NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSWHO ARE KEISHOGO YOUTH?
FRAMING THE INCREASINGLY
DIVERSE LEARNERS OF
JAPANESE AS COMMUNITYLANGUAGE
YOJI HASHIMOTO
Australian Network for Japanese as Community Language
CHIHIRO KINOSHITA THOMSONUNSW Sydney
NAOMI KURATA
Monash University
SHOKO ONO
University of Technology Sydney
KAYA ORIYAMAThe University of Melbourne

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ABSTRACTAs a result of the long-term rising trend of the Japanese-speaking population in Australia, the number of students andchildren with connections to Japan has also increased in recent years. Consequently, their unique Japanese-language
capabilities and learning needs have increasingly become a subject of pedagogical attention. In this context, the Australian
Network for Japanese as Community Language has proposed the notion of 繋生語 (KEISHOGO or “Japanese as Community
Language”) in order to better capture the unique characteristics of their language. Based on various interview surveys, thispaper delineates and unpacks the experiences of the youth as they follow their learning trajectories. The challenges thatboth these young people and their teachers face are presented, along with some learning resources and suggestions forways forward beyond situations where confusion and mismatched expectations are currently commonplace.

INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, Japanese language education in Australia has dealt with learners of Japanese as a Second Language (JSL)
who have no familial Japanese connection. However, the increasing number of children with Japanese connections
presents a hitherto under-addressed challenge for teachers. In this context, the focus of this paper is to undo somecommon misunderstandings. It also aims to offer pointers for parents/guardians and school/tertiary teachers who teach,or may teach, students with connections to Japan, and to invite them to further explore ways the particularities of thispopulation of students can be used to enhance and enrich their learning experiences. For these purposes, we first delineate
the backgrounds of such children and their families using various surveys and research conducted in educational settings.
Useful resources, like the Watashi-go Portfolio—a series of activity-based log-books that nurture both language skills andplurilingual sensitivities amongst children—will also be introduced.

JAPANESE IN AUSTRALIA, ANJCL (AUSTRALIAN NETWORK FOR JAPANESE AS
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE) AND THE BACKGROUNDS TO THE SURVEYS
THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE EDUCATION PROFILE IN AUSTRALIA
Bolstered by a series of language education policies including The National Policy on Languages (Lo Bianco 1987), theJapanese language has become one of the most commonly studied languages in Australia since the 1980s (De Kretser andSpence-Brown 2010, 15). According to a survey conducted by The Japan Foundation in 2021, there were well over 400,000
learners of Japanese in Australia at that time (Japan Foundation 2022). This is the fourth largest number of Japaneselanguage learners amongst the 212 countries and regions surveyed, indicating that the language is, on a per capita basis,far more popular in Australia than in any other part of the world. The other striking feature from The Japan Foundation
survey is that 96% of Japanese language learners in Australia are concentrated in the primary and secondary school levels.
As far as the number of the learners is concerned, the educational focus in Australian classrooms is on JSL.

JAPANESE COMMUNITY IN AUSTRALIA
Turning our attention to the Japanese population in Australia, the annual MOFA (Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) surveyof 2021 showed that there were 93,451 Japanese nationals (MOFA 2021), which was the third greatest number in the world
after the USA and China. Again, accounting for the total population in each country, it represents the highest concentrationof Japanese nationals outside Japan.
The Australian Census provides another set of statistics that delineates the long-term trend of the Japanese population in
the country. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2021), 45,267 Japan-born individuals resided in the country.
This is a 28% increase since the 2011 iteration of the Census and is an indication of the rise in the number of Japan-born
citizens in recent years. There appears to be no signs of this steady flow abating in the near future.

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It should be noted that there is a difference of over 48,000 between the number of Japanese nationals living in Australia in
MOFA (2021) at 93,451, and the “Japan-born” in the 2021 Australian Census, which accounted for 45,267. It is assumed that
this discrepancy reflects the number of Australian-born Japanese nationals, who are not counted in the figure from theAustralian Census (i.e. children of Japanese parentage).

ANJCL AND ITS ACTIVITIESAgainst this backdrop, the Australian Network for Japanese as Community Language (ANJCL) was established in 2020,by academics and educational professionals from around the country. Its initial mission was to carry out a series ofsurveys commissioned by The Japan Foundation in Sydney, with a focus on investigating the current states of learning
environments and learning resources for children growing up in Australia with connections to Japan.1
To date, ANJCL has conducted three studies over the course of 2019–2022.2 The three studies gathered information fromparents (both native and non-native Japanese speakers) currently raising children with connections to Japan, teachers,
Japanese-language school/institution managers/organisers, veteran parents whose children have already become adults,
and young adults who grew up as children in Australia. The first two surveys were based on a questionnaire and wereconducted in, respectively, New South Wales and then the entire country. The third survey involved a series of interviews
conducted via Zoom aimed at collecting more detailed and nuanced information. All the data gathered were collated foranalysis, and relevant thematic issues were identified and extracted.

KEISHOGO3
The results of the surveys and interviews provide more concrete and detailed pictures of the young people with Japaneseconnections growing up in Australia. At the same time, it became increasingly clear that the existing ways of framing theirlanguage variety, namely the notion of “heritage language” or keishogo (継承語: 継 means “to inherit” or “to succeed”;
承 connotes “to receive” or “to comply”; 語 stands for “language”), is insufficient. We believe these terms do not entirely
encapsulate the Japanese-language use and needs of these young people. While respecting the term keishogo andaccepting the significance of the language being inherited from previous generations as the term keishogo suggests, aneed was felt for a new concept or term to refer to young people’s language: the word KEISHOGO (繋生語), or “Japaneseas Community Language,” written in italicised capital letters, was coined for this reason. The character 繋 represents“connections,” “bonds” and “links,” and 生 means “to generate” or “to be born.” Thus, KEISHOGO is defined as:
the language that is born from connections with parents, family, friends and society, including the language that children
living overseas who are connected to Japan inherit from their parents; this language generates new meanings, creates
further connections, and passes these connections on to the next generation.4 (Thomson 2021, 3)
As seen above, it is important to note that KEISHOGO is used in, and evolves through, contact with the Japanese-speaking
community (see also Oriyama 2021, 39–40). We also refer affectionately to young people growing up with such language
as “KEISHOGO Youth.”

KEISHOGO YOUTH
So, what did our studies reveal about the general profiles of KEISHOGO youth? Approximately 90% of those surveyed(n = 241) were born in Australia, or migrated here before they reached the age of five. Over 70% of these children wereborn to Japanese mothers and non-Japanese fathers, around 25% to Japanese parents, and slightly under 5% to Japanese

1

Ethics approvals for the surveys were obtained at UNSW. The relevant HREC Approval numbers are HC200071, HC200828 and HC210468.

2

Summaries of the three studies are downloadable from the ANJCL Homepage (2023).

3

KEISHOGO/繋生語 and keishogo/継承語 are both pronounced “keishōgo.”4	“4 Following is the original Japanese text from Thomson (2021): 海外在住の日本と繋がる子どもたちが親から受け継ぐことばも含めて，親や家族，友だち，社会との繋がりから生まれ，さらなる繋がりを生み，そこで新しい意味を生み出し，その繋がりを次の世代に繋げていくことば.”NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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fathers and non-Japanese mothers. It was also found that they often used Japanese in family communications, mosttypically with their native Japanese parent(s), although there were significant variations in how this was done in different
families given factors such as the children’s ages. Reflecting the current Australian settings where the concentration of JSL
learners is the highest in global comparisons, many of the non-Japanese parents spoke at least some level of Japanese,with a number of them having very advanced proficiencies. This has resulted in some families employing Japanese as amain language for the whole family at home, even when one parent has a non-Japanese-language background.

GROWING UP AS KEISHOGO YOUTH
Notwithstanding the above, Australian KEISHOGO speakers are found to have complex and diverse backgrounds. This
diversity gives rise to varying linguistic and sociocultural educational needs, as well as challenges distinct from those faced
by JSL students in school settings. Examples of these backgrounds have been discussed in previous research into the livesof KEISHOGO speakers, including those conducted by ANJCL members. According to Kurata (2015), each KEISHOGO young
person’s family background, educational background, and degree of familiarity with Japan and the Japanese language isunique. For example, Rika, a participant in Kurata’s study, was an 18-year-old female who had been living in Australia for
four years at the time of the interview.5 With her Japanese parents, she had lived in five Asian countries, including Japan(when she was 0–1 year old), prior to arriving in Australia. At the time she took part in the study, she was studying Japanese
in an upper-intermediate level course at her university. Her family background is multilingual, and her parents speak both
English and Japanese. Her mother also speaks Portuguese and her father Cantonese. She described this as “weird” as one
specific language was not chosen as the family’s common language.
As other studies also indicate, KEISHOGO youth are often seen by both teachers and their classmates to be “experts” (Cho etal. 1997; Hornberger and Wang 2008; Yoshimitsu 2008) in the language classroom. However, Rika seemed to regard herself
as a learner keen to develop her knowledge of Japanese, often feeling inferior to her more fluent peers. As will be shown in
the next sub-section, it is not uncommon for younger KEISHOGO youth in high school to suffer from similar predicaments.
As in Rika’s case, KEISHOGO speakers have complex and diverse backgrounds, and have different Japanese-language learningneeds from those of non-KEISHOGO youth. However, this may not always be obvious or understood by their teachers. Due tothese unfortunate mismatched circumstances, KEISHOGO youth may end up feeling frustrated in a beginner class because of
the lack of advanced courses (Wu 2008). Or, conversely, they may be “embarrassed in a higher-level course where classmates
and teachers place high expectations on their typically weaker literacy skills” (Yoshimitsu 2008).
An overestimation of KEISHOGO speakers’ Japanese ability based on presumptions of background knowledge is a criticalissue that hangs over them. This can lead to teachers, parents and other educators overlooking inherent challenges thatthese young people may face, or being disappointed when personal expectations are not met. When combined with
KEISHOGO youth unease when under pressure to perform well, these issues could result in them dropping courses, or
losing critical self-esteem and/or interest in the language and culture.

KEISHOGO YOUTH EXPERIENCES IN SCHOOLS
We will now look more closely at KEISHOGO youth experiences in Japanese-language learning within school settings. The
data here come from interviews with KEISHOGO young people and/or their parents in the ANJCL’s (2022) and Oriyama’s(2017) studies. Nine KEISHOGO learners (seven from the ANJCL’s (2022) and two from Oriyama’s (2017) studies), who were
all born in Australia or had migrated here at a young age, were interviewed. Their accounts of school learning, coveringboth positive and negative aspects, shall be looked at with a view to identify possible clues to help improve the outlook forsuch children, and to offer practically useful perspectives for teachers.
Some KEISHOGO youth reported that they felt as though they were treated like unwelcome misfits by their Japaneselanguage teachers due to their background or perceived “advantage.” For example, Student A was told by his principal
to quit the Higher School Certificate (HSC) course at the end of Year 11 because his mother spoke to him in Japanese,and Student B was instructed to study by herself in the library during the Japanese classes. Student C reported that
she had complained to her school about the unfair treatment she received in class, but no action was taken because
no classmate attested in support of her. Furthermore, Student D confided that, even when she did well, her native-

5

All individual interviewees’ names that appear in this paper are pseudonyms.

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speaking Japanese teacher did not give her the same encouraging feedback that her non-Japanese-backgroundclassmates were given.
As mentioned in the previous section, KEISHOGO youth are often seen by people in their classroom to be “experts” in thelanguage. The above cases suggest that such an assumption could ironically position them as hard-to-handle outliers.
While we note that it is not always possible to know the facts through the interview process, it is nevertheless important totake the KEISHOGO youth seriously and to make sure that they feel they are being listened to, rather than judged. We would
like to share how these young people feel through their experiences so that we can better understand them.
As in the case of Student A discussed above, at the senior secondary level the stakes are high as their academic
performances affect their graduation and entrance to university. While differentiated language streams are offered andaccessed across the country based on specific criteria for so-called “background/first language speakers” or “Students
with Prior Learning and/or Experience” (SPLEs6), the challenges in accommodating the highly diverse proficiency levels andneeds of those young people who are learning KEISHOGO are so great that they inevitably result in some exclusion (Oguro
and Moloney 2012; Oriyama 2017).
Alongside these critical cases, other more encouraging stories were also told, particularly when KEISHOGO learners wereable to study Japanese at senior secondary and onwards. Some became fluent in the language while on school/university
exchange in Japan, or while studying at university. Where their needs were met and effective support was provided, school
and university programmes were able to help them reconnect with their Japanese family/relatives, enhance the sensethat they belong to Japanese-speaking communities, embrace their identities, and feel happy to be who they are.
What, then, would be some of the key basic principles in educational orientations that could offer effective support for
KEISHOGO learners? The uplifting comments below made by the mother of a young girl attending kindergarten might offer
clues, even for older children.
My daughter and I were both so thrilled when her kinder chose to learn Japanese … I was happy to help by readingchildren’s books and teaching some songs. It made my daughter and me so happy for our culture and language tobe recognised by the kinder community. My daughter felt more comfortable with everyone being interested in her
language at kinder and came out of her shell more easily. It is so great for Australian children to be surrounded byother cultures and languages from a young age, and for them to learn from people from different cultures. (Liddell
2022)
Here, the child’s language and culture, and the expertise that both the child and her mother bring to the kindergarten, are
all highly valued and appreciated. Utilising their knowledge and skills and getting them involved in class activities madethe little girl happier, more confident, and more motivated to enthusiastically share her language and culture with otherchildren. Being treated as a precious ‘asset’ rather than a ‘problem’ seems to have left a positive impact on her self-esteem,
in-depth intercultural understanding, and so forth. The mother also mentions this learning/teaching as a reciprocal process
where children from different backgrounds learn from one another, thereby nurturing mutual respect and conviviality.
Putting the underlying thoughts above into practice requires careful planning and creative efforts. Such endeavours could
be supported by the introduction of practical, versatile resources.

WATASHI-GO PORTFOLIO
Here, we would like to introduce and recommend Watashi-go Portfolio as a resource to complement existing learningmaterials. The Watashi-go Portfolio (the Portfolio) is a series of activity-based log-books designed to encourage interactions
between children and adults in order to nurture plurilingual sensitivities while assisting with their language learning.

6	The term SPLE was shared and used widely during the 2022 Watashi-go portfolio workshops hosted by the Japanese Teachers’ Associationof NSW. Where sub-streams for SPLE or background speakers are offered, KEISHOGO youth are often placed in such courses regardless of
proficiency.

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The Watashi-go Portfolio is a set of materials designed to foster self-esteem and intercultural understanding amongst
KEISHOGO learners growing up in plurilingual environments.7 Originally developed by the German-based Team Motto
Tsunagu (“Further Connections”) for children aged between five and ten, it is fun and easy to use. An Australian editionof the Portfolio was developed to suit the local context. It was released in 2021 and, together with its User Guide, isdownloadable free of charge from the ANJCL website (N.d.).
The concept of “Watashi-go” or “Me-language” was borne out of the belief that each individual child has a unique language
repertoire. The Portfolio is a three-part series of logbooks originally designed for parents and children to work together
to develop language competencies.8 The Portfolio was further developed for use within Japanese community language
schools, or for collaboration between schools and families. We propose that the Portfolio can also be an effective tool foraccommodating SPLEs in mainstream primary-level Japanese-language classes.
The three parts of the Portfolio are: My Profile, My “Can Do” File, and My Collection.

My Profile: is a compilation of worksheets and other materials designed to raise awareness of the language and culture
as they relate to each child. It aims to do so by visualising their profiles or what makes up each individual child (language,
culture, etc) in fun and interactive ways. The topics covered include “About me,” “Me and my languages,” “Me and Japanese.”
My “Can Do” File: nurtures a sense of self-affirmation and positive identities through collecting what you can do and know
in Japanese. Children come up with lists of things they can do using the Japanese language. They will also record things
that they know and think about Japan, including through comparison with other cultures. The File can come in the form of
written texts, pictures, photos etc.

7

https://tsunagu.jpf.go.jp/watashigo/

8	Video-on-demand (VOD) of the two-part ANJCL online seminars introducing Watashi-go Portfolio are helpful resources and are available below.
Summary reports of the two seminars are also available in English and Japanese from the ANJCL web pages below.
KEISHOGO Seminar 7: Watashi-Go Portfolio In Action (Australian Edition) (December 2021)
VOD: https://jpf.org.au/events/vod-registration-japanese-language-education-seminar-with-unsw-dec-2021/
Summary Reports (in English & Japanese): https://us5.campaign-archive.com/?u=e811cbdf8af0639ead289d62b&id=82f0cfe93c
KEISHOGO Seminar 8: Watashi-Go Portfolio for Creating Connections - How to make the most of the Australian Edition (February 2022)
VOD: https://jpf.org.au/events/vod-registration-japanese-language-education-seminar-with-unsw-feb-2022/
Summary reports (in English & Japanese): https://us5.campaign-archive.com/?u=e811cbdf8af0639ead289d62b&id=b6bf9d856a
	The ANJCL website also has links to various teaching and learning resources, including the Facebook group page and English and Japanesebilingual ANJCL Newsletters: https://www.keisho-australia.org/resources.

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My Collection: is a compilation of what each child has achieved and/or created using Japanese. It can show links between
what they have already done and their future goals.
These three parts are designed to naturally encourage conversations at home through various reflective activity-sheets
covering familiar everyday themes. As children visualise their own language, culture, environment, and background throughthe Portfolio’s activities, they come to better understand themselves. They also further develop respect for other people,
languages and cultures, which is a prerequisite for living well in plurilingual Australian society. Children are expected to gain
confidence as Japanese-speaking individuals while developing respect towards others and other languages and cultures.
They do this through realising who they are, what they can/could do now and in the future, and how they are situated in theplurilingual and pluricultural society of today. With these perspectives in mind, parents and teachers can facilitate the useof the Portfolio at school, at home or both.

CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have attempted to describe who KEISHOGO youth are, and what challenges these distinctively diverse
individuals potentially face in their everyday school and home environments. We have also aimed at suggesting ways thesechallenges may be addressed and providing resources for use in classrooms and homes. In addition, we have identified
mismatched expectations between children/families and teachers/school settings. At the outset, we presented long-termand recent demographic trends where the number of KEISHOGO speakers has risen and is expected to continue increasing
in number and presence over the coming years. In other words, they are, and will remain, integral members of multi- andpluricultural Australia. In addition, we have seen that each KEISHOGO learner has unique linguistic abilities and needs. They
are often faced with unfounded expectations regarding their Japanese-language abilities, which may create issues aroundtheir identity formation. One of our broader aims is to rectify such issues and support the teaching of these children byhelping related parties build ideal relations and educational environments based on mutual understanding.
The growing awareness of realities surrounding the experiences of KEISHOGO learners poses new challenges to teachingefforts at all levels. For Japanese-language teachers who are not well prepared for such situations, it is possible, or evenlikely, that having KEISHOGO learners in their classrooms could be a challenging or daunting experience. We thus suggested
ways of empowering teachers who may feel unsure in these situations, and ways to accommodate KEISHOGO youth andtheir needs. It is important that the mismatch in expectations held by both teachers and students/parents needs to be
discussed and resolved. This could be done by embracing such children, and by all concerned parties working together,rather than struggling in isolation to deal with the issues.
The challenges described above can be helped greatly by community and forum building amongst stakeholders including
teachers, students/pupils, parents/guardians, schools, government officials, researchers, and so forth. Through interactions
within such communities, specific needs of teachers/students, teacher-training ideas, and required institutional support
may be identified. Sharing experiences and learning from other teachers’ practices will support the operation of classes
that may include KEISHOGO learners, and encourage collaboration for future teaching projects.
The Australian edition of Watashi-go Portfolio introduced here is an example of an educational resource for children who
have connections to Japan. It was developed as a result of broad international collaborations amongst parents, teachers
and academics. It is hoped that similarly fruitful concerted efforts in future would lead to the successful creation of usefulmaterials and/or learning environments elsewhere as well.
Communities could be newly established, and/or existing communities, such as local state- and territory-based Japaneseteachers’ associations may be utilised. Alternatively, networking and collaboration through online communities, forexample, the Japanese Language Teachers of Australia group on Facebook (2024), could also help as a powerful sourceof inspiration.
Finally, we wish to inspire classroom teachers to have a good understanding of KEISHOGO Youths and want to help makeclassrooms more inclusive and inspiring for all students. We believe that by working together, we can achieve these goals.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our special thanks to all the participants of our surveys and interviews, and for The JapanFoundation Sydney for their funding and secretarial support. Additionally, we would like to express our gratitude to Matt
Yeldham and Adam Russell who proofread this paper.

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