Questions Regarding Past
and Present Sino-Russian
Cultural Exchange
SU Fenglin

Cultural relations remain an important and integral part of international
relations. To a certain extent, they influence and form changes in thedevelopment of economic and political relations. It is of great importanceto look back at the ages-long Sino-Russian cultural exchange andsummarize its experience, discover some of the deep causes of many
important events in the history of Sino-Russian relations, and mostimportantly, further strengthen and develop the historical tradition of goodneighborly coexistence. Unfortunately, this topic has not attracted due
attention for a long time.

The Beginning of Sino-Russian Cultural Exchange
Recent archaeological findings show that cultural links between Russia
and China formed much earlier than political and economic relations.
Indirect cultural links between them existed from the previous millennium.
Already in the tenth century, Central Asian merchants were exporting
Chinese silk to Russia.1 After the thirteenth century, there were more
ways for Chinese goods to reach the West. By this time, however, China
had had contact with Russia for a long time. But when exactly did the1

Mikhail Sladkovskii, Istoriia torgovo-ekonomicheskikh otnoshenii narodov Rossii sKitaem do 1917 g. (Moscow: Izd-vo “Nauka,” Glav. red. vostochnoi lit-ry, 1974), 43.

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cultural exchange between the two countries start? Even today, there is no
single view on this matter.
It is impossible to agree with those scholars who claim that “cultural
exchanges between Russia and China began with the opening of the Silk
Road during the Khan and Tang Dynasties.”2 In fact, Russia never did
belong to the Hun, and during the late Khan period (first to third
centuries), a single Russian culture did not yet exist. The earliest state ofwhat would become the Russian Empire was Kiev Rus’, which was
created only in the tenth century. Moreover, the Eastern Slav ethnos wasformed no earlier than the fourth century.
According to currently available historical evidence, the earliest
contact between the two cultures, Russian and Chinese, began in the
period of the Golden Horde. In the first half of the thirteenth century,
Genghis Khan’s grandson, Batyi Khan, campaigned in the West andcreated the Golden Horde, which included several principalities of Rus’and the Lower Volga region with its capital in Old Sarai. The creation of
the Golden Horde opened the way for economic and cultural exchange
between the East and the West and, therefore, it created possibilities forcontact between the Chinese and Russian cultures. In 1279, the Yuan
Dynasty was established in China. Post stations were created on the way
from Beijing to Old Sarai, and the ancestors of the two great nations,
China and Russia, from that time on, maintained constant relations.
The earliest mention of the Russian people in Chinese chronicles canbe found in a book entitled History of the Yuan Dynasty. The bookcontains records of princes giving Russian guards, jinweijun (禁卫军) tothe emperor. 3 These Russian soldiers were possibly captured by the
Mongolians during their invasion of Russia and were later presented asslaves to the emperor by the khan of the Golden Horde. The expression“jinweijun” was usually used for the guards of the Yuan Dynasty. Brave
warriors of northwestern nationality were often selected to join the palace
guards or the emperor’s personal guard as protection from the unsubdued
Chinese Han people. These records show that, at the time, there was somecontact between the Beijing and Russian service people.
2
JIANG Wenqi and LIAO Hongjun, “Zhongguo Wenhua yu Eguo” [Chinese Culture andRussia], in Geng Longming, ed., Zhongguo wenhua yu shijie [Chinese Culture and theWorld] (Shanghai: Shanghai waiyu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1992), 102–103.
3
Yuanshi [The History of Yuan Dynasty], Juan 3, 27, 34, 35, 36, 120.

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In 1368, the Ming Dynasty came to power in China. During the same
period, Russia was fighting for its liberation from the Mongolian yoke.
After the battle of Kulikov in 1380, the Golden Horde was able tomaintain control over Russia in only one way. After the collapse of theMongolian Empire, serious obstacles to Sino-Russian cultural exchangebegan to appear. Despite this, cultural exchange never ceased to exist.
Most historians have little doubt about the authenticity of the letterssent by the Ming emperors to the rulers of Russia. The first volume of
Russo-Chinese Relations in the Seventeenth Century: Documents andMaterials (edited by Sergei Tikhvinskii), which was published in the
1960s, contains official translations of two of these letters sent by the
Chinese emperors to the Russian kings. Obviously, the question of theauthenticity of these two documents is of high importance, as this canprove the existence of cordial contact between Russia and China during
the Ming Dynasty.
Yet a number of questions remain unanswered. Firstly, the imperial
letters of the Ming Dynasty addressed to the rulers of other countries
started, as a rule, with three words “Great Ming Letter (大明书).” Further,the beginning of the text indicated the ruler of the country to whom theletter was addressed. At the end of a letter, there always was an indicationof the year under the motto of the dynasty, month, and day. However,neither of the mentioned letters conform to the rules of such documents
common during the Ming Dynasty. Secondly, in analyzing the style ofthese documents, one can see that it lacks the perception of the Chinesemonarch being the sole sovereign and rulers of other countries being his
subjects, which existed at that time. On the contrary, even some
self-abasement can be found in the text. Not only do the letters not refer tothe other side as subjects of Ming rule, there is also no demand for
payment of levies. Instead, they invite the other side to come to China for
trade, contradicting the trade containment policy of feudal China. Thirdly,
the letters contain these words: “You brought me two elk horns and I gave
you seven hundred damask rolls for them . . . And to the Great King,
thirty-two cups made of jade stone were sent.”4 Such exchanges do notconform to the rules of Ming ritual in international relations. Elk horns are
considered valuable for medicinal purposes in Mongolia, but not so in
4

Russko-kitaiskie otnosheniia v XVII veke: materialy i dokumenty, vol. 1 (Моscow:
Nauka, 1969), 118.

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China. The Chinese emperor would hardly give seven hundred pieces ofsilk and satin in return for two horns. Besides, according to the records ofthe exchange of gifts during the Ming Dynasty, there is no mention of jadecups. Therefore, an analysis of the two letters puts their authenticity indoubt.
In fact, the Russian ambassador Nikolai Spafarii, who had copies ofthe documents when he left China, answered the question of the letters’
origin and authenticity in his report during an embassy trip to China. He
brought two documents in Chinese and two documents in Manchurian to
China. The officials of the Foreign Bureau (理藩院) of the Qing Dynasty
easily recognized the text in Manchurian. However, the officials could notunderstand the other two documents, as they were written in Chinesecharacters. Later, he found an old official of Han nationality and asked
him to translate the documents into Manchurian. At the same time, Nan
Huairen (南怀仁), a missionary of the Jesuit order in Beijing, was asked totranslate the original into Latin. One Qing official told Spafarii that the
documents had been written two hundred and sixty years ago and wereaddressed not to the Russian king but were orders published by the Ming
emperor Chengzu (成祖) during the Yongle (永乐) period and referred tothe appointment of high officials in the border regions.5 If the view of thecapital officials is right, then this question probably arose in 1675 when
Spafarii in Tobolsk asked someone to translate a section of the documentfrom Chinese. One can surmise that the “Chinese translator” simply madeup the two letters by the Ming emperors. However, the fact that personal
exchange between China and Russia existed in the Ming period isundeniable.
So who was in the first Russian embassy to China in the Ming
period? This is an interesting and complicated question in the history of
Sino-Russian cultural relations. In 1821, the famous Russian historian
Nikolai Karamzin in his History of the Russian State wrote that Ivan IV
wanted to learn more about China and offered a reward to those who
would open a trade route to China. Then, in 1567, two Cossack atamans
Ivan Petrov and Burnash Ialychev were ordered to cross Siberia and reach
5
Nikolai Bantysh-Kamenskii, Diplomaticheskoe sobranie del’’ mezhdu Rossiiskim’’ i
Kitaiskim’’ gosudarstvami s’’ 1619 pо 1792-i god’’ (Kazan: Tipografiia Imperatorskago
Universiteta, 1882), 8; Russko-kitaiskie otnosheniia v XVII veke, vol. 1, 401, 403, 410,
415.

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China. They successfully reached the capital of China and left a record of
their journey. Karamzin’s discovery found support among many but was
unable to convince everyone. Already in 1882, Russian scholar H.
Trusevich expressed his doubts about the authenticity of Ivan Petrov’s
mission. After the 1930s, Russian historian F. I. Pokrovsky announced
that Petrov’s mission never took place and that his records were actually
written by another person. In the 1950s and 1960s, well-known sinologists
Vladimir Miasnikov and Natalia Demidova discovered in the State
Central Archive of Ancient Documents two new documents. One of them
was a petition by Ivan Petlin to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs requestinga reward for his trip to China in 1619. The other document was an extractfrom the report by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs that proved Petlin’s
account. This important discovery proved that Petrov’s memoirs were infact Petlin’s records, as both of the documents mention Petlin’s account of
the journey. Therefore, the story of Petrov’s mission to China somewhat
lost its reliability.
Does this mean then that I. Petlin was in the first embassy mission to
China? There is no evidence left in the Chinese archives that proves that
his visit took place in 1619. This is why some Chinese scholars argue that
“Petlin never even reached Inner Mongolia, and needless to say, he never
was in Beijing.”6 Their argument is based on historical documents of the
Ming Dynasty that say that there was no exchange of diplomatic missions
between the two countries at the time. Petlin’s memoirs do mention “San
Niangzi” ( 三 娘 子 , or Princess Manchi-Khatun), which does notcorrespond to the historical facts, as she was dead by the time of Petlin’s
departure to Inner Mongolia.
Yet the Russian archives can provide strong proof of the fact that
Petlin and his companions did reach China. In 1619, Altyn Khan wrote a
letter about Petlin’s journey to the Russian king: “The sovereign’sambassadors from Siberia, Ivan and Ondrey, did come to me and asked tobe led to China. And for you, the great sovereign, I sent those two to
China and ordered for them to be guided well and likewise back.”7 Altyn
Khan’s ambassadors who guided Petlin during his return trip delivered
6

HAO Zhenhua, “Liangfeng Zhongguo mingchao huangdi zhi eguo shahuang guoshu
zhenwei bian” [A Study of the Authenticity of Two Official Documents Sent to the Russian
Tsar by the Ming Emperor], Shijie lishi, 1986, no. 1: 29.
7
Russko-kitaiskie otnosheniia v XVII veke 1: 78.

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this letter personally. The original was written in Mongolian, and thetranslation was certified. The lands controlled by Altyn Khan stretched up
to the upper Enisei and Ubsu-Nur Lakes and maintained long-term
economic and cultural relations with the inner regions of China. Altyn
Khan and his people knew the way to China very well. We should believethat Petlin with Altyn Khan’s help did reach China. However, it isdifficult to assume that he made it all the way to Beijing.
Regardless of whether Petlin really visited Beijing or not, the recordof his journey can be considered the first Russian historical report related
to China. Petlin’s journey caused quite a sensation in Russia and played asignificant role in piquing their interest in China, and was the start of thehistory of direct Sino-Russian cultural exchange.

The Role of Cultural Exchange in Sino-Russian Relations
as a Whole
From the middle of the seventeenth century, China and Russia were thebiggest neighboring countries. Although in 1850–1880 there were military
collisions on the Heilongjiang River (Amur River) and at the beginning of
the twentieth century there were occasional conflicts, it could generally besaid that the goal of establishing peaceful and developing contacts hasremained the primary direction of Sino-Russian relations.
The Nerchinsk Treaty (1689) became the first important milestone in
the development of Sino-Russian relations. Not only did it settle thepolitical and economic relations between the countries at the time, it also
deeply influenced cultural exchange between them. Since then,Sino-Russian relations have developed steadily and rapidly.
The whole history of Sino-Russian relations can be roughly divided
into three distinct periods: the first being the period of Tsarist Russia, thesecond, the period of the USSR, and the third, the post-Soviet period.
The first period came to an abrupt end in 1917. Many very important
historical events happened at that time. Bilateral relations between the twocountries at one point were extremely tense, but serious confrontation was
avoided. The reason was that the economic and trade ties and the cultural
exchanges positively influenced the development of political relations.
The factors that contributed were first of all the rise of trade and cultural
exchange in Kiakhta-Maimaicheng, the establishment of a Russian church- 98 -QUESTIONS REGARDING PAST AND PRESENT SINO-RUSSIAN CULTURAL EXCHANGE

mission in Beijing, the development of Russian sinology, a visit by aChinese mission to Russia, the development of Sino-Russian relations in
the fields of medicine, art, and literature, the exchange of books between
the governments, and so on.
During the second period (which ended in 1991) bilateral relations
went through different stages. There was a “honeymoon” period that was
followed by more difficult times. In the first half of this period, China was
the recipient, as it was attracted to Russo-Soviet culture and the ideologyof the revolution. According to incomplete data, for the first forty-nine
years of the twentieth century, up to the creation of the PRC, there wereover five hundred and thirty works on Marxism-Leninism translated into
Chinese.8 After the creation of the People’s Republic of China, many
young people as well as technical specialists went to the USSR to study.
From the 1950s onwards, there were certain difficulties, although cultural
exchange never stopped. Despite the worsening of bilateral relations,schools of Chinese russology produced new specialists. In 1964, theChinese Social Science Academy’s Institute of the Soviet Union andEastern Europe was formed. In the same year, the Institute of Siberia wasfounded in Heilongjiang, which specialized in eastern Soviet Union
studies (today, it is called the Heilongjiang Province Academy of Social
Science Institute of Russia).
In the third period, Sino-Russian relations entered a path of rapid
development. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, in no small part
thanks to very successful political relations, cultural exchange between
Russia and China, as well as cooperation in the areas of science andtechnology, has been constantly developing. In recent years, there havebeen many positive results in political, trade and economic, and culturalareas: the Good Neighborly Relations Treaty between the People’s
Republic of China and the Russian Federation was signed, the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization was created, border issues were completely
resolved, joint military training was conducted, both countries had“national years,” there was a breakthrough in trade and economic
8

DONG Xiaoyang, “Jiaqiang Zhong E liangguo diqu hezuo de wenhua jichu”[Strengthening the Cultural Base of Regional Cooperation between China and Russia], inSbornik sochinenii IV-ogo mezhdunarodnogo foruma po regional’nomu sotrudnichestvu irazvitiiu mezhdu Kitaem i Rossiei/ Di si jie Zhong E quyu hezuo yu fazhan guoji luntan
lunwenji (Harbin, 2006), 142.

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cooperation between the countries, there was more cooperation at theinternational level, etc.
The history of Sino-Russian relations proves that cultural exchange is
the inevitable result of social development and that it is necessary for thesurvival and continuation of civilization. Although there are factors inboth cultures that the other side cannot accept, there remains a common
ground. A sort of rational selection happens in the process of interaction
between different cultures, which allows for the preservation of national
culture and the absorption of useful and advanced ideas from the foreignculture. This process brings a culture to a higher level of development andprovides for harmonious development in the future. In addition to thedevelopment of good neighborly relations and overall development,
Sino-Russian cultural relations are favorable for social development andthe progress of civilization of both countries. The development of cultural
relations is important to the fundamental interests of both countries.
The Chinese nation has created a brilliant and vivid culture. During
the long process of its formation, the Han culture constantly mixed with
cultures of other nationalities populating China. Traditional Chinese
culture, of which the Han culture is the core, also had multiple contacts
with the traditional cultures of nationalities outside China. The exchangewith the Russian culture was one of the most important parts of China’s
exchange with foreign cultures.
Although the Russian culture was formed relatively late, the Russian
people also created a brilliant and vivid culture. Russia began in Europe,
which gave it an opportunity to absorb the achievements of many of theChristian European countries. At the same time, thanks to the influence of
certain geographical, national, and historical factors, Russia also absorbed
some of the achievements of the East. This is why Russian culture is the
only one that have features of both Asian and European cultures. Or, inother words, Russia is a civilization created by the combining of culturalelements from the East and the West.
This is possibly the reason that, when compared to other European
states, Russia has always held an advantageous position in cultural
exchange with China—a fact that is clearly attested by history. For
instance, in the eighteenth century, when the position of Western missionsin China was constantly worsening, Russia was allowed to keep its
missionaries in Beijing, which remained functional for some two centuries.
Until the mid-nineteenth century, Russia was the only Western country to- 100 -QUESTIONS REGARDING PAST AND PRESENT SINO-RUSSIAN CULTURAL EXCHANGE

which China sent embassies (a Chinese mission being sent twice tocongratulate Russian emperors on their coronation). In the second half ofthe eighteenth century, the Qing Dynasty followed its containment policy
in foreign trade, and all Western missionaries and merchants were denied
access to China. However, trade and cultural exchanges between China
successfully existed on the route through Kiakhta, with only a few
interruptions.9 Even when the first Opium War started and aggravatedChina’s relationship with the West, in 1845, China and Russia exchanged
publications that made cultural cooperation stronger.
On the other hand, Chinese culture also influenced Russia. One
Russian scholar mentions that many Russian cultural figures before therevolution showed interest in China. The most notable example is Leo
Tolstoy, who found in the moral principle of “Dao De Jing” (道德经)thoughts that he considered close to his understanding of ideals.10 Dmitry
Mendeleev also viewed Chinese culture with great interest. 11 Suchinterest could usually be interpreted as a general fondness for Oriental
culture and Chinese culture in particular. Sometimes, this fondness, with abackground of ideology and moral crisis, turned into ugly forms offashion for oriental mysticism, Buddhist irrationalism, and fortune telling.
However, the fashion, which caused a better flow of information, gave
more independent individuals an opportunity to access the realachievements of Chinese culture. 12 Historically, Sino-Russian cultural
exchange was based on friendly relations, mutually favorable contacts, thewish for good neighborly relations, and the need to broaden culturalactivities. The development of cultural relations resulted in the broadeningof economic ties and peaceful political relations.

9
SU Fenglin, Zaoqi Zhong E guanxi shi yanjiu [A Study on the Early History of
Sino-Russian Relations] (Harbin: Heilongjiang renmin chubanshe, 1999), 146–182.
10
See, Lev Tolstoi, Krug chteniia (Moscow: Slovo, 1923), vols. 1–2.
11See, Dmitrii Mendeleev, Zavetnye mysli (Мoscow: Mysl’, 1995), 205–206.
12
Aleksandr Lukin, “Evoliutsiia obraza Kitaia v Rossii i rossiisko-kitaiskie otnosheniia,”
Neprikosnovennyi zapas: debaty o politike i kul’ture 29, no. 3 (2003), http://magazines.russ.ru/
nz/2003/29.

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Pros and Cons of Modern Sino-Russian Relations
from a Cultural Exchange Point of View
For China and Russia, the year 2006 carries special historical significance.
2006 year was the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the strategic
partnership, the fifth anniversary of the Good Neighborly Relations,
Friendship and Cooperation Treaty, and the fifth anniversary of thecreation of the SCO.
In April 1996, during Russian president Boris Yeltsin’s visit to China,
the leaders of both countries announced in a signed communiqué that bothsides would endeavor to establish relations based on equality, mutual trust,and a strategic partnership in the twenty-first century. Since then, all thesefeatures have been the main principles of Sino-Russian relations.
The main areas of bilateral cooperation are reflected in the Good
Neighborly Relations, Friendship and Cooperation Treaty between the
Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China, which was signed
by Russian president Vladimir Putin and the chairman of the PRC Jiang
Zemin on July 16, 2001 (which came into force on February 28, 2002). In
all fields of cooperation, there are, at present, agreements at the
government level as well as at the ministry and regional levels. Ever since
the border issues were resolved, agreements on trust and disarmament
along the border regions have been signed, and also thanks to thesimilarity in the positions regarding international problems, there are no
significant problems left that could seriously complicate bilateralrelations.
Russia’s representative to the UN, Andrei Denisov, observed that it
would not be an exaggeration to say that Sino-Russian relations at present
are at their best throughout their centuries-long history. The ten years that
followed the announcement of the strategic partnership and the five years
since the signing of the Good Neighborly Relations and Friendship Treaty
have been characterized by stable and developing Sino-Russiancooperation. Their ties are based on the principles of true equality, mutual
benefit, and common interests in most various fields, and they are freefrom ideology and are dynamically developing in all directions: political,
economic, energy, etc.13
13

Аndrei Denisov, “Rossiisko-kitaiskoe sotrudnichestvo kak faktor mezhdunarodnoi- 102 -QUESTIONS REGARDING PAST AND PRESENT SINO-RUSSIAN CULTURAL EXCHANGE

In particular, the signing of an additional agreement on the easternpart of the Sino-Russian border on October 14, 2004, put an end to bordertalks that had lasted for almost forty years. Both countries announced thatthey had no unresolved territorial issues. For the first time in their mutual
history, the border between the two was completely demarcated. All thesefactors allowed both states to reach an even higher level of mutual trust.
Russia’s establishment of friendly and stable relations with China isvery important. The Russian government considers that, no matter whatchanges take place in their relations with the West, maintaining a
constructive partnership with China is in Russia’s interest. The stronger
Russia’s position in the East becomes, the more confidence it will havevis-à-vis the West. 14 For China, the maintenance of long-term stablefriendly relations has very high priority. This could guarantee stability on
its northern borders, which stretch for over 7,300 kilometers and could
therefore allow China to pay more attention to modernization and to beready to respond to any challenges from the east or the south.
Besides, Russia and China are planning to stand up against thehegemony and policy of bloc creation and constantly fight against
separatist movements, which are supported by international terrorist
organizations or third countries. They have common views on many
regional and international problems. An important feature of modern
Sino-Russian relations is their broad mutual support in the key questionsof state sovereignty, territorial integrity and national dignity,
strengthening of multi-level cooperation for development, establishmentof a new multipolar world, and the construction of a new, rational politicaland economic world order.
However, Sino-Russian strategic partnership relations face not only
positive opportunities but some challenges as well. In analyzing the stateof modern Sino-Russian relations, one notices not just the positive
tendencies but also some of the hidden dangers that could worsen in the
future. The most serious and difficult challenges lie in the area of cultural
ties. In other words, broad contact for mutual study between the twostabil’nosti,” speech at the symposium “A Dialogue on Russia and China Today,” Lehman
College, City University of New York, New York, March 25, 2006.
14
LI Jingjie, “Zhong E guanxi yu meiguo yinsu” [Sino-Russian Relations and the US
Factor], Jinri Yazhou yu Feizhou, 2002, no. 3.

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nations does not exist, especially among the young people of bothcountries.
Many Chinese, especially the older generation, still have some fondfeelings toward Russian culture and literature. They understand thediversity of Russian culture, its customs, and traditions. Evening Near
Moscow, Moscow-Beijing, How the Steel was Tempered, and The Dawns
Here are Quiet are products of the Russian culture that they knew in their
youth. However, among the young population of China, the situation isdifferent. The younger generation in general is interested in Russia, but
few of them know much about it. As Russian president Vladimir Putin
said, “at the moment, our perception of each other largely relies on pastexperience. This is why it is important to let more people of both countries
learn more about life in the new Russia and the new China, about thosehuge achievements that we’ve made in recent years.”15
Researching the present state of cultural exchange between China andRussia, the deputy director of the Institute of Russia, Eastern Europe andCentral Asia of the China Academy of Social Sciences Dong Xiaoyang
wrote that the volume and scale of translation of literature in bothcountries are still inadequate. The Chinese public hardly ever watches
modern Russian films, and know next to nothing about modern Russianmusic. After 1991, no events like Russian film festivals have been held in
China. This situation influences mutual understanding and effective
communication between the youth of both countries in a negative way.16
Likewise, the knowledge of Chinese films by Russian viewers islimited to the kung-fu genre. For many young Russians, China means only
Bruce Lee or Jackie Chan; they have little real knowledge about the daily
lives of their counterparts in China. There are almost no modern Chinese
dramas on Russian TV. Russian scholar Aleksandr Lukin noted that for
Russian intellectuals who do not specialize in sinology, China is a
kingdom of mysterious oriental philosophy and wisdom that shows to thelost West the way to spiritual renaissance. Chinese wushu (武术), gigong(气功), and I Jing (易经) fortune telling all became very popular and at
first were taught secrety in various circles by suspicious individuals who
had allegedly discovered the mysteries of the Orient. Most of these people
15“Pis’mennoe interv’iu prezidenta RF Agentstvu Xinhua,” March 20, 2006, http://
www.china.org.cn/russian/226871.htm.
16
DONG, “Jiaqiang Zhong E liangguo diqu hezuo de wenhua jichu,” 145.

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were frauds and knew very little about the real China. Books on Chinese
philosophy included those fake mysterious ones that have sold thousandsof copies. Many wanted to visit the dreamland, see the mysterious Shaolin(少林) Monastery or become a Buddhist monk.17
More serious questions concern ideology. The fear of the “Chinese
peril” to a certain extent exists in Russia. Some believe that the rapid
development of China may cause a misbalance in geopolitics and shift thebalance of power in Asia to the detriment of Russia. They fear that Russia
will become a junior partner of China and will end up as its resource base.
Some are worried that the Chinese will flood the Far East, outnumber its
population, and eventually “occupy Russian territory.”18
It is difficult to deny that Sino-Russian relations are based on two
wheels—politics and the economy. Now that the political wheel isrunning well, the economic wheel is still weak.19 Nonetheless, cultural
exchange remains a crucial factor in the development of bilateral relations.
The poor condition of Sino-Russian cultural exchange is slowing down
the development of Sino-Russian strategic partnership relations. A poor
understanding of the other is one of the main causes of many conflicts andeven wars in the long history of Sino-Russian relations.
Fortunately, both in China and in Russia, far-seeing politicians havealready noticed these issues. In recent years, cultural exchange hasreceived more attention by the governments of both countries. The
volume and mechanism of cultural cooperation is being improved. In thehumanitarian field, various big-scale projects are being jointly developed
such as annual culture festivals, forums for journalists, the creation of a
joint university, teaching of traditional Chinese medicine in Russia,
opening of cultural centers, support of Russian language learning in China
and Chinese language learning in Russia, broadening of student exchanges,
and a more active promotion of tourism and sport. China and Russia willfrom now on cooperate more in various fields. The Sino-Russian strategic
partnership faces many hard tasks, but the future seems bright.

17

Lukin, “Evoliutsiia obraza Kitaia v Rossii.”
LI Jingjie, “Xin shiji de Zhong E guanxi” [The Sino-Russian Relations in a New
Century], in Sbornik sochinenii IV-ogo mezhdunarodnogo foruma / Di si jie Zhong E quyu
hezuo yu fazhan, 9.
19
LI, “Xin shiji de Zhong E guanxi.”
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Significance of “Partner Country National Year” Events
in China and Russia
The year 2006 was the Year of Russia in China, and 2007 is the Year of
China in Russia. This can be called the most significant event in thehistory of cultural exchange between Russia and China. The holding ofthese “partner country national year” events can be a good conclusion to
the ten years of development of bilateral partnership. It was a politicaldecision by Chairman Hu Jingtao and President Vladimir Putin. It was oneof the first steps of the realization of the principles of the Good
Neighborly Relations and Friendship Treaty. In fact, the agreement of thetwo leaders on having national years is “unprecedented in the history of
the Sino-Russian bilateral relations.”20
Russia has created an organizing committee, headed by the first
deputy prime minister Dmitrii Medvedev, to host the national year. A
similar committee was created in China, and is headed by the deputy
chairman of China’s State Council Wu Yi. Cultural events are the mostsignificant part of the national years. The Russian ambassador to China
Sergei Razov has noted that the Year of China in Russia and the Year of
Russia in China have their own peculiarities. The projects are designed by
Russia to involve the areas of politics, economics, culture, trade andindustry, scientific research, and other areas of social life. Most of the
projects are public-oriented, which is why a great number of participants
is anticipated.21
On January 1, 2006, the Year of Russia in China officially started.
The events program outline shows an emphasis on cultural exchange. The
plan provides for more than two hundred and fifty projects, with twenty inthe first month alone. The opening ceremony of the Year of Russia washeld in March 2006 and was attended by President Putin and Chairman
Hu Jingtao. During the year, there will be many major events such as theFestival of Russian Culture, a Russian Federation exposition, investments
week, a gala concert, scientific symposiums, exhibitions of Russian
designers and artists, cultural, technical, and social book fairs, various
20

Renmin ribao (Russian Edition), August 31, 2006.
“Chtoby narody Rossii i Kitaia bol’she i luchshe znali drug druga: interv’iu posla RF v
KNR Sergeia Razova korrespondentu gazety,” Renmin ribao (Russian Edition), February
14, 2006.
21- 106 -QUESTIONS REGARDING PAST AND PRESENT SINO-RUSSIAN CULTURAL EXCHANGE

sporting events, education exhibitions, show tours, and many other events.
There have never been any events of this scale in the history of bilateralrelations.
There is no need to say that the meaning of national years in China
and Russia is enormous. National years contribute to the broadening ofcontact between the people and strengthen the social basis of
Sino-Russian relations.
The decision to have “national years” aims to deepen mutual
understanding between the people of both countries, encourage active
cooperation in political, economic, scientific, and humanitarian fields aswell as the promotion of the Sino-Russian strategic partnership. As
Medvedev said, thanks to the joint effort, Russia and China have managed
to set up direct contact between the general public of both countries. All
cultural events—expositions, artistic tours, etc.—are made very affordable
and accessible to the public.22 The leaders of both countries announced
the holding of each other’s national years mainly to broaden contact
between the people of China and Russia. These events will without doubt
facilitate these tasks. As President Putin said, the national years will be
truly memorable. Their main purpose is to bring the people closer, enrich
the “palate” of Sino-Russian constructive cooperation with new ideas andprojects, and eventually set the standard of the strategic partnership to ahigher level.23 Obviously, the broadening of cooperation in the areas ofpolitics, economics, culture, and contact among people is in the interestsof both states.
Secondly, the holding of national years should help in thedevelopment of broad cultural exchange and in the elimination of theirrational fear of a “Chinese peril.”
As China and Russia learn more about each other, the level of mutual
trust will rise and the “Chinese peril” will eventually disappear. Until then,however, today’s task is to find a way to alleviate that view and prevent itfrom aggravating bilateral relations. As Chinese scholar Lu Nanquan
pointed out, the development of China does not influence the developmentof other countries; China maintains a policy of good neighborly relations
while bringing stability and prosperity to other countries.24 The peaceful22

Renmin ribao (Russian Edition), August 31, 2006.
“Pis’mennoe interv’iu prezidenta RF Agentstvu Xinhua,” March 20, 2006.
24
LU Nanquan, “Zhong E jinmao hezuo xianzhuang fenxi” [An Analysis of the23- 107 -

SU FENGLIN

development of China relies on its own power, wide domestic market, fulllabor resources, powerful financial resources, and innovative mechanisms
developed by reformers. China has an ancient culture, and its core is peace(和) not conflict. In fact, Chinese proverbs, especially from the teachingsof Ru (儒) and Tao (道), saying that “peace is the greatest value” (和为贵)and that “a close neighbor is better than a far relative” (远亲不如近邻) are
well-known throughout the world. Meanwhile, they are some of the mostpopular cultural notions in China itself.
Thirdly, the “national years” help shorten the distance between theyoung people of China and Russia and stabilize the long-term
development of bilateral relations.
At the opening ceremony of the Year of Russia on March 21, 2006,
President Putin pointed out that the mutual holding of national years in
Russia and China would not just celebrate the achievements of bothcountries but would help the two countries reach a new level ofSino-Russian partnership.25 Today, the strengthening of this partnership is
not only in the interests of the two countries but also facilitates stability,
peace, and prosperity in the region. However, the long-term development
and stability of the bilateral relations depend on the youth. This is why it
is important to hold all kinds of events aimed primarily at the youth,
university students in particular, to support and encourage mutual
understanding and communication. Igor Rogachev, a former ambassador
to China and a well-known sinologist, has on many occasions pointed outthat strengthening of contact between the young people of China andRussia will be a crucial factor in the development of Sino-Russian
relations in the future.26 National years are held exactly for this purpose:to help the people of both countries, especially the young, to understandthe realities of modern Russian and Chinese societies.

Environment for Sino-Russian Trade and Economic Cooperation], in Sbornik sochinenii
IV-ogo mezhdunarodnogo foruma / Di si jie Zhong E quyu hezuo yu fazhan, 115.
25

“Vystupleniia HU Jintao i Vladimir Putin na torzhestvennoi tseremonii otkrytiia Goda
Rossii v Kitae,” March 21, 2006, http:www.fmprc.gov.cn/rus/wjdt/zyjh/
t241789.htm.
26
JIN Xuegeng and WANG Zuokui, “Za proshedshee desiatiletie kitaisko-rossiiskie
partnerskie otnosheniia strategicheskogo vzaimodeistviia stali bolee soderzhatel’nymi,”
March 23, 2006.

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It is good news that Russia’s national year events have alreadysucceeded in deepening friendship and cooperation between China andRussia. In April 2006, sociology students from the Far East State
University International Relations Institute conducted a survey among
Vladivostok students entitled “Youth Views of China.” According to theorganizer of this survey Liliia Larina, a research fellow of the Far East
Academy of Science Institute of History, the general results of the survey
show that three quarters of respondents view China positively and are infavor of common good neighborly coexistence. The students ofVladivostok view modern Sino-Russian relations as positive: 30 percent
called them friendly, 27 percent, diplomatic, 25 percent, mutually
profitable, and only eight percent said they were tense.27 A joint survey
conducted by the Central Committee of the Communist Union of Chinese
Youth at Qinghua University showed that 64.5 percent of Chinese
students pay close attention to Russia.28 Larina is right when she points
out that the future of Sino-Russian relations largely depends on theattitude of the students of each country. Our task is to make this attitude
positive.29
The history and present state of Sino-Russian relations indicates thatthe importance of cultural exchange cannot be ignored. Countries have noconstant friend but do have constant interests. If China and Russia succeed
in forming a relationship that is mutually profitable, this would be a great
achievement, not just for them but for the whole world.

27
Liliia Larina, “Studenty Vladivostoka – o Kitaem i Kitaitsakh,” in Sbornik sochinenii
IV-ogo mezhdunarodnogo foruma / Di si jie Zhong E quyu hezuo yu fazhan, 258–259.
28
JIN and WANG, “Za proshedshee desiatiletie.”
29
Larina, “Studenty Vladivostoka.”- 109 -