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Special Feature: The North Korean Economy, Past and Present

The Position of North-South Tradein the North Korean Economy*Mitsuhiro Mimura**

Introduction
This article examines the significance of trade and other economic exchanges with the Republic of Korea(“South Korea” or “the South”) for the economy of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (“North
Korea” or “the North”) and the position those exchanges occupy in the North’s economy. (The term
“North-South trade” is used because inter-Korean trade constitutes a special relationship which is notofficially between two states. Similarly, exports and imports are referred to as “outbound” and “inbound.”I will use these three terms in this article.)
In previous studies, Miyamoto (2008) has shown that North-South trade is influenced not only by
the political situation in the two Koreas, but also by trends in the South Korean economy, an influencethat is especially marked in general commerce. Kamisawa (2010) characterizes North-South trade interms of the North’s trade surplus structure, its high level of dependence on North-South trade,1 and thefact that trade is easily affected by the political situation. These are important points that must form partof our basic understanding with regard to the nature of North-South economic exchanges, which I discuss in the next section. Also, South Korean researcher Choi Soo-young (2010) has made a comparative
analysis of the effect on North Korea of its trade with South Korea and with China; he takes a similar
approach to my own in this article, and his work provides much food for thought. The present study
seeks to take these analyses a step further by processing the North-South trade statistics into subcategories instead of discussing trade in terms of its total value as has been the tendency to date, especially inJapan, and by examining the data on the basis of these subcategories.
Before analyzing the statistics, I will first discuss the nature of North-South economic exchanges,
focusing on their history and periodization and their impact on North Korea. I will then identify andresolve several issues involved in handling North-South trade statistics, and finally will examine themeaning and position of North-South trade for North Korea.2* This article was originally published as 三村光弘「北朝鮮経済における南北交易の位置」(“Kita Chousen Keizai ni Okeru Nanboku
Koueki no Ichi”)『現代韓国朝鮮研究』第13号、2013年11月、27-36頁 (“Gendai Kankoku Chousen Kenkyu” [The Journal of Contemporary Korean Studies] vol.13, 27-36, November 2013).

** The Economic Research Institute for Northeast Asia

1

I. The Nature of North-South Economic Exchanges
1. The Original Historical Circumstances
The Republic of Korea (ROK) and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) came into being
in 1948 in the south and north of the Korean Peninsula, respectively, after a series of events including
Allied occupation in the aftermath of Japan’s defeat, and the outbreak of the Cold War. The structure inwhich North and South are rivals for legitimacy and effective control remains in place today. As the
Korean War (1950-53) became a proxy war between East and West, followed by years of Cold War tensions, relations were such that Pyongyang and Seoul could not even hold formal talks, but with détente
between Washington and Moscow and improving US-China relations the first contacts were madebetween the Red Cross Societies of the North and the South in August 1971. The two governments issued
a joint communiqué on July 4, 1972, but relations remained difficult on both the political and military
fronts.
Posting steady economic growth in the ’70s and ’80s, South Korea was chosen to host the AsianGames in 1986 and the Seoul Olympics in 1988. On July 7, 1988, on the eve of the Olympics, President
Roh Tae-woo issued a Special Presidential Declaration for National Self-Esteem, Unification, andProsperity (the July 7th Declaration), calling for increased economic, cultural, and scientific exchanges
with the North and an end to diplomatic confrontation. The first inter-Korean summit meeting of headsof government was held in Seoul in September 1990. Further summits took place in 1990 and 1991, in
Pyongyang in October and Seoul in December. At the fifth summit, it was decided to conclude a basic
agreement between North and South. This series of meetings took place at a time when socialist governments were falling in quick succession in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.3
Economic contacts and cooperation between North and South started in 1989, and from their
beginnings they can be said to have been predicated on the political and economic superiority of South
Korea (which was equated with victory in the rivalry between regimes) and to have been designed toallow the South to guide North-South relations. Such a premise was difficult for North Korea to accept,
since it did not concede defeat in the rivalry. As the North-South standoff continued, it remained impossible to utilize the North-South Basic Agreement to the full.
When Kim Dae-jung became President of the ROK in 1998, he adopted a policy of pursuing
improved relations, known as the Sunshine Policy. On June 13-15, 2000, he held summit talks in
Pyongyang with Kim Jong-il, Chairman of North Korea’s National Defense Commission (NDC), which
resulted in a North-South Joint Declaration.4 This declared institutional support for economic contacts
by the North and South Korean governments rather than the private sector alone, and from that point on
the two governments became quite extensively involved in North-South economic exchanges.5

2. The Periodization of North-South Economic Exchanges
The development of North-South exchanges and cooperation can be divided into periods in several different ways. Since it is not my purpose here to examine this question, for convenience I will adopt Choi
Soo-young’s (2010) periodization of North-South economic exchanges.
Choi’s study classifies North-South economic exchanges into three periods: (1) the search for a way
forward, 1989-1997; (2) promotion and expansion, 1998-2007; (3) stagnation, from 2008 onward. In thisvery simple classification, the first period extends from the start of economic exchanges, as described in
the previous section, to the end of the Kim Young-sam administration; the second corresponds to theadministrations of Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun, and the third to that of Lee Myung-bak. Although
Choi’s analysis extends only to the year of its publication, 2010, the years 2011 and 2012 can also be seen2

to belong to the third period, as can readily be inferred from the trade data to be discussed later.

3. North-South Economic Exchanges from North Korea’s Point of View
As discussed in II-1, the South’s confidence in its growing economic power and international status andthe historical turning point marked by the end of the Cold War were major factors behind the openingof North-South economic exchanges. From the North’s perspective, however, the same situation could becalled a tragedy and a threat to national survival; that is, it could be viewed in terms of economic anddiplomatic weakness in the competition between the two systems, and the collapse of the socialist bloc
and loss of the socialist international market that had supported North Korea since its founding. Thus,
given a relationship that is “not being a relationship between states, … a special interim relationshipstemming from the process towards reunification” (to quote the preamble to the Basic Agreement),
although North-South economic exchanges could be said to have the aim of peaceful coexistence andeconomic prosperity, the North is in a position where it must be constantly on its guard against politicalrisks even as it enjoys economic benefits.6 Accordingly, trends in North-South economic exchanges are
not determined solely by economic rationality. Indeed, as previous studies have shown, these trends tend
to be extremely sensitive to current events in the arenas of North-South politics, military relations, anddiplomacy.

II. The Structure and Nature of North-South Trade Statistics
1. The Sources of North-South Trade Statistics and the Problems Involved
South Korea releases statistics on North-South trade in various publications of its Ministry of Unification;in particular, the monthly “The South-North Exchange & Cooperation Trend” provides statistics with acertain degree of continuity. North Korea, however, does not make the trade figures public. Accordingly,
the analysis in this article is based entirely on data published by the South Korean Ministry of Unification.
Unlike normal trade statistics, North-South trade figures include not only ordinary trade andprocessing-on-commission trade, but also economic cooperation projects (tourism to Mount Kumgang
and Kaesong, and the Kaesong Industrial Complex), and assistance or aid to the North. The total annual(or monthly) value of trade listed in the statistics thus includes some items that do not normally form
part of bilateral trade figures. Hence, when comparing North Korea’s trade with other countries such as
Japan or China to its trade with the South, we must, at the very least, exclude the value of aid.
Another problem inherent in North-South trade statistics is the fact that past statistics do not fit
neatly into the present categories because, as they grew, North-South economic exchanges extended inscope from simple trade to encompass processing-on-commission trade, economic cooperation, and aid
to the North.7 Ideally, the Ministry would take these problems into account and provide back-compatible
detailed figures, but such data are not available at present.8 Also, since the mid-1990s South Korea has
provided large amounts of aid to the North in certain years, and in some of these instances the grant of
aid and the amounts involved have been announced but not included in the trade statistics. As a result of
these inconsistencies, North-South trade statistics can be difficult to use as chronologically meaningful
figures unless they are appropriately processed.

2. Division of the Statistics into Categories
The North-South trade statistics can be broadly divided into commercial and noncommercial transactions. Commercial transactions include general trade (buying and selling), processing-on-commission
trade, and economic cooperation (tourism, Kaesong Industrial Complex, and other cooperation3

projects), while noncommercial transactions currently include grant aid from the South to the North andsocial and cultural cooperation.
Thus, in order to generate figures that are equivalent to general trade statistics, among the existing
categories only commercial transactions should be used. (Among the categories in earlier use, general
trade, processing-on-commission trade, and the figures for cooperation projects, excluding aid, should
be used.)Since 2008, as general trade and processing-on-commission trade have declined, the statistics havecome to consist almost entirely of economic cooperation, particularly the figures for Kaesong Industrial
Complex. The value of Kaesong Industrial Complex-related trade is characterized by the fact that in theyears when major construction was carried out, cross-border movements of construction equipment(motor vehicles, heavy machinery, and construction machinery) were counted repeatedly.9 In reference
to Kaesong Industrial Complex projects, we therefore need data separate from those for general andprocessing-on-commission trade, and in fact such statistics have been published.

3. The Value and Item-by-Item Characteristics of General and Processing-on-Commission
Trade
Table 1 shows the scale of annual North-South trade. Taking general trade first, we find that this initiallymade up most of the total. Viewed item by item, until the mid-1990s the main goods entering South
Korea were iron, steel, and metal products, especially zinc ingots, gold ingots, steel billets, and otherrefined metals. From 1999 onward, agricultural, forestry and fishery products made up the largest share.
This is chiefly attributed to the decline of the North Korean economy, especially heavy and petrochemicalindustries, in the economic crisis that began in the mid-1990s. The declining share of textiles, whichranked first during the 1990s, is probably due to the general adoption of processing-on-commission
trade, with textile production largely being subsumed under this category. For electronics, electrical
goods, and machinery, de facto processing-on-commission trade or supply of semi-manufactured goods
and parts is thought to account for the major share.
Looking at processing-on-commission trade item by item, we see that since the statistical breakdown became available, textiles were consistently the main inbound and outbound item, while electronics and electrical goods ranked second almost every year. The third and lower places are mainly occupied
by domestic supplies and agricultural, forestry, and fishery products. Although I have not shown theactual figures, textiles account for at least 60 percent of both inbound and outbound value (peaking ataround 80 percent). Apparel accounts for most of the processing-on-commission trade between Northand South Korea, followed by agricultural products and electronic components. In these labor-intensive
fields, there is a complementary relationship between North and South which makes such arrangementscommercially viable. Thus, in the absence of government restrictions (such as the economic sanctions
imposed by Lee Myung-bak), the tendency to shift production to areas with lower unit manufacturingcosts, especially labor costs, is expressed in the economic relations between North and South Korea, andan upward trend can be seen in processing-on-commission trade (together with purchases of North
Korean-made goods as part of general trade).10

4. The Problem of Exclusion of Noncommercial Transactions
In Table 1, some entries are listed as noncommercial transactions; these consist mostly of South-toNorth aid, and the sums are predominantly listed as “outbound.” When construction of Kaesong
Industrial Complex commenced in the late 1990s, as the figures in categories related to the Industrial

4Complex became larger, economic cooperation projects came to be classified as commercial transactions, while aid to the North and social and cultural cooperation remained as noncommercial transactions. Accordingly, North-South trade can be treated as equivalent to trade with other countries only
after these noncommercial transactions have been excluded.
Table 1. Scale of Annual North-South Trade(Unit: thousand US dollars)
InboundNoncommercial
Transactions

Commercial Transactions
Year

1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012

Total

18,655
12,278105,719
162,863
178,167
176,298
222,855
182,400
193,069
92,264
121,604
152,373
176,170
271,575
289,252
258,039
340,281519,539765,346932,250934,251
1,043,928
913,663
1,073,952

Subtotal

18,655
12,278105,719
162,863
178,167
176,298
222,855
182,400
193,069
92,264
121,604
152,373
176,170
271,575
289,252
257,994
341,140
517,952
764,063
930,983
934,245
1,043,638
912,876
1,073,952

GeneralTrade18,655
12,278105,719
162,225
175,181
161,977
201,681
146,161
150,175
50,78767,74678,551
100,897
167,400
177,443
150,117
188,916
281,952
441,244366,446
245,194
111,423
227
843

Economic Cooperation
KaesongIndustrial
Complex
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
638
0
0
2,985
0
0
14,3210
021,1740036,2380042,8940041,371105
053,736122
071,9661,856
072,5792,694
0102,7891,387
0111,639170
0107,746131
52
131,226
19,99819,794
159,387
76,61375,943
204,519
118,300
101,179
257,345
307,192
290,103
254,044435,007417,935
222,505
709,710705,268
3,704
908,945908,935
0 1,073,109 1,073,109

Processing
Trade

Total
Assistance
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
45
61
32
1,283
1,267
6
290
787
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
61
32
16
0
4
0
756
0

Other
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
45
0
0
1,267
1,267
2
290
31
0

OutboundNoncommercial
Transactions

Commercial Transactions
Year

1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999

Total

69
1,188
5,547
10,563
8,425
18,24964,436
69,639115,270
129,679
211,832

Subtotal

69
1,188
5,547
10,563
8,425
18,24964,136
69,639106,881
94,099128,894

General
Trade
69
1,188
5,547
10,363
4,402
6,906
39,71731,474
23,844
21,914
21,670

Economic Cooperation
KaesongIndustrial
Complex
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
200
0
0
4,023
0
0
11,3430024,7180038,1640036,17546,862
029,61742,568045,883
61,3410

Processing
Trade

5

Total
Assistance
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8,389
35,58082,938

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8,389
35,44782,938

Other
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
133
0

Outbound
Noncommercial
Transactions

Commercial Transactions
Year

2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012

Total

272,775
226,787
370,155434,965
439,001
715,472
830,200
1,032,550
888,117744,830
868,321800,192
897,153

Subtotal

156,585
112,746
154,919
164,315
180,527
619,848
621,848594,606
768,828
707,878845,560
789,454
892,978

GeneralTrade31,978
10,492
4,382
46,227
21,673
209,777
304,130
20,16532,985
10,9466,243
0
0

Economic Cooperation
KaesongIndustrial
Complex57,224
67,383052,34549,9090
68,38882,149073,37044,7180
68,21390,641
41,63478,503
157,914
156,943
93,571
224,147
222,853
125,393449,048
339,498
150,965584,878
518,342
155,670
541,262522,617
95,054744,263
737,5880
789,454788,698
0892,978
892,120

Processing
Trade

Total
Assistance
116,190
114,041
215,235
270,650
258,474
366,000
421,000
367,000
108,000
36,952
23,062
10,7389,064

116,190
114,041
215,235
270,650
258,470
364,977
419,224
326,977
67,06036,37523,062
10,640
9,064

Other
0
0
0
0
4
1,023
1,776
40,02340,910577
098
0Inbound and OutboundNoncommercial
Transactions

Commercial Transactions
Year

1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012

Total

18,724
13,466111,266
173,426
186,592
194,547
287,291
252,039
308,339
221,943
333,437
425,148
402,957
641,730
724,217
697,040
1,055,754
1,349,739
1,797,896
1,820,366
1,679,082
1,912,249
1,713,855
1,971,105

Subtotal

18,724
13,466111,266
173,426
186,592
194,547
287,291
252,039
299,950
186,363
250,498
308,958
288,916
426,494453,567
438,521960,988
1,139,800
1,358,669
1,699,811
1,642,123
1,889,198
1,702,330
1,966,930

GeneralTrade18,724
13,466111,266
172,588
179,583
168,883
241,398
177,635
174,019
72,701
89,416
110,529
111,389
171,782
223,670
171,790398,693
586,082
461,409399,431
256,140
117,666
227
843

Economic Cooperation
KaesongIndustrial
Complex
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
838
0
0
7,008
0
0
25,6640045,8920074,4020
079,06946,862070,98842,673099,61961,4630
129,190
69,2390
124,924
52,6030
171,177
83,5360
185,00944,8880
175,959
90,772
41,686
209,729
177,912
176,737
252,958
300,760
298,796
329,912567,648
440,677
408,310892,070
808,445409,714976,269
940,552
317,559 1,453,973 1,442,856
3,704 1,698,399 1,697,633
0 1,966,087 1,965,229

Processing
Trade

Total
Assistance
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8,389
35,58082,938116,190
114,041
215,235
270,650
258,519
366,061
421,032
368,283
109,267
36,95823,352
11,525
9,064

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8,389
35,44782,938116,190
114,041
215,235
270,650
258,470
365,038
419,256
326,993
67,06036,37923,062
11,396
9,064

Other
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
133
0
0
0
0
0
49
1,023
1,776
41,29042,207
579
290
129
0

Source: “The South-North Exchange & Cooperation Trend” of the Ministry of Unification, Republic of Korea
Note: In the shaded areas, figures published for individual categories and totals are not compatible. The unshaded areas
are figures published for individual categories.

6III. North-South Trade from North Korea’s Viewpoint
1. Composition of North Korea’s Trade Partners, and Ratio of Trade with the South to All
North Korea’s Foreign Trade
The Soviet Union was by far the most dominant of North Korea’s trade partners from the mid-1980s until
1990, while its socialist regime and those of Eastern Europe were strong and they provided a socialist
international market. In the post-Soviet era, by the time North Korea began to show signs of recovery
from serious economic crisis in the second half of the 1990s, China ranked first, Japan second, and South
Korea third among its trade partners. As Japanese trade with North Korea has declined since their firstbilateral summit meeting in 2002, due to the abduction issue, the Chinese and South Korean shares haverisen, as can be seen in Tables 4 and 5.
Since the turn of the 21st century, and especially since 2003, China’s share of North Korea’s foreign
trade has rapidly increased. While China and South Korea now account together for the vast majority of
the North’s trade (i.e., North Korea clearly depends on these two trade partners), China is by far thedominant partner, with a share of over 70 percent of the North’s total foreign trade. South Korea’s sharefalls between 20 and 25 percent and the gap with China is steadily widening. This can be attributed toseveral factors: the trend in economic exchanges which sees anthracite (North Korea’s main export) andother minerals destined mainly for the Chinese market, with increasing direct Chinese investment intheir production; the present state of North-South economic exchanges, with South Korea lacking readyaccess to projects other than Kaesong Industrial Complex and Mount Kumgang tourism; and events
such as the invoking of economic sanctions and travel restrictions which have damped economic contacts as North-South relations have worsened since 2008.

2. The Meaning of North-South Trade to the North Korean Economy
Under present conditions, what does North-South trade mean to the North Korean economy? First, as
discussed earlier, in general trade and processing-on-commission trade there is a complementarity
between North and South, and transactions take place on a commercial basis, led on both sides by theprivate sector. Rather than trade transactions between North and South, these could be viewed as a division of labor according to their respective comparative advantages. For the North, which is short of foreign currency, the income gained in that form through processing-on-commission trade is economicallyvery important.11
Though not currently operative in August 2013, the cooperative tourism projects at Mount Kumgang
and Kaesong have a large effect on North Korea’s foreign currency earnings not only in terms of exchangesof goods but in terms of service income12 from the provision of tourist services, and income from sales ofgoods brought in as personal effects, which are not included in the North-South trade statistics. The
tours are thus very important to the North Korean economy in that they bring in foreign currency. At thesame time, however, the tours are a project in which political and military factors are at play, requiring
cooperation between Pyongyang and Seoul, as they are conducted jointly with South Korean operators
who hold an exclusive license and they involve travel across a military border. It was the authorities in theSouth, not the tour operators, who decided to put the tourism project on hold after the 2008 shooting
death of a tourist at Mount Kumgang. Clearly, this is a venture that is highly dependent on the state ofNorth-South relations.
The Kaesong Industrial Complex project could be called a quasi-state project, as not only do thecorporate partners in the South hold exclusive licenses, but there is extensive investment of public or
quasi-public funds, through agencies including the Korea Land and Housing Corporation (in practice,7the Public Procurement Service of the South) and the Korea Electric Power Corporation, for such things
as site preparation, provision of infrastructure such as water and sewage systems and waste disposal,
management of leased factories, and the supply of electricity from the South. Despite many complications in the North-South relationship, the project was implemented according to plan until the spring of2013. The area currently provides a stable (albeit small) wage income for the North, and if a taxation
system which uses pro forma standards to assess corporate results were created, North Korea might conceivably gain substantial tax revenue. The Industrial Complex is on land adjacent to the military borderwhich was once a key strategic area; today, it could be called the linchpin of North-South relations, a link
which neither can easily give up. Thus, while it must presently be a burden to both sides, the project has
great significance as a trial run for a future inter-Korean economic community.
Tables 2. Characteristics of General Trade in Terms of Items
Year

Incoming

1stOutgoing

Incoming

2nd

Outgoing

Incoming

1989

Iron, steel,and metal
products

TextilesTextiles

1990

Agricultural,and forestry
products

MachineryIron, steel,and metal
products

Chemicalproducts

Minerals

1991

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Chemicalproducts

Minerals

1992

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Chemicalproducts

1993

Iron, steel,and metal
products

1994

3rd

Outgoing

Incoming

4th

Outgoing

Incoming

5th

Outgoing

Other items

Agricultural,and forestry
products

Other items

Other items

Fishery
products

Agriculturaland fisheryproducts

Agricultural Electrical andand forestry
electronic
products
goods

Fishery
products

TextilesOther items

Minerals

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Agriculturaland forestry
products

TextilesFishery
products

Other items

TextilesAgriculturaland fisheryproducts

TextilesAgriculturaland fisheryproducts

Chemicalproducts

TextilesOther items

Other items

Agriculturaland fisheryproducts

Minerals

Machineryandelectronics

Iron, steel,and metal
products

TextilesTextilesOther items

Agriculturaland forestry
products

Chemicalproducts

Other items

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Fishery
products

Agriculturaland fisheryproducts

1995

Iron, steel,and metal
products

TextilesTextilesChemicalproducts

Agriculturaland forestry
products

Other items

Other items

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Minerals

Agriculturaland fisheryproducts

1996

Iron, steel,and metal
products

TextilesTextilesChemicalproducts

Agriculturaland forestry
products

Other items

Other items

Machineryandelectronics

Fishery
products

Agriculturaland fisheryproducts

1997

Iron, steel,and metal
products

TextilesTextilesChemicalproducts

Fishery
products

Light-water
reactormaterials

Chemicalproducts

Other items

Agriculturaland forestry
products

Agriculturaland fisheryproducts

1998

TextilesMachinery,transportmachinery

Agricultural,
forestry, andfishery
products

TextilesIron, steel,and metal
products

Nonferrous
metal andmineralproducts

Other items

Primary
products

Electrical and Chemical andelectronic
industrial
goods
products

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Machinery
and transportmachinery

Minerals

Electronicand electrical
goods

Other items

TextilesTextilesChemical andindustrial
products

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Primary
products

Other items

Nonferrous
metal andmineralproducts

Minerals

Machinery
and transportmachinery

TextilesChemical andindustrial
products

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Machinery

Minerals

Chemical andindustrial
Other items
products

Electronicand electricalgoods

Domestic
supplies

TextilesOther items

MachineryIron, steel,and metal
products

Electronicand electricalgoods

TextilesChemical andindustrial
products

Domestic
supplies

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Electronicand electrical
goods

Minerals

MachineryDomestic
supplies

Minerals

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Agricultural,
forestry, andPrimary
fishery
products
products
Agricultural,
Electronic
forestry, andand electricalfishery
goods
products
Agricultural, Agricultural,
forestry, and forestry, andfishery
fishery
products
products
Agricultural, Agricultural,
forestry, and forestry, andfishery
fishery
products
products
Agricultural,
forestry, andOther items
fishery
products

Minerals

8

Minerals

Agricultural,Chemical andforestry, andindustrial
fishery
products
products

Year
2004

2005

2006

2007

1st
Incoming
Outgoing
Agricultural,
Electronic
forestry, andand electricalfishery
goods
products
Agricultural,
Electronic
forestry, andand electricalfishery
goods
products
Agricultural,
forestry, andMachinery
fishery
products
Agricultural,Chemical andforestry, andindustrial
fishery
goods
products

Incoming

2nd

Outgoing

Incoming

Iron, steel,and metal
products

MachineryIron, steel,and metal
products

3rd

Outgoing

Incoming

Minerals

Minerals

TextilesMachinery

Minerals

Agricultural,
forestry, andfishery
products

TextilesIron, steel,and metal
products

Electronicand electrical
goods

Minerals

TextilesIron, steel,and metal
products

Agricultural,
forestry, andfishery
products

Minerals

Machinery

4th

Outgoing
Agricultural,
forestry, andfishery
products

Incoming

5th

Outgoing

Domestic
supplies

TextilesTextilesDomestic
supplies

Plastic,
rubber, andleather goods

Domestic
supplies

Agricultural,
forestry, andfishery
products

Other items

Minerals

MachineryIron, steel,and metal
products

Electronic
Electronicand electrical and electrical
goods
goods

Source: “The South-North Exchange & Cooperation Trend” of the Ministry of Unification, Republic of Korea
Notes: As there were few trade items in the years 1989-1991, not all have been entered in full. Until 1997, general trade
was not distinguished from processing trade. There are no entries from 2008 onward as general trade has almost ceased
due to South Korean economic sanctions.
Table 3. Characteristics of Processing Trade in Terms of Items
Year

Incoming

1stOutgoing

Incoming

2nd

Outgoing

Incoming

3rd

4th
5th
Incoming
Outgoing
Incoming
Outgoing
Plastic,
Machinery
Chemical andMiscellaneous
rubber, andand transport
Other items
industrial
products
leathermachinery
products
products
Plastic,
Chemical and Electronic
MachineryDomestic
rubber, andindustrial and electrical and transport
supplies
leather
products
goods
machinery
products
Outgoing

1998

TextilesTextilesElectronic
Electronicand electrical and electrical
goods
goods

1999

TextilesTextilesElectronic
Miscellaneous
Other items
and electrical
products
goods

2000

TextilesTextilesAgricultural,
Electronic
Electronic
forestry, andand electrical and electricalfishery
goods
goods
products

2001

TextilesTextilesElectronic
Electronicand electrical and electrical
goods
goods

2002

TextilesTextiles2003

TextilesTextiles2004

TextilesTextiles2005

TextilesTextilesElectronic
Electricaland electrical and electronic
goods
goods

Domestic
supplies

Chemical andindustrial
products

Machinery

2006

TextilesTextilesElectronic
Electricaland electrical and electronic
goods
goods

Domestic
supplies

2007

TextilesTextiles2008

TextilesTextiles2009

TextilesTextiles2010

TextilesTextilesDomestic
supplies

Domestic
supplies

Primary
products

Machinery Chemical andOther items and transport industrial
machinery
products

Machinery

Agricultural,
forestry, andfishery
products

Plastic,
rubber, andleather
products

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Chemical andindustrial
products

Machinery

Machinery

MachineryDomestic
supplies

Machinery

Machinery

MachineryIron, steel,and metal
products

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Agricultural,Chemical andforestry, andindustrial
fishery
products
products

MachineryIron, steel,and metal
products

Agricultural,
forestry, andfishery
products

Domestic
supplies

Domestic
supplies

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Chemical andindustrial
products

Domestic
supplies

Domestic
supplies

Iron, steel,and metal
products

MachineryDomestic
supplies

Domestic
supplies

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Domestic
supplies

Domestic
supplies

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Iron, steel,and metal
products

Agricultural, Agricultural,
Electronic
Electronic
forestry, and forestry, andDomestic
Domestic
and electrical and electricalfishery
fishery
supplies
supplies
goods
goods
products
products
Agricultural, Agricultural,
Electronic
Electrical
Domestic
forestry, and forestry, andand electrical and electronic
Machinery
supplies
fishery
fishery
goods
goods
products
products
Agricultural, Agricultural,
Electronic
Electronic
Chemical andDomestic
forestry, and forestry, andand electrical and electricalindustrial
supplies
fishery
fishery
goods
goods
products
products
products

Agricultural, Agricultural,
Electronic
Electricalforestry, and forestry, andand electrical and electronic
fishery
fishery
goods
goods
products
products
Agricultural,
Agricultural,
Electronic
Electricalforestry, andforestry, andand electrical and electronic
fishery
fishery
goods
goods
products
products
Agricultural, Agricultural,
Electronic
Electronic
forestry, and forestry, andand electrical and electricalfishery
fishery
goods
goods
products
products
Agricultural, Agricultural,
ElectricalElectronic
forestry, and forestry, andand electronic and electricalfishery
fishery
goods
goods
products
products

9

Domestic
supplies

Year

Incoming

1stOutgoing

Incoming

2nd

Outgoing

Incoming

3rd

Outgoing

Incoming

4th

Outgoing

Incoming

5th

Outgoing

2011

Textiles

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

2012

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

Source: “The South-North Exchange & Cooperation Trend” of the Ministry of Unification, Republic of Korea
Notes: Up to and including 1997, no distinction was made between general trade and processing-on-commission tradein the itemized statistics, and these cannot be separated. There was practically no outbound processing-on-commission
trade in 2011 and no inbound and outbound processing-on-commission trade in 2012. “n/a” refers to amounts too small
to be significant.
Table 4. Trading Partners’ Share of North Korean Trade (Adjusted)
China
RussiaJapan
South Korea
ThailandIndia
BrazilOthers
Total

1999
21.4%
2.9%
20.3%
14.5%
2.2%
8.2%
N/A
30.5%
1730.1

2000
21.4%
2.0%
20.3%
13.5%
9.1%
7.8%
N/A
25.8%
2281.4

2001
28.8%
2.7%
18.5%
11.3%
5.1%
6.2%
N/A
27.4%
2559.4

2002
27.5%
3.0%
13.8%
15.9%
8.1%
7.1%
N/A
24.7%
2686.9

2003
36.0%
4.2%
9.3%
15.9%
8.9%
5.6%
N/A
20.1%
2844.9

2004
42.0%
6.5%
7.7%
13.3%
10.0%
4.1%
N/A
16.4%
3295.6

2005
43.8%
6.1%
5.4%
16.9%
9.1%
1.0%
N/A
17.8%
3611.3

2006
2007
2008
44.3% 45.9% 50.5%
5.5%
3.7%
2.0%
3.2%
0.2%
0.1%
21.9% 31.6% 30.8%
9.8%
5.3%
1.4%
3.0%
2.9%
2.2%
N/A
1.6%
1.5%
12.3% 8.7% 11.5%
3837.3 4299.7 5515.5

2009
2010
2011
53.0% 57.2% 70.2%
1.2%
1.8%
1.4%
0.1%
0.0%
0.0%
32.5% 31.2% 21.2%
0.9%
0.8%
0.5%
1.2%
1.0%
0.6%
1.0%
0.4%
0.4%
10.1% 7.7%
5.7%5055.9 6063.6 8018.3

Sources: The South-North Exchange & Cooperation Trend of the Ministry of Unification, Republic of Korea; Trend of
North Korea’s External Trade of the Korea Trade-Investment Promotion Agency
Table 5. Trading Partners’ Share of North Korean Trade (Before Adjustment)
China
RussiaJapan
South Korea
ThailandIndia
BrazilOthers
Total

1999
20.4%
2.8%
19.3%
18.4%
2.1%
7.9%
N/A
29.1%
1813.0

2000
20.4%
1.9%
19.3%
14.2%
8.7%
7.4%
N/A
28.1%
2397.5

2001
27.6%
2.6%
17.8%
10.5%
4.9%
5.9%
N/A
30.8%
2673.5

2002
26.8%
2.9%
13.4%
17.9%
7.9%
7.0%
N/A
24.1%
2752.0

2003
36.2%
4.2%
9.4%
15.4%
9.0%
5.6%
N/A
20.2%
2826.3

2004
42.0%
6.5%
7.7%
13.3%
10.0%
4.1%
N/A
16.4%
3296.2

2005
38.9%
5.5%
4.8%
22.9%
8.1%
0.9%
N/A
19.0%
4057.4

2006
2007
2008
44.2% 49.1% 58.4%
5.5%
4.0%
2.3%
3.2%
0.2%
0.2%
22.1% 26.8% 20.0%
9.7%
5.7%
1.6%
3.0%
3.1%
2.5%
N/A
1.7%
1.7%
12.3% 9.3% 13.3%
3847.7 4019.5 4771.4

2009
64.5%
1.5%
0.1%
17.9%
1.1%
1.5%
1.3%
12.3%
4158.620102011
58.6% 75.6%
1.9%
1.5%
0.0%
0.0%
17.1% 15.2%
0.9%
0.5%
1.0%
0.7%
0.4%
0.5%
20.1% 6.1%
5911.1 7449.6

Sources: The South-North Exchange & Cooperation Trend of the Ministry of Unification, Republic of Korea; Trend of
North Korea’s External Trade of the Korea Trade-Investment Promotion Agency

10

Conclusion
In this article, I have made some preliminary observations on the position of North-South trade within
North Korea’s foreign trade, after first breaking down the structure of the trade statistics and establishing
which categories constitute trade and which assistance, since these data have not been available in a consistent form and therefore have yet to undergo thorough analysis. Many instances of incompatibility still
remain in the published figures, and I have indicated these in the tables. The main reason is probably thatfigures released in the past have never been explicitly adjusted, and newer statistics have been released ona modified basis without this being announced. Further, while Kaesong Industrial Complex can in someways be considered a quasi-state enterprise, it is difficult to tease out the influence of this status on the
North-South trade statistics. I intend to analyze this problem at the earliest opportunity, starting by finding the ratio of public to total investment in the Kaesong Industrial Complex.
Although South Korea’s share of North Korean trade continues to fall, this does not necessarilymean that North-South trade is becoming less important to the North Korean economy. Unlike the economic relationship between China and North Korea, in which private-sector transactions (mainly trade)play the central role, economic exchanges such as Mount Kumgang tourism and Kaesong Industrial
Complex, in which the South makes a substantial investment while drawing on the North’s tourism
resources and manpower, are strongly suggestive of investment intended to create a future “national economic community,” and the success or failure of such projects should not be judged solely on the basis of
how much foreign currency they generate. The sectors which appear to behave no differently than normal
bilateral trade relations are general trade and processing-on-commission trade, and these are likely to go
on expanding for some time to come, as long as tensions between Pyongyang and Seoul do not lead to
trade restrictions.
For the North Korean economy, North-South trade in both the general and the processing-oncommission sectors is in many ways a form of trade on the international market, while economic cooperation projects are strongly suggestive of investment intended to create an inter-Korean economic community. (Notably, these projects were not necessarily required to be profitable overall in their earlystages.) When one considers these characteristics, together with the circumstances in which North-Southeconomic exchanges began, North Korea can hardly be expected to maintain the pace set by South Korea.
Thus, until progress in building trust can be made, the two sides will be adopting the approach of allowing economic exchanges based on general trade and processing-on-commission trade to develop first, tobe followed by advancement of economic cooperation projects accompanied by substantial investment,such as Kaesong Industrial Complex, once a certain amount of trust has been built. However, in view ofthe economic sanctions imposed by South Korea since 2010 and the suspension of operations at Kaesong
Industrial Complex in 2013, it is clear that trust has yet to be built between North and South, and theireconomic relationship remains at the mercy of the political situation. Yet this problem is, in effect, inherent in the very nature of North-South economic exchanges, and even if North-South relations take asuperficially favorable turn, the underlying elements of instability will most likely persist for quite some
time.

11

References
In Japanese:
Kamisawa, Hiroyuki, 2010. “Nanboku Chousen Keizai Kankei no Hikaku Kousatsu: Koueki Kouzou to
Sono Tenkai” [A comparative study on the economic relations between the two Koreas: The structure of commerce and its development], Ajia Daigaku Daigakuin Keizaigaku Kenkyu ronshu [Journalof Economic Studies, Graduate School of Economics, Asia University] 34, 33-64.
Lim Dong-won, 2008. “Nanboku shunō kaidan e no michi: Lim Dong-won kaisōroku” [The road to theNorth-South summit talks: A memoir by Lim Dong-won], Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. 196.
Mimura, Mitsuhiro, 2010. “Chousen ni Okeru Koukougyou no Hatten” [The development of mining andmanufacturing industries in Korea], in Teruo Komaki and Economic Research Institute forNortheast Asia, eds., “Keizai Kara Mita Kita-Chousen” [North Korea from an economic viewpoint].
Tokyo: Akashi Shoten. 53-69.
Miyamoto, Satoru, 2008. “Nanboku Koueki ni okeru Keizai Doukou no Eikyo” [The influence of economic
trends on North-South trade], Kaigai jijou [Journal of World Affairs] 57 (7-8), 103-114.
Asahi Shimbun
Nihon Keizai Shimbun
Chōsen Shinpō (Japanese edition)
In Korean:
Korea Trade-Investment Promotion Agency (KOTRA), “Trend of North Korea’s External Trade” [inKorean]Ministry for Unification, Republic of Korea, “The South-North Exchange & Cooperation Trend” [inKorean]Choi Soo-young, 2010. “Comparative Analysis of Impact on North Korea of Economic Relations between
North Korea and China and Economic Cooperation between South and North Koreas” [in Korean]
Seoul: Korean Institute for National Unification.
[Rodong Sinmun][Korean Central News Agency][The Choson Sinbo][JoongAng Ilbo][Yonhap News]

12

1

Kamisawa argues that because South Korea trades actively with the rest of the world, quantitatively its trade with the North
makes up a negligible proportion of its total trade, whereas for the North, with its small total trade value and limited numberof trading partners, North-South trade is very important; thus, the structure of inter-Korean trade consists of dependenceby the North on the South.

2

It should be noted that, as used in this article, “North-South economic exchanges” does not refer solely to North-South tradein the narrow sense (exchange of goods through general trade, processing-on-commission trade, the Kaesong Industrial
Complex and other channels), but encompasses a variety of exchange activities, including bilateral investment, assistance to
the North by the South, tourism to locations including Mount Kumgang and Kaesong (which is included in North-South
trade statistics when goods are exchanged), and cultural, artistic, technical, and scientific cooperation (which may comeunder private-sector assistance). An alternative term for these is “North-South exchanges and cooperation.” In this article,
as space does not allow me to discuss all North-South economic exchanges in this broader sense, from III. onward I will
discuss North-South trade in the narrow sense, focusing on the various problems encountered in studying North-South
trade statistics.

3

Shortly after the first meeting, on October 3, 1990, East and West Germany were unified, and the Soviet Union collapsed on
December 25, 1991, shortly before the fifth meeting.

4

According to Lim Dong-won (2008), who was in charge of this process, the Sunshine Policy was by no means an appeasement policy but an “offensive” to induce change in the North by utilizing the economic power of the South, which had
prevailed in the competition between systems.

5

Starting with cabinet-level talks, which were held on an almost monthly basis from 2000, intergovernmental dialogue grewas projects that required cooperation progressed. Because of the detailed preparations these projects required, by around2006-2007 meetings at various levels and on various scales were being held as often as once a week.

6

In this connection, in the above periodization, the rate of expansion of North-South economic exchanges seems to be
directly related to the direction of Seoul’s policies toward the North in terms of whether they posed a threat to the North’s
system.

7

For example, inbound and outbound processing-on-commission trade began to be itemized in 1992, but the inbound andoutbound figures for each item were not divided into general trade and processing-on-commission trade until 1998.

8

Some reports, such as the annual Unification White Paper, are back-compatible to a certain extent, but unfortunately they
are not detailed enough to serve as a supplement to the statistical data.

9

Almost all the equipment was transported from the South to Kaesong, then, in the case of leased equipment, returned when
no longer needed; even machinery that was returned to the South for repair or maintenance and then taken back to Kaesong
was counted in the inbound and outbound statistics each time. Although considered commercial activity, the Complex isalso characterized by government involvement in many areas, such as construction of factories on loan from the Korea Landand Housing Corporation, which is a state enterprise.

10 As Miyamoto (2008) points out, trends in the South Korean economy, which constitutes the market (demand), are anotherimportant factor governing the rise or fall of processing-on-commission trade.
11 It may well be true, as South Korean critics argue, that the unknown uses to which this foreign currency is put could include
developing nuclear weapons or weapons of mass destruction. However, the program offers a chance to induce North Korea,
which has never had export-oriented industries till now, to shift to an economy linked to international markets by earning
foreign currency through processing-on-commission trade; to close off this possibility would ultimately delay North Korea’s
entry to international markets—a change of great international significance—and could even nip change in North Korea inthe bud. I cannot address this problem fully here, but I suggest that the international community needs to weigh the advantages of North Korea’s opening to the outside world against the disadvantages of nuclear development.
12 This is not listed directly in North-South trade statistics.

13