POST'-HARVEST PROFILE OF MANDARIN2009

GOVERNMENT OF INDIAMINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE(DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE & COOPERATION)
DIRECTORATE OF MARKETING & INSPECTION
BRANCH HEAD OFFICE NAGPUR

MRIN-01

PREFACE
India has made a fairly good progress on the horticulture map of the world
with a total annual production of the Horticulture Crops touching over 149 million
tones. India has also been bestowed with wide range of climate and physiogeographical conditions and as such is most suitable for growing various kinds ofhorticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, nuts, spices and plantation
crops.
Mandarin (Citrus reticulate Blanco) is one of the important Horticultural
Crops, grown mainly in Assam, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
The profile on mandarin has been prepared on the recommendation of theInter-Ministerial task Force on Agricultural Marketing Reform (May-2002). The
main object of the profile is aimed at to facilitate producers to know when, where
and how to market the produce to get better prices on one hand and also to help .thetraders as well as the research scholars on other hand.
The profile covers all aspects of Post-harvest management i.e. collection.
curing, pretreatment, grading, packaging, pre-cooling, low temperature storage.
pallet loading, transportation, market practices, marketing channels, marketingproblems, institutional facilities, marketing services, marketing information andextension, various government schemes, etc.
The profile has been prepared by Shri M.P.Parashar, Marketing Officer.
under the supervision and guidance of Shri P.G.Choudhari, the then SeniorMarketing Officer, Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Branch Head Office,Nagpur and overall guidance of Shri Rakesh Saxena, Deputy Agricultural Marketing
Adviser Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Branch Office, Nagpur.
The Directorate of Marketing and Inspection acknowledge the assistance andcoordination extended by the Regional and sub-offices of the Directorate and various
institutions /organizations in supplying the relevant data/ information required forcompilation of this profile.
The Govt. of India should not be regarded as assuming responsibilities forany of the statements/contents, in this profile.

FaridabadDate:
12/11/2010-sd(Rajendra Kumar Tiwari)
Agricultural Marketing Adviser
to the Govt. of India

POST-HARVEST PROFILE OF MANDARINCONTENTS

Page No.

1.0 Introduction

1-4

1.1 Comparative composition of Mandarin

2

1.2 More than vitamin C

3

1.3 Economic Importance3

1.4 Botanical description

3

2.0 Production

5-13

2.1 Major producing countries in the world5

2.2 Major producing states in India

8

2.3 Varieties

12

3.0 Post-harvest Management

14-57

3.1 Pre-harvest factors influencing thepost-harvest management

14

3.2 Maturity

14

3.3 Harvesting15

3.4 Post-harvest operations

18i

3.6 Post-harvest losses

46

3.7 Main causes of post-harvest losses

52

3.8 Technology for reducing post-harvest losses

53

4.0 Post-harvest Diseases and Disorders

58-60

4.1 Principal post-harvest Diseases and Disorders 58

5.0 Marketing

61-64

5.1 Pre-harvest contractors

62

5.2 Wholesalers

62

5.3 Packing centers owners

63

5.4 Retailers

63

5.5 Marketing channels

63

5.6 Strategy for efficient marketing64

6.0 Marketing Cost and Margins

65-67

6.1 Marketing costs

65

6.2 Marketing margins

67

ii

7.0 Export and Import

68-70

7.1 Export

68

7.2 Import

69

7.3 Agri-Export Zones

70

8.0 Processing and Uses

71-76

8.1 Processing

71

8.2 Processed product72

8.3 Uses73

8.4 Other uses

74

8.5 Citrus by-product recovery

75

8.6 Toxicity

75

9.0 Marketing Information and Extension

77-83

9.1 Marketing information

77

9.2 Marketing extension

77

9.3 Sources of marketing information

78

9.4 Kissan call centers80

10.0 Alternative system of marketing

84-86

10.1 Direct Marketing84

10.2 Contract marketing84

10.3 Cooperative marketing

85

iii

11.0 Institutional Facilities

87-99

11.1 Marketing related schemes of government/87

public sectors
11.2 Institutional credit facilities

93

11.3 Short terms and medium terms loans

95

11.5 Organizations/ agencies providing

95

marketing services

Annexure:
Annexure I

Terminal Markets Complex

iv

100

1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mandarin is a group name for a class of oranges withthin, loose peel. These are treated as members of a distinct
species, Citrus reticulata Blanco. The name "tangerine" could
be applied as an alternate name to the whole group, but in the
trade, it is usually confined to the types with red-orange skin.
Mandarins include a diverse group of citrus fruits that arecharacterized by bright coloured peel and pulp, excellent
flavor, easy-to-peel rind and segments that separate easily
The exact location of origin of Mandarin fruits is not clearly identified. It isbelieved that Mandarins is a native of southeastern Asia and the Philippines. The spreadof Mandarins from Asia to Europe was slow. First, it was taken to North Africa and thenprobably by the fall of the Roman Empire, it entered the South of Europe, where it
flourished in the Middle Ages. It is also believed that Mandarins were brought toAmerica by the Spaniards (Columbus took seeds of citrus fruits with him in his secondtrip) and then by the Portuguese in their exploration trips of the New World, around year
1500. In Asia, it is most abundantly grown in Japan, southern China, and India.
Mandarin is very important fruit crop, second only to banana. It is usuallyconsumed in raw form or in fruit salads as well as juice. The fruit consists of threelayers.
1) The outer yellow/orange peel is with oil glands which exude the essential oils,
producing the typical orange odor.
2) The whitish thread like mesocarp.
3) The endocarp consisting of 8 - 10 segments filled with juice sacs (vesicles).
Mandarins are rich in Ascorbic acid (13 – 54 mg per 100 g of edible portion) andCalcium (25 – 46 mg per 100 g of edible portion). They are a great source of Vitamin C.
One orange actually has all the Vitamin C that one needs for the day. The water content
in the fruit is nearly 80 per cent to 90 per cent of edible portion. The chemicalcomposition of the Mandarin is as under.

2

Table No. 1
Chemical Composition of Mandarin(Per 100 g of edible portion)
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Carotene
Thiamine
Riboflavin
NiacinAscorbic Acid

82.6-90.2 g
0.61-0.215 g
0.05-0.32 g
0.3-0.7 g
0.29-0.54 g
25.0-46.8 mg
11.7-23.4 mg
0.17-0.62 mg
0.013-0.175 mg
0.048-0.128 mg
0.014-0.041 mg
0.199-0.38 mg
13.3-54.4 mg

Source: Morton, J. 1987. Mandarin, Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
1.1 Comparative composition of Mandarins of different places:
The composition of Mandarins may differ, depending upon the place of growing,
A comparative statement of composition of mature Mandarins, grown at different
places, is given in table No. 2
Table No. 2
Composition of mature Mandarin
Composition
Nagpur Mandarins
Coorg Mandarins
Kinnow
Mrig bahar
Ambia bahar Main crop Monsoon crop Outer fruit Inner fruit
Average weight
100
125
101
97
145
189
of fruit (g.)
Peel (g.)
27
20
2.62
2.67
0.46
0.45
Juice(g)
45
55
49.5
54.0
38.6
40.2
Pomace (g.)
28
25
42.0
39.3
0
TSS ( Brix)
11-14
8-10
11.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
Acidity(asanhydrous 0.3
0.5
0.87
1.1
0.77
0.64
citric acid) (%)
Essential oil
2.2
3.1(%) (v/w)
Pectin (%)
4.5
3.5(fresh wt. basis)
Ascorbic acid
35.0
33.6
40.2
41.6
18.8
18.7
(mg/100 ml juice)
Source: Mandarin in India- CFTRI, Mysore

3

1.2 MORE THAN VITAMIN C:
Citrus is most commonly thought of as a good source of vitamin C. However,fruits also contain an impressive list of other essential nutrients, including bothglycaemic and non-glycaemic carbohydrate (sugars and fibre), potassium, folate,calcium, thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, riboflavin,pantothenic acid and a variety of phytochemicals. Citrus contains no fat or sodium. The
average energy value of fresh citrus is also low, which can be very important for
consumers concerned about putting on excess body weight. A medium orange contains
60 to 80 kcal, a grapefruit 90 kcal and a tablespoon (15 ml) of lemon juice only 4 kcal
(Whitney and Rolfes, 1999).
Table no 3.
Nutritional facts about citrus fruit
OrangeGrapefruit

Tangerine

Weight (g)

131

236

84

Energy (kcal)

62

78

37

Fibre content (g)

3.1

2.5

1.7

Ascorbic acid (mg)

70

79

26

Folate (mcg)

40

24

17

Potassium (mg)

237

350

132

Source: Gutherie and Picciano, 1995.
1.3 Economic Importance:
Mandarins are rich in vitamin A, B, C and phosphorus, which are consumed freshor in the form of juice, jam, squash and syrup. It is one of the main source of peel oil andcitric acid.
1.4 Botanical description
Kingdom:
Division:
Class:
Subclass:
Order:
Family:Genus:
Species:

Plantae
Magnoliophyta
Magnoliopsida
Rosidae
Sapindales
Rutaceae
Citrusreticulata

4

Mandarin is a citrus fruit of the species
Citrus reticulata. It is distinguished from othercitrus species by the relatively loose skin of the
fruits, the relative ease with which the segments
can be separated, and (in most cultivars) thegreen cotyledons.
Mostly, the Mandarin tree is more erectthan other kinds of citrus trees and many
exhibits a drooping habit because of rather
long, willowy branches. The wood is somewhat
more brittle than other citrus and branch breakage is common under heavy fruit bearing
unless some support is provided. Most varieties of Mandarin are self-pollinated, butsome of the hybrids are self-incompatible and will produce few fruit in the absence ofsuitable varieties for cross pollination. Mandarin tends to alternate bearing, with a heavy
crop in one year followed by a lighter crop in the next season.

5

2.0 PRODUCTION
2.1 MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD:
2.1.1 Area:
Mandarins are grown in the tropical/sub tropical region 350 N to 350 S of equator.
Brazil, China, Egypt, Japan, India, Iran, Italy, Mexico, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, and USA
are the main Mandarin producing countries. During 2009, the total acreage under the
Mandarin was 2159.170 thousand hectares. The area under Mandarin in China wasmaximum i.e., 1374.162 thousand hectares (63.64 per cent), followed by Spain 122.000
thousand hectares (5.65 per cent). The area under Mandarin in Italy was 38.300 thousand
hectares (1.77 per cent) and in Argentina, it was 32.000 thousand hectares (1.48 per cent)
The important country-wise area under Mandarin, from 2007 to 2009 is given intable No 4.
Table No 4.
Area of Mandarins during 2007, 2008 and 2009
Quantity in ‘000 hectares.
Sl. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Country
Argentina
Brazil
China
Egypt
Iran
Italy
Japan
Pakistan
Spain
ThailandTurkeyOthersWorld

Source: FAO

2007
32.00059.6371360.399
93.34638.00036.12449.40050.235
121.72737.20029.790238.6932146.551

2008
32.00053.8921359.162
94.58235.71834.76049.40050.235119.875
37.20029.920242.682
2139.4262009
32.000NA
1374.162
NANA
38.300NANA
122.000NA
30.770561.938
2159.170

6

Area in 000' hectares (2008)
1600000

1359162

1400000

1200000

1000000

800000600000400000200000119875

94582

53892

32000

35718

34760

49400

50235

Iran

Italy

Japan

Pakistan

37200

29920

ThailandTurkey0
Argentina

Brazil

China

Egypt

Spain

Source: FAO
2.1.2 Production:
The total production of Mandarin during 2009 was 30587.778 thousand tones.
The share of China in world production was 17772.593 thousand tones (58.10 per cent)and was the highest. During the same period, the production of Mandarin in Spain was
2026.200 thousand tones (6.62 per cent) and in Italy, it was 880.500 thousand tones(2.88 per cent).
Table No 5, shows the country-wise production of Mandarin, during 2007, 2008,
and 2009.
Table No. 5
Production of Mandarin during 2007, 2008 and 2009 Quantity in ‘000tones
Sl. NoCountry
2007
2008
2009
520.000
520.000
520.000
1
Argentina
1205.580
1079.697
NA2
Brazil15184.608
17122.593
17772.593
3
China
748.395
758.105760.000
4
Egypt
622.000
581.734
NA5
Iran
591.526786.119880.500
6
Italy1066.000
1066.000NA
7Japan
640.000
640.000
NA
8
Pakistan
1987.432
2212.700
2026.200
9Spain
670.000
670.000
NA
10
Thailand744.339756.473846.390
11
Turkey3824.060
3842.378
7782.095
12
Others27803.940
30035.799
30587.778
13
World
Source: FAO

7

Production in 000' tones (2008)
18000000

17122593

16000000

14000000

12000000

10000000

8000000

6000000

4000000
2212700
2000000

1079697
520000758105581734786119

Egypt

Iran

Italy

1066000

640000670000756473ThailandTurkey0
Argentina

Brazil

China

Japan

Pakistan

Spain

Source: FAO

2.1.3 Productivity:
Though, during 2009, China and Spain stood first and second respectively in areaand production of Mandarin but in respect of productivity, Turkey was the leading
country having the yield (275069 Kg./hact.) followed by Italy (229895 Kg./hact.). The
productivity of Mandarin, in Egypt, during the same period was the lowest i.e. 80353
Kg. / hact. The overall production per hectare of Mandarin in the world was 141664 Kg.
/hact.
The country-wise yield of Mandarin, during 2007, 2008 and 2009 is given in table No
6.

Sl. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Table No 6.
Productivity of Mandarin during 2007, 2008 and 2009 (Kg/ha)
Country
2007
2008
2009
162500162500162500Argentina
202153
200344
200344
Brazil111618125979129334
China
80174
80153
80353
Egypt
163684
162868162868Iran163748226156229895Italy215789215789215789Japan
127401
127401
127401
Pakistan
163269184583166081
Spain
180107180107180107
Thailand
249862252831275069Turkey129528140391
141664World

Source: FAO

8

Productivity in Kg/hect.

Ar
ge
nt
in
a
Br
az
i
Ch l
in
a
Eg
yp
t
Ira
n
Ita
ly
Ja
Pa pankistanSpTh ain
ai
la
n
Tu d
rk
ey

25000020000015000010000050000
0Source: FAO
2.2 MAJOR PRODUCING STATES IN INDIA:
Assam, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu are the main Mandarin producing states in India.
In Maharashtra, the Mandarins are mainly grown at Satpura hills (Vidharba
region) while in West Bengal they are grown at the hilly slopes of Darjeeling. In
Karnataka, Coorg is the main producing area. In Tamil Nadu, Wynad, Nilgiri, Palney
and Shevroy hills are the major Mandarin growing belts. The hills of Meghalaya (Khasi,
Dusha, Garo, Jaintia), Mizoram, Tripura, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh are the others
Mandarin growing states. Similarly, Assam, Brahmaputra valley and Dibrugarh districts
are famous for Mandarin production.
The state-wise Mandarin growing belt is given in the table No. 7
Table No. 7
State-wise Mandarin growing beltStateGrowing and Potentials belts

Assam

Tinsukia, NC Hills, Karbi Anglong, Kamrup, Goalpara,
Dhemaji, Jorhat

Karnataka

Chikmagalore, Kodagu, Hassan, Bijapur, Gulbarga, Bagalkot

Madhya Pradesh

Chhindwara, Mandsaur, Betul, Ujjain, Shajapur, Khandwa,
Khargone, Dhar, Ratlam

Maharashtra

Nagpur, Akola, Amravati, Wardha

Meghalaya

East & West Khasi, Ri-Bhoi, Garo hills, Jaintia hills

MizoramAizwalNagaland

Wokha, Tuensang

OrissaGajapati, Ganjam, Keonjhar, Kalahandi, Phulbani, Mayurbhanj,
Sundergarh, Bargarh, Sambalpur

9

Rajasthan

Jhalawad, Kota

Tamil Nadu

Dindigul, Salem, Nilgiris

West Bengal

Darjeeling2.2.1 AREA:
The total area of Mandarin, during 2008-09 was 245.49 thousand hectares in the
country. Maharashtra is the main Mandarin producing state in the country, having thehighest area 126.00 thousand hectares (51.33 per cent), followed by Madhya Pradesh,
31.47 thousand hectares (12.82 per cent) and Meghalaya 10.06 thousand hectares (4.09
per cent) during the same period. More than 65 per cent of the total area under Mandarin
in India is in these three important Mandarin growing states. In other Mandarin growing
states, the area was less than 4 per cent, of the total area covered under Mandarin in the
country. The state-wise area of Mandarin is given in table No. 8
Table No 8.
State-wise area under Mandarin for the year 2007-08 and 2008-09
Area in ‘000 hectares.
Sl. No.
State
2007-08
2008-09
1
Assam
8.20
8.50
2
Karnataka
1.73
1.84
3
Madhya Pradesh
16.56
31.47
4
Maharashtra
125.66126.005
Manipur
3.84
4.14
6
Meghalaya
8.31
10.06
7
Rajasthan
7.60
8.29
8
West Bengal
3.74
3.74
9
Others
42.44
51.45
10
Total
218.13245.49Source: National Horticulture Board

10

Area in 000' hect.(2008-09)

51.45
3.74

8.50

Assam

1.84

Karnataka

31.47

Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra

8.29

Manipur

10.06

Meghalaya

4.14

126.00RajasthanWest Bengal
Others

Source: National Horticulture Board
2.2.2 Production:
The total production of Mandarin in India during 2008-09 was 1633.95 thousand
tones. The share of Maharashtra in Mandarin production was the highest with 39.41 percent (644.00 thousand tones) of the total production of the country, followed by Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Assam with 30.82 per cent, 9.64 per cent, and 5.71 per centrespectively. These four states account for more than 85 per cent of Mandarin productionin India.
The production of Mandarin for the year 2007-08 and 2008-09 is given in table
No. 9
Table No 9.
State-wise production of Mandarin for the year 2007-08 and 2008-09
Production in ‘000 tones.
Sl. No.
State
2007-08
2008-09
1
Assam
89.92
93.39
2
Karnataka
35.48
36.55
3
Madhya Pradesh
264.94503.584Maharashtra
796.06644.005
Manipur
28.38
31.97
6
Meghalaya
34.85
43.10
7
Rajasthan
96.00
157.468West Bengal
36.45
36.45
9
Others
79.65
87.45
10
Total
1461.74
1633.95
Source: National Horticulture Board

11

Production in 000' tones (2008-09)
87.45

36.45
157.46

Assam
93.39
36.55

Karnataka
Madhya Pradesh

43.10
31.97

Maharashtra
503.58Manipur
Meghalaya
Rajasthan

644.00West Bengal
Others

Source: National Horticulture Board
2.2.3 Productivity:
During 2008-09, the productivity of Mandarin was highest in Karnataka state i.e.
19.8 tones/hect. and in Rajasthan it was 19.0 tones/hect. Though Maharashtra washighest Mandarin producing state but the productivity was only 5.1 tones/hect.
The state-wise productivity of Mandarin, during 2007-08 and 2008-09 is given intable No. 10.
Table No 10.
State-wise Yield of Mandarin for the year 2007-08 and 2008-09
Productivity in tones per hectare.
State
2007-08
2008-09

Sl.
No.
1
Assam
2
Karnataka
3
Madhya Pradesh
4
Maharashtra
5
Manipur
6
Meghalaya7
Rajasthan
8
West Bengal
9
Others10
Total
Source: National Horticulture Board

11.00
19.80
16.00
6.30
7.40
4.20
12.60
9.70
1.90
6.70

11.00
19.80
16.00
5.10
7.70
4.30
19.00
9.70
1.70
6.70

12

19

16

9.7
4.3

Others1.7
WestBengal7.7

Rajasthan

Maharashtra

MadhyaPradesh5.1

Meghalaya

11

Manipur

19.8

Karnataka

25
20
15
10
5
0

Assam

Tones per hect.

Pictorial Display of Productivity of Mandarin
2008-09

Source: National Horticulture Board
2.3 Varieties:
The state-wise and location-wise important Mandarin varieties grown in India are
as under.
StatesActual Locations
Varieties
Assam

Tinsukia
andDibrugarh
districts: Khasi orange, Assam orange
Nagajanka in Jorhat district, Majbat in
Darrang district, Jatinga valley in northCachar hill district; and in Kamrup district

Haryana

Sirsa, Hissar, Jind. Ambala andKurukshetra

Kinnow orange (hybrid
Mandarin )Karnataka

Coorg, Hassan and Chickmangalur
districts

Coorg Mandarin and Kodagu
KittaleMaharashtra

Nagpur, Amraoti and Wardha districts

Nagpur Santra

OrissaHilly areas of Koraput, Ganjam, Phulbani
and Dhenkanal and Sambalpur
Nilgiri, Palni, Shevroy and Yerkaud falls.

MandarinWest Bengal

Three hill-sub divisions of Darjeeling
district

Khasi orange, Mandarinorange or Darjeeling orange

Punjab

Kinnow orange successfully grownthroughout the state.

Kinnow orange (hybrid
Mandarin).

Tamil Nadu

Nagpur Graft, Kodai /Kamala and Coorg

13

In Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, Nagpur Santra variety is grown, while in West
Bengal and north-east states Khasi orange variety is grown. In Karnataka, Coorg variety
is popular. In Haryana and Punjab Kinnow orange (hybrid Mandarin) is grown.

2.3.1Characteristics:
The characteristics of important Mandarin varieties are as under

Name of the Variety/ Area

Characteristics

Khasi Orange (Assam andMeghalaya)

Fruits globose to oblate, surface smooth, colour
orange-yellow to bright orange, rind thin with very
little adherence, segments usually 10, pulp vesicles
uniformly orange, texture coarse, juice abundantwith well-blended flavour.

Coorg Orange (Karnataka)

Fruits oblate, colour bright yellow and uniform,
rind medium thick with little adherence, segments
usually between 9 to 11, pulp yellow with finetexture and abundant juice

Kinnow Orange(Punjab and Haryana)

The fruit is medium-size somewhat oblate in shape,rind moderately thick, adherence with the pulp
quite strong, thick mesocarp, easily peelable
surface, smooth and glossy, fruit colour yellowish
orange at full maturity, segments 9 to 10, firm,
pulp yellowish orange, very juicy somewhat acidic.
The variety is cold resistant.

Darjeeling Orange(West Bengal and Sikkim)

Fruits are comparatively smaller in size somewhat
flat in shape, colour yellowish to orange when fullyripe, rind thin, adherence little, juice abundant andsweet flavour.

Nagpur Oranges(Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu Bihar)

Fruits are yellowish green to orange, oblate, rind
thin, fine texture and good flavour and taste. Size ismedium and the skin is easily peelable.

14

3.0 POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT
Post harvest management is the technology of handling of an agricultural
produce after harvest to prolong the shelf life, freshness and an attractive appearance.
Nearly, 20-25 per cent of fruits are wasted due to faulty Post-harvest management during
harvesting, packaging, storage, grading and transportation etc. Proper scientific postharvest management can minimize these losses. Like post-harvest management, theproper pre-harvest steps such as use of proper harvesting tools and assessment of
maturity also improve the shelf life of the fruits and reduce the post-harvest losses to agreat extent.
3.1 Pre-harvest factors influencing the post-harvest management:
Once the fruits are harvested, then the overall quality of fresh fruits can hardly be
improved. The final market value of the produce depends upon the grower’s ability toapply best available pre-harvest technology and subsequent harvesting and then postharvest technology.
The pre-harvest technology, like use of fertilizers, pest control, growth
regulators, climatic conditions like wet and windy weather and tree conditions,influences the fruit potentiality for storage by modifying physiology, chemicalcomposition and morphology of fruits. In pre-harvest treatment, if the spray (10 ppm) ofGibberellic acid is done at colour break stage, it delays colour development, maintainfirmness, thereby allows to extend harvesting period. Similarly, the use of potassium
fertilizers extends the shelf life of the fruits.
3.2 Maturity – (Harvest maturity and Physiological maturity):
3.2.1 Harvest maturity:
A critical time for producers is the assessment of right maturity, as to when to
harvest a crop. Normally, any type of fresh produce is ready for harvest when it hasdeveloped all ideal conditions for consumption. This condition is usually referred to a
harvest maturity. Harvest maturity of horticultural produce depends mostly on the
purpose and distance of market for which they are harvested. The deciding factors of
harvest maturity are appearance (colour, size, and shape), texture, glossiness, hardness,
pulpiness, smell (aroma or odour), and tastes (sweetness, sourness, bitterness).
3.2.2 Physiological maturity:
In physiological sense, however, maturity refers to attainment of final stage of
biological function by a plant part or plant as a whole. Thus the physiological maturity
differs from harvest maturity

15

The maturity of harvested fruits has an important role on shelf life, quality andmarket price. Hence, certain standards of maturity must be kept in mind while harvesting
the fruits. However, the most commonly used measures to access maturity for
harvesting the Mandarin is peel colour. Fruits are considered mature, if they have ayellow orange colour on 25% or more of the fruit surface. Fruit quality for harvesting
depends upon SS (soluble solids contents, sugar) and acidity of the juice. The juice
should have a SS of 8.5% or higher. SS content is determined by squeezing a few dropsof juice on a hand-held refractometer.
3.3 Harvesting:
Mandarins are mostly hand plucked, using ladders rested on bamboo support, toprevent the tearing of branches bearing fruits. The quality of the produce is greatly
affected by the damages/injuries during the harvesting. Therefore, great care should betaken during harvesting/plucking the fruits.
The plucking of fruits should not be carried out during wet weather or earlymorning when fruits are turgid and can easily be bruised, leading to decay during
subsequent handling. Mandarin fruit tend to "plug" when snapped from the tree, i.e., apiece of the peel from the fruit remains attached to the stalk. It is preferable to use
clippers to clip the fruit from the tree to avoid damage. The other cause of deteriorationin the fruit quality is harvesting of immature or over mature fruits. Similarly, fruits are
spoiled when they are harvested by pulling the fruit, causing rupturing of the peel ofloose skin of the fruits. Harvested fruits need careful handling, till they reach theconsumers.
3.3.1 Harvesting stage:
Generally, the Mandarins are harvested in 32-36 weeks after the fruit is set. In
Coorg district, the fruits are harvested in 36-38 weeks; otherwise there is every
possibility of shriveling of fruits and heavy drops. The colour of the rind also indicates
the time of harvesting of the fruits. The criteria, depending on colour of rind forassessing the fruit maturity in some of the states are as under.
Place

Colour of rindi) West Bengal
High altitude
Low altitude

Greenish tinge
Orange yellowii) Arunachal Pradeshiii) Haryanaiv) Meghalayav) Punjabvi) Madhya Pradeshvii) Maharashtra

Colour changes from green to orange
colour changes from green to dark yellow
colour changes from green to deep orange
Yellow
Colour changes from green to orange
Colour changes from green to orange

16

3.3.2 Harvesting technique:
Suitable application of harvesting technique is very important to prevent thelosses during post-harvest handling. Fruits should be clipped in such a way that the
button remains intact with the fruits. Sometimes, longer stalk portion of the clipped fruits
left during harvesting, pierces into other fruits and causes injuries in them that paves theway for attack of wound pathogen. Therefore, while clipping the stalk should be cut
close to the fruit, so as to preclude it from puncturing the rind of other fruit during
harvest and handling.

3.3.3 Precautions during harvesting:
Harvesting is considered to be the most important factor, governing the postharvest management. Therefore, following precaution should be taken during harvesting.
i)
ii)

iii)

iv)
v)
vi)

vii)
viii)

ix)
x)

Harvesting should be done by using appropriate instruments like clippers
or by carefully twisting and pulling the fruit from the tree.
The harvesting under wet conditions should be avoided, since wet fruits
are more susceptible to microbial growth and soil particles may cling to
wet crops, exposing them to soil-borne rot organisms.
Harvesting of fruits is best done in the late morning, because in the earlymorning the oil glands of the fruits are full and cause immediate
discolouration.
Care should be taken at the time of plucking the fruit that the button
remains attached to the fruit.
Stalk left on the fruit should be cut off close to fruit because they canpuncture other fruit, causing injury and fruit spoilage.
The tree should never be shaked to harvest the fruits. Do not allow thefruit to fall on the soil, as the impact leads to mechanical injury, thatmakes fruit more prone to decay.
After harvesting, fruits should never be left in direct sunlight and must be
kept in the shade
To avoid contact with the soil, the harvested fruits should be carefully put
into padded field crates, well-ventilated plastic containers, or picking
bags.
Picking bags made with a quick-opening bottom, should be either
strapped around the waist or put over the shoulder of the picker.
Picking bags should be so designed to empty from the bottom so thatfruits can roll out of the sack onto the bottom of a larger field container oratop fruits already present.

The state-wise season of harvesting and method of harvesting of Mandarin isgiven in table No. 11

17

Table No. 11
Season and method of harvesting
Sl.
State
No.
1
2
1
Assam

Start ofseason3
October4
February

2

HaryanaNovemberMarch

5
Use of clippers andtwisting
Hand plucking

3

Karnataka
SummerMonsoonMadhya Pradesh
I
II

December
June

February
AugustTwisting angularly or
using a pair of clippers

January
NovemberFebruary
December

Hand plucking

October
February
NovemberNovemberNovemberNovemberJanuary end
Mid May
February
January
January
March

Hand plucking

January

April

November
15 July

January
15 September

November
15 July

January
15 September

NovemberJuly

February
September

November
DecemberNovemberJanuary
February
January

4

5

6
7
8
9
10

11

12
13

Maharashtra
I
II
Meghalaya
Mizoram
NagalandPunjabRajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Kodai Hills
Main season
Off season
Shevray Hills
Main season
Off season
Nilgiris
Main season
Off season
TripuraI
IIWest Bengal

End of season

Method of harvesting

Hand plucking
Hand plucking
Traditional hand plucking
Hand plucking, cuttingwith scissors
Hand plucking

Hand plucking

Hand plucking
Hand plucking

Source: DMI survey
It is evident from the table No 10. , that in the states like Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Tripura, the harvesting of Mandarin isundertaken twice a year. In Karnataka, the season of harvesting is December to February(summer crop), and June to August (Monsoon) crop. While in Madhya Pradesh, both theharvesting seasons are of very short duration i.e., November to December (I season) andJanuary to February (II season). In Maharashtra, the first harvesting commences in

18

October and lasts till the end of January/February (Ambia season), the period of second
harvesting is from February to mid May (Mrug Bahar). Similarly, in Tamil Nadu, themain season commences in November and lasts up to January / February, the period of
second season namely ‘off season’ is from July to September. In Tripura the duration of
first season is from November to January and second season is from December to
February.
In rest of the Mandarin producing states, the harvesting of fruits is done only
once in a year, as in Assam (October to February), Haryana and Punjab (November tomarch), Meghalaya (November to February), Mizoram (November to January),
Nagaland and West Bengal (November to January) and Rajasthan (January to April).
Regarding method of harvesting, the traditional method i.e., hand plucking
method is generally used in all the Mandarin growing states. In this traditional method,
the fruits are twisted angularly and plucked. In the states like Assam and Karnataka, theclippers are also used for plucking of the fruits.

3.4 Post Harvest operations:
The adoption of best post-harvest management technique can extend shelf-lifeand quality of the fruits. Curing and washing, degreening, grading, packaging, storage,transportation and marketing etc., are the main post harvest operations.
3.4.1 Curing and washing:
During the curing, field heat of the fruit is brought down, this helps in stabilizing
the metabolic process. The fruits are spread on the floor in orchard’s yard, having thecushion of paddy straw for nearly 24 hrs and then washed to remove the dirt. By
washing the original colour and luster of the fruits is also recovered.
The application of food grade wax, kaolin or similar coating, can also be used toenhance the appearance and minimize water loss. To prevent the fungal growth, proper
fungicide in prescribed quantity is used while giving wax treatment.
The post packing treatment like fumigation and gamma-ray irradiation are
generally practiced for high priced fruits.
3.4.2 Degreening:
Degreening constitutes conversion of chlorophyll of the peel without influencing
the internal quality of the fruit.
In de-greening, the yellow-orange fruits with green spots could be de-greened in
48 hours at 26-28 0 C and 90-95 RH at nearly 5 ppm ethylene concentration.
3.4.3 Grading:
Grading is one of the most important procedures to be followed in post harvest
handling, as it determines the quality, shelf life and price of the fruit. During grading, theproduce is sorted according to the fixed grade standard, taking into consideration various
quality factors to make a homogenous lot.
Post-harvest grading of Mandarin is rarely practiced at the producer’s level. At
the most, the fruits are sorted out, based on physical characteristics like weight, size,
colour, shape and degree of damage on fruits. This type of grading is done by hand insmall operations.

19

In pack houses handling large volume of the produce, semi- automatic gradingmachines are also used, wherein the fruits are passed down on a slow moving conveyor.
This semi automatically grading is very efficient with respect to time, space andquantity. The N.R.C.C., Nagpur has developed a machine for mechanical sorting,washing, waxing and sizing operations.
Some times, hand-held rings called “Fruit Sizer” of different diameters are used
to check the different size categories and help in packing of same size fruits in the one
container.
It is a common experience, the traders generally place best quality fruits at the
top of containers, but this practice neither helps the growers nor traders. Therefore, thegrading of fruits as per accepted quality standards helps farmers, marketing
functionaries, processors, traders and consumers in efficient marketing.
The state-wise grading parameters used for grading of Mandarin and per centage
share graded by different agencies are given in table No 12.
Table No 12.
Grading Parameters used for grading of Mandarins

Sl.
No.

State

AgencyParameters used forgrading

Quantity graded
(%)

1

Assam

All functionaries

Size and colour

N.A.

2

Haryana

All functionaries

Size and colour

Nil

Producers

Size and colour

15

Wholesalers

Size and colour

30

Commission agents

Size and colour

46

Cooperatives,
Processors

Size and colour

1

RetailersSize and colour

22

All functionaries

Size and colour

N.A.

Producers

Size and colour-

Wholesalers

Size and colour

80-85

Commission agents

Size and colour

80

Exporters

Size and colour

100

3

4

5

Karnataka

MadhyaPradeshMaharashtra

20

6

Meghalaya

RetailersSize and colour

N.A.

7

Mizoram

Producers

Size and colour

N.A.

Producers

Size and colour

20

Wholesalers

Size and colour

50

RetailersSize and colour

30

8

9

NagalandPunjabWholesalers

60-65

Cooperatives

4-5

Processor

N.A.

Exporters

10

Rajasthan

N.A.
100

OthersNo

Nil

Producers

Size and colour

10

Wholesalers

Size and colour

40

Commission agents

Size and colour

60

Cooperatives

Size and colour

40

RetailersSize and colour

25

Producers

Shape, Size and colour

100

Commission agents

Shape, Size and colour

0

Wholesalers

Shape, Size and colour

100

11

Tamil Nadu

Retailers

Shape,Size and colour

100

12

TripuraRetailersSize and colour

25

13West Bengal

Producers

Shape,Size and colour

100

Source: DMI survey
From the above table No. 12, it is observed that practice of grading, based on
scientific grade standards is not being followed by any of the agency engaged inmarketing of Mandarins, in the country. At the best, the growers do sorting out toremove immature, rotten or diseased fruits from the bulk and grade according to colour,
shape and size.
It is common practice in almost all the Mandarin producing states that the
producers sell the orchards to the preharvest contractors before commencement of theharvesting season. These merchants harvest the fruits and carry them to different

21markets without undertaking any grading, for sale. In the markets, the grading is
generally done on the basis of colour, shape and size.
3.4.3.1 Advantages of Grading and standardization:
i)
ii)
iii)

Grading is beneficial to the farmers, traders as well as to the consumers,
as it provides common standard to all.
Grading of the produce before sale enables farmers to get better price for
their produce.
Grading assists the producers and other intermediaries in preparing fresh
produce for market with appropriate labeling.

iv)

Grading helps the consumers to get standard quality produce at fair price.

v)

It facilitates the consumer to compare the prices of different qualities of a
produce in the market.

vi)

It assures the quality of the produce and also reduces the cost of themarketing and transportation.

vii)

Produce of similar grade can be stored in bulk.

viii)Market values are better understood.

ix)

Commodities can be bought and sold without inspection, through e-trading.

x)

Grading provides an authentic and scientific basis in promoting and managing themarketing system.

xi)

It serves as a realistic and common basis for market intelligence and reporting.

xii)

It facilitates the settlement of quality disputes between buyers and sellers.

3.4.3.2 Grading at producers’ level:
Though there is no grading of Mandarin at producers level, but there is anincreasing recognition to the fact that producers need to be assisted in grading theirproduce before sale so that they may get better price. For securing adequate returns to
the producer/seller, the scheme of “Grading at Producers’ Level” was introduced in
1962-63 by Directorate of Marketing and Inspection. The main objective of this scheme
is to subject the produce to simple test and assign a grade before it is offered for sale.
After grading, the producers get prices commensurate with the quality of the produce.
The programme is being implemented by the States/Union Territories. At present, somefruits are graded at producer’s level, mainly in the regulated markets of Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal etc. Up to 31-032006, 2051 grading units have been set up in the country.
The total number of producers’ level grading units, as on 31-03-07 are 2143.

22

3.4.3.3 Benefits of Grading at producers’ level:
1. Grading of the produce at producers’ level enable farmers to get higher pricefor their produce as well as it helps the consumers to get standard quality
produce at fair price.
2. Grading not only facilitates the dissemination of prices and market
information but also assist the machinery of distribution at all stages.
3. Grading at producers level helps them to develop suitable marketing strategy.

3.4.4 STANDARDS FOR GRADING OF MANDARINS:
3.4.4.1 CODEX STANDARD FOR CANNED MANDARIN ORANGES 1
CODEX STAN 68-1981
1. DESCRIPTION
1.1 Product Definition
Canned Mandarin oranges is the product:(a) prepared from sound, mature Mandarin oranges conforming to thecharacteristics of Citrus reticulata Blanco (including all the suitablecommercial varieties for canning);(b) packed with water or other suitable liquid packing medium; and(c) processed by heat in an appropriate manner before or after being sealed in acontainer so as to prevent spoilage. Before processing, the fruit shall havebeen properly washed and peeled and the membrane, fibre strands
originating from albedo or core, and seeds (if any) shall have been
substantially removed from the segments.
1.2 Style or Form
Canned Mandarin oranges may be packed as:(a) Whole Segment Style - consists of fruit segments which are practicallyintact and also retain their original form but may be split just slightly.
(b) Broken Segment Style - consists of portions of segments which retain atleast one half of the original apparent size, or which are large enough toremain on a screen having 12 mm square openings, formed by a wire of 2
mm diameter.
(c) Pieces Style - consists of portions of segments that are large enough toremain on a screen having 8 mm square openings formed by a wire of 2
mm diameter.
1.3 Other Styles
Any other presentation of the product shall be permitted provided that the product:(a) is sufficiently distinctive from other forms of presentation laid down in thisstandard;(b) meets all relevant requirements of this standard including requirements
relating to limitations on defects, drained weight, and any otherrequirements in this standard which are applicable to that style in the23

standard which most closely resembles the style or styles intended to beprovided for under this provision;(c) is adequately described on the label to avoid confusing or misleading theconsumer.1 Formerly CAC/RS 68-1974.
1.4 Sizes in Whole Segment Style
1.4.1 Designation in accordance with size
Canned Mandarin oranges in whole segment style may be designated according
to size in the following manner:
Uniform single size
"Large" - 20 or less whole segments per 100 grammes of drained fruit"Medium" - 21 to 35 whole segments per 100 grammes of drained fruit"Small"- 36 or more whole segments per 100 grammes of drained fruit
Single sizes shall also meet the uniformity requirements of paragraph 2.2.5.
Mixed sizes
A mixture of two or more single sizes.
1.4.2 Compliance with single size designation
1.4.2.1 When the product is declared, presented or offered as conforming to theuniform size designation in paragraph 1.3.1 - other than "Mixed sizes" the sample unit shall conform to the size classification specified foreach single size. In the determination of compliance with sizeclassifications, broken segments are disregarded.
1.4.2.2 Any sample unit or container that does not meet the count anduniformity requirements of the foregoing paragraph 1.3.2.1 shall beconsidered a "defective" for size classification.
1.4.2.3 A lot will be considered as meeting the criteria for a uniform size
designation when the number of "defectives" as defined in paragraph1.3.2.2 does not exceed the acceptance number (c) of the appropriate
sampling plan in the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Sampling
Plans for Prepackaged Foods (1969) (AQL-6.5) (CAC/RM 42-1969)(see Codex Alimentarius Volume 13).
2. ESSENTIAL COMPOSITION AND QUALITY FACTORS
2.1 Basic Ingredients
Mandarin oranges and packing media appropriate to the product as follows:
2.1.1 Packing Media 1(a) Water - in which water is the sole packing medium;(b) Citrus juice - in which Mandarin orange juice, or any other citrus juice, isthe sole packing medium;24(c) Mixed citrus juices - in which two or more citrus juices, which may
include 1 See Appendix to Part I. Mandarin orange juice are combined toform the packing medium;(d) Water and citrus juice(s) - in which water and Mandarin orange juice, or
water and any other citrus juice (singly or in combination) are combined toform the packing medium:(e) With sugar(s) - any of the foregoing packing media (a) through (d) may
have one or more of the following sugars added: sucrose, invert sugar
syrup, dextrose, fructose, fructose syrup, dried glucose syrup, glucose
syrup, invert sugar.
2.1.2 Classification of packing media when sugars are added
2.1.2.1 When sugars are added to Mandarin orange juice or other citrus juices,
the liquid media shall be not less than 140 Brix and shall be classified
on the basis of the cut-out strength as follows:
Lightly sweetened (name of fruit) juice - not less than 140 Brix
Heavily sweetened (name of fruit) juice - not less than 180 Brix
2.1.2.2 When sugars are added to water or water and Mandarin orange juice orwater and other citrus juices the liquid media shall be classified on thebasis of the cut-out strength as follows:(a) Basic syrup strengths
Light syrup - not less than 140 Brix
Heavy syrup - not less than 180 Brix(b) Optional packing media
When not prohibited in the country of sale, the following packing media
may be used:
Slightly sweetened water)
Water slightly sweetened) not less than 100 Brix but less than 140 Brix
Extra light syrup)
Extra heavy syrup more than 220 Brix
2.1.3 The cut-out strength of sweetened juice or syrup shall be determined on
sample average, but no container may have a Brix value lower than that of
the minimum of the next category below, if such there be.
2.2 Quality Criteria
2.2.1 Colour
The colour of the segments shall be a rich yellow to orange, typical colour ofproperly prepared and properly processed fruit, free from any brown tinge
and the liquid packing medium shall be reasonably clear except when it
contains juice.
2.2.2 Flavour
Canned Mandarin oranges shall have a normal flavour and odour free fromflavours and odours foreign to the product.

25

2.2.3 Texture
The texture shall be reasonably firm and characteristic for the canned
product and reasonably free from dry cells or fibrous portions affecting theappearance or edibility of the product.
2.2.4 Defects and allowances
Canned Mandarin oranges shall be substantially free from defects within
the limits set forth as follows:
Defect Maximum Limit in the Drained Fruit(a) Broken segments and pieces (as defined in 1.2) (Whole segment style)
7% m/m(b) Pieces (as defined in 1.2 (Broken segment style) 15% m/m(c) Membrane (Aggregate area) 7 cm2/100 g (based on sample average)(d) Fibre strands (Aggregate length) 5 cm/100 g (based on sample average)(e) Seeds (that measure more than 4.0 mm in any diameter) 1/100 g (basedon sample average)
2.2.5 Uniformity of size (Whole segment style - single sizes)
In the 95 per cent, by count, of units (excluding broken segments) that are
most uniform in size, the weight of the largest unit shall be no more than
twice the weight of the smallest unit.
2.2.6 Classification of "defectives"
A container that fails to meet one or more of the applicable quality
requirements, as set out in paragraphs 2.2.1 through 2.2.5 (except those
based on sample average), shall be considered a "defective".
2.2.7 Acceptance
A lot will be considered as meeting the applicable quality requirements ofparagraph 2.2 when:(a) the number of "defectives" as defined in paragraph 2.2.6 does notexceed the acceptance number (c) of the appropriate sampling plan in
the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Sampling Plans for
Prepackaged Foods (1969) (AQL-6.5) (CAC/RM 42-1969 (see Codex
Alimentarius Volume 13); and(b) the requirements of paragraph 2.2.5, which are based on sample
average, are complied with.
3. FOOD ADDITIVES
Maximum level
3.1 Acidifying agent Citric acid Limited by GMP
3.2 Anti-clouding agent Methyl cellulose 10 mg/kg
4 CONTAMINANTS
Lead (Pb) 1 mg/kg
Tin (Sn) 250 mg/kg calculated as Sn

26

5. HYGIENE
5.1 It is recommended that the product covered by the provisions of this standard be
prepared and handled in accordance with the appropriate sections of the
Recommended International Code of Practice - General Principles of Food Hygiene(CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 2 (1985) Codex Alimentarius Volume 1), and other Codesof Practice recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission which are relevantto this product.
5.2 To the extent possible in Good Manufacturing Practice, the product shall be freefrom objectionable matter.
5.3 When tested by appropriate methods of sampling and examination, the product:- shall be free from microorganisms in amounts which may represent a hazard to
health;- shall be free from parasites which may represent a hazard to health; and- shall not contain any substance originating from microorganisms in amounts which
may represent a hazard to health.
6. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
6.1 Fill of container
6.1.1 Minimum Fill
The container shall be well filled with fruit and the product (including packing medium)shall occupy not less than 90% of the water capacity of the container. The watercapacity of the container is the volume of distilled water at 20oC which the sealedcontainer will hold when completely filled.
6.1.2 Classification of "Defectives"
A container that fails to meet the requirement for minimum fill (90 per cent container
capacity) of paragraph 6.1.1 shall be considered a "defective".
6.1.3 Acceptance
A lot will be considered as meeting the requirement of paragraph 6.1.1 when thenumber of "defectives", as defined in paragraph 6.1.2, does not exceed theacceptance number (c) of the appropriate sampling plan in the Joint FAO/WHO
Codex Alimentarius Sampling Plans for Prepackaged Foods (1969) (AQL-6.5)(CAC/RM 42-1969) (see Codex Alimentarius Volume 13).
6.1.4 Minimum drained weight
6.1.4.1 The drained weight of the product shall be not less than the following per
centages, calculated on the basis of the weight of distilled water at 20oC
which the sealed container will hold when completely filled. Whole segment
style 55% Broken segment and Pieces styles 58%
6.1.4.2 The requirements for minimum drained weight shall be deemed to becomplied with when the average drained weight of all containers examined is
not less than the minimum required, provided that there is no unreasonable
shortage in individual containers.

27

7. LABELLING
In addition to the requirements of the General Standard for the Labelling ofPrepackaged Foods (CODEX STAN 1985 (Rev. 1-1991) Codex Alimentarius
Volume 1) the following specific provisions apply:
7.1 The Name of the Food7.1.1 The name of the product shall be "Mandarin Oranges".
7.1.2 (a) The style, as appropriate, shall be declared as a part of the name or in close
proximity to the name: "Whole segments" "Broken segments" "Pieces"(b) In the case of mixed sizes, such size designation shall be declared in close
proximity to the style designation, e.g. "mixed sized whole segments".
7.1.3 Other styles: If the product is produced in accordance with the other styles
provision (subsection 1.3), the label shall contain in close proximity to thename of the product such additional words or phrases that will avoid
misleading or confusing the consumer.
7.1.4 The packing medium shall be declared as part of the name or in close proximity to
the name.
7.1.4.1 When the packing medium is composed of water or water and one or more
citrus juices in which water predominates, it shall be declared as: "In water"or "Packed in water".
7.1.4.2 When the packing medium is composed solely of Mandarin orange juice, or
any other single citrus juice, it shall be declared as: "In Mandarin orange
juice" or "In (name of citrus) juice".
7.1.4.3 When the packing medium is composed of two or more citrus juices, which
may include Mandarin orange juice, it shall be declared as: "In (name of
citrus) juice" or "In citrus juices" or "In mixed citrus juices"
7.1.4.4 When sugars are added to Mandarin orange juice or other citrus juices, thepacking medium shall be declared as:"Lightly sweetened (name of citrus) juice" or"Heavily sweetened (name of citrus) juice(s)" or"Lightly sweetened citrus juices" or"Heavily sweetened mixed citrus juice(s)",as may be appropriate.
7.1.4.5 When sugars are added to water, or water and a single citrus juice (including
Mandarin orange juice) or water and two or more fruit juices, the packing
medium shall be declared as:"Light syrup" or "Heavy syrup" or"Water slightly sweetened" or "slightly sweetened water" or"Extra light syrup" or "Extra heavy syrup", as may be appropriate.
7.1.4.6 When the packing medium contains water and Mandarin orange juice orwater and one or more citrus juice(s), in which the fruit juice comprises 50%

28

or more by volume of the packing medium, it shall be designated to indicate
the preponderance of such fruit juice, as, for example:"Mandarin orange juice and water" or"(name of citrus) juice(s) and water".
7.2 List of ingredients
7.2.1 A complete list of ingredients shall be declared on the label in descending order of
proportion in accordance with the General Standard for the Labelling of Prepackaged
Foods CODEX STAN 1-1985 (Rev. 1-1991) Codex limentarius Volume 1), except thatwater need not be declared.
7.2.2 In the case of fruit juices made from concentrate, the fact of reconstitution shall bedeclared in the list of ingredients as follows "(name of fruit) juice made fromconcentrate" or "reconstituted (name of fruit) juice" or "(name of fruit) juice madefrom concentrated (name of fruit) juice".
7.3 Optional Declarations
7.3.1 Size classification of whole style
A size classification for Whole Segment style may be stated on the label if the packcomplies with the appropriate requirements of paragraph 1.3.1 of this standard.
7.3.2 Size classification of whole style in uniform sizes
If the pack complies with the appropriate requirements of paragraph 1.3, a sizeclassification for Whole Segment style in uniform sizes may be stated on the label
as:(a) "Large", "Medium", or "Small" as appropriate; and/or(b) the number of units present in the container shown by a range of count, e.g.
(number) to (number) whole segments".
3.4.4.2 AGMARK Standards:
The AGMARK standards for grading of Mandarins are under preparation.
3.4.5 Packaging:
The packaging of fruits is required for efficient handling and marketing, bettereye appeal and better shelf life by reducing mechanical damage and water loss. The
proper packaging protects the fruits from pilferage, dirt, physiological and pathologicaldeterioration during further handling. Efficient packaging of horticultural produce inuniform size reduces the need for repeated weighing and can facilitate handling,stacking, loading, unloading, better storage, long transportation, transshipment andmarketing.
The use of traditional baskets, sacks, boxes and trays to carry the produce to themarket is very much common, as a packaging material. These are locally fabricated, lowcost and made out of cane and bamboo, dried grass, palm leaves and teak leaves.
Though, they serve the purpose of carrying fresh produce to short distances, they can not
be used for long distance transportation. Large quantities of produce need better29

packaging to minimize the losses and achieve the most economical use of conveyance.
During the packing, the immature, overripe, damaged and diseased fruits should be
sorted out, only sound fruits should be packed.
While selecting and opting out for specific packaging material for a particular
produce, precaution should be taken to prevent transit hazards caused by the packaging
material. Nature of such damages is cut or punctures, shock/impact, compression,vibration, heat damage, chilling or freezing damage and chemical contamination.
The different types of packaging material that can be used for packing fresh
horticultural produce comprises ofi) Natural materials (traditional containers made of cane and bamboo, straw, andpalm leaves etc.),ii) Wooden boxes,iii) Corrugated fiber board boxes,iv) Molded plastics sacks or bags made out of natural or synthetic fibers (e.g.
jute, sisal, polypropylene polyethylene) andv) Paper or plastic films.
Recyclable boxes molded from Higher Density Polythene (HDP) are widely used
for transporting of produce. These can be specially designed and fabricated to meet the
specific requirements of transport. They are strong, rigid, smooth, easily cleaned andstacked to conserve space. Paper of plastic films is often used for lining of packing
boxes in order to reduce transportation loss and prevent friction damage. Plastic-filmbags or wraps are widely used in marketing of fruit, especially in consumer size packs.
Packaging operations may be done manually or mechanically using various methods viz;loose-fill jumble packing, multilayer pattern pack with size grading, multilayer size
graded pack using separator trays and single layer pack for high value produce.
3.4.5.1 Type of packaging:
There are two types of packaging i.e. i) Conventional packages and ii) Modern
packages.
In conventional packages, wooden boxes, bamboo boxes and jute gunny bags areused.
In modern packaging card board boxes, plastic crates, poly bags, wire bags,
C.A.P. (Controlled Atmospheric Packaging) is generally used. C.A.P. allows certain
gaseous components from atmosphere to replace the ones released by the produce orchecks the gaseous exchange around fruit pack and thus enhances the shelf life.
It is seen that for the local markets, the Mandarins are packed in sacks, bags,
bamboo baskets and wooden boxes. Some times, the Mandarins are also packed intelescopic cardboard boxes. The corrugated boxes, which are cost effective due to its
reusability, are also being used as packaging material while transporting the fruits.
For export of Nagpur Mandarins usually 2 pieces, telescopic, corrugatedfiberboard boxes of three ply or five ply are used. The size of the box may vary
according to the requirement of the importing country. Normally a box size of 49.5 x

30

29.5 x 17.5 cm having 10 kg capacity is recommended. The boxes must have 5% area
punched as holes for ventilation. To immobilize the movement of fruits inside the box,
three ply wax treated dividers having ventilation holes are used.
During the survey it is found that there are no standard parameters of any packand may differ from place to place. Usually, the fruits are placed in layers one above theother, with a straw padding in-between.
The state-wise packaging material used, mode of packaging and their capacity,
are furnished in table No 13.

Table No 13
Mode of packaging of Mandarins

Sl.
No

State

1

2

1

Assam

2

Haryana

AgencyMode of packaging
Type

Capacity (kg.)

3

4

5

All functionaries

No packing

Loose

Producers

No packing

Loose

Wholesalers

Plastic crates

18-20

Corrugated boxes

8-10

Processor

No packing

Loose

Exporters

Wooden boxes

8-10

Retailers

No packing

Loose

Producers

No packing

Loose

Corrugated fiber board

24 fruits per
pack

Wholesalers

Basket20-25 Kg.

Commission agents

Basket20-25 Kg.

Cooperatives

Box

10-15 Kg.

Producers

No packing

Loose

Commission agents
Cooperatives

3

KarnatakaCommission agents
Cooperatives
4

MadhyaPradesh

31

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Maharashtra

Meghalaya

Mizoram

NagalandPunjabRajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Wholesalers

Wooden box and Plastic crates

20-25 Kg.

Exporters

Carton box

10-15 Kg

Retailers

Loose

Loose

Producers

Bamboo baskets

30 Kg

Wholesalers

Bamboo baskets

30 Kg

Retailers

Bamboo baskets

8 Kg

Producers

Gunny bags

30 Kg

Wholesalers

Gunny bags

50 Kg

All functionaries

No packing

Loose

Producers

No packing

Loose

Wholesalers

Plastic crates

18-20

Commission agents

Corrugated boxes

8-10

Cooperatives

Wooden boxes

25-27

Processor

Plastic crates

10-15

Exporters

Corrugated boxes

8-10

Retailers

Jute bags

8-10

Producers

Crates20-22 Kg.

Wholesalers

Wooden box

20-22 Kg.

Commission agents

Wooden box

20-22 Kg.

Cooperatives

Wooden box

20-22 Kg.

Retailers

Loose

Loose

Producers

Carton boxes,
Bamboo baskets,
Plastic crates boxes

5-10 Kg.
5-15 Kg.
20 Kg.

Commission agents

Plastic crates/ boxes

10-20 Kg.

Wholesalers

Plastic crates/ boxes
Cartons, Loose

10-20 Kg.
10-15 Kg.

RetailersPlastic crates/ boxes,
Bamboo baskets

10-20 Kg.
10-15 Kg.

32

12

Tripura13

Producers

Bamboo baskets

100 Nos.

Wholesalers

Bamboo baskets

100 Nos.

Producers

Bamboo baskets, Gunny bags,
Polythene bags

15-20 Kg.

Wholesalers

Wooden boxes

100-110 Nos.

Commission Agents

Wooden boxes

100-110 Nos.

West Bengal

Source: DMI survey
The producers generally sell the orchards to pre-harvest contractors. The
producers, who do not sell the produce to pre-harvest contractors, transport Mandarins inloose to the nearby markets. The packaging material like Bamboo baskets, Gunny bags,
Polywoven bags Plastic crates, Cartons and Corrugated fiber board boxes etc andsometimes wooden boxes are used in carrying the produce to the markets by thewholesalers and commission agents.
3.4.5.2 Parameters of packaging material:
The size, type and capacity of the packaging material depend mostly upon thelocally available raw material, distance of the markets and type of transport to be used.
Generally, the packing material of different size made of bamboo boxes, corrugated fiber
boxes, telescopic boxes, wooden boxes and plastic crates are used for packing of
Mandarins.
The information regarding capacity of the packages, approximate weight per
package used, number of layers and count of Mandarins kept in the packages, material
used as packaging cushion etc, are given in table No 14.
Table No 14.
Parameters of Packaging material
Sl.
No

State

1

2

1

Assam

Market3-

Type ofpackaging

Capacity of packaging

Shape

Packagingmeant for8

9

Weight
(Kg.)

Count
(No.)

No. oflayers567

No packaging N.A.
is done.

N.A.

N.A.

N.A.

Corrugatedboxes

45-105

3-4

Rectangular Interstate andexport. Local

4

8-10

N.A.

33

2

3

Haryana

Wooden
boxes

25-27

150-350

3-4

Rectangular sale is done inloose.

Plastic crates

12-18

3-4

3-4

Rectangular

Madikere

CorrugatedFiber Board

2.50

24

2

Rectangular

Local

HassanBambooBaskets50

250-300

4

Conical

Local

Chikman-galurBambooBaskets

50

250

3

Conical

Local

CorrugatedFiber Board

1

7-8

2

Rectangular

Local/
Interstate

WoodenBoxes1090-10010

Rectangular

Local/
Interstate

Plastic Crates

20

120-150

5-6

Rectangular

Local/
Interstate

Carton Boxes

10-15

50-60

5-6

Rectangular

Local/
Interstate

AchalpurWooden
boxes

21-24

150 -250

4RectangularInterstate /long distance

Chandur
Bazar

Wooden
boxes

20-28

100-210

5-6

Rectangularand export

20

120 - 165

3-4

Rectangular

Local andsmall
distancesAll
markets

Karnataka

4 Madhya PradeshAllmarkets

Plastic crates
5

Maharashtra

Warud

Woodenboxes

20 - 25 150 - 225

4-5

RectangularInterstate /long distance

Narkhed,
Katol

Plastic
crates,Woodenboxes

20 - 25 150 - 225

4-5

RectangularInterstate /long distance

45 - 50

4-5

Rectangular Interstate andexport200

N.A.

ConicalNagpur6

MeghalayaAllmarkets

Carton boxes 10 - 15
Bamboobaskets

30

Local

34

7

8

9

10

11

Mizoram

NagalandPunjabRajasthan

Tamil Nadu

12

Tripura13

West Bengal

Source: DMI surveyAllmarketsAll
marketsAll
markets

Bhiwani
Mandi

Madurai,
Dindigul,
Palani,

Bamboobaskets

30

200

N.A.

ConicalBoth local
and interstate

50

350

Gunny bags

50

350

N.A.

Round

Both local
and interstate

No packaing

-

-

-

Loose

-

Corrugated
boxes

8-12

45-1083-4

Wooden
boxes

20-25

100-300

4-6

Plastic crates

18-20

90-250

4-5

Plastic
envelops

10-15

50-1405-6Jute bags

8-10

50-1005-6

WoodenBoxes

20 - 22 140 - 205

5

RectangularInterstate

Plastic Crates 20 - 22 140 - 205

5

Rectangular

Local

RectangularInterstate

WoodenBoxes
BambooBaskets

Rectangular

Round

14

For interstateand export

For local
market5 - 30

N.A.

N.A.

Oval

Local

Oddanch- Plastic Crates
atram,
Carton Boxes
Kodai
Road,
Loose
Mettupalayam

10- 20.

.

Rectangular

Local /
interstateAllmarkets

26-28

100

N.A.

ConicalBoth local
and interstate

5-10

100-110

4-5

RectangularInterstate

Bambooboxes

Kalimpong Wooden box

5 – 20

Rectangular

2–3
tons

-

Local /
interstate35

3.4.5.3Qualities of packaging material:
Since, a package as a container offers accommodation to the contents for storage
and transportation, therefore the packages must have the following basic qualities.
i) It must protect quality and quantity.
ii) It must prevent spoilage during transit and storage.
iii) Labeling of package must indicate about quality, variety, date of packing,traceability, weight and price etc.
iv) It must be convenient in handling operations.
v) It must be convenient to stack.
vi) It must be cheap, clean, hygienic and attractive.
vii) It must be biodegradableviii) It must be free from adverse chemicals.
ix) It should be reusable.
x) It should immobilize the fruits placed inside.
xi) Quality and hygienic cushioning material must be used to protect fruits from
impact, injury and compression.
xii) It should offer good ambient conditions to the fruits congenial for storage
and transportation.
xiii) It should meet optimum requirements of ventilation vis-à-vis temperatureand relative humidity management.

3.4.5.4 Packaging material suggested by Market Planning and Design Center:
Market Planning & Design Centre of Directorate and Inspection has suggested
the corrugated paper boxes for the packaging of Mandarins. It has the following
advantages.
1) These packages can be arranged in the truck with minimal residual space.
2) The unit capacity is comfortable, compared with conventional wooden box.
3) The counts of each package can very well be presented in terms of unit dozenor multiple thereof, which will facilitate price negotiations and auction. .

364) The weight of each package in terms of gross weight and net weight will beless than that of the conventional wooden box and hence the package is likely
to be safe from various surges in the transit.
5) The handling cost at loading point will be comparable with the conventional
wooden boxes.
6) The unit cost of transportation will be reduced, because of more space
generated for the cargo in the load.
3.4.5.5Precautions to be taken before packaging:i) Mandarins should be plucked at appropriate maturity, keeping in view thetime span of the market.
ii) Mandarins should be sorted and graded as per accepted quality standards,
before packing. Only sound fruits should be packed.
iii) Before packing, post-harvest treatment with wax and fungicides should beresorted to as a prophylactic measure against pathogenic invasion in transit.
iv) For prevention of bruising/abrasion injuries, paper liners, pads, trays or
tissue wraps may be used. As an alternative, cushioning with easily available
paddy straw keeps the packing cost minimum. It will maintain a level of
R.H. because of moisture absorbing tendency of the paddy straw and keep thetemperature down.
v) Careful placement of Mandarins in the cartons is necessary to avoid bruising.
The use of telescopic boxes can overcome this problem very well.
vi) For securing packages, use of adhesive tape (3 to 4 cm) may be used. The
packages can also be secured with thin rope of coconut fiber, or polythenesutli, as an alternative.
3.4.5.6 Precautions during packing:During packing, fruits should never be packed loosely in order to avoid shakingof fruits which leads to friction among fruits surface and thereby causing damage. In
wooden boxes or cartons, filling should be done with little pressure so that duringtransit period when the volume of the fruits gets reduce due to dehydration andadjustment of space due to jerks in transit, the pack structure does not get loose.
It is also observed that during the packaging, sharp edges of the packing material
damage the fruits. Therefore, care should be taken so that they do not come out of thecontainers, resulting in bruising, puncturing and damaging the fruits.
Similarly, there should not be too much ventilation which can affect the qualityof fruits due to shrinkage, loss in weight, colour, etc.

37

3.4.5.7 Shrink-wrapping:This is a relatively new technique in which heat shrinkable poly film is used to
wrap the individual fruit and over wrapping of trays. Polyethylene is the best for using it
as wrapping, as it is least expensive and extend the shelf life by three weeks.
3.4.6 Storage:
The production of the fruit is seasonal, but its demand remains for a longer
period. Therefore, storage is very essential for extending the consumption period offruits, as well as for regulating their supply to the markets. The principal aim of storageis to ensure better returns to the growers.
The storage of Mandarins, at different markets, is given in table No.15
Table No 15.
Storage of mandarins
Sl.
No

State

AgencyType of storage(ambient/cold storage)

Period ofstorage

Method of storage

1

Assam

Producers/All
functionaries

Simple storage

N.A.

Loose

Producers

Not in practice

-

-

2

Haryana

Wholesalers /Commission agents

Cold storage

30-60 days

In plastic crates

3

Karnataka

Producers/All
functionaries

Simple storage

5-10 days

Corrugated boxes,
Bamboo boxes, Loose

4

MadhyaPradeshProducers/All
functionaries

Simple storage

N.A.

Corrugated boxes,
Bamboo boxes, Loose

Producers/All
functionaries

Simple storage

2-3

Wooden boxes, Plastic
crates, Loose

Processors

Cold storage

3-5

In boxes

Producers

Simple storage

2-3 days

Wholesalers

Simple storage

2-3 days

Gunny bags, bamboo
baskets

Retailers

Simple storage

5-8 days

Producers

Simple storage

2-3 days

Bamboo baskets

Wholesalers

Simple storage

2-3 days

Gunny bags, bamboo
baskets5

6

7

Maharashtra

Meghalaya

Mizoram

38

Retailers

Simple storage

4-7 days

Loose

8

Nagaland

Producers/All
functionaries

Simple storage

2-3 days

Loose

9

PunjabWholesalers /Commission agents,
Retailers

Cold storage

30-45 days

Plastic crates

3-5 days10

Rajasthan

Producers/All
functionaries

Simple storage

N.A.

Loose

11

Tamil Nadu

Wholesalers/

Cold Storage

4 -5- months

5,10 & 15 Kg.

12

TripuraRetailers

Simple storage

5-20 days

Loose

13

West Bengal

All functionaries

No storage

N.A.

N.A.

Source: DMI survey
From the table No 15, it is revealed that the Mandarins are also kept in cold
storage in states like Haryana, Maharashtra, Punjab and Tamil Nadu. In other states, theMandarins are kept in ambient storage. In Haryana and Punjab, plastic crates are used
for storing the Mandarins. In Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, wooden boxes and plastic
crates are in use for storing of the fruits. In North Eastern states, bamboo baskets, gunnybags are used for storing the fruits.
3.4.6.1 Requirements for safe storage:
The following are the requirements for safe storage of Mandarins:
1) Selection of site (location):i) The storage structure should be located on a raised well-drained place.
ii) It should be easily accessible.
iii) The structure should be protected from excessive humidity, excessive heat,
direct sunrays, and pests.
iv) It should be constructed on a well-built platform at a height of not less than 1
foot from ground level to prevent dampness.

392) Cleaning of storage structures:i) The storage structures should be properly cleaned before storing fruits.
ii) There should be no left over, cracks, holes and crevices in structure, which
may harbour insects.
iii) Before storage, the storage structure should be cleaned and fumigated.
3) Cleaning and Drying of fruits:i)

Before storage, the Mandarins should be properly cleaned and dried.

ii)

The damaged fruits should be discarded to avoid quality deterioration andpest attack.

4) Separate storage of new and old stock:
To check infestation and to maintain hygienic condition of godown, the new
and old stock should be stored separately.
5) Cleaning of vehicles:
The vehicles used for transporting the fruits should be properly cleaned withpesticides.
7) Proper aeration:
There should be proper ventilation and circulation of air to avoid
accumulation of gases such as CO2, Ethylene etc.
8) Regular inspection:
Regular inspection of stored fruits should be carried out to check infestation.
It is necessary to maintain proper health and hygiene of the stock.
3.4.6.2 Post-harvest chemical changes during storage:
During the storage at ambient temperature (24-28oC, RH 68%), vitamin C
content in monsoon Coorg Mandarin decreases from an initial value of 41 mg/100ml. to
36 mg/100ml. of juice by 22nd day of storage. The firmness of the fruit is also reduced
due to degradation of insoluble protopectin to the more soluble pectic acid and pectin.
The acidity is increased from the initial value of 0.76% to a final value of 0.86%,
reducing sugars from 4.226% to 5.028%, total sugars from 7.36% to 9.79% and sugaracid ratio from 8.6 to 12.5 (CFTRI, Mysore).

40

3.4.7 Transportation:
Transportation is considered as backbone and lifeline of the agricultural
marketing. Transport starts right from the field till produce reaches the consumer. It is avital requirement for bulk movement, distribution and marketing of fresh and processed
products.
Insulated and/or refrigerated trucks with elaborated intake capacity are ideal for
long distance road transport. Mandarins are transported as head loads, animal packs indifficult hilly regions of North East and by carts, motor vehicles and railways in otherparts.
Rail transport has certain advantages over road transport. In rail transport, thedamage to the produce is less as compared with that of transporting on rough roads. The
transport cost is also much less in this mode of transport.
In-land, waterways can be used as an effective means of transport for fresh fruits
and vegetables in the North east states.
Although marine transport is relatively slow which consume a fairly more time incomparison to other means of transportation to cover long destinations, but the intercontinental transportation, the ship is the cheapest and most energy efficient. To survive
long distance transportation in waterways, most of the produce requires low temperatureenvironment with enough ventilation to minimize carbon dioxide and ethylene
accumulation. Refrigerated modular containers should be used for the purpose, which
can be loaded at the packing house/centre and transported on trucks to the port, foronward transportation.
Air transportation is the fastest but most expensive mode of transport. However,this is essential for high-value short-life commodities. Generally, refrigeration facilities
are not available and, on the contrary, low pressure environment with low RH are
encountered at high altitude. This increases the rate of water loss of the produce. For airtransportation, providing polyethylene Film liner with perforation within the box orover-wrapping of unit load is necessary.
The packed produce, coming in for airtransportation has to be pre-cooled sufficiently to counterpoise the lack of refrigeration
facility. As there are no cold storage facilities at most of the airports in India, it isnecessary to transport the pre-cooled produce in insulated or refrigerated trucks or vansto the airport to obviate possible delays in loading due to late arrivals or non-availabilityof required space on a particular flight. Perishable cargo handling centre at airports are
required for transportation of perishable horticultural produce.
For shorter distances, Mandarins are generally transported as head load, while
within a radius of 10-20 Km, the bullock cart/tractor trolley are commonly used. Other
means of transportation of fruits to the nearby markets are Auto Rickshaw and Mini
Lorry. For carrying the fruits to the distance more than 100 Km., the use oftrucks/Railway are found to be the most convenient mode of transport due to its easy
approach from the orchards to the market
In the trucks sometimes excessive pressure is exerted on the fruits due to faulty
stacking and also do not possess temperature regulating devices. Therefore, it is essential

41

to design and develop suitable transport system to overcome such defects. For long
distance transportation and for export purposes it advisable that refrigerated vans areused, to reduce the post harvest losses.
It is observed that for the local markets, the harvested fruits are transported bytrucks in loose form.
The mode of transportation used for transporting Mandarins from ‘Farm toassembling markets, Assembling markets to consuming markets, Average distancecovered, and Method of transportation’ by producers and by others, in different states,
are given in table No. 16
Table No. 16
Mode of transportation used and average distance covered
Sl.
No.

State

Farm to assembling market/
assembling market toconsuming market

Mode of transport

Averagedistance
covered(Km.)

Packing(Loose /Packaged)
Loose%

Packaged
%

1

2

3

4

6

6

7

1

Assam

Farm to assembling market

Truck

50

100

No

Farm to consuming market

Mini Truck

40

100

No

Assembling market toconsuming market

Mini Truck

N.A.

50

50

Farm to assembling market

Trucks

20-30

100

No

Farm to consuming market

Trucks50-200595

Assembling market toconsuming market

Trucks50-200Nil

100

Farm to assembling market

Truck, Mini lorries,
Vans

30-50

100

Nil

Farm to consuming market

Truck, Mini lorries,
Vans

Up to 300

100

Nil

Vans

5-10

100

Nil

Farm to assembling market

Bullock carts, Mini
trucks, Tractors

15-20

85-90

10-15

Farm to consuming market

Trucks, Rail

500-600

90

10

Assembling market toTrucks, Rail

500-1000

95

05

2

3

Haryana

Karnataka

Assembling market toconsuming market

4

MadhyaPradesh42

consuming market

5

6

7

8

Maharashtra

Meghalaya

Mizoram

Farm to assembling market

Trucks, Tempo

30-205

80-90

10-20

Farm to consuming market

Cart, Tractor

8-50

100

-

Assembling market toconsuming market

Small Vehicles

5-50

70-75

25-30

Farm to assembling market

Head load,

Jeep

8
12-15

20

80

Farm to consuming market

Head load,
Jeep

Bus,

10-30

10

90

Assembling market toconsuming market

Head load, Bus, Jeep

55

20

80

Farm to consuming market

Head load,
Trucks, Bus, Jeep

35-50

Nil

100

Farm to assembling market

Head load,
Jeeps

5
75

100

Nil

Farm to consuming market

Bus, Jeeps, Trucks

1-130

100

Nil

Trucks10-150100

NilFarm to assembling market

Tractor, Trucks

10-15

100

Nil

Farm to consuming market

Tucks, Mini Trucks

200-1000

Nil

100

Assembling market toconsuming market

Tucks, Mini Trucks

200-1000

Nil

100

Farm to assembling market

Trolley, Mini trucks

50-80

70

30

Farm to consuming market

Mini trucks

125-500

50

50

Assembling market toconsuming market

Truck,
Mini
trucks500-75030

70

Farm to assembling market

Horse/ Donkey

5

No

100

Assembling market toCommission manday

Lorry/ Tempo/ Vans

60-120No

100Commission mandy to
Wholesalers

Tempo/ Vans

5

50

50

NagalandAssembling market toconsuming market

9

10

11

PunjabRajasthan

Tamil Nadu

43

12

13

TripuraWest
BengalCommission Mandy to
Wholesalers / Retailers

Tempo/Vans /Tricycle

15

No

100

Farm to assembling market

Truck / Mini trucks

120

90

10

Farm to consuming market

Truck / Mini trucks

150

90

10

Assembling market toconsuming market

Truck / Mini trucks

30

98

2

Farm to assembling
markets

Head load, Metador,
Bus

10-15

30-40

60-70

Farm to consuming
markets

Head load, Metador,
Bus

40-60

30-40

60-70

Assembling markets to
consuming /terminal
markets

Truck,

More than
100

No

100

Bus

Source: DMI survey

3.4.7.1 Transportation from farm to assembling markets:
3.4.7.1.1 Type of packaging used in transportation:
The transportation of Mandarins from farm to assembling markets is generally
done in loose form.
3.4.7.1.2 Distance covered and mode of transportation used:
The distance covered to bring the produce from farm to assembling market
varies from state to state. It is 10 to 15 kms in Punjab, which is the minimum distanceand up to 80 Kms in Rajasthan. In hilly areas like Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland,
the assembling markets are comparatively at a shorter distance of 4- 8 Km. from theorchards. In Assam and Tripura, the producers carry the produce up to a distance of 50120 Km.
The trucks, mini trucks, lorry, bus, and tractors are used as a mode oftransportation to carry the produce from farm to assembling markets. In hilly areas,
where the assembling markets are in nearby places, the produce is also carried by headload (Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland).

44

3.4.7.2 Transportation from farm/assembling market to consuming markets:
3.4.7.2.1 Type of packaging used in transportation:
Mandarins are also sent to the Indian consuming markets, situated at a far
distance from the farm by trucks, mini trucks and buses. In Madhya Pradesh, in addition
to trucks, the rail is also used in transportation of the fruits.
3.4.7.2.2 Distance covered and mode of transportation used:
Mandarins are grown in few states, but are consumed throughout the country.
From Rajasthan, Mandarins are dispatched to a distance of 750 km and from Punjab
they are dispatched up to a distance of 1000 km. Similarly, from Madhya Pradesh, it isfound that the Mandarins are sent to the consuming markets at a distance of 500- 600
km, whereas in Haryana, they are sent to the consuming markets, up to a distance of 200
km. In other states, Mandarins are sent to the consuming markets at a distance of 20- 50
km. In all Mandarin producing states, it is transported in loose form by road except instates like Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu, where
Mandarin is transported partly in loose and partly in packed form by road.
3.4.7.3 Selection of Mode of Transportation:
Since, the body of the vehicle is also a container, therefore following points
should be considered for the selection of mode of transportation:a. The mode of transportation should be cheaper among available alternatives.
b. It should immobilize the packages placed inside.
c. It should not cause damage to packages, because of uneven surface or
protrusions in the body due to nuts and bolts.
d.

It should work as a safe carrier of the packages placed inside.

e.

It should be convenient during loading and unloading.

f.

It must protect the Mandarins during transportation from adverse weather
conditions.

g.

It should be safe from pilferage, etc.

h.

It should deliver the fruits to consignee in stipulated period.

i.

It should be easily available, particularly during post harvest period.

jDistance of the market should be considered for selecting the mode oftransportation.

45

3.4.7.4 Precautions to be taken while loading:
It is observed that the workers, engaged in loading the trucks place the packages
without taking proper care. The packages are roughly handled. It is also seen that the
wooden boxes are forcibly placed in trucks to fix them in the stack. Such practice islikely to damage the box, so also the adjoining boxes. Therefore, such practices should
be avoided. The following precautions should be taken while loading in the trucks.
1. The workers, engaged in loading of Mandarins, should be sensitized throughinformal training to handle the packages carefully so that the mechanicalinjury at the time of loading/ unloading is minimum.
2. The stacking should be done in such a manner that the packages get lockedwith each other in a stack. This will help to immobilize the packages within
the truck.
3. Provide cushioning with clean paddy straw on all sides to the extent
possible, so that there is no damage to the packages because of the
protrusions of nuts/bolts, angles, etc., in the body of the trucks at various
places.
4. Instead of dark coloured tarpaulin used for securing packages, whitetarpaulin should be used. This will help to keep the packages cool to someextent because of heat reflection.
3.4.8 Cool Chain:
Cool chain is essential during the transport of quality Mandarins all the way fromthe farm to the customer. This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box at thesame low level as in the cold storage.
The various stages of the cool chain are:
1. Pre- cooling and cold store at the farm.
2. Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport
3. Cold store at the airport.
4. Building up of the pallet in a cold store at the airport.
5. Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold store in a short time.
6. Cargo aircraft maintains cold store temperature in transit.
7. Off loading direct into a cold store in the receiving country.
8. Refrigerated truck to the air cooled departmental stores.

46

3.4.9 Preparation for the Market:
During the survey, it was observed that producers do not carry out any special
preparation for bringing Mandarins to the markets. At the most, Mandarins are washedand cleaned before carrying them to the markets. Moreover no chemical treatment isgiven for ripening of the fruits, as is done in case of other fruits like banana andmangoes.
3.5 Post Harvest Losses:
3.5.1 Nature and Causes of Post-Harvest Losses:
Post-harvest losses of horticultural produce may occur due to a variety ofreasons. Some of the common reasons for post-harvest losses are as under.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Mechanical injury:
Injuries due to thermal shock;Disease and pest attack;Microbial attack; andPhysio-biochemical reasons.

Fresh fruits are inherently perishable. During the process of distribution andmarketing, substantial losses are recorded which range from a slight loss of quality tototal spoilage. Post harvest losses may occur at any point in the marketing process, fromthe initial harvesting, grading, packaging, transportation from the field to storage,
storage to assembly point, during storage and distribution to the final consumer.
A large number of intermediaries play an important role in the system between
farmer and the retailer like local retailer, transporter, wholesalers and distributor, etc,
and at every step significant waste is noticed.
3.5.2 Losses at different stages:
3.5.2.1 Losses during harvesting:
The nature, causes and percentage of losses reported by different states during
harvesting are given in table No 17
Table No 17.
Nature, causes and percentage of losses during harvesting
Sl.
No.
1

State
2

1

Assam

2
3

Haryana
Karnataka

4

Madhya Pradesh

Nature/ Type
3
Bruises, injuries

Losses during harvesting
Causes4

Improper handling, Falling offruitsRottoning,
Fungal attack, Poor handling
Physical damage, Bruises, Improper harvesting, Falling ofCuts, Over ripen, Immature fruits, Improper handling
Scratches, Puncture of
Improper harvesting, Infestation

Percentage
5
Negligible
1-2
5
3

47

5

Maharashtra

6
7
8

Meghalaya
Mizoram
Punjab9
10
11

RajasthanNagaland
Tamil Nadu

1213

TripuraWest Bengal

fruits, Insect infestation
Bruises, Cuts

Falling of fruits, Improper
handling
Bruises, Scratches
Improper handling
Bruises, Scratches
Improper handling
Bruises, Softness,
Falling from height, open
puncturing of fruits.
stacking, not proper cutting ofstalk.
Scratches, Puncture of fruits Improper plucking, Over heaping
Bruises
Falling of fruits
Physical injury, Bruised
Falling of fruits, Stalkless fruits,
Improper harvesting
Bruises, Scratches
Improper handling
Damaged, Insect
Due to fall of fruits, cracked andinfestation, Bruises
spoiled fruits

1-2
Negligible
Negligible
1-5

2.5
5
4-8
Negligible
1-4

Source: DMI survey
The main nature of losses and their causes during harvesting are physicaldamage, bruises, punctures to the fruits during plucking, falling of fruits, insect
infestation etc.
The maximum percentage of losses i.e., 10 per cent, during harvesting is reported
in Maharashtra state followed by by 4-8 per cent in Tamil Nadu. In North-East states, thelosses are negligible, during harvesting.
3.5.2.2 Losses during grading:
Scientific grading of Mandarins is not done by any of the functionaries. At themost, the fruits are cleaned and then sorted out according to size, shape and colour.
There are hardly any losses in the process of grading, but due to improper handling of
the fruits or due to over ripened fruits, there are likely losses of the fruits at the time ofgrading. Some times, fruits also get infected due to injuries and resulting in huge losses
during grading. The state-wise losses of Mandarins during grading are given in table No
18.
Table No.18
Percentage of losses during grading
Sl.
No.

State

1

2

1
2

Assam
Haryana3

Karnataka

Losses during grading
Losses at different stages
Percentage of losses
during grading
3
4
No grading
Nil
Producers / all functionaries
Nil
Producers
2
Wholesalers
5
Commission agents5
Cooperatives/Processors
0.50-5Retailers
0.50-5

48

4Madhya Pradesh Producers
Producers
Maharashtra
Wholesalers
Commission agents
Exporters
MeghalayaNo grading
Mizoram
No grading
Producers
Wholesalers
NagalandCommission agents
Cooperatives/Processors
Retailers
Punjab
Producers and other functionaries
Producers
Wholesalers
RajasthanCommission agents
Cooperatives
Retailers
Producers
Tamil Nadu
Wholesalers
Commission agents

5-8
1-2.5
2
2
0.5
Nil
Nil
Up to 5Up to 5Up to 5Up to 5Up to 5
Negligible
1.5
0.50
0.50
1.0
1.0
5-10
2-5
Up to 2

12

TripuraNo grading

Nil

13

West bengal

All functionaries

Nil

5

6
7

8

9

10

11

Source: DMI survey
In Madhya Pradesh, the losses during the grading are reported 5-8 per cent andare maximum.
3.5.2.3 Losses during packaging:
Improper handling, overloading and dropping of the fruits during weighment are
the main factors of losses during packaging. The producers generally sell the produce
before commencement of the harvesting season and do not undertake the packaging of
the fruits. If necessary, they either carry the Mandarins in loose or at the most they carry
the fruits in baskets and sometimes in gunny bags.
The losses during packaging in states and their causes are given in table No 19.
Table No. 19
Nature, causes and percentage of losses during Packaging
Sl.
No.
1
1

State
2
Assam

Losses during packaging
Losses at different stages
Causes3
4
Producers
Improper handling
Wholesalers
Improper handling
Retailers
Improper handling

Losses %5
Negligible
Negligible
Negligible

49

2

Haryana

Producers / other functionaries

Improper handling

Negligible

3

Karnataka

Producers
Commission agents / cooperatives

Improper handling5
5

4
MadhyaPradeshMaharashtra
5

6

Meghalaya

7

Mizoram8

Nagaland

9

Punjab10

Rajasthan

11

Tamil Nadu

1213

TripuraWest Bengal

Wholesalers
Commission agents
Cooperatives
Producers
Wholesalers
Commission agent
Exporters
Retailers
Producers
Wholesalers
Retailers
Producers
Wholesalers
Producers
Wholesalers/ Commission agents
Producers
Commission agent
Processor
Producers
Wholesalers
Commission agents
Cooperatives
Retailers
Producers
Commission agents
Wholesalers
Retailers
Producers
Wholesalers
Producers
Wholesalers
Commission Agents

Improper handling
Fruit rapture, decay,
infestation, disease, injuries

Sun burn, over heaping
Improper handling
Improper handling
Improper handling
Bruises
Bruises
Improper handling
Improper handling
Fungal attack due to bruising
Mishandling
Delay in packing

Rough handling, overloading

Rough handling, overloading
Improper handling
FungusFungusInjuries
Injuries
Over pressure
Fungal/Bacterial
Fungal/Bacterial

1
1
5
0.5-1
0.5
0.5
0.2
1-2
Negligible
Negligible
Negligible
Less than 7Less than 755
0.1-0.2
0.5-1
1-2
0.50
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.50
1-5
Up to 1
1-5
1-10
Less than 2Less than 2
2-3
3-4
3-4

Source: DMI survey
The losses during packaging in most of the states are negligible. In Mizoram,
the losses during packaging are maximum (up to 7 per cent), while in Karnataka andNagaland they are nearly 5 per cent and in West Bengal, the losses are 3-4 per cent. The
main reasons of losses are improper handling, damages due to dropped fruits during
weighment and transportation, injuries, fungal/ bacterial infections, and compression offruits due to stacking, etc.

50

3.5.2.4 Losses during preparation of markets:
The producers generally do not undertake any special preparation for markets.
They simply wash and cool the fruits before bringing them to the markets. Most of thelosses in preparing for the markets are at wholesaler, commission agents and retailers
level. This may be due to the fact of over ripening of fruits, improper handling during
packaging, falling of the fruits, shrinkage and rottening of fruits etc.
The details of losses during preparation for the markets are given in table No 21.
Table No. 21
Nature, causes and percentage of losses during preparation for the market
Sl.
No
1
1

State

Functionary

Assam

2

3
Producers
Producers
Commission agents
Processor
Producers
Wholesalers
Commission agents
Retailers
All functionaries
Producers
Wholesalers
Exporters
All functionaries
All functionaries
Wholesalers
Commission agents
Producers
Commission agent
Processor
Producers
Wholesalers
Commission agents
Cooperatives
Processor
Exporters
Retailers
Al.l functionaries
Not available
Producers

2

Haryana3

Karnataka

4

Madhya Pradesh

5

Maharashtra

6
7
8

Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland

9

Punjab10

Rajasthan

11
12
13

Tamil Nadu
TripuraWest Bengal

Causes of losses

Losses at different
stages (%)
4
5
Fungus1
Fungus1
Improper handling1
Improper handling
1Over ripened
2
Packaging, transportation and handling
5
Handling
5
Handling and transportation
5-10
Improper handling
Negligible
Loose handling, Over heaping
2
Fallen and diseased fruits
1-2
Transportation and handling
2
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
2
Rough handling
2
Carelessness during plucking,0.1-0.2
microbial attack, delay in transit
0.1-0.2
1-2
5
5
5
Bruises,5
Rough handling
2
2
5
Nil
Not available
Mishandling, shrinkage, rotten
1-4

Source: DMI survey
In preparation for the market, the losses of Mandarins are not significant.

51

3.5.2.5 Losses during transportation:
If the transportation is not well planned and managed, then it can cause damage
to fresh produce, reducing the consumer’s acceptability, resulting in overall economic
losses. The possible damage and most frequent losses, incurred during non-refrigerated
transportation are generally caused by mechanical damage and over-heating.
Vibration and bouncing of packages due to uneven road conditions are the main
reasons for losses in road transportation. This, in turn, severely disturbs stacking andimposes considerable compression strains on the packages. The size and design of
packages be in such a way so that interpackage space is kept at minimum and vehicle
space is completely utilized. Loading and unloading of vehicles should be properly
supervised to prevent careless handling of packages.
The losses in transportation of Mandarins from field to assembling markets andassembling markets to consuming markets/ terminal markets, in different states are given
in table No 20.
Table No. 20
Causes and percentage of losses during transportation
Losses during transportation
Total losses
Field to assembling market
Assembling market to(%)
consumer/terminal market
Causes of losses
Percentage Causes of losses
Percentage
of lossesof losses
3
4
5
6
7

Sl.
No

State

1

2

1

Assam

Mechanical

Negligible

2
3

Haryana
Karnataka
MadhyaPradeshMaharashtra

Mechanical damage

Negligible
5-10

Mechanical damage
Rottening, Rapturing,
Sun burn, Diseases,
Mishandling
Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical damage

10

4
5

1-2

6
7
8

Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland

9
10

PunjabRajasthan

Negligible
Overloading, Over heat,
5-7
Bruises11
12
13

Tamil Nadu
TripuraWest Bengal

Physical damage
MechanicalBruises

Source: DMI survey

Negligible
Negligible
3

5-10
Negligible
4-5

Mechanical
Pressing and bursting offruitsMechanical damage
Mechanical damage,
Fungus infestation
Rottening, Rapturing,
Sun burn, Diseases,
Mishandling
Mechanical
Mechanical
MechanicalFungal attack, improperloading
Mechanical
Desiccation andphysical damage
MechanicalOver pressure, spoiled

Negligible

Negligible

2-4
10-15

2-4
15-25

7-10

Up to 20

2-3

3-5

Negligible
Negligible
Negligible

Negligible
Negligible
3

15-30
5

15-30
Up to 12

1-4
Negligible
3-6

6-14
Negligible
7-11

52

In comparison to other losses, the losses during transportation are found to be on
higher side. In Karnataka, the total losses are 15-20 per cent, while in Madhya Pradesh,they are up to 20 per cent and in Punjab, they are 15-30 per cent. These losses may be
attributed to bad shape of roads, unsuitable trucks/vehicles, improper handling of the
fruits etc.
3.6 Main Causes of Post Harvest Losses:
The post harvest losses at different stages and their reasons are as under.
A) During Harvesting:i) Harvesting of fruits at improper maturity.
ii) Harvesting not done properly.
iii) Harvesting equipments are not clean.
iv) Harvesting during warmest part of the day.
v) Exposures to unnecessary high temperature.
B) Transportation:i) Careless Driving.
ii) Too high loading/stacking.
iii) Poor roads.
iv) Unsuitable transport containers.
v) Overloading with other fruits and vegetables (in some cases people even
sit on top of the load)vi) Lack of link roads, leading to highways or collection centers.
Viii) Heat accumulation or very poor ventilation within the transport
vehicles.
ix) Virtual absence of refrigerated and insulated trucks.
C) Grading / Packing:i) Lack of quality standards or minimum requirement.
ii) Rough handling.
iii) Unsuitable packaging material.
iv) Overfilling of containers.

53D) Assembling:
Assembly points are not properly/ adequately prepared.
E) Loading / Unloading:i) Rough handling.
ii) Loading too high.
iii) Bad stacking.
iv) Improper cushioning of carrier.
F) Storage:i) Inadequate ventilation in packages and carrier used.
ii) Storage temperature is too high.
iii) Rough handling.
iv) Too high heaps or stacks.
G) Ripening:i) Lack of uniformity and homogeneity of the produce.
ii) Inadequate equipment and ripening method.
iii) Rough handling.

3.7 Technology for reducing post-harvest losses:
Post-harvest losses can be minimized by adopting certain pre-harvest strategy
and post-harvest management/technology. The principal pre-harvest strategy and postharvest technology for reducing the post-harvest losses are as under.
(i) Pre-harvest treatment(ii) Correct stage of harvesting(iii) Proper harvesting method(iv) Proper curing(iii) Washing, cleaning and grading;(iv) Scientific packing(v) Pre-cooling(vi) Cold storage(vii) Suitable means of transport and(viii) Efficient marketing.
Brief description of the principles and methodologies of pre-harvest strategy andpost-harvest management of horticultural produce are as follows.

54

3.7.1 Pre-Harvest Treatment:
Use of fertilizers, pest control, growth regulators, climatic conditions like wet
and windy weather and tree conditions influence the shelf life of the Mandarins byregulating physiology and chemical composition of fruits.
In pre-harvest treatment, if the spray (10 ppm) of Gibberellic acid is done atcolour break stage, it delays colour development, maintain firmness thereby allows
extend harvesting i.e., tree storage. Similarly the use of potassium fertilizers extends theshelf life of the fruits. These chemicals can curtail storing cost due to uniform ripening
and prolong the shelf-life.
3.7.2 Post-harvest Treatment
3.7.2.1 Washing and cleaning:
Washing and air-drying improve the appearance of the fruits and avoid wilting.
During washing, the rotten, diseased insect damaged, discoloured and deformed fruits
should be sorted out carefully.
Fruits are cleaned manually by hand rubbing individual fruit dumped in a tank ofsanitized water. The water used for washing should be sanitized with 150 p.p.m
hypochlorous acid, maintained at a pH of 6.5. Fruit can also be cleaned mechanically bypassing them over a series of roller brushes wetted from above with spray nozzles.
Benomyl (500 p.p.m), imazalil (1000 p.p.m), or thiabendazole (1000 p.p.m) are the mosteffective post harvest fungicides and can be applied at high-pressure sprays after
washing or during waxing.
3.7.2.2 Gentle handling
In order to reduce the post harvest losses, the fruits should be handled gently tominimize bruising and breaking of the skin. The breaking of the skin stimulates
dehydration of the fruits and make site for microbial attack. By reduction of number ofhandling of commodity, the mechanical damage can be reduced significantly.
3.7.2.3 Temperature control:
The temperature control (Pre-cooling) is very much necessary to remove fieldheat and to retard the ripening of the fruit after harvesting, particularly when harvestingis undertaken in hot weather. It minimizes the storage losses considerably. The lowpressure vacuum cooling technique is another option for temperature control. Cooling of
the fruit, not only extends storage life by reducing the rate of physiological change, butalso retards the microbial growth. Even low-cost cooling or refreshing the product isbetter than no cooling at all. If the temperature between 2°C to 3°C (36°F to 38°F) is
maintained, the market period may be extended up to 4 months, if harvesting is carriedout at right maturity. For short-term storage and during transit period, 10°C (50°F) isadequate to minimize the decay of the fruits.
Storing at high temperature causes rapid moisture loss, flavour deterioration,
resulting in decay of the fruits. It is preferable to store fruits at their optimum relative
humidity (RH) of 90% to 95%. At a low RH, the peel becomes thin, dry, and shriveled.

55

There are several ways of reducing the storage temperature of fruits.
a) Protect the fruits from direct sun rays.
b) Cool promptly after harvest.
c) Use of natural cooling, e.g., harvesting during the cool early morning hours,
open stores for ventilation during the night,d) Evaporative cooling, obtained by drawing dry air over a moist surface.
e) Mechanical refrigeration
3.7.2.4 Precaution during storing in cold storage:
There are four basic principles which must be correctly applied for successful
refrigeration of perishable crops like Mandarins:i.

Select only healthy Mandarins: Refrigeration does not destroy pathogens
responsible for deterioration, but only slows down their activity. It also
does not improve produce quality, only maintains it. A damaged fruit will
deteriorate more quickly than a healthy one even in refrigerated storage.
Hence, store only sound produce in refrigeration.

ii.

Timely cooling: Since, refrigeration slows the development of micro-organisms
and physiological changes, responsible for deterioration of the fruits.
Allow the produce to cool, soon after harvesting.

iii.

Adhere closely to optimal conditions for temperature and relative humidity.

iv.

Uninterrupted cooling: Refrigeration should be applied from the point of
harvest to the point of consumption.

3.7.2.5 High humidity
High humidity retards loss of moisture and maintains the crop in better condition.
Horticultural produce can be stored best in an atmosphere that has a relative humidity of
90 per cent.
3.7.2.6 Waxing of the surface
Waxing is one such technology suitable for preservation of fruits. By thismethod, the shelf life of the fruit can be enhanced by more than two weeks. This gives
breathing time for marketing.
The shine on the outer surface of the fruit is due to natural wax. Most of thenatural wax on the peel surface is removed during washing. When this wax is removed,
fruit tend to lose moisture. Wax prevents evaporation of water from the produce andgives shine to the surface. Food grade wax can be applied manually by rubbing it onto
the fruit surface or by spraying/dripping it on a bed of slowly rotating horsehair-grade
brushes.

56

3.7.2.7 Controlled atmosphere storage
In the Controlled atmosphere storage, the fruit is placed in the gas-tightrefrigerated chamber allowing the natural respiration of the fruit. This decreases theoxygen content and increase the percentage of carbon dioxide in the chamber. This
controlled atmospheric storage extends the storage life of the fruit.
3.7.2.8 Shorten the time between harvest and consumption
The losses of the fruits can also be reduced to a large extent by reducing themarketing channel. Shorter is the marketing channel, lesser will be losses during theprocess of marketing.
3.7.2.9 Sanitation
Proper sanitary conditions must be maintained during the operation like handling,storage, cleaning and washing equipment, used for the fruits to minimize the risk of
spreading microbial growth. Diseased or damaged fruits should be sorted out andproperly disposed off to prevent the likely the growth of fungi and bacteria on soundfruits. Insects infesting culled fruits may migrate to good fruits and introduce pathogenicorganisms and increase losses.
Water used for washing should also be changed at regular intervals before it
becomes contaminated with fungi and bacteria, which spreads infection. The chlorinatedwater or chemically treated water reduces the count of viable organisms.
3.7.2.10 Peel De-Greening:
Ethylene, which is a naturally produced plant growth hormone, is also effective
as a de-greening agent. It breaks down the green chlorophyll pigment. This treatment
also improves the external skin color and export market acceptance. This treatment issolely cosmetic in effect and does not alter the flavor of the fruit.
The de-greening process involves exposing green-skinned Mandarin fruit of
uniform grade to low levels of ethylene (usually between 1 ppm to 10 ppm) at 20°C to
25°C (68°F to 78°F) and 90% Relative Humidity. Good internal air movement is needed,so that, the air circulates every 2 to 3 minutes. The carbon dioxide level inside thetreatment chamber should not rise above 2000 ppm. Fruits should not be washed before
de-greening. Ethephon (500 ppm for 1 minutes), ethylene-releasing liquid compound,can also be applied by dipping the fruit in a tank of sanitized water at room temperature.
Higher concentration of ethylene is, however, injurious to fruits.
It is always better, if the ethylene treatment is given immediately after harvest.
Care should also be taken that the fruits do not dry before treatment. Ethylene must be
applied prior to waxing.

57

3.7.2.11 Evaporative cool chamber:
For short duration storage at small scale, evaporative cool chamber (7.5’ X 6’ X7’), having drip system for watering and fan for air movement has been developed at
NRCC, Nagpur. This chamber has maximum 1.5 ton fruit storage capacity. The storage
cost is very less and small farmers can hold the fruit up to 25 days.

58

4.0 Post-Harvest Diseases and Disorders
Post-harvest diseases and disorders generally develop due to infestations before
harvest. Insect damage is usually caused by insect holes through produce e.g. Fruit fly.
Losses from post-harvest diseases in fresh fruits can be both quantitative and qualitative.
These diseases are mainly caused by fungi and bacteria. Initially, only a few pathogens
may invade and break down the tissue systems, followed by subsequent attack of weakpathogens. High temperature and humidity accelerate the process of post harvest decay
by microorganisms.
The severity of infection and degree of damage, however differ, depending upon
the region of cultivation, season and even the root stock used for grafting. The fruits
dropped on the ground due to physiological disorders are infected by pathogenicorganisms and have poor storability.
Harvest injury, defective handling, inappropriate temperature and humidity affectthe storage life of the fruits. The presence of blemished fruits with sound ones also
contribute to decay and damage.
4.1 Principal Post harvest Diseases and Disorders:Sl. Diseases
No.

Season andplacesCharacteristics
of affected
fruitsControl measures

1

Maharashtra(Oct.-Jan.)

Fruitsshow
water
soakedskin,
soft
texturewithoozing liquidand fermented
odour

Treatmentwithcombination of callxin(1000 ppm) and Benlate-50(0.1 %) emulsion before
storage: by dipping fruit for
2 minutes

Affected fruits
soft,
coveredwithwhitishfungus growth

Spraying with Bordeauxmixture (2-3 sprays) (1 %)or Difolaton (0.3 %):defollated leaves and fruits
burnt; water logging to be
avoidedSour Rot(Geotrichumcandidum)Vidharba(Feb.-May)

2

Fruit Rot
(Phytophthora
nicotianae)

Coorg
Wynaad(Rainyweather,June-Sep.)59

3

Powdery Mildew(Acrosporium
tingitanium)

Coorg andMalnad in
Karnataka,
Nilgiries(Sep-Oct.
andMar.Aprl.)

Premature fruit
drop

Fortnightly spray (during
flush period) with any of
the following fungicides.
a) Cosan (0.2 %)b) Thiovit (0.2 %)c) Sulfex (0.2 %)d) Karathane (0.2 %)e) Morestan (0.05 %)f) Bavistan (0.1 %)g) Callxin (0.1 %)4

Stem End Rot(Alternaria citri)

Vidharbha

Seen in stored
fruits;discolourationof stem androtten area inthe core; part ofsegment shows
black sporulate)

Use of imazalil or 2,4-D (orboth) on harvested fruit.
Use of the growth regulator
2,4-D delays the onset ofsenescence of the fruit
button, thereby delaying or
restricting the movement of
the pathogen into the fruit.

5

Brown Rot
(Phytophthora
citrophthro)

Vidharbha

Brown colour
spot on infected
fruits; infected
fruit does not
becomesoft
and pulpy

6

Wither Top /Anthroacnose(Collectotrichum
gloeosporioides)

Coorg,
Vidharbha(Aug-Sep)

Seriousonorange tree-Dieback of twings;
or sheding ofleaves, flowers
and fruitdrop;
brown spot on
rind;
pink
colourin
infected portionof segment

Copper fungicide sprays
applied to the soil and thelower part of the tree
canopy prior to anticipated
wet weather help to preventbrown rot.
Brown rot can becontrolled by submerging
fruit in hot water (50°C) for
2-4 min. Storage of fruit atabout 5°C significantly
delays the development ofbrown rot.
Pruning of affected portion
andspraying
with
Bordeaux mixture. Proper
irrigation
andtimelyfertilization essential.

60

7

Pink Disease(Pellicularia
salmonicolor)

Coorg,
Vidharbha

8

Otherstorage
Rots(Phytophthora
nicotianae,
Geotrichum sp,
Penicillium sp,
Rhizopussp,
Phomopsis citri,
Diplodianatalensis
andSclerotium)
Leaf Fall(Phytophthora
nicotianae)

Coorg
Mosoonandsummercrops)

Vidharbha(Mrig
Bahar)

Young
fruitsdevelop water
soakedchocolatebrown lesion

Spraying Bordeaux mixture(0.1 %) before the onset ofrains and spraying theremaining mixture during
rainy season during dry
spell.

Kolsi orSooty Mold
(Capnodiumsp)

Karnataka(June-Sep.)
Vidharbha(Earlywinter)Fruitsshow
reducedsize
anddiscolouration

1. Spraying monocrotophos
or dimethoate combinedwith Copper oxy chloride
or mancozeb helps inprevention of the disease.

9

10

11

Blue and Green
Mold(Penicillium
italicum and P.
digitatum)

Pune,
Vidharbha(July-Aug)

Affected
Mandarin treeshow
gumminess ofbark;appearance ofpink coloured
mycillial
growthondiseased
portion;anddrying of whole
bark.

____

Soft,
water
soakedskin
covered
by
blue,
green
mouldy growth)

Pruning and burning ofaffected portion. Scrapingof diseased tissue andapplication of Bordeauxmixture in dry season.

Post harvest dip treatmentof mosoon fruits with TBZ,
Bavistan and Benlate checklosses upto 26 days.
Likewise,dippingofsummer season fruits in
Benlate,Callxin,andBavistan or TBZ restricted
the rot to less than 10 %.

Spraying of diluted glue ora detergent can wash off theblack coating.
Harvesting the fruit after
the rain and fog; carefulhandling; spraying boricacid;
addingsodiumcarbonate
duringthewashing of fruit.

Source: Mandarin Orange in India. Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore.

61

5.0 MARKETING
Marketing is the key to horticultural development of the region. The absence ofa proper marketing plan and organisational arrangements, agro processing facilities,
which otherwise have high potential for indigenous production to the extent of selfsustainability is a cause of great concern and is a disincentive to the local growers.
Efficient marketing system plays a crucial role in getting the remunerative prices
to the producers. In present scenario, it is observed that the producers do not pay proper
attention for various components of marketing. The producers usually spend whole ofthe year on production and part with the produce to the pre-harvest contractors, that
results in low share in consumer’s price.
Majority of producers sell Mandarins to pre-harvest contractors, while a few sell
the fruits to the wholesalers in the market yards or send their produce directly to thedifferent cities. The method of sale of produce to pre-harvest contractor in either “Hunda
method (Pre-harvest contract of whole of the orchard) or Count method”. The produce issold to pre-harvest contractors at “Flowering to maturity stage or after maturity”. The
main reasons for sale of produce to the pre-harvest contractor are as under.
i) High risk of spoilage of fruits from natural calamity.
ii) No assurance of higher prices in markets.
iii) Delay in getting payment of produce.
iv) Pressing need of money for immediate payments.
v) Higher transportation cost.
vi) Lack of the market information.
Sometimes it is observed that sale of produce to pre-harvest contractor causes thefollowing inconvenience to the producers.
i) Delayed harvesting of the fruits.
ii) Delayed payment to the producers by the pre-harvest contractors.
iii) No guarantee of sticking to the contract by the pre-harvest contractors.
iv) Deductions in payment by the pre-harvest contractors, in the event of lossof fruits, due to droppingv) Financial losses to the producers due to wrong estimates by the pre-harvest
contractors.

62

The main reasons for sale of fruits in the market premises are as under.
i) Higher net prices expected in the markets.
ii) No contract could have been settled with pre-harvest contractors.
iii) There is no alternative except to sell in the market.
iv) Small quantities of produce.
Similarly, there are following problems, faced by the producers to sell the fruitsin the market premises.
i) High commission, transportation, loading / unloading and other charges.
ii) No assurance of remunerative prices.
iii) Sometimes delayed payment by commission agents.
iv) Sometimes unauthorised deduction by the commission agents.
Due to high degree of perishability, producers sell the produce as early as
possible. But, it would better if the produce is sold where the market have a better
accessibility, supported by efficient transport and communication facilities.
In marketing of Mandarins, not only the producers face the problems, the preharvest contractors, wholesalers, pack house owners and retailers also face similar
problems , as given below.
5.1 Pre-harvest contractors:i) Mismanagement of gardens, resulting in deterioration of quality and yield of
fruits.
ii) Risk of losses due to natural calamity like storms, rains, pest, etc.
iii) Improper storage and transportation, lack of skilled labourer, absence of
mechanical grading facilities, etc.
5.2 Wholesalers:i) Costly, improper and inadequate road transportation facilities.
ii) Labor problemsiii) Costly packing materialv) Lack of infrastructural facilities

63

5.3 Packing center owners:i) Costly packing materialsii) Lack of skilled workersiii) Non availability of cold storage
5.4 Retailers:h) Losses due to spoilage of fruitsi) Costly transportationj) Lack of proper air cooled shops in the local markets

5.5 Marketing Channels:
The main channels followed for marketing of Mandarins are as under: Growers – Pre-harvest contractors – Commission Agents – Retailers –Consumers.
 Growers – Wholesalers – Commission Agents – Retailers – Consumers.
 Growers – Commission Agents–– Processing Industries - Retailers –Consumers.
 Growers – Retailers – Consumers.
 Growers– Exporters.

5.5.1 Criteria for selection of channels:
1. The channel, which ensures the higher share to producer and also provides
cheaper price to consumer, is considered as the most efficient channel.
2. Selection should be for shorter channel, to reduce marketing cost.
3. Avoid the longer channel, having more intermediaries, causing higher
marketing cost and reduced producer's share.
4. Select the channel which distributes the produce appropriately at low
and secure the desired volume of disposal.

expense64

5.6 Strategy for efficient marketing:
The strategy for efficient marketing is as under.
i) Producer’s organisations and co-operative societies should be formed for marketingof Mandarins fruits.
ii) Fruits should be harvested at proper maturity only.
iii) Precautions should be taken for avoiding injuries at the time of harvesting andtransportation of fruits to the marketsiv) There is need to develop alternative marketing channel involving co-operative
societies to help the Mandarin growers.
v) Steps should be taken to link production, marketing and processing of Mandarins to
avoid seasonal gluts in the markets.
vi) Considering the fragileness of the fruit, careful harvesting and handling of harvested
fruits are of critical importance to maintain their ‘Sales appeal” and delicate flavour.
vii) Ways and means should be explored for providing cheap and locally available
packing material and transport facilities.
viii) Advance marketing credit/loan facilities should be provided by the banks to the
Mandarins producers.
ix) In the absence of organised system of marketing and crop insurance policy, the citrus
growers get poor returns. Therefore, the minimum support price of Mandarin fruits,during the productive years should be declared.
x) There is need to ensure remunerative price to the Mandarin producer, reduction inmarketing cost and also to ensure supply of fruits at reasonable price to theconsumer throughout the year.

65

6.0 MARKETING COSTS AND MARGINS
6.1 Marketing Costs:

Marketing Costs are the actual expenses required in bringing goods and services
from the producer to the consumers. The marketing cost normally includes(i)Handling charges at farm level,(ii)

Assembling charges,(iii) Transport and storage costs,(iv) Handling charges by wholesalers and retailers,(v)

Expenses on secondary services like financing, risk taking and market
intelligence, and(vi) Profit margins of different agencies.
The marketing cost incurred by farmers and traders at Regulated market includesi) Market fee, ii) Commission, iii) Taxes, and iv) Other miscellaneous charges.

i) Market fee: Market fee is collected by the market committee of the markets. It ischarged either on the basis of weight or on the basis of the value of the
produce. It is usually collected from the buyers. The market fee differsfrom state to state. It varies from 0.5 per cent to 2.0 per cent ad valorem.
ii) Commission: It is paid to the commission agent for assisting in carrying out thetransactions, and may be payable either by seller or by the buyer orsometimes by both. The charge is usually made in cash and varies
considerably.
iii) Taxes:

Different taxes are charged in different markets such as toll tax, terminal
tax, sales tax, octroi etc. These taxes differ from market to market in thesame state and also from state to state. These taxes are usually payable by
the seller.

iv) Miscellaneous charges: In addition to the above-mentioned charges, some othercharges are levied in marketing of produce. These includes handling andweighment charges (weighing, loading, unloading, cleaning etc.), andcharity etc. These charges may be payable either by the sellers or by thebuyers or by both.

66

6.1.1 Marketing cost borne by producers and other functionaries:
6.1.1.1 Producers:
The producers sell the fruits to pre-harvest contractors or sell themselves in themarket premises. When farmers sell their produce to the pre-harvest contractors, they
have to bear no cost on the marketing of fruits. The pre-harvest contractors make thepayment for each post-harvest operation.
On contrary, if producers sell the produce themselves in the market premises or
to a distant place , then they have to bear the expenses on labour for plucking of fruits,transportation, octroi, commission charges, heap making, and other miscellaneous
activities.
6.1.1.2 Pre-harvest contractors:
Pre-harvest contractor makes the payment well in advance to the producers,
therefore, they have to bear the expenditure on vigil and pre-harvest activities, inaddition to post-harvest marketing activities.
The main post-harvest marketing cost borne by the pre-harvest contractors arelike sorting and grading, packaging, transportation, octroi, loading and unloading,commission charges, heap making, market cess and other miscellaneous charges.
6.1.1.3 Wholesalers:
The wholesalers are the main purchasing agency in the markets. Generally, they
have their own packing centres, located within the premises of the markets. They
purchase the produce at their own or on behalf of other big traders. Sometimes, theyalso act as commission agents.
The wholesalers sell the produce outside of the market. The local sale of the
fruits in the market premises is negligible. They have to incur expenditure on packing
material, sorting & grading, transportation, octroi, loading / unloading, market cess,establishment and other miscellaneous items. The maximum expenditure of thewholesalers is on establishment and on other miscellaneous items.
6.1.1.4 Retailers:
Retailer is the last functionary of the marketing channel of sale and purchase of
the Mandarins. Retailers purchase the fruits from the wholesalers for the final sale tothe consumers.
The expenditure of the retailers is found generally on transportation,commission charges, market cess, shop rents, baskets, shades, lighting, andmaintenance of hand driven carts.

67

6.2 Marketing Margins:
Margin refers to the difference between the price paid and received by a specificmarketing agency such as retailer or assemblers or by any combination of marketing
agencies in the marketing system as a whole.

MarketingMargin= Price Received by Agency- Price Paid by the Agency

The marketing margin varies from market to market, channel to channel, time totime and place to place.

68

7.0 EXPORT AND IMPORT
Major problem for exports of fresh Mandarins from India is low productivity,
prevalence of a low level of pre-harvest care, inadequate adoption of post-harvest
technology and existence of distortion in marketing channels.
The Agri-Export Zones (AEZs) are in developing stage to meet the market
requirements, especially to provide a specific thrust to the quality and supply chain
requirements of the target markets.
Nagpur Mandarin is one of the best Mandarins in the world, which is produced incentral and western part of India. Mrig crop (monsoon blossom), which matures in
February-March has great potential for export, since arrival of Mandarin fruits ininternational market is less during this period.
Selection of desired quality fruit as per specific market demand and careful postharvest handling to retain natural qualities and freshness plays a key role in expanding
exports of Nagpur Mandarins. At present fruit consignments are being exported toneighboring countries by road without cooling and giving any other treatment. For viable
and sustainable export to distant markets of Europe, Gulf and South East Asia, export byrefrigerated container ships is imperative.
7.1 Export:
The total world export, during 2007 was 3651.018 thousand tones. Export from
Spain during this period was the maximum i.e., 45.26 per cent (1652.428 thousand tones) of
the total world export of Mandarins. China was the highest Mandarin producing country, but
export was only 10.96 per cent (399.986 thousand tones) of the world export. Export of
Mandarins from Turkey and Morocco, the other important exporting countries was 7.06 percent and 6.68 per cent of total export. Export of mandarin from India during this period was
only 0.002 per cent (0.066 thousand tones). India exported mandarin mainly to Bangladesh
and Nepal. USA, Canada and Netherlands were the other countries, where Mandarin wasexported from India.
The export of Mandarin s during 2005, 2006, and 2007 are given in table No 22.
Table No 22.
Export of Mandarins
Sl.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Country
Argentina
Australia
BelgiumBrazilChina
CyprusFranceGreece2005
71.42922.87338.80012.475372.13131.12834.20737.960Quantity in ‘000 tones
2006
2007
81.52198.62518.23519.485
13.58810.01010.712
6.128
337.668
399.98633.10231.20630.60629.63339.26835.298

69

9
India
10
Iran
11
Israel12
Italy
13
Lebanon14
Morocco15
Netherlands
16
Pakistan
17
South Africa
18
Spain
19
Turkey20
Uruguay
21
Others22
World
Source: FAO.307
24.12832.40561.43517.097302.452101.168
78.91485.5091512.619
246.33744.917201.1803329.471.005
39.63320.70672.16717.382223.84588.301
192.528
83.7341509.695
299.126
40.703242.128
3394.653

0.066
2.058
40.50969.47915.173243.98395.689123.040
106.447
1652.428
257.935
46.605367.235
3651.018

7.2 Import:
Canada, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Russia (Fed.), United Kingdom,
USA, and Vietnam are the main importing countries of Mandarins.
Total import of Mandarin, during 2007 was 3436.396 thousand tones. During thisperiod, Russia (Fed.) imported 13.95 per cent (479.331 thousand tones), France imported
10.35 (355.616 thousand tones), Germany imported 10.30 per cent (353.960 thousand
tones), of the total world import. Import of Mandarin in the same year by United
Kingdom was 8.25 per cent (283.604 thousand tones) and by Netherlands and Poland
were 5.42 per cent (186.403 thousand tones) and 4.83 per cent (165.917 thousand tones),
respectively. These five countries alone shared more than 40 per cent of total world
import of Mandarin, during 2007.
The country-wise import of Mandarin, during 2005, 2006, and 2007 are given intable No 23.
Table No 23.
Import of Mandarins

Sl.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Country
Austria
Belgium
CanadaCzech (Rep.)
FranceGermany
Italy
Malaysia

2005
38.15380.820109.603
67.830346.912346.21296.16059.183

Quantity in tones
2006
2007
45.30239.57674.19164.303114.177
121.33163.69366.548340.020355.616346.337353.960
83.022106.736
58.88877.291

70

9
Netherlands
10
Philippines
11
Poland12
Russian (Fed.)
13
Saudi Arabia
14
United Kingdom
15
USA
16
Others17
World
Source: FAO

154.671
56.849152.512335.350
56.759295.787
94.963639.256
2931.020

192.206
58.658142.051410.54254.344289.896
107.459
830.226
3211.012

186.40356.284165.917479.33136.135283.604
112.089931.2723436.396

7.3 Agri-Export Zones:
With a view to promote agricultural exports from the country and providing
remunerative returns to the farming community in a sustained manner, the concept of theagri-export zones (AEZ) was floated. These zones have been set up for ‘end to end’development for export of specific products from a geographically contiguous area.
AEZ are identified by the State Government, and evolve a comprehensive
package of services provided by all State Government agencies, State agriculture
universities and all institutions, and agencies of the Union Government for intensive
delivery in these zones. Corporate sector with proven credentials are encouraged tosponsor new agri-export zone or take over already notified agri-export zone or part ofsuch zones for boosting agri-exports from the zones.
Services, which are managed and coordinated by State Government/corporate
sector and include provision of pre/post harvest treatment and operations, plant
protection, processing, packaging, storage and related research & development etc.
APEDA supplements within its schemes and provisions the efforts of various stakeholders. State Governments also make efforts for facilitating such exports.
Units in AEZ would be entitled for all the facilities available for exports of goods
in terms of provisions of the respective schemes.

The list of the Agri Export Zones of Mandarins is as under:
State

Districts

Madhya Peradesh

Chhindwara, Hoshangabad, Betul

Maharashtra

Nagpur and Amrawati

71

8.0 Processing and Uses
8.1 Processing:
Fruits normally have a poor shelf life and start deteriorating just after plucking.
The quality of the fruits get further lowered during transshipment to the markets. Overand above to these, over ripening is also a big problem. In order to overcome these
problems, the processing of fruits should be encouraged. This will improve the market
efficiency and income to the farmers on one hand and generate employment on the other
hand.
The fruits and vegetables processing industry occupy a key position in the agroindustrial development plan of the country. In order to avoid spoilage and ensure
availability during off-season and to earn higher income, the surplus quantities must beeither preserved or processed. The processing of the fruits also provides a cushion tostabilize the price during the peak harvest period.
The processing industry requires raw material of uniform shape and size. The
varieties with a thin and sufficiently hard rind are preferred to soft rind. Mandarinsrequire special handling in the preparation and juice extraction processes.
The products obtained from Mandarins are juice in the concentrated and frozen
form, squash, marmalades and slices and by-products like essential orange oil, washedpulp juice, frozen concentrate, concentrate for animals and d-limonene.
Drying, chemical preservation and heat processing are the best methods at small–scale processing. During drying, the moisture content is reduced and consequently it
retards the enzyme activities to a considerable extent, as well as the possibilities of
microbial decay.
The various chemicals such as sugar, salt, vinegar and sodium
metabisulphite are generally used for preservation of fruits.
The popularity of Mandarin juice is certainly due to its pleasant and refreshingflavor, nutritional benefits from vitamin C, folic acid and the dietary fibers.
Pasteurization and concentration preserve the product's quality and high nutritive value.
Continuous technology improvements have enabled the industry to excel on quality withthe result that today orange juice of better taste and as good as fresh squeezed juice
available in the market.
With a view to help the small and marginal farmers, engaged in production of
perishable fruits and vegetables, the National Horticulture Board has been implementing
a project namely “Strengthening Post-Harvest Management of Horticulture Produce”.
The project is being implemented in collaboration with the National Cooperative
Development Corporation (NCDC) and the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development (NABARD). The Board acts as a catalyst to technically and financially
support for various programs, under the project implemented by farmers associations
and Co-operative societies. Financial support is being extended to such activities as
grading, packing, purchase of plastic containers, pre-cooling and short-duration cold
storage.

72

8.2 Processed products:
8.2.1 Mandarin juice:
The extraction of juice from Mandarin is complicated, since it turns bitter after
extraction due to limonoids present in the albedo portion and juice sacs. Juice from
Mandarin is extracted either by the application of pressure to whole fruit or by reamingor pressing the halves of crosswise cut on a suitable rosette. Various types of equipments
have been developed for the extraction purpose, like i) Screw type juice extractor, ii)
Halving and burning machines, iii) Plunger type press, iv) CFTRI Citrus juice extractoretc.
For juice processing, it is essential to use varieties with high juice content and agood Brix°-acidity balance. The colour is especially important quality parameter inconcentrated Mandarin juices, and in the preparation of citrus product bases. Juices
squeezed at different times are usually combined to obtain a product with a balanced
colour and taste.
Since vitamin C is the most important nutrient in citrus fruit juice, it should bepresent in great concentrations in the form of ascorbic acid. Another processing
requirement is that, the raw material must not have an excessively bitter flavour or that it
does not acquire a bitter flavour, as a result of thermal processing.
8.2.2 Not From Concentrate Juice:
Not-From-Concentrate (NFC) juice is a product that today is the closest match to
fresh juice in a convenient ready-to-serve package. It meets consumer's desires for
improved flavor, for less-processed products, and for more natural juicy bits of
Mandarin.
The product is made by a closely controlled pasteurization process to minimize
juice exposure to heat. Excessive heat contributes to cooked flavor development andundesirable changes to delicate aromatic components. Year round supply of the productis possible as a large volume of juice is stored utilizing various storage technologies.
Other important factors in the production of NFC are the control of peel oil andbitterness level in the juice. Excessive peel oil contributes to the undesirable flavorchanges that can occur in citrus juices during processing and storage.
8.2.3 General sanitary standards during processing:Quality, health standards and regulations must be strictly applied, otherwise theproduct will be exposed to contamination by bacteria, mould and yeasts, thus
jeopardizing the expected development of an agro industrial enterprise. These measures
must be adopted as early as in the production phase, and must continue in the postharvest, transportation, storage, preparation and processing phases. Ensure that the fruit
is in sound conditions for processing.
In line with these principles, the following sanitary standards must be fulfilled
and applied by workers on the production premises:

73i) Workers hygiene-workers must wash their hands and clean their nails carefully
before engaging in any process. They must keep their nails short, and if
possible, use rubber gloves.
ii) To enter the working area, workers must wear a clean smock, a hair net toprotect the food from possible contamination by hair, and a mask to avoid
microbial contamination.
iii) The working utensils and equipment must be cleaned appropriately to remove
any waste or residual organic material and sanitized.
iv)The containers (glass jars and bottles) must be washed with hot water before
being filled with food.
v) The waste generated by the production process must be removed from theproduction area on a daily basis.
vi) Clean and dry the outer surface of the containers with the product before
sealing, labeling and storing.
vii) The storage site of the finished product must be hygienic clean and free fromall possible contamination (it must have been previously fumigated). It mustalso be cool and dry.
8.3 Uses:
The Mandarins are having the following uses.
8.3.1 Use for kindling:
Dried Mandarin and lemon peels are a far superior choice for use as kindlingthan newspaper. Not only do they smell better and produce less creep up thannewspaper, but the flammable oils found inside the peels enable them to burn much
longer than paper.
8.3.2 As a pomander:
Pomanders have been used for centuries to fill small spaces with a delightful
fragrance as well as to combat moths. They are also incredibly easy to make. Take abunch of cloves and stick them into a Mandarin peel, covering the whole surface. Now
suspend pomander using a piece of string, twine, or monofilament fishing line inside acloset or cupboard, and it will keep the space smelling fresh for years.
8.3.3 Simmer for stovetop potpourris:Houses can be filled with a refreshing citrus scent by simmering several
Mandarin and/or lemon peels in 1-2 cups of water in an aluminum pot for a few hours.
Add water as needed during the simmering. This process freshens up the pot as well as
the air in houses.

74

8.3.4 Keeps kitties off lawn:
The littering problems of cats can be solved by making a mixture of Mandarin
peels and coffee grounds and distributing it around the cats' "old haunts." If they don'ttake the hint, lay down a second batch and try moistening it with a bit of water.
8.3.5 As mosquito repellent:
Mosquitoes and gnats are totally repulsed by scent of the orange peel.
8.3.6 As ants repellent:
In a blender, make a smooth puree of a few Mandarin peels in 1 cup warm
water. Slowly pour the solution over and into anthills to send the little pests packing.
This will help in to get rid of the ants in garden, on terrace, and along the foundation ofhouse
8.3.7 As Essential Oils:
Three essential oils are obtained from Mandarins i) Oil of orange, obtained fromthe rind of the fruit and used principally as a flavoring agent ii) Oil of petigrain, obtained
from the leaves and twigs and used in perfumery; iii) Oil of neroli, obtained from theblossoms and used in flavorings and perfumes.
8.4 Other Uses:
8.4.1 Pulp:
Citrus pulp (3/4 being a by-product of orange juice extraction) is highly valued aspelleted stock feed with a protein content of 6.58 to 7.03%. It is a source of edible yeast,
non-potable alcohol, ascorbic acid, and hesperidin.
8.4.2 Peel:In addition to its food uses, Mandarins peel oil is a prised scent in perfume andsoaps. Because of its 90-95% limonene content, it has a lethal effect on houseflies, fleas
and fire ants. Terpenes extracted from the outer layer of the peel are important in resins
and in formulating paints.
8.4.3 Seeds:
Oil derived from Mandarins and other citrus seed is used as cooking oil and in
preparation soap as well as in plastic industry. The high-protein seed residue is suitablefor human food and an ingredient in cattle feed, and the hulls enter into fertilizer
mixtures.
8.4.5 Flowers and foliage:
The essential oils distilled from Mandarin flowers and foliage is important in
perfume manufacturing. The oil is distilled from the leaves, flowers, twigs, and small,whole, unripe fruits.

75

8.4.6 Nectar:
The nectar flow is more abundant than that from any other source in the UnitedStates. It is eagerly sought by honeybees and the delicious, light-colored honey is widely
favored, though it darkens and granulates within a few months. Citrus honey constitutes
nearly 25% of all honey produced in California each year.
8.4.7 Wood:
The wood is yellowish, close-grained and hard, but prone to attack by dry woodtermites. It has been valued for furniture, cabinetwork, turnery and engraver's blocks.
Branches are fashioned into walking-sticks.
8.4.8 Medicinal Uses:
Mandarins are eaten to allay fever and catarrh. The roasted pulp is prepared as apoultice for skin diseases. The fresh peel is rubbed on acne. Whole Mandarins are much
useful because of its protopectin, bioflavonoids and inositol (related to vitamin B).
Mandarin contains a significant amount of the vitamin-like glucoside, hesperidin, and
75-80% of it in the albedo, rag and pulp.
An infusion of the immature fruit is taken to relieve stomach and intestinal
complaints. Mandarin flower water made in Italy and France as cologne is bitter andconsidered antispasmodic and sedative. A decoction of the dried leaves and flowers isgiven in Italy as an antispasmodic, cardiac sedative, antiemetic, digestive and remedy for
flatulence. The inner bark, macerated and infused in wine is taken as a tonic andcarminative. A vinous decoction of husked orange seeds is prescribed for urinary
ailments in China and the juice of fresh Mandarin leaves or a decoction of the driedleaves may be taken as a carminative or emmenagogue or applied on sores and ulcers.
Mandarin seed extract is given as a treatment for malaria in Ecuador, but it is known tocause respiratory depression and a strong contraction of the spleen.
8.5 Citrus By-Products Recovery:
The by-products of citrus are an important economical aspect in citrus processing
operations and it is particularly appropriate when a large volume of fruit is processed.
The most common by-products derived from citrus are i) Peel oil aroma, an essential oil,ii) Frozen pulp cells and iii) Cattle feed pellets.
8.6 Toxicity
Mandarin trees may have adverse respiratory reactions in close proximity.
Sawdust of the wood of orange trees, formerly used for polishing jewelry, may cause
asthma. Excessive contact with the volatile oils in Mandarin peel can produce dermatitis.
Sucking of Mandarins often cause skin irritation around the mouth. Excess peeling of
Mandarin may have rash and blisters between the fingers. Sensitive individuals may
have respiratory reactions in proximity to the volatile emanations from broken Mandarin
peel.

76

Flow sheet showing by-products from Mandarin
Mandarin

Peel

Pomace (after juice extraction)

Seeds
Extraction

Peel oil

Pigment
Carotenoid

GlazedMolasses

Hesperind

Dried Pectin
peelAnimal or
Poultry feed
Flavour

Deterpenation

Alcohol

Terpeneless oil

TerpeneEncapulated

α -Limonin

Feed yeast

Source: Central Food Technologyical Research Institute, Mysore

Dried

Dehydrated
juice sacs

Seed oil

Seed meal

77

9.0 MARKETING INFORMATION AND EXTENSION

9.1 Marketing information:
Marketing information is indispensable in all the stages of marketing right fromfarm to ultimate consumption. Marketing information is essential for producers inplanning and market led production. Recently, Government of India has launched
Agricultural Marketing Research and Information Network Scheme through Directorateof Marketing & Inspection (DMI) to bring out improvement in the present market
information system by linking all Agricultural produce wholesale markets in the States
and Union Territories in a phased manner. The data received from markets is being
displayed on the website www.agmarknet.nic.in.
9.2 Marketing extension:

Market extension is a vital service for enlightening the farmers about propermarketing and improving their awareness on various aspects of post-harvest
management for efficient and cost effective marketing. Extension service acts as bridge
between farmers and various schemes sponsored by the Central, State Govts.,
Commodity Boards, etc.
9.2.1 Benefits:
Benefits of Market Extension are:







Provides the up-to-date information on the arrivals and prices ofagricultural commodities of different markets.
Helps the producers to take right decision, when, where and how much tomarket their produce.
Educates the producers/traders about the post-harvest management i.e.
a) Harvesting careb) Techniques to minimise losses during post-harvest period.
c) Value addition to the produce by proper cleaning, processing,packaging, storage and transportation.
Orients the producers/traders/consumers about price trends, demand andsupply situation etc.
Orients the producer regarding the importance of grading, proper storage,
co-operative/group marketing, direct marketing, contract farming, etc.
Provides the information about the sources of credit availability, various
Govt. schemes, policies, rules and regulations etc.

78

9.3 Sources of Marketing Information:
The following are the sources of marketing information available in the country:
Source / Institution
1.Directorate of Marketing andInspection (DMI),

Activities for marketing information and extension

h Provides information through nationwide Marketing
Information Network (“AGMARKNET” portal).

NH-IV, New CGO Complex,
Faridabad.
Website:www.agmarknet.nic.in

h Marketing extension through training to consumers,
producers, graders, etc.

h Marketing research and surveys.
h Publication of reports, pamphlets, leaflets, AgriculturalMarketing journal, Agmark standards etc.

2.Directorate of Economics andStatistics,
Shastri Bhavan, New Delhi.
Website: www.agricoop.nic.inh Compilation of agricultural data on area, production
and yield for development and planning.
h Dissemination of market intelligencepublication and Internet.

through

3. Directorate General of h Collection, compilation and dissemination ofCommercial Intelligence andmarketing related data i.e. export-import data, inter
Statistics (DGCIS),
state movement of food grains etc.
1, Council House Street, Kolkata-1
Website: www.dgciskol.nic.in
4.Central
Warehousing
Corporation ( CWC ),4/1 Siri Institutional Area, Opp.
Siri fort, New Delhi-110016
Website: www.fieo.com/cwc/

h Farmers Extension Service Scheme was launched by
CWC in the year 1978-79 with the following objectives:i) To educate farmers about the benefit of scientificstorage and use of public warehouses.
ii) To impart training to the farmers on the techniquesof scientific storage and preservation of food grains.
iii) To assist farmers in getting pledge loans from thebanks against warehouse receipt.
iv) Demonstration of spraying and fumigation methods
to control pests.

79

5.Agricultural Produce Market
Committees (APMC),

h Provide market information on arrivals, prevailing
prices, dispatches etc.

h Provide market information of adjoining and distantmarket committees.

h Arrange training, tours, exhibitions etc.
6. State Agricultural Marketing
Boards,h Provide marketing related information to co-ordinate
all the market committees in the state.

h Arrange seminars, workshops and exhibitions on
subjects related to agricultural marketing.

h Provide training facilities to producers, traders and7.Federation of Indian Export
Organisations (FIEO),
PHQ House(3rd Floor) Opp.
Asian Games, New Delhi-110016

h
h

h
h

employees of the Boards.
Provide information to its members about latest
developments in export and import.
Organise seminars, workshops, presentations, tours,
buyer-seller meets, sponsoring participation ininternational trade fairs, exhibitions and provide
special advisory services.
Provide information about market development
assistance schemes.
Provide useful information on India’s export andimport with diverse database.

8. Kisan Call Centers(New Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai,
Kolkata, Hyderabad, Banglore,
Chandigarh and Lucknow)h Provides expert advise to the farmers.
h These centers operate through toll free telecom lines
throughout the country.
h A country-wide common four digit number 1551 has
been allotted to these centers.

9. Mass Media Support to h Mass media support to agriculture extension has been
augmented with three new initiatives.
Agriculture Extensioni)
The first component establishes a cable satellite
channel for national broadcast using the existing
facilities available with Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU).
ii)
The second component is use of low and high powertransmitters of Doordarshan for providing area specifictelecast. Initially, 12 locations chosen to launchbroadcasting are Jalpaiguri (West Bengal), Indore(Madhya Pradesh), Sambhalpur (Orissa), Shillong

80

10. Agriculture-Clinics andAgri-Business by Agriculture
Graduates

11. Different
Agricultural
Information

websites on
Marketing(Meghalaya), Hissar (Haryana), Muzzafarpur (Bihar),Dibrugarh (Assam), Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh),
Vijaywada (Andhra Pradesh), Gulbarga (Karnataka),
Rajkot (Gujarat), Daltonganj (Jharkhand).
iii) The third component is use of FM transmitter networkof All India Radio (AIR) through 96 FM stations toprovide area specific broadcasting.
h A central sector scheme “Establishment ofAgriculture-Clinics and Agri-business Managed by
Agriculture Graduates” is being implemented since
2001-02.
h The aim is to provide opportunity to all eligible
agriculture graduates to support agriculture
development through economically viable ventures.
The scheme is being jointly implemented by NABARD,
National
InstituteofAgricultural
Extension
Management (MANAGE) and Small Farmers’ Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC) in association with about
66 reputed training institutes in the country.
www.agmarknet.nic.in
www.agricoop.nic.in
www.fieo.com/cwc/
www.ncdc.nic.in
www.ikisan.com
www.fmc.gov.in
www.icar.org.in
www.fao.org
www.agriculturalinformation.com
www.agriwatch.com
www.kisan.net
www.agnic.org
www.nafed-india.com
www.indiaagronet.com
www.nic.in/eximpol
www.agrisurf.com
www. Commodityindia.com
www.cii.in
www.ficci.com

9.4 Kisan Call Centre:
The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India launched Kisan Call Centres on January 21, 2004 throughout thecountry. It has the objective of offering instant solution in local language to the problems
faced by the farmers during crop cultivation under diverse challenging situations. The
call centres are acting as composite help centres, which consist of a complex telecommunication infrastructure, computer support and human resources organized to81manage effectively and efficiently the queries raised by farmers. The subject matter
specialists, using telephone and computer interact with farmers to understand theirproblems and answer their queries as soon as possible. This is a new dimension inagricultural extension management, which makes the full use of on-going informationand communication revolution by connecting the farming community in the remotest
areas of the country with the experts in agricultural field.
9.4.1 Progress of Kisan Call Centre:
Call centre based extension service deliver the knowledge and information
exactly as per the requirements of the farming community. This system also helps keep arecord of what is being delivered to the farmers in terms of knowledge and information.
The Kisan Call Centre scheme is available over the complete country. The Kisan Call
Centre scheme has been functioning from 21.1.04. The Call Centres can be accessed by
farmers all over the country on common Toll Free Number 1800-180-1551.

List of Kisan Call Centres operating in the Country
S.No.

Call Centre
Location

States covered

1.

Mumbai

Maharashtra, Goa, Daman, Diu

2.

KanpurUttar Pradesh, Uttranchal

3.

Kochi

Kerala, Lakshadweep

4.

Bangalore

Karnataka

5.

Chennai

T.N. Andaman/ Nicobar

6.

Hyderabad

Andhra Pradesh

7.

Chandigarh

Chandigarh, J&K, Himachal
Pradesh, Punjab

8.

JaipurRajasthan

9.

IndoreMadhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh

10.

KolkataWest Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,
Jharkhand

11.

Kolkata

N.E. States

12.

Delhi

Delhi/ Haryana

13.

Ahmedabad

Gujarat and Dadra & Nagar Haveli

82

List of nodal officers of Kisan Call Centres in the country
Director,

Director,

Managing Director,

Incharge, Directorate of

Coconut Development

National Horticulture

Cotton Development,

Board, Regional Office,

Board, Plot No.85,

14, Ramjibhai, Kamani Marg

AF 6/2004, 7th Street,

Sector 18,Institutional

Ballard Estate, P.B.No.1002

11th Main Road,

Area,

Mumbai – 400038

Annanagar, Chennai –Gurgaon – 122 015

600040 (Tamil Nadu)(Harayana)

Director_docd@rediffmail.com

cdb@tn.nic.in

mdnhb@yahoo.com

Managing Director

Director General

Director In-charge

National Cooperative

National Institute of

Directorate of Pulses

Development Corporation,

Agricultural Extension

Development

Hauz Khas, Institutional Area,

Management (MANAGE),

Vindyachal Bhawan,

New Delhi

Rajednranagar

Bhopal (Madhya

Hyderabad – 500 030

Pradesh)md@ncdc.stpn.soft.net(Andhra Pradesh)

dpd@hub.nic.in

dgmanago@manago.gov.in
Coconut Development Officer

Director

Director

Coconut Development Board

Directorate of Wheat

Directorate of Jute

Ministry of Agriculture,

Development

Development

Government of India,

C.G.O. Complex-I, 3rd

Nizam Palace Campus,

Khera Bhawan, SRVHS

Floor,

234/4, Acharaya J.C.

Road,

Kamla Nehru Nagar,

Bose Road,

Cochin-682 011 Kerala

Ghaziabad-

Kolkata – 700020

cdbkochi@vsnl.com

dwd@hub.nic.in 201 002

djd@hub.nic.in(U.P.)
Director

Director General

Managing Director

Coconut Development Board,

National Institute of

Small Farmers Agri.

Regional Office-cum-

Agricultural Marketing,Business Consortium

83

Technology Centre,

Kota Road, Bambala,(SFAC),

Hulimavu, Bannergatta Road,

Near Sangener,

NCUI Building, 5th Floor,

Besides Horticulture Farm,

Jaipur-303 906

August Kranti Marg, 3,

Govt.of Karnataka,(Rajasthan)

Siri Institutional Area,

Bangalore South, Bangalore – niam@datainfosys.net

Hauz Khas,

560 076 (Karnataka)

New Delhi – 110016

Cdb_blr@kar.nic.in

sfac@ren02.nic.in

84

10.0 ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS OF MARKETING:
10.1 Direct marketing:Direct marketing is an innovative concept, which involves marketing of produce by thefarmer directly to the consumers/millers without any middlemen. Direct marketing enables
producers and other bulk buyers to economize on transportation cost and improve pricerealization. It also provides incentive to large scale marketing companies and exporters topurchase directly from producing areas. Direct marketing by farmers to the consumers has been
experimented in the country through Apni Mandis in Punjab and Haryana.. At present, thesemarkets are being run at the expense of the state exchequer, as a promotional measure, toencourage marketing by small and marginal producers without the involvement of the
middlemen.
10.1.1 Benefits:











It generates the idea of market oriented production.
It increases profit of the producer.
It helps in better marketing.
It minimizes marketing cost.
It encourages distribution efficiency.
It promotes employment to the producer.
Direct marketing enhances the consumer satisfaction.
It provides better marketing techniques to producers.
It encourages direct contact between producers and consumers.
It encourages the farmers for retail sale of their produce.

10.2 Contract marketing/farming:
Contract marketing/farming is a system of marketing, where selected crop is grown formarketing by farmers under a ‘buy-back’ agreement with an agency (entrepreneur or trader orprocessor or manufacturer). In the wake of economic liberalization, it has gained momentum, as
the national and multinational companies enter into contracts with farmers for marketing ofagricultural produce. They also provide technical guidance, capital and input facility tocontracted farmers. Contract marketing/farming ensures continuous supply of quality produce atmutually contracted price to contracting agencies, as well as ensures timely marketing of the
produce. Though, the contract marketing/farming is not prevalent in the marketing of Mandarinbut, it is beneficial to both the parties i.e. farmers and the contracting agencies.
10.2.1 Advantages to farmers: Price assurance, ensuring fair return to the producer.
Proper production planning.
Assured market.
Availability of cost free production and post- harvest technology.

85







Freedom from the clutches of middlemen.
Fair trade practices.
Credit facility.
Crop insurance.
Exposure to new technology and best practices.

10.2.2 Advantages to contracting agency: 








Assured supply of produce (raw materials).
Control on need based production/post-harvest handling.
Control on quality of produce.
Stability in price as per mutually agreed contract terms and conditions.
Opportunities to acquire and introduce desired varieties of crop.
Help in meeting specific customer needs/choice.
Better control on logistics.
Strengthen producer-buyer relationship.

Though, the contract farming is not prevalent in case of marketing of Mandarin, but
looking into the benefits of the contract farming, this system may be explored on the trial basis.
10.3 Co-operative marketing:“Co-operative marketing” is the system of marketing in which a group of producers join
together and register them under respective State Co-operative Societies Act to market theirproduce jointly. The members also deal in a number of co-operative marketing activities i.e.
purchasing of produce, grading, packing, processing, storage, transport, finance, etc. The cooperative marketing means selling of the member’s produce directly in the market, which
fetches remunerative prices. Co-operative societies, market the member’s produce collectively
and reap the advantage of economy of scale to its members. It also provides fair trade practices
and protect against manipulations / malpractices. The main objectives of co-operative marketingare to ensure remunerative prices to the producers, reduction in the cost of marketing andmonopoly of traders.
The co-operative marketing structure in the different states consists of;i) Primary Marketing Society (PMS) at the Mandi level.
ii) State Co-operative Marketing Federation (SCMF) at the State level.
iii) National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India Limited(NAFED) at the National level.
iv) NOGA at Nagpur (A processing unit)
National Co-operative Development Corporation (NCDC) and State Governments areproviding financial assistance and other facilities for development of Co-operative Marketing
Societies.
10.3.1 Benefits:¾¾

Remunerative price to producers.
Reduction in cost of marketing.

86

¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾

Marketing without commission charges.
Effective use of infrastructure.
Credit facilities.
Reduces malpractices.
Marketing information.
Supply of agricultural inputs.
Collective processing.
Timely and easy transportation service.

87

11.0 INSTITUTIONAL FACILITIES
11.1 Marketing related schemes of Government / Public Sector:
Name of thescheme/implementing
organisation
1.Marketing
Research andInformation
Network,
Directorate ofMarketing &Inspection, Head
Office, N.H.-IV,
Faridabad.

Facilities provided/salient features/ objectives

f To establish a nationwide information network for speedy
collection and dissemination of market data for its efficient andtimely utilization.

f To ensure flow of regular and reliable data to the producers,
traders and consumers to derive maximum advantage out of theirsales and purchases.

f To increase efficiency in marketing by effective improvement in
the existing market information system.

2.GraminBhandaran
Yojana(Rural Godowns
Scheme),Directorate ofMarketing &Inspection, Head
Office, N.H.-IV,
Faridabad.

The scheme provided connectivity to 3026 nodes comprising theState Agricultural Marketing Department (SAMD) /Boards/ Markets.
These concerned nodes have been provided with one computer andits peripherals. These SAMD/Boards/ Markets are to collect desired
market information and pass on to respective state authorities andHead Office of the DMI for forward dissemination. The eligible
markets will get 100 percent grant by Ministry of Agriculture.
f It is a capital investment subsidy scheme forconstruction/renovation/expansion of rural godowns. The scheme
is implemented by DMI in collaboration with NABARD and
NCDC. The objectives of the scheme are to create scientificstorage capacity with allied facilities in rural areas to meet therequirements of farmers for storing farm produce, processed
farm produce, consumer articles and agricultural inputs.
f To prevent distress sale immediately after harvest.
f To promote grading, standardization and quality control ofagricultural produce to improve their marketability.
f To promote pledge financing and marketing credit to strengthen
agricultural marketing in the country for the introduction of anational system of warehouse receipt in respect of agriculturalcommodities stored in such godowns.
f The entrepreneur will be free to construct godown at any placeand of any size between 100 to 10,000 MT except for restrictions
that it would be outside the limits of Municipal Corporation area.
In special conditions, godowns upto 50 MT is also eligible forsubsidy and in hilly region it may be 25 MT.
f The scheme provides credit linked back-ended subsidy @15 percent of the project cost with a ceiling of Rs. 28.12 lakh per project

88

and @ 25 per cent of the project cost with a ceiling of Rs. 46.87
lakh per project. For the projects located in North-Eastern statesand hilly areas with altitude of more than 1000 m above meansea level and those belonging to Women Farmers/ their self help
groups/ Co-operatives and SC/ST entrepreneurs and their self
help groups/ Co-operatives, maximum subsidy admissible is@33.33 percent of the project cost, with a ceiling of Rs. 62.50
lakhs.
3.Scheme forDevelopment/
Strengtheningof AgriculturalMarketing Infrastructure,
Grading &Standardization,
Directorate ofMarketing andInspection, Head
Office, N.H.-IV,
Faridabad.

► To provide additional agricultural marketing infra-structure tocope up with the expected marketable surpluses of agriculturaland allied commodities including dairy, poultry, fishery, livestockand minor forest produce.
► To promote competitive alternative agricultural marketing
infrastructure by inducement of private and co-operative sector
investments that sustain incentives for quality and enhanced
productivity thereby improving farmers’ income.
► To strengthen existing agricultural marketing infra-structure toenhance efficiency.
► To promote direct marketing so as to increase market efficiency
through reduction in intermediaries and handling channels thus
enhancing farmers’ income.
► To provide infra-structure facilities for grading, standardizationand quality certification of agricultural produce so as to ensure
price to the farmers commensurate with the quality of the
produce.
► To promote grading, standardization and quality certification
system for giving a major thrust for promotion of pledge financing
and marketing credit, introduction of negotiable warehousing
receipt system and promotion of forward and future markets so
as to stabilize market system and increase farmers’ income.
► To promote direct integration of processing units with producers.
► To create general awareness and provide education and training
to farmers, entrepreneurs and market functionaries on
agricultural marketing including grading and quality certification.
► This is Reform linked investment scheme. Applicable only insuch states/Union Territories, which undertake reforms in APMC
Act to allow “Direct Marketing”, “Contract Marketing” and topermit agricultural produce markets in private and co-operative
sectors.
The scheme provides credit linked back-ended subsidy @ 25 percent of the capital cost of the project with a ceiling of Rs. 50.00 lakh
per project. For the projects located in North-Eastern states, in the89states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, hilly
and tribal areas, and entrepreneurs belonging to SC/ST and their cooperatives, maximum subsidy admissible is @33.33 percent of thecapital cost of the project, with a ceiling of Rs. 60.00 lakhs.
4.Agmark grading
andstandardizationf Promotion of grading of agricultural and allied commodities under
Agricultural Produce (Grading & Marking) Act.1937.

f Agmark specifications for agricultural commodities have been
framed based on their intrinsic quality. Food safety factors arebeing incorporated in the standards to compete in the world
trade.
Standards are being harmonised with international
standards keeping in view the WTO requirements. Certification ofagricultural commodities is carried out for the benefit of producer
and consumer.

Directorate ofMarketing &Inspection, Head
Office, N.H.-IV,
Faridabad.
5. Capital
Investment
Subsidy for
Construction /Modernization
Expansion ofCold Storageand Storage'sfor Horticulture
ProduceNational
Horticultural Board,85, Institutional
Area,
Sector – 18
Gurgoan - 122015(Haryana)
Website :www.nhb.gov.in
6. Development ofcommercial
Horticulture
through
Production andPost-Harvest
Management,
National
Horticultural Board,85, Institutional
Area,Sector – 18
Gurgoan - 122015
Website :www.nhb.gov.in

f To promote setting up of cold storages in the country for reducing
post harvest losses.

f Creation and modernization/rehabilitation of cold storages.
f Pattern of Assistance:•

The assistance will be as credit linked back-ended subsidy @40% of the capital cost of project in general areas and 55% incase of Hilly and Scheduled Areas for a maximum storage
capacity of 5000 MT per project.

f To develop post-harvest management infrastructure;f To develop high quality horticultural farms in identified belts.
f To improve linkages between horticulture producers andmarketers
f To create integrated network for marketing of horticulture
produce.

f To increase producer’s share in consumer price.
f To encourage networking of schemes for resource mobilization
with all other related agencies/organizations

90

7. Schemes for

Infrastructure
Development,
Agricultural &Processed Food
Products Export
Development
Authority (APEDA),NCUI Building 3,
Siri
Institutional
Area, August Kranti
Marg, New Delhi 110 016
Website:www.apeda.com

f Establishment of common infrastructure facilities.
f Assistance for purchase of specialised transport units for animal
products horticulture and floriculture sector.
f Assistance to exporters / producers / growers / Cooperative
organization and federations for horticulture and floriculture
sector for :i) Mechanisation of harvest operation of the produce.
ii) Setting up of sheds for intermediate storage and grading /storage / cleaning operation of produce.
iii) Setting up of mechanized handling facilities including sorting,grading, washing, waxing, ripening, packaging & palletisation etc.
iv) Setting up of both pre cooling facilities with proper handlingsystem as well as cold storage for storing.
v) Providing facilities for preshipment treatment such as fumigation,
X-ray screening, hot water dip treatment, Water softening Plant.
vi) Setting up of integrated post harvest-handling system (packhouses / green houses with any two or more of the above facilities).
vii) Setting up of specilised storage facilites such as high humidity
cold storage deep freezers, controlled atmosphere (CA) or modified
atmosphere (MA) storage etc.

8.Schemes forMarketDevelopment,
Agricultural&
Processed
Food
Products
ExportDevelopment
Authority (APEDA),NCUI Building 3,
Siri
Institutional
Area, August Kranti
Marg, New Delhi 110 016
Website:www.apeda.com
9. National
Horticulture
MissionGovt. of India
Ministry ofAgriculturef Development of packaging standards and design.
f Up-gradation of already developed packing standards.
f Assistance to exporters for use of packaging material.
f Development and dissemination of market information with baseon products, infrastructure etc.
f Assistance for conducting surveys, feasibility studies etc.

f To provide holistic growth of the horticulture sector through an
area based regionally differentiated strategies which include
research, technology promotion, extension, post harvest
management, processing and marketing, in consonance withcomparative advantage of each State/region and its diverse
agro-climatic feature.

91

Department ofAgriculture &Cooperation
New Delhi
http://nhm.nic.in/

10. Scheme oftechnology
mission for
integrated
developmentof horticulture
in North
Eastern states
Jammu &
Kashmir,
Himachal
Pradesh andUttarakhand(TMNE)
Government of
India
Ministry ofAgriculture
Department ofAgriculture &Cooperation(Horticulture
Division)
Krishi Bhawan,
New Delhi
www.dacnet.nic.in/t
echmissionscheme
11. National
Agriculture
Development
ProgrammeRashtriya
Krishi Vikas
Yojana (RKVY)
Government ofIndia

f To enhance horticulture production, improve nutritional security
and income support to farm households.

f To establish convergence and synergy among multiple on-goingand planned programmes for horticulture development.
f To promote, develop and disseminate technologies, through aseamless blend of traditional wisdom and modern scientificknowledge.
f To create opportunities for employment generation for skilled andunskilled persons, especially unemployed youth.

f To ensure adequate, appropriate, timely and concurrent attention
to all the links in the production, post-harvest management andconsumption chain in North Eastern states including Sikkim.
f To maximise economic, ecological and social benefits from theexisting investments and infrastructure created for horticulture
development.
f To promote ecologically sustainable intensification, economicallydesirable diversification and skilled employment to generatevalue addition.
f To promote the development and dissemination of ecotechnologies based on the blending of the traditional wisdom andtechnology with frontier knowledge such as bio-technology,
information technology and space technology.
f To provide the missing links in ongoing horticulture development
projects.
The Technology Mission have four Mini Missions:i) Mini Mission-I: Research: Coordinated and implemented by ICAR.
ii) Mini Mission-II: Production and Productivity: Coordinated by DAC
and implemented by the Agriculture / Horticulture Departments of theStates.
iii) Mini Mission–III: Post-harvest management, marketing andexport: Coordinated by DAC and implemented by NHB, DMI, NCDC,
NAFED and APEDA.
iv) Mini Mission-IV: Processing: Coordinated and implemented by
MFPI.

f To incentivise the states so as to increase public investment inAgriculture and allied sectors.

f To provide flexibility and autonomy to states in the process ofplanning and executing Agriculture and allied sector schemes.
f To ensure the preparation of agriculture plans for the districts
and the states based on agro-climatic conditions, availability oftechnology and natural resources.
f To ensure that the local needs/crops/priorities are better reflected

92

Ministry ofAgriculture
Department ofAgriculture &Cooperation
Krishi Bhawan,
New Delhi
http://india.gov.inin the agricultural plans of the states.
f To achieve the goal of reducing the yield gaps in important crops,
through focussed interventions.
f To maximize returns to the farmers in Agriculture and allied
sectors.
f To bring about quantifiable changes in the production andproductivity of various components of Agriculture and allied
sectors.

12.(i)Scheme forInfrastructure
Development
Ministry of
Food
Processing
Industries,

To provide financial assistance for development of facilities likecommon processing, cold storage, food testing and analysis
laboratory, effluent treatment plant, power, water etc. in Food Park,
Packaging Centre, Integrated Cold Chain, Value Added Centre,
Irradiation Facilities.

Ministry of Food
Processing
Industries,
Panchsheel
Bhavan,AugustKranti Marg,New Delhi-110 049
Website:www.mofpi.nic.in
12(ii)Scheme forTechnology
Upgradation/Establishment/Modernizationof Food
Processing
Industries

To provide financial assistance for the cost of plant andmachinery/TCW.

12(iii)Scheme for
Quality
Assurance,
Codex
Standards andResearch &Development
12 (iv)Scheme for
Backward andForwardIntegration and
other

Financial assistance for Setting Up/ Upgradation of Quality Control/
Food Testing Laboratory for implementation of Hazard Analysis andCritical Control Points (HACCP), ISO 9000, ISO14000, Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Good Hygienic Practices (GHP)
for Total Quality Management, Bar Coding, Codex Standards
Research and Development in Processed Food Sector.
Backward Linkage-To increase capacity utilization of Food
Processing Industry by ensuring regular supply of raw material
through contract farming.
Forward Integration-To increase capacity utilization of Food
Processing Units by ensuring regular market for their products by93

Promotional
Activities

establishing linkages with the market.
Promotional ActivitiesTo build awareness among the consumers about the advantages ofprocessed food and their quality assurance mechanism.
Dissemination of information about the processed food industry
through publications, journals, press advertisements. Financial
assistance for seminars/workshops /symposiums, studies/ surveys/
feasibility reports to assess the potential and other relevant aspectsof Food Processing Industries.

11.2 Institutional credit facilities:
Institutional credit facilities are the vital factor in agricultural development. The mainemphasis is laid down on adequate and timely credit support to the farmers, particularly small
and marginal farmers for encouraging adoption of modern technology and improved
agricultural practices.
The institutional agriculture credit disbursed through co-operatives was 31 per cent, 60
per cent through Commercial Banks and 9 per cent through Regional Rural Banks during 20032004.
The institutional credit to agriculture is offered in the form of short term, medium term
and long term credit facilities:
11.3 Short terms and medium term loans:
Name ofscheme1. Crop
Loan

Eligibility
All categories of
farmers.

Objective/Facilities¾ To meet cultivation expenses for various crops as
short term loan.

¾ This loan is extended in the form of direct finance tofarmers with a repayment period not exceeding 18
months.
2.Produce
Marketing
Loan
(PML)

All categories of
farmers.

¾ This loan is given to help farmers to store produce attheir own to avoid distress sale.

¾ This loan also facilitates immediate renewal of croploans for next crop.

¾ The repayment period of the loan does not exceed 6months.

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3. KisanCreditCard
SchemeAll
agricultureclients
havinggood track record
for the last two
years.

¾ This card provides running account facilities tofarmers to meet their production credit andcontingency needs.

¾ The scheme follows simplified procedures to enable
the farmers to avail the crop loans as and when theyneed.

¾ Minimum credit limit is Rs. 3000/-. Credit limit isbased on operational land holding, cropping patternand scale of finance.

¾ Withdrawals can be made by using easy andconvenient withdrawal slips. The Kisan Credit Cardis valid for 3 years subject to annual review.

¾ It also covers personal insurance against death or
4.National
Agricultural
Insurance
SchemeSchemeisavailable to all
farmers – loanee
andnon-loanee
both-irrespectiveof the size of theirholding.

permanent disability; a maximum amount of Rs.
50,000 and Rs. 25,000 respectively.
¾ To provide insurance coverage and financial support
to the farmers in the event of failure of any of thenotified crops as a result of natural calamities, pests
and diseases attack.

¾ To encourage the farmers to adopt progressive
farming practices, high value in-puts and higher
technology in agriculture.

¾ To stabilize farm incomes, particularly in adverse
periods.

¾ General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC) is the
Implementing Agency.

¾ Sum insured may extend to the value of thresholdyield of the area insured.

¾ Coverage of food crops (cereals, millets and pulses),oilseeds and annual commercial / horticultural crops.
At present, crops like Sugarcane, Potato, Chilies,
Ginger, Onion and Turmeric are covered under thescheme.
¾ Provides subsidy of 50 per cent of premium charged
from small and marginal farmers. The subsidy isphased out over a period of 5 years on sunset basis.

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11.4 Long terms loans:
Name ofschemeAgricultural
Term Loan

Eligibility
All categories of
farmers(small/medium
and agriculturallabourers)
areeligible,
provided
they
have necessary
experience in theactivityandrequired area.

Objective/Facilities

h The banks extend this loan to farmers to create
assetsfacilitating
generation.

crop

production/income

h Activities covered under this scheme are landdevelopment, minor irrigation, farm mechanization,
plantation and horticulture, dairying, poultry,
sericulture, dry land / waste land development
schemes etc.

h This loan is offered in the form of direct finance tofarmers with a repayment span not less than 3 years
and not exceeding 15 years.

11.5 Organisations / agencies providing marketing services:
Name of theorganisation andaddress
1.Directorate ofMarketing andInspection (DMI)
NH-IV, New CGO
Complex
Faridabad
Website:www.agmarknet.nic.in

2.Agricultural andProcessed Food
Products Export
Development
Authority (APEDA)
NCUI Building, 3, SiriServices provided

h To integrate development of marketing of agricultural and allied
produce in the country.
h Promotion of standardization and grading of agricultural and allied
produce.
h Market development through regulation, planning and designing.
h Promotion of cold storage.
h Promotion of rural godowns and market infrastructure.
h Training of personnel in agricultural marketing.
h Undertakes extension and publicity activities to educate producers,
traders and consumers.
h Providing agricultural marketing information.
h Liaison between the Central and State Governments through its
regional offices (11) and sub-offices (26) spread all over thecountry.

h Development of scheduled agriculture products related industries
for export.
h Provides financial assistance to these industries for conducting
surveys, sensibility studies, relief and subsidy schemes.
h Registration of exporters for scheduled products.
h Adapting standards and specifications for the purpose of export of96

Institutional Area,
August Kranti Marg,New Delhi-110016
Website:www.apeda.com

scheduled products.
h Carrying out inspection of meat and meat products for ensuring thequality of such products.
h Improving the packaging of the scheduled products.

h Promotion of export oriented production and development ofscheduled products.
h Collection and publication of statistics for improving marketing ofscheduled products.
h Training in the various aspects of industries related to the scheduled
products.

3.National Agricultural
Cooperative
Marketing Federationof India Limited(NAFED),
Nafed House, Sidhartha
Enclave, New Delhi –110014h Co-ordinate and promote the marketing and trading activities of its
affiliated co-operative institutions;h Make arrangements for the supply of the agricultural inputs requiredby member institutions;h Promote inter-state and international trade in agricultural and othercommodities;
h Act as an agent of the government for the purchase, sale, storage
and distribution of agricultural products and inputs.

Website:www.nafed-india.com

4.Central Warehousing
Corporation (CWC),
4/1 Siri Institutional
Area, Opp. Siri fort New
Delhi -110016
Website :www.fieo.com/cwc/

h Provides scientific storage and handling facilities.
h Offers consultancy services / training for the construction of
warehousing infrastructure to different agencies.

h Import and export warehousing facilities.
h Provides disinfestations services.

5.National
Co-operative
Development
Corporation( NCDC ),4, Siri Institutional Area,
New Delhi-110016
Website:www.ncdc.nic.in

h Planning, promoting and financing programmes for production,
processing, marketing, storage, export and import of agricultural
produce.
h Financial support to Primary, Regional, State and National levelmarketing societies is provided towards;i) Margin money and working capital finance to augment
business operations of agricultural produce.
ii) Strengthening the share capital base, andiii) Purchase of transport vehicles.

97

6.Director General of
Foreign Trade(DGFT),
Udyog Bhavan, New
Delhi.
Website:www.nic.in/eximpol

h Provides guidelines / procedure of export and import of different

7.Mother Dairy Fruitand Vegetable
Private Limited
Mother Dairy Fruit andVegetable Private
limitedPatparganj
Delhi 110092
www.safalindia.com

h8.StateAgriculturalMarketing
Board(SAMBs),h Implementation of the regulation of marketing of agricultural andcommodities.

h Allot import-export code number (IEC No) to the exporter ofagricultural commodities.

hh

It is a subsidiary company of a wholly owned company of the
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB).
Mother Dairy sells the Safal range of fresh fruits & vegetables,
frozen vegetables and fruit juices at a national level through its
sales and distribution networks for marketing food items..
The company markets an array of fresh and frozen fruit andvegetable products under the brand name SAFAL through a chainof 295 owned Fruit and Vegetable shops and more than 20,000
retail outlets in various parts of the country.

allied commodities in the state.

h Provide infrastructural facilities for the marketing of notified
agricultural produce.

h Grading of agricultural produce in the markets.
h To co-ordinate all the market committees for information services.
h Provide aid to financially weak or needy market committees in theform of loans and grants.

h To eliminate malpractices in the marketing system.
h To arrange or organise seminars, workshops or exhibitions on
subjects relating to agricultural marketing.

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Annexure I

Terminal Markets Complex
Objectives(a) Main objectives of setting up Terminal Markets Complex (TMC) are:(i) Link farmers to markets by shortening supply chain of perishables and enhance theirefficiency and increase in farmer’s income;(ii) Provide professionally managed competitive alternative marketing structures with state of art
technology, that provide multiple choices to farmers for sale of their agricultural produce;(iii) Drive reforms in agricultural marketing sector resulting in accelerated development ofmarketing and post harvest infrastructure including cool chain infrastructure in the country,
through private sector investment;(iv) Bring transparency in market transactions and price fixation for agricultural produce andthrough provision of backward linkages to enable farmers to realise higher price and higher
income.
Salient Features(a). Terminal Market Complex (TMC) can be set up in States, which undertake reforms in theirlaws relating to agricultural marketing, to provide direct marketing and permit the setting up
of markets in private and cooperative sectors.
(b). TMC will operate on a Hub-and-Spoke Format wherein Terminal Market Complex (hub)would be linked to a minimum number of Collection Centres (CC) (spokes) which areessentially required to support the Terminal Market Complex project.
(c). Spokes will be conveniently located at key production centres to allow easy farmer accessand catchment area of each spoke will be based on meeting convenient needs of farmers,
operational efficiency and effective capital utilisation of investment.
(d). TMC will establish backward linkages with farmers through collection centres and forward
linkages through wholesalers, distribution centres, retail cash and carry stores, processing
units for exporters etc.
(e). Collection Centres in production areas will integrate producers and retailers, processing
units and exporters etc. into market system. The number of Collection Centres shall be
determined in each case depending on the size of the market, distance from growing areas
and other factors.
(f). Electronic auction system will be established to ensure transparency in price fixation andcompetition.
(g). Scheme would attract and facilitate private sector investment in agribusiness sector byassisting key stakeholders in sectors, such as entrepreneurs, processing industries, exporters,
producer associations and farmers etc. through provision of subsidy under National
Horticulture Mission (NHM).
(h). Producers, farmers and their associations and other market functionaries from any part ofthe country may use infrastructure and facilities of TMC, directly or through collection
centres.
(i). TMC will provide one-stop solution in terms of providing logistics support includingtransport services and cool chain facility.
(j). TMC Project will be implemented as a separate company/SPV to be registered underCompanies Act, 1956 through suitable Private Enterprise (PE) to be selected as Promoter

99

through process of competitive bidding. PE should offer to provide up to 26% share holding
in equity for TMC Project to Producers’ Association1 at inception of project and accordingly
make reasonable efforts2 for ensuring the participation from Producers’ Associations.
Producers Association will consist of farmer societies, farmers cooperative societies registered in India
engaged in Agricultural and allied activities, Producer Company, registered NGO’s empanelled with GOI/State
Govt./Planning Commission and SHGs recognized under schemes of Government of India or State
Governments and working in agricultural production, Independent Commodity Boards and other registeredorganizations such as APMCs etc engaged in production, procurement and trading of agricultural commodities.
The producer association should be separate from the Lead Technical and Lead Financial Member(k). The area of operation of the TMC should be clearly defined and any other proposal in future
for setting up of TMC within the whole or part of the defined area of operation of thedesignated TMC and its CCs will not be granted any subsidy under NHM for a period of 10
years.
Eligibility
Terminal Market Complex project would be built, owned and operated by the selected
Private Enterprise (PE) through Competitive Bidding process. PE includes individual or
consortium, Group of Farmers/Growers/Consumers/Producer Organisations/Producer Company,
Partnership/ Proprietary firms, Companies, Marketing Boards, Public Sector Undertaking, Cooperatives, registered NGOs empanelled with GOI/State Govt./Planning Commission,
recognised Self Help Groups under the schemes of GOI/State Govts. and other registered bodies
engaged in production and trading of agricultural produce. The PE could also be a consortium of
entrepreneurs from, inter-alia, agri-business, cold chain, logistics, warehousing, agriinfrastructure and related background.
Commodities
The commodities to be marketed by the TMC will include all perishables, inter-alia, fruits,
vegetables, flowers, spices, aromatics, herbs, medicinal plants, meat products, poultry products,
dairy products and fish and marine products etc. Non-perishables can also be handled in the
TMC. However, the annual throughput for perishable horticultural produce such as fruits,
vegetables, flowers, medicinal plants, aromatics, herbs etc handled by each TMC should not beless than 70% of the throughput capacity of the TMC. In addition to this, each TMC shall beallowed to handle other perishable products (other than horticultural produce such as milk, dairy,
poultry, meat, fish and marine products etc) and Non-Perishables3 products. Volume of otherperishable products (other than horticultural produce) and Non-Perishable products shall not
exceed 30% of throughput capacity of TMC.
Release of Subsidy(a) Subsidy of NHM for Terminal Market Complex Project will be released in following five
instalments.
(i) I instalment on completion of 25% of project ------ 15% of the approved subsidy(ii) II instalment on completion of 50% of project ------ 20% of the approved subsidy(iii) III instalment on completion of 75% of project ------ 25% of the approved subsidy(iv) IV instalment on completion of 100% of project ------ 30% of the approved subsidy(v) V instalment on completion of one year of operation of project 10% of the approved
subsidy

100(b) Release of subsidy shall be subject to utilization of previous subsidies for this project andInspection certificate is issued by Joint inspection team comprising of Nodal officer or his
representative, IC and a representative of DAC, Ministry of Agriculture for satisfactory 16
completion of prescribed mandatory capital project. Release of subsidy shall also subject toequity participation of Producer Association, as promised by the PE. In case % of equity
participation from Producers Association, at time of release of fourth instalment of subsidy,
is less than % mentioned at time of submission of technical bid and the PE has not madereasonable effort for ensuring participation of Producer’s associations, GoI/State
Government shall have the right to withhold release of entire amount of subsidy to PE.
Further SHM/State Government may:(i). Intimate this requirement to PE through written communication within 15 days of thedue date of release of first instalment of subsidy,(ii). Stop release of IV and V instalment of subsidy till the PE fulfils the required equity
participation from Producers’ Associations(c) Provided that if the percentage of equity participation by producer association remains below thepercentage of equity of the project as promised /quoted, by the PE at the time of bidding andconsidered at the time of evaluation of the bid, within two years of signing of OMDA or transferof land to PE whichever is later, despite reasonable efforts made by PE, no restrictions shall be
imposed on the PE in this regard and the eligible subsidy shall be released to him as due. (d) This
stipulation will not be applicable to successful bidder/PE who has not committed any equity to
Producers’ Association in his bid.
(For more details visit www.agmarknet.nic.in)