9
ROK
47,817
551
B
1.2
0
-16
-0.3
South-eastern Asia
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
Timor-Leste
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
MyanmarPhilippines
Singapore
Thailand
Viet Nam

555,815374
14,071
947
222,781
5,924
25,34750,51983,054
4,326
64,233
84,238

5,664
124
304
6
160
25
1,639
117
374
1,843
1,050
21

B
C
I
C
C
B
C
C
B
C
C

1.0
33.2
2.2
0.6
0.1
0.4
6.5
0.2
0.5
42.6
1.6
0.0

149
..
0
0
0
..
25
..
0
0
121
2

-333
1
-2
16
-200
-1
30
14
-180
40
-10
-40

-0.6
2.0
-0.1
19.2
-0.9
-0.2
1.2
0.3
-2.3
9.6
-0.2
-0.5

Remittances
Total b/ (Millions of US
dollars)

Percentage
of GDP

2004..
21,283
240
..
..
931
56
832

..
1
0
..
..
0
4
0

..
..
138
..
1,700
1
987
78
11,634
..
1,622
3,200

..
..
3
..
1
0
1
1
13
..
1
7

Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, “International Migration 2006,”
October 2006, http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/2006Migration̲Chart/2006IttMig̲chart.htm (accessed 4
July 2008).

Trends in International Labor
Migration in East Asia
Labor Exporting
Philippines

Cambodia

Laos

Indonesia

Vietnam

Burma

ROK

TaiwanSingapore

Hong Kong

BruneiChina

Labor Importing
Japan

Labor Exporting &ImportingThailand

Malaysia

Source: Graeme Hugo, “Migration in the Asia Pacific Region,”A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis
And Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration, September 2005, p. 8.

Southeast Asian Nationals Working Aborad
Country of origin

Estimated number

Main destination countries/areas

Burma

1,100,000

ThailandThailand

340,000

Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Burma,
Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia

Laos173,000

ThailandCambodia

200,000

Malaysia, Thailand

Vietnam

340,000

ROK, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan

Philippines

4,750,000

Middle East, Malaysia, Thailand,
ROK, Hong Kong, Taiwan

Malaysia

250,000

Japan, Taiwan

Singapore

150,000

Indonesia

2,000,000

Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan,
Singapore, ROK, UAE

Source: Graeme Hugo, “Migration in the Asia Pacific Region,”A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis
And Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration, September 2005, p. 9.

Northeast Asian Nationals Working Aborad
Country of EstimatedoriginnumberChina
530,000
DPRK

300,000

Main destination
countries/areas
Middle East, Asia Pacific,
AfricaChina

ROK632,000

Japan

Japan

61,000Hong Kong

Source: Graeme Hugo, “Migration in the Asia Pacific Region,”A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis
And Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration, September 2005, p. 9.

@KSW ?KLX[9UX̀¥PX[EOa KWN
8W]O[]
KSWV OW]SW 8K¥
]4 ¥
SK

"%'&
#$!: [KOV O ; ^Q
X$d@SQ[K]
SXW SW ]RO 4 ¥SK CKMSPSM DOQ
SXW$
e4 Y
KY
O[Y
[
OY
K[
ON PX[]RO CXUSMb 4 WKUb¥
S¥
4 WN DO¥
OK[
MR C[
XQ
[
KV V O XP]
RO : UXLKU6 XV V S¥¥
SXW XW <W]O[WK]SXWKU@SQ[K]
SXW$EOY]OV LO[*(( -$Y&) 1&

Main Illegal Migration Flows inEast Asia

Source: Graeme Hugo, “Migration in the Asia Pacific Region,”A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis
And Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration, September 2005, p. 22.

Countries of Origin of Human Trafficking
Victims (based on reported cases)Destinations of Human Trafficking Victims(based on reported cases)

Refugee Population in Asia

UNHCR, “Global Report 2007,” p. 120.

Main Countries of Origin of
Refugees

Source: UNHCR, “2007 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Returnees, Internally Displaced
and Stateless Persons,” June 2008, p. 9.

Countries of Origin of New Asylum Seekers 2007

Source: UNHCR, “2007 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers,Returnees, Internally Displaced andStateless persons,” June 2008, p. 15.

Human Rights Problems
Facing Border-crossing
Persons• Universal problems• Particular features within East Asia
– Legacies of history– Issues arising out of cultural background– Issues arising out of differences in politicalsystems– Issues arising out of differences in economic
development

Need to Establish a Human
Security Regime for Bordercrossing Persons in East Asia
• Problems with ratification and compliance foruniversal human rights conventions• Problems with ratification and compliance forconventions regarding human rights of bordercrossing persons• Border-crossing persons are increasing and expected
to continue to increase.
• Hence, the need to establish a human security
regime for the protection of human rights of bordercrossing persons in the region.

Required Elements of Regional
Governance for the Human Rights of
Border-crossing Persons in East Asia
• Shared recognition of border-crossing human flows
as reality and human security as need
• Recognition of the need to establish regional
governance• Establishment and universalization of basic principles
in regional governance• Organization and institutionalization for regional
governance• International aid and cooperation for capacity building• International cooperation at the global level• Cooperation with other regions

Regional Consultative Processes
regarding Border-crossing Persons inEast Asia: Main Examples• Manila Process (est. 1996)• Inter-Governmental Asia-Pacific
Consultations on Refugees, Displaced
Persons, and Migrants (APC) (1996)• Bali Ministerial Conference on People
Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons, andRelated Transnational Crime (Bali
Conference) (2002).

Regional Consultative Processes:
Common Principles•

Promotion of exchange of information toward a
common understanding of migration issues;•Protection of the fundamental human rights of
migrants, including the right to non-discrimination;•
Reinforcement of efforts to prevent and combat
irregular migration including smuggling andtrafficking; and•Facilitation of voluntary return as a strategy to
reduce irregular migration(Source: IOM, "World Migration, 2003”)

Preliminary Recommendations for
National Measures regarding Crossborder Human Flows
•
•

•
•

National measures should accord with international rules andstandards.
The interests of all stake-holders should be represented,
including diplomatic, labour, social welfare, public safety, childwelfare, police, and local government agencies; management,labour, lawyers, human rights advocacy groups, women’sgroups, education community.
Bilateral agreements should not result in discriminatory
treatment of individuals of different nationalities.
National measures should be harmonized and adopt the bestpractices rather than seeking the least common denominator
practices.