13
Sergey G O L U N O V

Drug‐Trafficking throughthe Russia‐Kazakhstan Border:
Challenge and Responses*

Today the dissemination of drugs is one of the most serious global challenges. Its destroying influence seems to be more dangerous than international terrorism. It is true that Russia is one of the main drugs consumers in the world. This paper focuses on the main direction of transboundary drug-trafficking to Russia, which is also the most socially
dangerous kind of illegal transborder activity between Kazakhstan andRussia. The latter is reflected both in the cost of smuggling items and thenumber of people, lost for society as a result of taking opiates and othernarcotics.
In order to estimate the scale of the problem and possible solutions,several key issues of drug-trafficking across the Russia-Kazakhstan border will be analyzed. These issues are: 1) global and regional conjuncture; 2) directions and routes of trafficking (including the significance of
the Russia-Kazakhstan border); 3) the structure of drug abuse in borderareas; 4) organization of drug-trafficking; 5) measures taken against
drug-trafficking and narcotism.

Supported by the International Fellowship Program of George Soros Foundation.

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Global and Regional Conjuncture
According to the UN, there are currently 200 million drug users in theworld.1 Marijuana is the drug of choice with approximately 140 million
consumers. Another 30 million people use amphetamine-type stimulants,
13 million people use cocaine and 8 million to heroin.2 Due to its profitability, it would be near impossible to eradicate drug trafficking in theforeseeable future. Drugs have a profit margin of 1000 percent, and theUnited Nations’ experts claim that the annual turnover of drug industry
is from $55 to 400 billion. This amount constitutes at least 8 percent of
the world trade. The International Monetary Fund estimates that every
year 1.5 trillion “drug dollars” are laundered, which constitutes 5 percent of world gross product.3 Due to the huge financial resources, thedrug industry is able to adjust itself easily to changing circumstances
and to react quickly to new measures against it. This illicit business also
takes an active part in globalization, being its shady side.
At present the structure of the drug trade depends on many factors,
including product demand, specialization and geography of production,
the narcotics business’ reaction to counter-measures of national and international bodies, to name a few. Drugs are typically produced inSouthern and South-Eastern Asia as well as third world countries in
Latin America. In some regions planting and harvesting narcotics is the
key income for the local population. The most powerful flows of drugs
are directed according to purchasing capacity of transit states’ and regions’ population. Some such flows finish in these countries while others
reach the more profitable EU and US markets.
Drug dealing is carried out by individuals, small groups as well aslarger criminal organizations. The structure of drug dealing is made up
1 See “Ostanovit’ narkoagressiiu,” Press-Release of the Federal Service of the RussianFederation for Control over Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances [http://www.gnk.gov.ru/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=49]. Here and below, all
the URLs are valid as of January 29, 2007.
2 See M. Ashimbaev, G. Kurganbaeva, L. Muzaparova, L. Guseva, A. Dosymov,“Narkotizatsiia obshchestva: sostoianie, problemy, opyt protivodeistviia,” Analiticheskoe
obozrenie 1 (2004), p. 7.
3 Ibid.

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Drug‐Trafficking through the Russia‐Kazakhstan Borderof drug producers, laboratories (if necessary), a network of couriers(who often do not know each other), wholesale markets, and retailers, aswell as additional units, such as killers, extortionists, and money launderers, which in Russian-speaking areas are called krysha, which means“roof” as well as “corrupted officials of all levels” in slang. The drug
business is not a strictly centralized structure. This is due to the huge
drug market’s capacity and the necessity of secrecy in order to preserve
the key units when inauspicious circumstances take place such as arrests.
Nevertheless, some individuals or groups cooperate with one another,integrating their information on the sale of drugs, conspiracy, counteraction to law-enforcement bodies and money laundering. With respect tointergroup cooperation, Columbian cartels are much more centralized
than the major Eurasian narcotics groups, which appear to be at the earlystages of formation.

Directions and Routes of Trafficking:
The Role of the Russia‐Kazakhstan Borderland
Producing up to 80 percent of opiates in the world, Afghanistan remains
the main hub of “hard” drug production in Eurasia. Most opiates fromAfghanistan are transported to the EU, which is the market with thelargest purchasing capacity, via the Balkan route, which crosses Iran,
Turkey, and the Balkan countries. At the same time the importance of
the Northern, or Silk route, which crosses through Central Asia, Russia
and states of Eastern Europe is increasing at a rapid rate and Afghanistan’s narcotics are steadily being redirected through this region. Poppy
plantations’ squares increase quickly in provinces bordering upon the
CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) countries.
The global state of the cannabis market differs from the heroin market.
Because of the relatively low cost ($0.3–0.4 per gram in the CIS), a larger
volume of cannabis is smuggled across borders. The larger volume ofcannabis also increases the risk of being discovered. The favorable natural
conditions for large-scaled cannabis planting (and wild vegetation) inwider geographic areas, such as Central Asia also influences the conjuncture of this illicit market. The key cannabis trafficking routes are much333

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shorter than the trafficking routes for opiates. It should be noted, however,that the Middle East and Central Asia provide a small percentage of theworld’s cannabis supply. But at the regional level, such areas as the valleyof the Chu (Shu) River belonging to Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan are large
suppliers of marijuana and hashish northwards to Russia.
Transportation of amphetamine-type stimulants is carried out in the
opposite direction—from Europe to Central Asia and does not have an
influence on the structure of drug consumption in concerned region.
The Russia-Kazakhstan border, which is the lengthiest continuous
boundary in the world and extends over more than 7000 kilometers, has
the key importance both for drug trafficking and the fight against it.
When smugglers cross this border, they find themselves in another region and price zone. This border is one of the largest transit points on theway to the EU, and at the same time, one of the most capacious drug
markets. The drug-related arrests at the Kazakhstan-Russian border isevidence of the huge scale of narcotraffic; the South-Eastern Regional
Department of Border Guard Service seized more than 3.5 tons of heroin
from 1997 to 2004. In 2004 alone, 416 kilograms of drugs including 100
kilograms of heroin were seized by border guards.4 Unfortunately, border and customs services do not always take stock of all seizures. This
figure may be greatly underestimated as custom services (at least in the
United States) are known to reveal only 5–10 percent of the total amountof drugs seized. According to many experts’ estimates (which are basedon similar US experience), border and customs services of Russia andKazakhstan seize no more than 10 percent of smuggled drugs even in
the favorable conditions—including effective border management andinternational technical aid to the mentioned services. Experts supposedthat in 2002–2003, 100–150 tons were transported through the territory of
Kazakhstan. In 2002 only 168 kilograms of heroin were seized.5
Conditions and volume of drug transportation across the border depend on many factors, including border regime, landscape, communications, and partly on the extent in which local population is involved in
4 “Vosem’ ugolovnykh del vozbuzhdeno v otnoshenii pogranichnikov-vziatochnikov na
rossiisko-kazakhstanskoi granitse,” Interfaks-Ural, December 24, 2004 [http://news.74mail.ru/news.php?news_id=27894].
5 Ashimbaev et al., “Narkotizatsiia obshchestva,” p. 5.

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Drug‐Trafficking through the Russia‐Kazakhstan Borderthis illicit activity. The combination of mentioned factors shapes the
structure of drug-trafficking in the area.
The Russia-Kazakhstan border is a contact one with respect to thelandscape and communications. The landscape on the both sides issimilar, with steppes and semi-deserts with rare, natural obstacles. The
border rivers divide the two countries over a stretch of no longer than
150 kilometers. Natural obstacles are mainly found in the borderstretches of the Republic of Altai and part of the Altai krai: this area ismountainous and therefore transboundary communication is much
more difficult than elsewhere. But the geographic features typical of theremaining borderland make it suitable for communication transport: theborder is crossed by 16 railways, about 200 roads (6 highways, 36 roads
have pavement, 33 roads have no pavement, the rest are dirt roads anddifficult to negotiate in bad weather).6
Such contactivity is convenient for drug transit using existing transport facilities despite the checkpoints. The use of major routes essentiallyshortens the delivery time. Drug smugglers do not believe that borderand customs’ checkpoints are insurmountable; they employ modern
technologies in order to conceal drugs, and take advantage of high intensity of traffic and insufficient equipment of border guards and customs officials. These tactics leave few chances for the police to find andseize narcotics. However, as the chief of the drug control department of
the Siberian Customs Service, lieutenant-colonel V. V. Kalinin pointed
out, it is not profitable to transport large lots of drugs because it increases the risk of detention and full inspection.7 According to estimatesof Russian Border Guard Service experts, at least 70 percent of thesmuggled drugs are transported through working checkpoints rather
than avoiding them. Yet other drug couriers use main motorways, railways, roads and paths trying to escape the border control.
Large-scale drug-trafficking takes place in almost every province.
6 Calculated from: Chelovek i granitsa: Rossiisko-kazakhstanskoe prigranich’e: Sotsial’nyi pasport i odnomernye statisticheskie raspredeleniia, Cheliabinsk, 2001, pp. 6, 11,
14–16, 24, 29, 34, 43, 48; data collected by the author was also used.
7 Information of the interview of Dr. Grigorii Olekh with the Head of Department for
the Struggle against Drugs Smuggling at Siberian Operational Customs Office, Lieutenant
Colonel of Customs Service V. Kalinin, August 4, 2004.

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There is one exception; the Republic of Altai’s borders are in the highlands and there is no regular communication. As it was mentioned
above, heroin trafficking routes are on average longer than cannabis
trafficking routes, and they are also more diversified. Cannabis is transported the Chu valley situated in the south of Kazakhstan while opiates
flow from Afghanistan through the territory of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan,
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The opiate and cannabis delivery routes
cross the border at the same points. These routes can be subdivided intoa few main flows in the Russian illegal wholesale markets:
1. The South Volga route passes from Western Kazakhstan to the Low
Volga region, and then branches to the Ukraine and the EU, Central
Russia, the Volga regions and Northern Caucasus. Drugs cross the border between Atyrau and Astrakhan oblasts.
2. The Northwestern route stretches from Western Kazakhstan, Aktiubinsk, Kostanai, Karaganda and Northern Kazakhstan oblasts of Kazakhstan through Saratov, Samara, Orenburg, Cheliabinsk and Kurganoblasts and then to non-bordering Kazakhstan oblasts of the Ural Federal District (Sverdlovsk oblast, Khanty-Mansi and Yamalo-Nenets
autonomous districts), the Volga region and the central regions of Russia,
mainly to Moscow, St. Petersburg. Some lots from the capitals are transported to countries in Eastern Europe.
3. The Northeastern route passes from Northern Kazakhstan, Karaganda,
Pavlodar, Eastern Kazakhstan oblasts through Kurgan, Omsk, Tiumen,
Novosibirsk oblasts and Altai krai to gas-and-oil producing regions ofSiberia.
Based on the information concerning drug seizures at the RussiaKazakhstan border, the author can surmise that in the last few years themain transboundary drug-trafficking routes have been shifting gradually eastwards. At the same time, the total volume of smuggled drugs isincreasing along the length of the border. This tendency can be interpreted as the result of the high purchasing capacity of the population of
the gas-and-oil producing regions in contrast to other Russian provinces.
This the reason that this market is getting more attractive, taking into
account the continuing rise of oil price.
The network of transboundary motorways crossing the border is more
dense than the railways. The number of motorways with asphalt pave-

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Drug‐Trafficking through the Russia‐Kazakhstan Borderment, leading from the center of the country to the border is seven times
as great as the number of corresponding railways. Using motorways,
smugglers can choose the time of delivery most convenient for them.
This is why cars and especially lorries are used by couriers more often
than trains. On the other hand, when narcotics are transported by passenger buses and trains, Customs and Border Guard officers have relatively little time to inspect passengers and freight. At some border sections, in particular in Volgograd and Astrakhan oblasts, drugs are more
often transported by trains because there are few motorways in theseregions.

The Structure of Drug Abuse in Border Areas
In Kazakhstan, as of March 2003, about 48,000 people were drug addicts(70 percent of them were heroin users) according to the information of
the Ministry of Health Care, but by some unofficial estimates, a moreaccurate number of addicts was 250,000. By some Kazakhstan experts’point of view, 30 percent of the imported drugs are left in the country
and 70 percent are transported out of the country, mostly to Russia.8 In
Russia, about 400,000 persons are officially registered as drug addicts.
During a one-year period (from autumn 2004 until summer 2005) state
officials from various departments “increased” this number from 2 million (Prosecutor-General Vladimir Ustinov, November 2004)9 to 4 million (the Minister of Interior Affairs Rashid Nurgaliev, December 2004),10
or 3–8 million (the Director of the Department for Interdepartmental Interaction in the Preventive Sphere of Gosnarkokontol Boris Tselinskii,
June 2005).11 In July 2005 the Ministry of Health Care and Social Development stated that there are 1.5 million drug addicts in addition to the 6
8 Ashimbaev et al., “Narkotizatsiia obshchestva,” pp. 5–6.
9 Diana Igoshina, “Rossiya pereshla na geroin,” Strana.ru., December 15, 2004
[http://www.strana.ru/stories/01/08/21/1260/235825.html].
10 “MVD: v Rossii 4 milliona narkomanov,” Cry.ru, December 15, 2004 [http://www.cry.ru/2004/12/15/news/201318/].
11 “V Rossii 5,5 percent naseleniia – narkomany: Ofitsial’naia statistika – v 16 raz
men’she, ” NEWSru.com, June 15, 2005 [http://www.newsru.com/russia/15jun2005/
narkomany.html].

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million people who have taken narcotics at some point.12 This figuresurpasses corresponding indexes of heroin addicts in Great Britain and
Italy (260,000), Germany (170,000), France (165,000), Spain (145,000)13
and other European countries. At the same time, the mass-media andofficials (including those from Gosnarkokontrol [Russian Federal Service
for the Control over Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances]) often manipulated these figures in an attempt to present the situation as catastrophic and to persuade the society to take extraordinary measures. They
focused the attention of public opinion on the number of 6 million. Itshould be noted that for the last 10 years, the number of drug addicts has
increased 10 times, and according to expert evaluations, the annual income of drug dealers is from $8 to 18 billion.14
Among the imported narcotics, cannabis-derived drugs (marijuana,hashish) and opiates (heroin and opium) dominate. As mentioned above,cannabis derived drugs are transported in large amounts because of
their low price, shorter transport routes and the necessity of crossing
only one (Russia-Kazakhstan) or two (also between Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan) borders. But in many reports issued from 2000, Border Guard
and Customs officials stress that the share of hard drug seizures increased in comparison with the share of soft drugs. It is because the heroin business is more profitable, small lots can be easier hidden fromcontrol, even from guard dogs.
Further development of cross-border drug-trafficking through Russia-Kazakhstan boundary will depend on solvent demand and profitability of the drug business. Considerable heroin influx to the borderareas promotes price-cutting which causes the reduction in drug dealers’
incomes. This effect provokes the drug dealers to invest in cheaper narcotics, particularly in opium as it accelerates. Naturally the number of
seizures of large lots of opium has been substantially increasing recently.
12 Ol’ga Stroinova, “V odinochku nikto ne pobedit,” Parlamentskaia gazeta, October 26,
2005 [http://www.pnp.ru/archive/18050110.html].
13 World Drug Report 2004 (Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2004), p.
29.
14 “Narkoagressiya: Ni v kakoi drugoi strane mira ona ne priobrela takikh masshtabov,kak v Rossii,” (interview with a Deputy Director of the Federal Service for Control over
Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances Lieutenant-General Aleksandr Mikhailov), Rodnaia
gazeta, May 14, 2004, p. 6.

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Drug addicts try to make heroin from opium at home. Many Russian
experts suppose that in Russia there is an increasing number of clandestine laboratories where raw opium is converted into heroin.15

Organization of Drug‐Trafficking
The illegal transboundary transportation of drugs makes the couriers use
more sophisticated methods of concealment. These manifold methods
can be subdivided into at least six types: (1) masking drugs in vegetables
and fruits transports, industrial goods and raw materials; (2) concealment inside human bodies (swallowing etc.); (3) concealment in baggage,under a carrier’s clothes and inside shoes; (4) fitting up inside cars, lorries and train carriages; (5) concealment in packed lots of products andindustrial goods (including factory wrapping and built-in hiding places;and (6) discarding drugs before arrival at checkpoints, which are later
picked up by accessories.
In many respects, the method of drug transportation is determined bypeculiarities of the transborder drug dealing organization. The following
kinds of structural drug trafficking organizations, which move throughthe Russia-Kazakhstan border, can be marked out:
1. Individuals, who are independent from organized criminal groupings, transport small lots of drugs and sell them directly to consumers or
at “wholesale markets.” According to law-enforcement officials, this activity is carried out by people coming from Central Asia and other regions. They often mask their criminal intentions by buying and selling ofother forms of mass consumption goods.
Small independent groups, which are usually formed by 3–5 people,
transport drugs and sell them directly to the customer or at “wholesalemarkets.” Such groups often comprised of family members. This type oforganization allows smuggling of larger quantities of narcotics rather
15 In particular, this is the opinion of some Russian Border Guard Service’s officials interviewed by Dr. Vadim Astashin during the international project “Drug-Trafficking as a
Challenge to Russia-Kazakhstan Border Security” headed by the author and held in 2004
with support of the Transnational Crime and Corruption Center of American University(Washington, D.C., USA).

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than trafficking carried out by individuals, and often provides a mutualsafety net for the criminals involved. These criminal groups, or “teams,”
do not stay together for a long time in the majority of cases.
2. The Major groups or groups associations control all key areas of drugtrafficking, at least from purchasing to supply at wholesale markets. According to the Russian Federal Service for Control over Narcotics andPsychotropic Substances, the drug business in Russia is controlled by 950
organized criminal groups,16 but not all of them transport drugs acrossborders. Those which are engaged in the drug industry sometimes allocate
duties at various stages of the drug trade, including the transportation
between specific parts of the route, bribery, blackmail, sale, etc.). Information on the level of organized crime development is poor and is given bypolice and security agencies and its volume is always strictly controlled.
In the post-Soviet period one of the main trends of transboundary
narcotraffic has become the organized crime growth. They want to control not only smuggling, but sales as well. A considerable part or eventhe majority of these groups specialize in several kinds of transboundary
criminal activity (e.g., smuggling in arms or consumer goods, humantrafficking, stealing of cars, etc.). However, the author can agree with thefollowing point of view: “small criminal groups, often consolidated due
to relative or ethnic links, dominate.” 17 Large hierarchical cartels ofmonopolists, controlling all operations of the drug market, have yet toappear. By some experts’ estimates, there is no highly-centralized structure on the Northern route. This is true even through the longer Balkanroute as both are used by many competing narcotic cartels.18 The process of centralization is hampered by several factors, including the presence of broad lands for activity, necessity to survive in a hostile environment (it is easier to discover centralized structures) and even by unwritten norms of the criminal community. According to these norms,
16 Ibid.
17 Ekaterina Stepanova, “Nezakonnyi oborot narkotikov i ego sviazi s konfliktami i terrorizmom: Afganistan i Tsentral’naia Aziia,” in Razoruzhenie i bezopasnost’, 2001–2002:
Mezhdunarodnaia bezopasnost’, novye ugrozy novogo tysiacheletiia (Moscow, 2003), pp. 67–68.
18 Ibid. See also Emil’ Pain, “Etnicheskaia spetsifika kontrabandy narkotikov v Rossiiu:
mify i real’nost’,” International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research[http://www.iicas.org/libr_rus/sng/18_02_03_libr_rus_sng.htm].

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Drug‐Trafficking through the Russia‐Kazakhstan Borderdrug-trafficking is a condemned occupation even among organizedcriminals who restrain their involvement to this process.
Supplying drugs to Russia, large groups divide traffic into several
stages at which different carriers are involved; in some cases these carriers act as second-hand dealers. With such a scheme drugs are delivered
to a fixed place and passed on to another courier who pays his or her
partner for the completed work.
It is difficult to discover such criminal networks and it reduces the effectiveness of the “restriction strategy” of the struggle against narcotraffic. It is often admitted by Russian Law enforcement officials19 that inmost situations, only small dealers and consumers are detained andconvicted in the majority of criminal cases. Arrests of ordinary couriers
do not pose a serious threat to the narcobusiness as replacing these couriers is not difficult. No wonder that the tactical achievements of police
and security agencies cannot change the situation in the long term: organized criminals in Russia and Kazakhstan redesign their strategy andtactics. Sometimes criminal groups provide official structures by good
indices for their reports exposing inveterate drug addicts (calledverbliudy [camels] in slang) to police or servicemen at border control.
Together with corrupted officials (see below), criminal groups recruit
employees of professions, which have the status or professional skill thathelps smugglers bypass border control. Among such professions are railway workers and conductors of trains, passenger bus drivers and workers
of wrapper-producing enterprises. Many inhabitants of border areas arealso recruited to participate in the criminal business as they are perfectly
orientated with the local and are well-informed about the Border Guard
and Customs Services’ work. According to estimations of some officials,
more than 80 percent of the active local population works for smugglers insome of the border districts of the Volgograd and Astrakhan regions.20
For a considerable number of the local, border area inhabitants, illegaltransboundary operations are almost the sole source of income. The drug
smugglers can pay assistants ten times as much as their legal salaries.
Russian officials often stress the ethnic character of the criminal
19 N. Kovalev, “Nezakonnyi oborot narkotikov ugrozhaet bezopasnosti i tselostnosti
Rossii,” Narkomat 1 (2003), p. 13.
20 Information provided by Dr. Vadim Astashin (see n. 15 above).

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groups when considering the drug trafficking activities across the Russia-Kazakhstan border. They assert that the most of these groups are
made up of Central Asian people, and mostly are Tajik criminal communities united by ethnic and family ties. The Russian officials also mention
Caucasian (especially Azerbaijani) and Gipsy criminal groups.
Unfortunately, both mass-medias and officials often equate suchcriminal groups with ethnic communities as a whole. Such statements do
not correspond with the statistical data. The calculation of the data, on
the contrary, leads to a conclusion that drug-trafficking in Russia is aninternational business. As the Chief of Russian Federal Service for theControl over Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances (Gosnarkokontrol)
Viktor Cherkesov stated on 30 March 2004, that only 330 of the 950 drugtrafficking groups are formed on an ethnic basis.21 In addition, the Headof Siberian Federal District Branch of the Agency for Control over Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances, A. Vedernikov notes that the majority of drug-traffickers and dealers arrested in this district were Russian
citizens.22 Ethnic Russians are often used for transporting large quantities of drugs, as such persons do not arouse suspicions at the border andcustoms control.
On the whole, ethnicity (the role of Tajik, Uzbek and other migrants
from Central Asia) is not a decisive factor in drug-trafficking, although it
is crucial at some stages from poppy growth to retail distribution. In
many cases, the Russian citizens and ethnic Russians (or representativesof other “European” ethnic groups) are both at the top of the most powerful groups and control the key stages of narcotraffic in Russia andtransport to EU countries. According to opinions of the officials of theAstrakhan border guard, customs, and Gosnarkokontrol services, therole of Russian-dominated criminal groups has been increasing while thecoordination centers of their activities have been moving from border
21 “Rasshirennoe zasedanie Kollegii FSN Rossii,” Federal Service for Control over
Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances, April 30, 2004 [http://www.gnk.gov.ru/
modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=72&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0].
22 Information recorded by Dr. Grigorii Olekh at a press conference of the Head of Siberian Federal District Branch of the Agency for Control over Narcotics and Psychotropic
Substances, Lieutenant-General of Police, A. Vedernikov at the “Interfax-Siberia” News
Agency, July 30, 2004.

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Drug‐Trafficking through the Russia‐Kazakhstan Borderregions close to Central Asia to Moscow during the last years.23
In an attempt to provide safety for their smuggling operations,drug-traffickers try to establish ties with border officials and structures,
who are able to facilitate the transboundary transportation of narcotics,
help them avoid punishment, or possibly return the confiscated drugs.
Among the mentioned structures are border guard and customs services,
regional branches of the Gosnarkokontrol, and the police. The mostwidely known facts concerning such corruption ties denote the involvement of low- and middle-level officials. Assumptions that manyhigher-standing officials are involved in narco-mafia are also widespread. The amounts of the bribes proposed can be a hundred times as
great as the salary of these officials, especially with the border and customs control. However, several factors restrain the increase of narcocorruption. These include the risk of severe punishment, the possibility
to get illegal income by far less risky ways, such as assistance to smugglers in consumer goods and some informal rules condemning drugrelated activities, that are accepted even by criminal environment including bribable customs officials.

Measures Taken against Drug‐Trafficking and Narcotism
Taking into account the considerations above, drug-trafficking is regarded as the most serious challenge for Russian border security in the
direction of Kazakhstan. The present situation calls for serious measuresagainst smuggling flows. The rough assessed value is comparable to
Russian foreign trade turnover with Kazakhstan and causing hugedamage to economic and social spheres.
Within the international experience, there are three main ways tocombat narcotraffic: (1) restriction measures, including strengthening ofborder and customs control; (2) demand reduction programs, such associal advertising, health protection, active policy towards the youth;and (3) limited legalization of some drugs.
A combination of military and police measures, often referred to as“the war against drugs.” aims to make effective barriers at national bor23 Information provided by Dr. Vadim Astashin (see n. 15 above).

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ders and seize illegal narcotics inside the country. It is almost the only
way to try to diminish supply in a short space of time. Other ways,
probably except international cooperation for struggle against drugtrafficking along its routes beginning with producer countries, could nothave such fast and evident results.
However, international experience shows that the long-term effects ofsuch strategies are not always so evident. For example, as American political scientist R. Lee assumes that the “war against drugs” in the UnitedStates resulted in an evident defeat: though the United States has spentroughly $23 billion for drug export prevention and border protection
programs, heroin and cocaine have become more cheap and available
than at the end of 1990s. The mentioned measures caused reconfiguration of the transnational narcobusiness in the Americas: the role of the
Mexican narco-cartels has been strengthened in comparison with Columbian ones.24 Such a categorical estimation of the US policy’s results
seems to be questionable, but in the author’s opinion, such a conclusion
is reasonable in that the police and military force are principally insufficient for an effective struggle against drug-trafficking.
The most popular alternative strategy is to demand reduction, including prophylactic, rehabilitation, informational and other programs
aiming to diminish the consumption of drugs. This way is far more economical: according to research carried out by RAND Corporation in 1994,$34 million invested in demand reduction produced an effect comparable with $783 million invested in antinarcotics programs or $366 million
for restriction measures.25 However, demand reduction is not a panacea,
especially with respect to those who are drug-dependent as antinarcotic
advertising has little influence on their consumption. Additionally, adecrease in demand will evidently cause price-cutting, which could
again increase the supply and widen the illegal market.
Advocates of absolute or partial liberalization of drugs argue that this
24 Rensselaer W. Lee, “Transnational Organized Crime: An Overview,” in Tom Farer,ed., Transnational Crime in the Americas: Inter-American Dialogue Book (New York: Routledge,
1999), p. 31.
25 Council on Foreign Relations, Rethinking International Drug Control: Task Force Report(New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), p. 33, cited in Lee, “Transnational Organized Crime,” p. 33.

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way will do away with the narco-mafia as it will undermine its financial26 and organizational potential, reduce related crime and corruption,
and allow the state to take control of the drug markets. At the same time,
this way may cause an increase in consumption. In addition, criminalgroups can easily redirect their illegal activities, including even moredangerous kinds of activities such as arms smuggling.27
To all appearances, Russia has chosen restriction measures which stressthe necessity of the “hard-edged struggle against drug-trafficking.” Thesame and even more expressive vocabulary than that used in the UnitedStates in the 1980s has been used. Such a perception is sometimes combined with ideas in the manner of “conspiracy theory,” according towhich the spread of drugs in Russia is not an uncontrollable process but“narco-aggression” against Russia skillfully organized by its enemies(the Uited States or some clandestine forces such as Zionists). This kindof idea represents a graphic example of an interpretation of non-traditional threats in traditional terms, and it induces to search for a “traditional” adversary supposedly waging a war behind the scenes. Within
this approach, the situation in Russia is perceived as unique, and its systematic comparison with international experience in the struggle against
drug-trafficking and drug consumption is rarely done. On the other
hand, there is a serious danger that many elements of this international
experience (including an unsuccessful one) will be spontaneously reproduced in less favorable conditions and with an even smaller effect.
Actually, the supporters of restriction measures in Russia and Kazakhstan propose a similar strategy to that which was used by theUnited States in the 1980–1990s, taking into account far more modest
resources. This strategy is apparently the most popular both in power
structures and in public opinion. The combination of concrete measures
includes the strengthening of technical and organizational potential offorce structures, the development of informational databases, the equipping of border checkpoints, and the establishment of new cynologicalcenters. These activities require an essential increase in funding that is
26 As an illustration to this statement there are some estimates, according to which
smuggling and following distribution of drugs make up 80–90 percent of Columbian
narco-mafia’s income. See Lee, “Transnational Organized Crime,” p. 35.
27 Ibid.

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sometimes achieved at the expense of other important areas. These areas,such as education, health care, support for children and youth activities,
may have a direct or indirect importance in the struggle against narcotism.
The increase in support for the “restriction policy” has been somewhat fruitful, which is reflected in the greater number of arrests andvolume of seized drugs. In some border regions, such as in the Orenburg
oblast, prices for heroin doubled and achieved 1000 rubles, or approximately $35 per gram. As discussed above, however, military and police
structures, which have been able to provide good indices on seizures,
were not, however, able to prevent an increase in consumption in thelong term, as organization of supply proved to be very flexible and able
to adjust to changing circumstances.
The efficiency assessment of the restrictive anti-narcotic policy in Russia brings us to a rather sad conclusion. Based on moderate experts’ estimations that assume the average Russian heroin addict consumes 0.5
grams daily and the total number of addicts is 1 million, the demand forheroin in Russia is more than 180 tons annually. As was mentioned before, the South Eastern Branch of the Federal Border Guard Service
seized only 3.5 tons of heroin (that means 500 kilograms per year, on
average) during the entire period of its existence. In 2003 Federal Customs Service seized 488 kilograms,28 and in 2004, more than 680 kilograms of this drug was seized.29 Hence, the total volume of heroin thatis confiscated annually by Border Guard and Customs services is lessthan 1 percent of the Russian market demand while all law enforcement
agencies taken together seize no more than 2.5 percent of the volume
demanded by Russian heroin market.
Additionally, the growth of arrest statistics is partially reflected in thearrests of ordinary consumers; the share of criminal cases involving
consumers was 60 percent of all drug-related trials in 2000.30 It is no
28 Federal’naia tamozhennaia sluzhba Rossii, “Obzor deiatel’nosti tamozhennykh organov po bor’be s kontrabandoi narkotikov v 2003 godu” [http://www.customs.ru/ru/right_def/index.php?part592=10].
29 Federal’naia tamozhennaia sluzhba Rossii, “Itogi raboty Glavnogo upravleniia po
bor’be s kontrabandoi FTS Rossii za 2004 god” [http://www.customs.ru/ru/right_def/
fight_with_contraband/index.php?&date286=200507&id286=8724].
30 Kovalev, “Nezakonnyi oborot narkotikov,” p. 13.

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Drug‐Trafficking through the Russia‐Kazakhstan Borderwonder that in 2002, when the legally allowed amounts of drugs that a
consumer could have in his possession without a risk to be prosecuted
was increased, the number of drug-related crimes decreased by 25 percent, according to Kazakhstan’s official statistical information.31 A similar situation took place in Russia; in 2004 the above-mentioned amounts
were also increased.32 This decision of the Russian Government has
been sharply criticized by Gosnarkokontrol and other agencies. It seems
that such critics are partially justified, but at the same time such a decision will not have the essential influence on the volume of drug smuggling: transportation of permissible amounts does not cover the travel
expenses of the couriers. So, the influence of the new norms on the volume of transboundary drug-trafficking to Russia is not evident while itcaused a sharp decrease in statistics reflecting the achievements of themilitary and police forces.
The main alternative to prohibition and restrictive measures in Russia
and Kazakhstan is the demand reduction policy. Some elements of thisstrategy are present in national and regional, and including border regions, anti-drug programs. Kazakhstan puts special stress on demand
reduction measures due to the region’s limited resources. In the Strategyof the Struggle against Narcotism and Narcobusiness in Kazakhstan forthe years 2001–2005, it is stated that “the reduction of demand for drugs
is the main instrument and the most prospective direction in overcoming
drug addiction and drug business.”33
Similar efforts, directed towards drug-demand reduction and rehabilitation of drug addicts, are carried out in the border regions. The
Saratov oblast is an example of a relatively successful regional policy,
31 Ashimbaev et al., “Narkotizatsiia obshchestva,” p. 7.
32 According to the resolution drug consumers could own less than 1 gram of heroin or
20 grams of marijuana without the risk of being prosecuted for a criminal offence. See the
Resolution of the Russian government N 231 “Ob utverzhdenii razmerov srednikh razovykh doz narkoticheskikh veshchestv dlia tselei statei 228, 228(1) i 229 Ugolovnogo kodeksa Rossiiskoi Federatsii [On the Approval of the Size of Average One-Time Doses ofNarcotics and Psychotropic Substances for Purposes of Articles 228, 228(1) and 229 of the
Criminal Code of the Russian Federation],” adopted on May 6, 2004.
33 “Strategiia bor’by s narkomaniei i narkobiznesom v Respublike Kazakhstan na
2001–2005 gody.” The document was confirmed by the Decree of the President of Kazakhstan, No. 394, on May 16, 2000.

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where anti-drug centers work in some settlements (e.g., Balakovo, Krasnoarmeisk, Saratov). The oblast administration support clubs for teenagers and civil society structures, which carry out special projects. As aresult the rate of drug addiction growth has slowed.34 In Tiumen oblast,
the Committee for Preventive Measures and Fight against Drug Addiction has been working since March 2001 as a part of the oblast administration. It coordinates activities within and between departments of education, science, health care, informational policy, social defense of population, committee on the young, tourism, physical culture and sport.35
In Russia and Kazakhstan, measures taken for demand reduction
should be more systematic, and coordination between military and police structures must be more effective. The chronic lack of financing is aneven more serious problem; in Orenburg oblast, proper programs were
financed (by federal and provincial authorities) 12 percent in 2003 and 6
percent in the first half of 2004.36 In these conditions taking the mosteffective steps is difficult. Such steps may be, for instance, advertisingagainst drug use in the mass media.
Suggestions concerning the legalization of “soft” narcotics were notseriously supported in Russia and Kazakhstan. There are strong arguments against such decisions, some of which have already been mentioned. The societies in both countries are intolerant towards drug addicts, and they are not ready to adopt such a decision. In some cases,
persons who declare support for drug legalization are announced as
representatives of the drug lobby, which is supported by the drug dealers. Taking into account these considerations, any serious discussion on
drug legalization in Russia and Kazakhstan is not expected in the foreseeable future.

34 “Privetstvie gubernatora Aiatskova,” Narkomat 3 (2003), p. 4.
35 See the statement of the deputy of the Federation Council of Russia A. S. Gavrin at
the Second World Congress of Antinarcotic Forces, Moscow, June 26–27, 2003: “Tiumenskaia oblast’ bez narkotikov” [http://www.narkotiki.ru/ocomments_5542.html].
36 Privolzhskii Federal’nyi okrug, Kollegiia po voprosam bezopasnosti pri polnomochnom predstavitele Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii i Koordinatsionnoe soveshchanie
rukovoditelei pravookhranitel’nykh organov, “O sostoianii i merakh po protivodeistviiu
narkomanii i nezakonnomu oborotu narkotikov” (report distributed to official organizations), Nizhny Novgorod, 2004.

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Conclusion
The Russia-Kazakhstan border is situated at the one of the most intensively used routes of international drug-trafficking. Unfortunately,
smugglers now have a wide range of methods used to avoid border andcustoms control. Most of the drugs are brought through existing checkpoints and, taking into account these possibilities, there are no grounds
to assume that more than 5–10 percent of such contraband is seized. Local achievements in some border regions may only result in the reorganization of various drug-trafficking structures, which are very flexible
in respect to changing conditions. Demand reduction programs arepoorly financed both in border regions and at the national level. Meanwhile, international experience shows that such programs can bring results with far fewer investments than for military and police measures.
Some common recommendations for the Russian and Kazakhstan’s
power structures are:
1. To stress the closure of borders as the panacea for the struggle
against transboundary drug-trafficking is inexpedient. This recommendation is based on the fact that most smuggling goes through the existing checkpoints while flawed inspection procedures and the low salaries
of officials make evident breaches within the system of control at theRussian borders.
2. Demand reduction should have more importance in national andregional antinarcotics programs. This is especially true in the borderprovinces and regions situated at the main routes of narcotraffic. Taking
into account special vulnerability of enormously lengthy Russian
boundaries, huge expenses with sufficient salaries for responsible officials are required to establish an adequate border control.
3. Both decision-makers and the community at large should not use thestruggle against drug-trafficking as justification to inflict violations
against basic human rights. Because of the reasons discussed above, suchmeasures will not bring essential improvement but rather they will posea serious threat to democracy and human rights.

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