IGA NEWS1

I GA New s No. 80

New slet t er of t he I nt ernat ional Geot herm al Association
Quart erly No. 80

IGA ACTIVITIES
Message from the President
Ladsi Rybach
Dear IGA member
This is the tenth message from your current President.
I have just returned from WGC2010. What an event!
By far the largest, most exciting geothermal conference
ever held, in ter ms of participants, oral & poster
contributions, exhibitors, etc. What stood out was theexcellent organization, fascinating social events, manifold
short courses and field trips, and - most importantly - it
was a global gathering of practically all geothermal players.
A separate report by François-David Vuataz in this issue
describes the Congress highlights.
Personally, I was very impressed with the great
achievements of the host country in developing its richgeothermal resources and particularly with the presence of
the President of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono aswell as of the President of Iceland, Olafur Ragnar
Grimsson. They both fascinated the Congress at theOpening Session with deep geothermal knowledge andvisionary statements. If geothermal gets such support
worldwide, it can really “Change the World”!
The efforts and dedication of a great number ofpeople have made the Congress such a success. Here, I canname only a few: Herman Darnel Ibrahim (OC Chairman),Surya Darma (OC Secretary) and, from IGA, Gordon
Bloomquist with his Steering Committee. Roland Horne
and Nenny Saptadji kept the Technical Program constantly
under full control, besides having managed all the

Presidents Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono of Indonesia (center back)and Olafur Ragnar Grimsson of Iceland (second from right, in
profile) visiting the Exhibitionw w w.geot herm al- energy.org

Contents
IGA ACTIVITIES
Message from the President
1
The Bali Declaration
3
WGC 2010 in Bali: a Record Breaking Congress
5Worldwide Geothermal Utilization 2010
7
So How Long is that Piece of String?
11
Election of IGA Board of Directors (2010-2013) 12
Election of IGA Board of Directors, Ballot
13

EUROPE

TRANSENERGY: Transboundary Geothermal
Energy Resources of Slovenia, Austria, Hungary
and Slovakia
14
OTHER
New Book on Geothermal Energy

16

UPCOMING EVENTS
Geothermal meetings2

manuscripts for the Conference Proceedings CD. This CD
represents a fantastic reference library. Many thanks also
to Pacto Convex Ltd. for the really professional
implementation of all technicalities. All the organizers canbe proud of their great success!
The great number of new developments worldwide asreported in panel discussions and sessions, the numerous
new products and services now available as demonstrated
in the Exhibition created a special spirit: the feeling thatgeother mal now is in full swing! In this spirit, theCongress issued the “Bali Declaration”, urging for further
action to promote geothermal worldwide.
Some other important actions took place during theCongress: the signing of several geothermal development
projects and of the aforementioned Bali Declaration as
well as of the Memorandum of Understanding to hold theWorld Geothermal Congress 2015 in Melbourne, Australia.

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I GA New s No. 80

UPCOMING EVENTS

Participants in the 49th BoD meeting
For IGA, a General Meeting was held during theCongress on 28 April, preceded by a Meeting of theWestern Pacific Regional Branch. The IGA GM finalized
the Bali Declaration and dealt with current issues like theupcoming BoD elections.
The 49th BoD meeting took place in the Westin Resort
Hotel on 1 May. At the end of the meeting, theMemorandum of Understanding was signed with
Geothermische Vereinigung - Bundesverband Geothermie
e.V. to operate the IGA Secretariat in Germany.
T he next (50th) BoD meeting is to be held in
Sacramento, California/USA on 28 October. This will be
the last meeting of the current Board. At the 51st meetingon 29 October the new Board will assume its duties.
Zurich, 4 May 2010

13th International Symposium on Water-Rock Interaction(WRI-13), 16-20 August, Guanajuato, Mexico. Website:
http://wri13.cicese.mx/.
The World Energy Congress 2010, 12-16 September 2010,
Montreal, Canada, Website: www.wecmontreal2010.ca
2010 IAHR International Groundwater Symposium Session on Mass Transfer in Geothermal Systems, 22-24
September, Valencia, Spain. Website: http://iahr2010.upv.es/
11th World Renewable Energy Congress and Exhibition,
2 5 - 3 0 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 0 , A b u - D h a b i . We b s i t e :www.wrenuk.co.uk/wrecxi.html
RENEXPO 2010, 7-10 October 2010, Augsburg, Germany.
Website:www.renexpo.de
3 4 t h G RC A n nu a l M e e t i n g , 2 4 - 2 7 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 ,Sacramento, California, USA. Website: www.geothermal.org
2010 GSA Annual Meeting-Topical Session 14: Enhanced
Geothermal Systems, 31 October-3 November 2010,
Denver, Colorado, USA. Website: www.geosociety.org/meetings/2010/.
Der Geothermiekongress 2010, 16-18 November 2010,
Karlsruhe, Germany. Website: www.geothermie.de
Australian Geother mal Energ y Conference, 16-19
N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 0 , A d e l a i d e , A u s t r a l i a . We b s i t e :www.agea.org.au.
2010 New Zealand Geothermal Workshop and GeoNZ
2010, 22-24 November 2010, Auckland, New Zealand.
Website: www.geothermal.org.nz
E x p l o r i n g a n d H a r n e s s i n g t h e Re n e w a b l e a n d
Promising Geothermal Energy, Djibouti, 22-25 November
2010. Contact: argeo-c3-djibouti@intnet.dj
36 Stanford Workshop on Geother mal Reser voir
Engineering, 31 January-2 February 2011, Stanford,
California, USA. Website: http://pangea.stanford.edu/
ERE/research/geoth/conference/workshop.html

Signature ceremony of the Bali Declaration

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I GA New s No. 80

THE BALI DECLARATION“Geothermal Energy to Change the World”
We are more than 2500 members from World Geothermal Communities represented by 85 countries
assembled in Bali, Indonesia, for the World Geothermal Congress 2010. The Congress has been convened by theInternational Geothermal Association and the Indonesian Geothermal Association. Indonesia is a country thathas been blessed with abundant, sustainable natural sources of energy including perhaps the world’s largest
readily accessible geothermal resources. In light of the long history of geothermal energy development here inIndonesia and throughout the world it is only appropriate that we, the participants of the World Geothermal
Congress 2010 so assembled, do hereby declare:
FIRSTLY – Energy constitutes a basic and continuing human needa. Humankind is learning to develop technology to effectively and efficiently manage this diverse energy need in
an environmentally responsible manner.
b. Natural resources should not be considered merely as an inheritance from our ancestors, but that which has
been entrusted to us for our children and grandchildren.
c. Without energy other natural resources cannot be developed, industrialization cannot occur; food production
will always be a problem, unemployment will continue to be a major issue, and health services will be
extremely limited.
d. Geothermal energy can be a major player in making significant changes in that situation and is reflected in thetheme of the Congress. Geothermal: The Energy to Change the World.
SECONDLY – It is established thata. The world needs energy, now and in the future. Geothermal energy is hugely abundant.
b. Climate change must be well managed and energy must be provided at a reasonable cost to our growing world
wide population.
c. Geothermal energy is indigenous, sustainable and environmentally responsible, counteracting global warmingby displacing carbon-intensive energy usage.
d. Geothermal energy can generate electricity as well as provide for the development of a wide range of direct
uses including heating and cooling buildings, various industrial processes and agricultural production, as wellas balneological and recreational health resorts.
e.

Geothermal energy is the only renewable energy source which is totally independent of daily, seasonal andclimatic variation, allowing it to provide power with a higher availability than any other energy source
including fossil fuels and nuclear.

f. Geothermal energy technology is well established, though it is continuously being improved.
g.

Geothermal energy has to date only been developed to a very limited extent compared to the potential
resource base. Obtaining financing, and legal, institutional and regulatory barriers are two of the limiting
factors.

h. Geothermal technologies based on higher temperature resources have life-cycle costs competitive with otherforms of energy. Cost competitiveness is steadily being extended down the resource curve as technology
improves, but at the lower end of the temperature scale pro-active policies or incentives are still needed toincrease geothermal competitiveness.
i. The importance of extending geothermal energy usage to lower temperatures is that not only is the resourcesbase increased exponentially as the minimum temperature is reduced, but the range of geographies where it
can be applied also greatly increases.

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I GA New s No. 80

THRIDLY: We the assembled therefore do urge thata. Large investment is secured for national, regional and local geothermal projects in developing as well as
developed countries and economies in transition. Greater acceptance of geothermal by international funding
agencies can play a major role.
b. Legislative and administrative barriers be removed and reformed.
c. All technocrats, decision makers, politicians and world leaders, whether they are in the developed or developing
countries strive to create a favorable political climate by molding public opinions that are conducive to thesustainable development of geothermal energy. This can include for example government support in the areasof risk mitigation insurance, cost sharing, loan guarantees and production tax credits.
d. Investments can be provided in many forms (financial incentives from government, loans and capital
investment from banks, private investors, venture capital funds) and policies need to be established to facilitate
accessing all of these sources.
e. Recognition be given to the important role of existing utilities as the off taker for electrical output, that
Renewable Portfolio Standards be adopted, that Integrated Resource Planning be fully implemented andstandard offer contracts including feed-in tariffs be made available.
f. Substantial funding be committed to research and development to improve the cost competitiveness ofgeothermal energy production, particularly where it means it can be extended into new situations, such as at
low temperatures and into different geological settings.
g. Know-how transfer from developed to developing countries is facilitated and supported through effective
international cooperation among government, private and academic institutions, especially by joint training andeducation, capacity building, and technical assistance.
FOURTHLY – All this willa. Avoid additional carbon dioxide emissions and reduce current emission levels;
b. Create employment opportunities, increase industrial development and agricultural production and improve thestandard of living of citizens of the world;c. Secure adequate and environmentally responsible energy supply for generations to come; and last but not leastd. Effectuate “geothermal energy to change the world” toward a sustainable peaceful, healthy and clean
environment in a world to live in and consequently the lasting prosperity of the people through out the world.
Nusa Dua, Bali – Indonesia, 30th April 2010.
All IGA affiliated organizations will be invited to sign the Bali Declaration.

GEOTHERMICS
International Journal of Geothermal Research and its Applications

Published under the auspices of the International Geothermal Association
Content of the latest issues: http:/www.elsevier.com/locate/geothermics

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I GA New s No. 80

WGC 2010 in Bali: a RecordBreaking Congress

Table 1. Statistics of the three last WGCs

François-D. Vuataz, IGA BoD member,
CREGE, Neuchâtel, Switzerland

Country
Venue

Introduction
Geothermal, the energy to change the World: this was themotto of the last World Geothermal Congress that took
place in Nusa Dua, Bali, Indonesia from April 25 to 30,
2010. The event was convened by the International
Geothermal Association (IGA) and co-convened by theIndonesian Geothermal Association (INAGA). Ranked
third among geothermal power producers and with its
huge potential, Indonesia is today the best country topresent the state of the art in geother mal energ y.
Moreover, the attractive island of Bali and the stunning
International Convention Centre in Nusa Dua were thenatural place to organize such event.

Programme
The organizing committee and the IGA steeringcommittee did an outstanding job in preparing thecongress and, from the participants’ point of view, thewhole programme ran efficiently and smoothly. The
programme itself was composed of the following main
events: the Opening session, the 130 Technical sessions
and the Closing ceremony with the signature of the Bali
Declaration. The social events were marked by a friendly
Welcome reception, a spectacular Indonesian cultural night
and a hot Farewell party!
If we compare some statistics from WGC 2000 and2005 with the last one, Bali was the congress of all therecords (Table 1).
Similarly, when comparing the status of geothermal
development at the period of those last three milestones,
one can say that Bali was the witness of a strong
geothermal restart (Table 2).
As in other large international gatherings, new contacts
were made, agreements were signed and newCongress

Participants
Countries
PapersOralpresentations
Posters
Technical
sessions
Sessions
topicsExhibitors

WGC
2000
Japan
Beppu &
Morioka
1700
61
670

WGC
2005
TurkeyAntalya
1350
80
706

WGC
2010
Indonesia
Nusa Dua,
Bali
2500
85
1039

320
350

330
376

650
350

64

65

130

44
54

26
43

40
47

Table 2. Worldwide geothermal status (data from Bertani, 2010and Lund et al., 2010 - Proc WGC2010)
Year

2000

2005
2010
Power generation

Installed capacity (GWe)
7.97
Power production (GWh/yr) 49,261
Countries
21

8.93
10.71
55,709 67,246
23
24
Direct use
28.27 50.58
75,997 121,696
72
78

Installed capacity (GWt)
Energy use (GWh/yr)
Countries.

15.14
53,01458

collaborations were built for the sake of geothermalenergy. Moreover, two panel discussions were held - on theinternational effort to attract investment in geothermalenergy, and on the international perspective to support
geothermal development in Indonesia.

TrendsPresident of Indonesia Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono opening theCongress with the traditional gong.

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Looking at the relative numbers of papers in the 40
topics proposed during the 130 technical sessions, it isinteresting to see where the main efforts are centred.
Actually, eight out of 40 topics represent precisely 50% of
all the proceedings papers (Table 3).
It a p p e a r s t h a t i n d i r e c t a n d su r f a c e m e t h o d s(geophysics, geochemistry and geology) are still very
important in the exploration and manag ement ofgeothermal resources and reservoirs. Numerous papers
about exploration show how active is the quest for new
resources. Moreover, never before in a congress have somany papers and sessions been focused on Enhanced
Geothermal Systems (EGS). Although for the last five

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I GA New s No. 80

Welcome reception
years numerous projects have been in progress on several
continents, major difficulties linked to drilling and toreservoir stimulation have retarded the development of
this technology. As a result, only two small pilot plants areunder exploitation today (at Soultz-sous-Forêts, France,and Landau, Germany, both located in the Rhine graben).
Among many interesting and important projects, one
stands out particularly: the exploration for supercriticalfluids, namely the striking Icelandic Deep Drilling Project(IDDP). The aim of the project is to exploit supercriticalfluid at a depth of 4-5 km and a temperature of 400600°C. At a given flow rate, the amount of power
generated with such a fluid would be twice that of aclassical high temperature geothermal field. After a first
Table 3. Most important topics ranked by their number of papers in
the Proceedings ( 50 papers)
Main topics
Geophysics
Exploration
Country updates
Reservoir engineering
Geology
Geochemistry
Enhanced geothermal
systems (EGS)
Environmental &societal aspects
Total

April - June 2010

Number of
papers
73
71
67
64
64
63
61

Number ofsessions
9
8
7
9
7
6
9

50

7

513

62

drilling attempt, a 2.1 km well in the Krafla geothermal
field (NE-Iceland) had unfortunately to be stopped after abody of molten magma was encountered. The project willcontinue with the drilling of new wells on other sites.

Final remarks
WCC 2010 was definitely a great event in a very
friendly atmosphere. T he excellent planning andorganization were a decisive point. But above all, thehandling and review of over 1000 papers by the Technical
Programme Committee and their implementation on the
IGA da ta ba se, a s well a s the pre pa ra tion of theproceedings CD is to my view the one key-element fordeveloping geothermal energy during the next five years,
by allowing professionals to be informed of the latest
results and experiences worldwide until WGC 2015 in
Melbourne.

Poster session.

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I GA New s No. 80

WORLDWIDE GEOTHERMALUTILIZATION 2010
John W. Lund1 & Ruggero Bertani2
1 Geo-Heat

Center, Oregon Institute ofTechnology, Klamath Falls, Oregon, USA
2ENEL, Rome, Italy

UTILIZATION IN 2010
Based on 68 country update papers submitted to theWorld Geothermal Congress 2010 (WGC2010), thefollowing figures on worldwide geothermal electric anddirect-use capacity are reported. From WGC2000,
WGC2005, and WGC2010, a total of 78 countries havereported some utilization of geothermal energy: electrical,
direct-use or both (Lund and Freeston, 2001; Lund, et al.,2005 and 2010; Bertani, 2005 and 2010) (Table 1).
Table 1. Total Geothermal Capacity and Use in 2010
Use

Installed
Power
(MWe)

ElectricPower
DirectUse

10,715

Annual Capacity Countries
EnergyFactor Reporting
Use(GWh/yr)
67,2460.72
2450,583

121,696

0.27

78

The figures for electric power capacity (MWe) appear
to be fairly accurate; however, several of the countries’
annual generation values (GWh) had to be estimated,
although these amounted to only 0.5% of the total. The
direct-use figures are less reliable and probably are
understated by as much as 20%. The authors are also
aware of at least five countries that utilize geothermalenergy for direct-heat applications but did not submit
reports to WGC2010. The details of the present installed
electric power capacity and generation, and direct-use ofgeothermal energy, can be found in Bertani (2010), andLund, Freeston and Boyd (2010). These data aresummarized in table 2.
A review of the above data shows that in electric power
generation each major continent has approximately the
Table 2. Summary of Regional Geothermal Use in 2010

same ratio between installed capacity and energy produced,
with the Americas and Asia having over 75% of the total.
With the direct-use figures, however, the ratio of installedcapacity to energy use drops significantly for the Americas(28.9 to 18.4%) due to the high percentage of geothermalheat pumps with low capacity factor for these units in the
United States and Canada. On the other hand, the ratios
are approximately constant for the remainder of theworld due to a lesser reliance on geothermal heat pumps,
and the greater number of operating hours per year forthese units.

Electric Power Generation
Geothermal power is generated by using steam or ahydrocarbon vapor to turn a turbine-generator to produce
electrons. A vapor-dominated (dry steam) resource can beused directly, whereas a hot water resource needs to be
flashed by reducing the pressure to produce steam. Low
temperature resources, generally below 150°C, require theuse of a secondary low boiling point fluid (hydrocarbon)
to generate the vapor, in a binary or organic Rankine cycle
plant. Usually a wet or dry cooling tower is used tocondense the vapor after it leaves the turbine to maximize
the temperature drop between the incoming and outgoingvapor and thus increase the efficiency of the operation.
The worldwide installed capacity has the following
distribution: 27% dry steam, 41% single flash, 20%
double flash, 11% binary/combined cycle/hybrid, and 1%
backpressure (Bertani, 2010).
Electric power has been produced from geothermalenergy in 27 countries; however, Greece, Taiwan andArgentina have shut down their plants for environmental
and economic reasons. Since 2000 the installed capacity inthe world has increased by almost 3,000 MWe, withadditional plants being installed in Costa Rica, France(Guadeloupe in the Caribbean), Iceland, Indonesia, Kenya,
Mexico, and Philippines. In 2004 Germany installed a 210kWe binary plant at Neustadt Glewe, and 56-MWe plants
have been installed on Papua New Guinea to generate
electricity for a remote mine. Russia has completed a new
50-MWe plant on Kamchatka. More recently, a 200 kW
binary plant using 74°C geothermal water and 4°C cooling
was installed at Chena Hot Springs Resort in Alaska (Lund,2006). The operating capacity in the United States has
increased since 1995 due to completion of the two
effluent pipelines injecting treated sewage water at The
Geysers. In an attempt to bring production back, theSoutheast Geysers Effluent Recycling Project is now

ELECTRIC POWER
RegionAfricaAmericas
Asia
EuropeOceania

% MWe
1.6
42.6
34.9
14.5
6.4

% GWh/yr
2.1
39.9
35.1
16.2
6.7

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DIRECT-USE#countries
2
6
6
7
3

%MWt
0.1
28.9
27.5
42.5
1.0

%GWh/yr
0.6
18.4
33.8
45.0
2.2

# countries
7
15
16
37
3

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I GA New s No. 80

Table 3. Leading Countries in Electric Power Generation (>100 MWe) (Bertani, 2010)
Country

Installed
Capacity
(MWe)
3,093
1,904
1,197
958
843
628
575
536
204
167
166

United States
Philippines
Indonesia
MexicoItaly
New Zealand
IcelandJapanEl Salvador
Kenya
Costa Rica

Running
Capacity*
(MWe)
2,024
1,774
1,197
958
843
628
575
422
192
167
166

Annual Energy
Produced
GWh/yr16,603
10,311
9,600
7,047
5,520
4,055
4,597
3,064
1,422
1,430
1,131

Running
Capacity
Factor
0.94
0.66
0.92
0.84
0.75
0.74
0.91
0.83
0.85
0.98
0.78

Numberof Units
Operating
209
56
22
37
33
43
25
20
7
10
6

*Note: some running capacity figures were not available, and thus were assumed equal to the installed capacity.
Table 4. National and Regional Geothermal Power Contributions
Country or Region
injecting 340 l/s of treated wastewater through a 48-km
long pipeline from Clear Lake, adding 77 MWe. A second,
66-km long pipeline from Santa Rosa was placed on-line in2004, injecting 480 l/s that are projected to add another
100 MWe to The Geyser’s capacity. Table 3 lists the leading
countries producing electric power.
One of the more significant aspects of geothermal
power development is the size of its contribution tonational and regional capacity and production of countries.
Based on preliminary data from country update papers in
WGC2010, the following countries or regions lead in thiscontribution with more than 5% of the electrical energy
supplied by geothermal power (Table 4).

Germany
6.6 MW
France16 MW
USA3093 MW

Lihir Island, Papua
New Guinea
Tibet
San Miguel Island, Azores
Tuscany, Italy
Iceland
El Salvador
Kenya
Philippines
Nicaragua
Guadeloupe(Caribbean)
Costa Rica
New ZealandAustria
1.4 MW

Italy
843 MW

Turkey82 MW

Iceland575 MW

Kenya
167 MW

Installed capacity in 2010 worldwide [10.7 GW]

April - June 2010

9
8
6

9
12
10

China
24 MW
Thailand
0.3 MW

Philippines
1904 MW

Ethiopia
3 MW

Guatemala
52 MW
Nicaragua
88 MW

n/a
30
n/a
25
27
26
17
17
10

Japan
536 MW

Mexico958 MW

Costa Rica
166 MW

75
30
25
25
22
15
12
12
11

Russia82 MW

Portugal
29 MW

El Salvador
204 MW% of National % of National
or Regional or Regional
Capacity
Energy(MWe)(GWh/yr)Indonesia
1197 MW

Papua New
Guinea56 MW

Australia
1.1 MW
New Zealand
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I GA New s No. 80
Direct Utilization
Direct-use of geothermal resources is primarily for spaceheat and cooling. The main utilization categories are: (1)swimming, bathing and balneology; (2) space heating andcooling including district energy systems; (3) agricultural
applications such as greenhouse and soil heating; (4)aquaculture application such as pond and raceway water
heating; (5) industrial applications such as mineral
extraction, food and grain drying; and (6) geothermal(ground-source) heat pumps, used for both heating andcooling. Direct-use of geothermal resources normally
involves temperatures below 150°C. The main advantage
of using geothermal energy for direct use projects in thislow- to intermediate-temperature range is that theseresources are more widespread and exist in at least 80
countries at economic drilling depths. In addition, there
are no conversion efficiency losses and projects can use
conventional water-well drilling and off-the-shelf heating
and cooling equipment (allowing for the temperature andchemistry of the fluid). Most projects can be on line inless than a year. Projects can be on a small scale (“momand pop operations”) such as for an individual home,single greenhouse or aquaculture pond, but can also be alarge scale operation such as district heating/cooling, foodand lumber drying, and mineral ore extraction.
It is often necessary to isolate the geothermal fluid
from the user side to prevent corrosion and scaling. Caremust be taken to prevent oxygen from entering the system(geothermal water normally is oxygen free), and dissolved
gases and minerals such as boron, arsenic, and hydrogensulfide must be removed or isolated as they are harmful toplants and animals. On the other hand carbon dioxide,
which often occurs in geothermal water, can be extracted
and used for carbonated beverages or to enhance growthin greenhouses. The typical equipment for a direct-use
system includes downhole and circulation pumps, heatexchangers (normally the plate type), transmission anddistribution lines (nor mally insulated pipes), heat
extraction equipment, peaking or back-up plants (usuallyfossil fuel fired) to reduce the use of geothermal fluids andreduce the number of wells required, and fluid disposal
systems (injection wells). Geothermal energy can usually
meet 95% of the annual heating or cooling demand while
sized for only 50% of the peak load. Geothermal heatpumps include both open (using ground-water or lakewater) and closed loop (either in horizontal or verticalconfiguration) systems.
The world direct utilization of geothermal energy isdifficult to determine, as there are many diverse uses ofthe energy and these are sometimes small and located inremote areas. Finding someone, or even a group of people,
in a country who is knowledgeable on all the direct uses isdifficult. In addition, even if the use can be determined,
the flow rates and temperatures are usually not known orreported; thus, the capacity and energy use can only be
estimated. This is especially true of geothermal waters

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Comparison of worldwide energy use in TJ/yr for 1995, 2000
and 2005.
used for swimming pools, bathing and balneology. Thus, it
is difficult to compare changes from one report to the next.
One of the significant changes for WGC2010 was theincrease in the number of countries reporting use. Six
countries were added to the list in the current report ascompared to 2005. In addition, the authors are aware ofthree countries (Malaysia, Mozambique, and Zambia) thathave geothermal direct-uses but did not provided a reportfor WGC2010. Thus, there are at least 81 countries withsome form of direct utilization of geothermal energy.
Another significant change from 2005 is the large
increase in geother mal (ground-source) heat pumpinstallations. Over the five-year period to the year 2010,
they increased by 229% in capacity (18% annual growth)and 245% in energy supplied (20% annual growth) . At
present (2010), they are the largest portion of the total
direct-use installed capacity (69.7%) and 49.0% of theannual direct energy use. The equivalent number of 12kWt units installed (the average size) is approximately
2,940,000 in 43 countries, mostly in the United States,
Canada and Europe; however, the data are incomplete.
The equivalent number of full-load heating operating
hours per year varies from 2,000 in the U.S. to over 6,000
in Sweden and Finland, with a worldwide average of 2,200
full-load hours/year.
A summary of direct-use installed capacity and annual
energy use is as follows (excluding geothermal heat pumps
at 69.7% and 49.0% of the total); bathing/swimming/spas
43.6% and 48.8%, space heating 35.1% and 28.2% (district
heating accounts for approximately 85% of the spaceheating use); greenhouse heating 10.1% and 10.4%;
aquaculture 4.3% and 5.2%; industrial 3.5% and 5.3%;
agricultural drying 0.8% and 0.7%, cooling and snow
melting 2.4% and 1.0%; and others 0.2% and 0.4%. .
In terms of the contribution of geothermal direct-use
to the national energy budget, two countries stand out:
Iceland and Turkey. In Iceland, geothermal provides 89 %of the country’s space heating needs, which is importantsince heating is required almost all year and saves about
USD100 million in imported oil. Turkey has increased its

April - June 2010

10
installed capacity over the past five years from 1,495 MWt
to 2,084 MWt, mostly for district heating systems. A
summary of some of the significant geothermal direct-use
contributions to various countries is shown in Table 5 andthe leading countries shown in Table 6.
Table 5. National Geothermal Direct-Use Contributions
Iceland:provides 89% of country’s space heatingneeds;
Turkey:space heating has increased 40% in the past 5
years, supplying 201,000 equivalent residences.
30% of the country will be heated withgeothermal in the future.
Tunisia:
greenhouse heating has increased from 100
ha to 194 ha over the past 5 years;
Japan:
over 2,000 hot spring resorts (onsens), over
5,000 public bath houses, and over 15,000
hotels, visited by 15 million guests per year,
use natural hot springs;
Switzerland: has installed 60,000 geothermal heat pumps(= one/km 2), and 2,000 km of boreholes
were drilled in 2009. Drain water fromtunnels is used to heat nearby villages andthey have also developed several geothermal
projects to melt snow and ice on roads;
United States: has installed 1,000,000 geothermal heatpump units, mainly in the midwestern andeastern states, with a 12.5% annual growth.
The installation rate of these units is around
100,000 to 120,000 per year.
Table 6. Top Direct-Use Countries
Country
GWh/yr MWt Main Applications
China
20,932 8,898 bathing/district heatingUSA
15,710 12,611 GHP
Sweden12,585 4,460 GHP
Turkey10,247 2,084 district heating
Japan
7,139
2,100 bathing (onsens)
Norway7,001
3,300 GHP
Iceland
6,768
1,826 district heating
France3,592
1,345 district heating
Germany
3,546
2,485 bathing/district heating
Netherlands 2,972
1,410 GHP
Italy
2,762
867 spas/space heating
Hungary
2,713
655 spas/greenhouses
New Zealand 2,654
393 industrial uses
Canada2,465
1,126 GHP
Switzerland
2,143
1,061 GHP

April - June 2010

I GA New s No. 80
ENERGY SAVINGS
Using geothermal energy obviously replaces fossil fueluse and prevents the emission of greenhouse gases. If weassume that geother mal energ y replaces electricity
generation with a conversion efficiency of 0.35 (35%), thesavings using geothermal energy can be estimated asshown in Table 7 (Goddard and Goddard, 1990). If thereplacement energy for direct-use is provided by burning
the fuel directly, then about half this amount would besaved in heating systems (35% vs. 70% efficiency). Savingsin the cooling mode of geothermal heat pumps are also
included in the figures in Table 7. The savings in fossil fueloil a equivalent to about three days (1%) of the world’s
consumption.
It should be noted, when considering these savings,
that some geothermal plants do emit limited amounts ofthe various pollutants; however, these are reduced to nearzero where gas injection is used and eliminated wherebinary power is installed for electric power generation.
Since most direct-use projects use only hot water and thespent fluid is injected, the above pollutants are essentiallyeliminated.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Geothermal growth and development of electricity
generation has increased significantly over the past 40
years, approaching 11% annually in the early part of thisperiod and dropping to 3% annually in the last ten years
due to the low price of competing fuels. Direct-use hasremained fairly steady over the 40-year period at 10%
annual growth. The majority of the increase has been due
to geothermal heat pumps. At the start of this 40-year
period, only ten countries reported electrical production
and/or direct utilization from geothermal energy. By theend of this period, 78 countries reported using geothermal
e n e r g y. T h i s i s a l m o st a n e i g h t - f o l d i n c r e a se i nparticipating countries. At least another 10 countries areactively exploring for geothermal resources and should be
online by 2015.
Developments in the future will include greater
emphasis on combined heat and power plants, especiallythose using lower temperature fluids down to 100°C. This
low-temperature cascaded use will improve the economics
and efficiency of these systems, such as shown by thoseinstalled in Germany and Austria and at Chena Hot
Springs, Alaska. Also, there is increased interest in
agricultural crop drying and refrigeration in tropicalclimates to preserve products that might normally be
wasted. Finally, the largest growth will include theinstallation and use of geothermal heat pumps, as they canbe used anywhere in the world, as shown by the large
developments in Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, Germany,
Canada, and the United States.

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I GA New s No. 80
Table 7. Energy and Greenhouse Gas Savings from Geothermal Energy Production
Fuel Oil (106)Barrels Tonnes

Carbon (106 t)

CO2 (106 t)

SOx (106 t)

NOx (103 t)

NG

Oil

Coal

NG

Oil

Coal

NG

Oil

Coal

NG

Oil Coal

Electric

114

17

6

15

17

31

49

58

0

0.3

0.4

3.4

10.1 10.1

Direct-use

154

23

9

23

27

46

74

88

0

0.5

0.5

4.5

13.6 13.6

TOTAL

268

40

15

38

44

77

123

146

0

0.8

0.9

8.9

23.7 23.7

REFERENCES
Bertani, R., 2005. “World Geothermal General 2001-2005-- State of the Art.” Geothermics, Vol 34, No. 6 (Dec.),
Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Bertani, R., 2010. “Geothermal Power Generation in theWorld, 2005-2010 Update Report”, Proceedings of theWorld Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia.
Lund, J. W. and D. H. Freeston, 2001. “World-Wide Direct
Uses of Geothermal Energy 2000.” Geothermics, v.
30, n.1, Elsevier, Oxford, UK, pp. 29-68 (updated andrevised).
Lund, J. W., D. H. Freeston and T. L. Boyd, 2005. “Direct
application of geothermal energy: 2005 worldwide
review.” Geothermics, Vol. 34, No. 6 (Dec.), Elsevier,
Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 691-727.
Lund, J. W., D. H. Freeston, and T. L. Boyd, 2010. “Direct
Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2010 Worldwide
Review’, Proceedings of the World Geother mal
Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia.

So How Long IS that Piece ofString ?
Jim Lawless, IGA BoD member and SKM,
New ZealandTwo of the presentations at WGC2010 were about the
recently released Australian Code for Geothermal Reserves
and Resources Reporting (Williams et al., 2010; Lawless etal., 2010). There has also been recent comment from the
Canadian Geothermal Association about their even newer
version of the same.
So why is this topic so important now and why hasn’t it
been done before ? Jim Lawless, head of the IGA ad-hoc
Committee on Reser ves and Resources, made thefollowing comments about the Australian code:“People have been trying to estimate the usable
capacity of geothermal resources ever since large scale
geothermal development started over 50 years ago. So in
one sense this is nothing new. But what has happened
recently is that a much greater proportion of the funding
for geothermal development, especially for projects at an
early stage, is now being raised on the stock-markets,
especially in Canada and Australia. New entrants to thegeothermal world in those countries were surprised to findthat, unlike for mineral or petroleum deposits, there are now w w.geot herm al- energy.org

widely recognised national nor international standards forreporting to potential investors on geothermal resource orreserve capacities.
“Some of the leading geothermal companies in eachcountry recognised that, without standards, this could leadto unrealistic claims being made by irresponsible
promoters and a general loss of credibility for the industry.
Accordingly, committees in both counties started work on
drawing up appropriate Codes, in consultation with therelevant regulatory authorities.
“The Australians finished first. Their Code has now
been in use for 18 months. Sensibly, the authorities
running the Australian Stock Exchange recommended a
trial period before making it mandatory for ASX reporting.
But that does not mean it has no effect. All of the leading
Australian geothermal companies have unanimously andvoluntarily agreed to adopt the Code. The trial period has
been very useful in terms of refining the concepts andrules and a Second Edition of the Australian Code isabout to be released.
“In the meantime the IGA has reviewed the Australiancode and has agreed to support it as being appropriate. It
is interesting that we are starting to see projects in othercountries and non-Australian companies making use of it.
They clearly appreciate the credibility it brings”.
Alison Thompson, Chair of CANGEA added: “Withover $1 billion of geothermal power company market
capitalization on the Toronto and Venture Stock
Exchanges, the Geothermal Reporting Code is a long
overdue measure for our industry. Leading companies
using the Code recognize that the competition for equity
funding is not only between geothermal businesses, but
between all resource-based opportunities including oil andgas and mining. The introduction of the Reporting Codegoes a long way to help investors measure risk and evaluate
rewards and then choose the appropriate investment forthem, be it a barrel of oil, an ounce of gold or a MW ofgeothermal electricity.
“While the Geothermal Reporting Code is in a trial
year before it becomes mandatory for CanGEA member
companies, we are extremely pleased with the rapid uptake
by some of the most influential players in the industry
including developers, qualified persons and investments
banks.”For further information, please contact Jim Lawless:
JLawless@skm.co.nz

April - June 2010

12

Election of IGA Board of
Directors (2010-2013)
The term of office of the current BoD expires in
October 2010, so it is time to launch the election of a new
BoD for the next term. This article will give members an
idea of how the balloting will be carried out and also a listof candidates for you to review. The ballot and otherelection material will be made available through the IGA
website and voting will be completed by July 26, 2010.
You may vote for a maximum of 30 candidates. A
personal IGA password will be provided to each member
by e-mail for access to the election website. In addition toproviding access to the IGA election page, the personal
password can be used to access members’ areas on the
IGA website. Therefore, it is important that the password
be preser ved for future use. The following voting
alternatives will be available:

April - June 2010

I GA New s No. 80
1. Go to the IGA website: www.geothermal-energy.org,
and choose the link to the election page. There you can
use your personal password that you will receive by email to access the ballot, mark your vote and submit itthrough the internet. This method is preferred for all
those who have access to the internet.
2. Those members who do not have an e-mail address
and are not able to vote through the web can request
the IGA Secretariat (Tel. +354 588 4430) to send theelection material to them by postal mail. The list of
candidates on the opposite page can also be used as aballot. Mark your vote on the ballot, fold it and insert itin an envelope. Write your name and address on theenvelope as sender and mail it to: IGA Secretariat/Samorka, Sudurlandsbraut 48, 108 Reykjavik, Iceland.
The vote will be treated as invalid if you do not write
your name and address on the envelope. If you prefer,
you can also send your ballot by fax (+354 588 4431) ore-mail (iga@samorka.is). In this case, you must also
give your name.

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I GA New s No. 80

Election of IGA Board of Directors (2010-2013)
List of candidates

Name
Miklos A. Antics *Country
Romania

Nilgun Bakir #Graeme Beardsmore *Christian Boissavy *D. Chandrasekharam &TurkeyAustralia
FranceName

Country

Bjarni Pálsson #IcelandGyörgy Pátzay #Hungary

Fernando S. Penarroyo #Sanja Popovska V. *Philippines
Macedonia

Paul Quinlivan #New Zealand

Surya Darma *India
IndonesiaÁrni Ragnarsson &IcelandLuis C. A. Gutiérrez-Negrín #MexicoPaolo Romagnoli #Marek Hajto #PolandValiya Hamza &Colin Harvey *Paul Hirtz *Roland Horne *BrazilNew Zealand
USA
USA

Horst Rüter *Ladislaus Rybach *Italy
Germany
Switzerland

Burkhard Sanner #Germany

Silas Simiyu &Kenya

Herman Darnel Ibrahim #Yoonho Song &Indonesia

Benedikt Steingrímsson *S. Korea
Iceland

Eduardo Iglesias &MexicoValentina Svalova #RussiaRyszard Henryk Kozlowski #Gábor Szita #Hungary

Horst Kreuter *PolandGermany

Zbigniew Malolepszy @Koichi Tagomori #Japan

PolandGeorge Melikadze #Francisco E. Montalvo *Richard B. Tantoco #Philippines

Georgia
El Salvador

Meseret Teklemariam #Ethiopia

Juliet Newson #New ZealandRoland Wyss #Zhonghe Pang #Kasumi Yasukawa *Switzerland
Japan

China

Feliksas Zinevicius #Lithuania* Current member of the Board re-nominated by the Nominating Committee#

Nominated by an affiliated organization@ Candidate by petition&

Candidate from Nominating Committeew w w.geot herm al- energy.org

April - June 2010

14

EUROPE
TRANSENERGY:
TRANSBOUNDARYGEOTHERMAL ENERGYRESOURCES OF SLOVENIA,
AUSTRIA, HUNGARY ANDSLOVAKIAPROJECT BASIC INFORMATION
Central Europe Programme, Application Round 2,
Priority 3: Using our environment responsibly
Duration: 01.04.2010 - 31.03.2013
Partners: National Geological Surveys of Hungary(MÁFI), Austria (GBA), Slovakia (SGUDS) and Slovenia(Geo-ZS)
Lead partner: MÁFI, project leader: Dr. Annamária
Nádor (nador@mafi.hu)

INTRODUCTION
The project “TRANSENERGY – Transboundary
Geothermal Energy Resources of Slovenia, Austria,
Hungary and Slovakia” aims to provide implementation
tools based on a firm geoscientific basis for enhanced andsustainable use of geothermal resources in the westernpart of the Pannonian basin (Fig. 1)
The project addresses the key problem of using in asustainable way natural resources that are shared bydifferent countries. Natural resources such as geothermalenergy, whose main carrying media are deep groundwaters
along regional flow paths, are strongly linked to geologicalstructures that do not stop at state borders, i.e. integral
parts of the entire flow system encompass vast areas(recharge areas lie in mountain regions while waters
discharge from the deeply buried basement structures of
intramountain basins). Therefore only a transboundary
approach and the establishment of a joint, multi-national
management system may handle the assessment ofgeothermal energy and the limits of use in a region,irrespective of political state borders.
The responsible use of natural resources is an
important issue when possible national interventions may
cause unfavourable effects in a neighbouring country. Thisis especially true for transboundary aquifers, where water
extraction at a national level without cross-borderharmonized management strategies may cause negative
impacts (depletion, or overexploitation) leading to
unnecessary economic and political tensions betweenc o u n t r i e s. T h e n e e d f o r c o m p l e x a sse ssm e n t i ntransboundary regions is in line with water protection
policy and rational water use as set up in the Water
Framework Directive (2000/60/EC).

April - June 2010

I GA New s No. 80
Geothermal energy is strongly restricted to areas withappropriate geological makeup (high geothermal gradient,favourable reservoir rocks and sufficient transporting
media - geothermal fluids). In this respect the target areaof the project has outstanding opportunities. Due to thethin lithosphere, the geothermal gradient is above theworld average in the Pannonian Basin. The project region
is divided by state borders into four independent Member
States (Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungar y), butgeologically the area is composed of interconnectedstructures of the Eastern Alps, Western Carpathians anddifferent sub-basins of the Pannonian Basin, with vast
amounts of transboundary geothermal resources.

STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIREXPECTED NEEDSThe project intends to supply the needs of users for
simple, transparent, interoperable and harmonized dataand geoscientific information for their everyday work.
Stakeholders of the project comprise a wide range ofdecision-making bodies (ministries, local and regionalg over nmental authorities, municipalities), water
management and environmental protection authorities,
development agencies, land-use planning organizations,
thermal water users (spas, health centres, heating systems),
potential investors for energ y production, otherorganizations (scientific associations, non-profit agencies,
clusters, consulting agencies, universities, researchcompanies, drilling companies, etc. dealing withgeothermal utilization). The main aim is to assemble a
stakeholder panel and prioritize data and service types
based on their demand.
The project is designed to involve stakeholders directlyin the project as observers/beneficiaries, and/or memberso f t h e E x t e r n a l E va l u a t i o n B o a r d ( s e e p r o j e c t
management). Stakeholders will be reached through media
and non-media communication tools (website andpromotional materials, press-releases, events at local andtransnational levels, workshops, etc.).

PROJECT MANAGEMENTORGANISATIONA Strategic Management Board (= Steering
Committee) was set up at the beginning of the project,consisting of the Project Manager (PM), Financial
Manager (FM), Communication Manager (CM), Work
Package leaders and the project co-ordinators of thepartner organizations (PPC) (Fig. 2). It is responsible for
implementing project work and making all major
operational decisions.
An Exter nal Evaluation Board (EEB) of keystakeholders will be set up, representing equally eachcountry: one national and one local governmental
representative, one current and one potential user as well
as a maximum of 3 people from international agencies.
This Board will be set up during the first 7 months periodw w w.geot herm al- energy.org

I GA New s No. 80

15Fig. 1 Transenergy project area. Within the “supra-regional” area (red line) the project focuses on some representative regions along the borders(thermal karst of the Komarno-Sturovo area (H-SK), Pannonian Central Depression of the Danube basin (A-SK-H), Lutzmannsburg –Zsira area (A-H), Vienna basin (SK-A) and Bad Radkersburg – Hodoš area (A-SLO-H)
and will evaluate project performance via questionnaires,
simplified reservoir simulator. Workshops on the usage ofassessments and reporting, thus providing an independent
this web-based information tool, which will serve as aappraisal. Participation in the EEB will be without
planning tool for decision makers and investors, will be
payment, except for travel costs if this is necessary. The
organized for stakeholders in each country.
me mbe rs of E E B w ill be stimula te d into a c tive
In order to provide a comprehensive strategy on future
participation by getting ideas for solutions to similar
geothermal exploitation, a strategy paper will also bequestions they perceive during their everyday work relatedcompiled at the end of the project which will comprise a)to geothermal resource management.
a ranking list of potential geothermal reservoirs in the
project area, b) a list of current deficiencies in the legal
SUMMARY OF THE WORK TO BE
framework and funding strategies, c) a comprehensive
IMPLEMENTED
catalogue of best practice methods for monitoring ofgeothermal utilizations to reduce environmental and
The project website (http://transenerg ytechnical risks, and d) a general scheme of a potential
eu.geologie.ac.at) will be the central information medium
demonstration plant including technical concepts.
that will inform stakeholders and the public about the
progress of the work and results.
These two major outputs (web-based tool and strategy
paper) will be established on the basis of a wide range of
The project aims to transfer expert know-how about
activities performed during the course of the project,g e o th e r m a l re so u rc e s a n d su sta i n a b l e re se r vo i rwhich is summarized briefly below.
management to quite heterogeneous target groups(governmental authorities, experts, private investors). For
C o m m o n d a t a se t s a n d a j o i n t d a t a b a se w i t hthat purpose, as a final outcome of the project, a webhar monized data that are comparable between thebased geothermal resource information tool will becountries are crucial for successful completion of theestablished, which is intended to act as a decision support
project. Rich g eological data exist in the partner
tool for future geothermal exploration and exploitation. It
Geological Surveys, but data are diverse and of low
will show all relevant information on the potential,
uniformity (different formats, scales, projections, origins,vulnerability and sustainability of the geothermal systemetc.). Data relevant to the project include various types ofin the investigated transboundary regions with different
geological maps and cross-sections, geophysical profiles,
extraction scenarios of thermal water/heat, based on aborehole data (lithostratigraphy, well-logs, production

w w w.geot herm al- energy.org

April - June 2010

16
parameters, thermal data), hydrogeological parameters ofthermal waters (e.g. geochemical composition), etc.
Partners will provide their national data and will integratethem into a joint multi-lingual database in a common
format. Based on the evaluation of datasets, additional
measurements and sampling on near-border non-data areas
will also be done. A common multi-lingual database withharmonized datasets will be a core output to which thedifferent stakeholders will have access through the project
website, where three levels of publicity will be set up(expert, stakeholder, public).
Har monized datasets are basic requirements fordifferent geoscientific models. These 3D geological,hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and thermal models
cover the whole area (“supra-regional models”), as well as
detailed models for some representative regions along theborders (thermal karst of the Komarno-Sturovo area (HSK), Pannonian Central Depression of the Danube basin(A-SK-H), Lutzmannsburg – Zsira area (A-H), Vienna
basin (SK-A) and Bad Radkersburg- Hodoš area (A-SLOH) (Fig. 1). These regions were selected because of theirextreme sensitivity to any further intervention by different
management policies in the neighbouring countries.
The 3D geological model will outline the spatial
distribution of various rock bodies with similar lithologies
that determine hydrostatigraphic units; these are the basic
inputs for the hydrogeological models. The regionalhydrogeological models will show the quantitative status of
the major thermal water flow systems (major path lines ofgroundwater flows, thermal and cold water budgets andtheir exchange at state borders, etc.). Hydrogeochemical
properties will be used for calibration and validation of theflow model.
A key element is thermal modelling with heat-flow
density calculations and a quantitative status assessment of
the region. The results will be used to assess thegeother mal potential [heat in place] as well as thegeothermal resources [extractable heat in place]. Based on
the steady state thermal model, time-dependent scenariomodelling will be also carried out assuming different
virtual heat extractions. This will show the changes inreservoir pressure and temperature as a function of time
for different production scenarios, and will describe thegeothermal exploitation capacity of the region.
These models will help the decision makers andauthorities both in their daily work of preserving andensuring sustainable utilization, as well as in negotiations
concerning transboundar y ther mal groundwaters/
geothermal resources.
Actions covering the utilization aspects of geothermal
resources will focus on different authorities and users. Data
collection by questionnaires will g ather available
information on current and planned future utilization ofgeothermal waters in the project area, and thereby will
already provide preliminary information on continuous oreven enhanced exploitation. It will also bring to the surface

April - June 2010

I GA New s No. 80
legal and exploitation management problems that different
target groups face. Special emphasis will be given to themitigation of possible negative environmental effects,
covering also practical and legislative aspects of reinjection.
Joint transboundary utilization maps will be produced,
as core outputs, based on evaluation of database
information and their analysis, and will result in a series ofmaps with transboundary aquifers and their current
exploitation rates and production parameters. Decision
makers could use these maps as background informationfor enhancing spatial planning actions as well as for
identification of problematical areas. Development
agencies, potential investors and present thermal water
users will be able to identify their advantages anddisadvantages in comparison to other regions/users andgain more sensible infor mation on possible future
development of selected sites.
A methodology for joint groundwater management willconsist of recommendations and practical guidelines for
effective joint transboundary management, including atransnational monitoring system.

OTHER
New book on geothermalenergyLuis C.A. Gutiérrez Negrín, Mexican
Geothermal Association
April 2010 saw the publication of a new book dealing
with geother mal energ y, specifically with numericmodeling of geothermal (and groundwater) systems. The
title is “Introduction to the numerical modeling ofgroundwater and geothermal systems” and it is describedas presenting the “fundamentals of mass, energy andsolute transport in poro-elastic rocks”. The authors are J.
Bundschuh and M.C. Suárez-Arriaga, and it is published in
The Netherlands by CRC Press, a division of Taylor andFrancis Group, as a part of its Multiphysics Modelingseries. The ISBN code is 978-0-415-40167-8.
Jochen Bundschuh is a German researcher at the
Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences, Institute ofApplied Research in Karlsruhe, Germany, and the RoyalInstitute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden. He
has written a couple of books dealing with geothermal,
co-authored with D. Chandrasekharam, one of which wasreviewed by R. Cataldi (IGA News 76, April-June 2009, pp.
6-8). Mario C. Suárez-Arriaga is a Mexican researcher at
the Department of Applied Mathematics and Earth
Sciences of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of theMichoacán University, in Morelia, Mexico. Suárez-Arriaga
is also one of the founder members of the Mexican
Geothermal Association (AGM: Asociación Geotérmica
Mexicana) and a well-known expert in geother mal
modeling.

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I GA New s No. 80
The book offers an introduction to the basics ofgeothermal and groundwater systems. The different
problems concerning energy and water contained in
deformable porous rocks are explained from a simple anddidactic point of view. The book also presents themathematical and numerical tools, and the theories behind
them, currently used to model and solve those problems.
In this way, the reader is provided with a comprehensive
understanding of the physical laws of fluid flow in rocks
presenting a thermo-poro-elastic behavior, as well as thepartial differential equations that represent those laws andthe main numerical methods. This allows the reader to findthe approximate solutions of the related mathematicalmodels.
This book explains how specific useful models can begenerated and solved. Its introductory character comesfrom the fact that it explains the basic aspects ofgeothermal and groundwater systems in three main fields:
mathematics, physics and engineering. The laws andequations presented throughout the book have been
carefully formulated based on fundamental principles ofphysics, and thus the reader is able to understand theimportance of mathematics applied to the different
subjects.
Simple models are presented and solved as the bookprogresses, together with several examples. Numerical
techniques to be used in more sophisticated and advanced
models are also described in a careful way. In both cases,
the physical interpretation of equations and mathematicalresults is emphasized.
Parameters and coefficients appearing in aquifers ofisothermal and geothermal types are presented, based onwell-developed explanations and documented results ofexperiments. When the book deals with natural reservoirs
formed by poro-elastic rocks under changes of pressure
and temperature, it gradually introduces the laws of mass,
momentum and energy conservation, particularly the twothermodynamic laws.
Coefficients that support theoretical considerations,obtained from experimental results, are also presented
from a practical viewpoint, including short descriptions
about how these coefficients are measured in thelaboratory.
The book introduces some relatively new ideas, amongthem:- The formulation in four dimensions of the linear poroelastic theory.
- The deduction of thermo-poro-elastic matrix equations
in four dimensions by using the Gibbs and Helmholtz
potentials.
- A model to estimate the collapse of fractures and faults
in rocks.
- Direct examples of the thermodynamics of porous
rocks.

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17- Numerical values and relationships of poro-elastic
coefficients.
- Practical correlations for low enthalpy aquifers and twophase hydrothermal reservoirs.
- A graphical presentation of the properties of water andsome examples of models of g roundwater andgeothermal systems.
This book is intended to be a synoptic compendium of
the fundamentals of transport of fluids, solutes and heat,applicable to all types of underground systems fromshallow aquifers to deep hydrothermal reservoirs. As such,it will surely be a useful textbook for senior undergraduate
and graduate students, postgraduates, geologists, hydrogeologists, geophysicists, engineers, mathematicians, andother professionals involved in the important fields ofgroundwater and geothermal resources.
The general content of the book is as follows:
1. Introduction: The water and energy problems, thevision of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), mutiphysics modeling, modelingneeds in the socio-economic context, the importanceof numerical modeling.
2. Rock and fluid properties: Properties of porous rocks,
linear thermo-poro-elastic deformation including the
Biot-Willis coefficient, properties of water.
3. Special properties of heterogeneous aquifers: Theconcept of multiple porosity, the concept of triple
porosity-permeability in geothermal systems, average
parameters, general models of mixtures, applications
to field-data, discontinuity of parameters at interfaces,
petrophysical properties of Mexican geothermal fields(Los Azufres, Los Humeros and Cerritos Colorados)
as examples of heterogeneous non-isothermal aquifers.
4. Fluid flow, heat and solute transport: Fluid massconservation, the Navier-Stokes equations, Darcy’s law,flow to wells in homogeneous aquifers, fundamentals
of pump-tests, equations for heat transport, flow in
two-phase reservoirs, equations for solute transport.
5. Principal numerical methods: Finite difference method,
finite element method (FEM) including the linear
Lagrange interpolation polynomials, the Poisson
equation and the Galerkin method, finite volume
method (FVM), boundary element method for elliptic
problems including the Dirac distribution.
6. Procedure of a numerical method elaboration:
Objectives of numerical methods, conceptual models,
types and the field-data required to construct them,
numerical formulation, parameter estimation, selectionof model type and code (including the ASM, SUTRA,TOUGH2, COMSOL Multiphysics, NODFLOW andSTAR methods), analysis of calibration and sensitivity,
numerical simulations, assessment of uncertainties,
misuses and mistakes, example of model construction.

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18
7. Parameter identification and inverse problems (chapter
written by Ángel Pérez and Longina Castellanos): Illposed examples of the inverse problem, linear leastsquares (LLS), non-linear least squares (NLS),
application examples.
8. Groundwater modeling application examples:
Groundwater extraction, water exchange by leakage,modeling scenario of multi-layer aquifers, point source
contamination and remediation, boron contamination,
annual temperature oscillations in a shallow stratified
aquifer.
9. Geothermal systems modeling examples: Geothermalenergy and characteristics of Mexican geothermal
reservoirs, transient radial-vertical heat conduction inwells, Avdonin model, geother mal brine in oil
reservoirs, modeling submarine geothermal systems
and potentials, modeling processes in fractured
geothermal systems, including simple, double andtriple-porosity models.
M a t h e m a t i c a l a p p e n d i x e s : K a r l We i e r s t r a s s
a pproxima tion the ore m, La g ra ng e inte r pola tion
polynomials, Stokes integral theorem, Riemann’s theorem,
Green’s first and second identity, divergence theorem,
Dirac distribution, Jochen’s table.
More information about this book is available byclicking the following link:
http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780415401678

April - June 2010

I GA New s No. 80

IGA News
IGA News is published quarterly by the International
Geothermal Association. The function of IGA Newsis to disseminate timely information about geothermal
activities throughout the world. To this end, a group of
correspondents has agreed to supply news for eachissue. The core of this group consists of the IGA
Information Committee:
Benedikt Steingrímsson, Iceland (Chairman)
Graeme Beardsmore, Australia
Werner Bussmann, Germany
Philippe Dumas, France
John Garnish, United Kingdom
Alimin Ginting, Indonesia
Gestur Gíslason, Iceland
Luis Gutierrez-Negrin, Mexico
Roland Horne, USA
Paul Hirtz, USA
Eduardo Iglesias, Mexico
Beata Kepinska, Poland
Jim Lawless, New ZealandPeter Ledingham, UK
Zbigniew Malolepszy, Poland
Francisco E. Montalvo Lopez, El Salvador
Martin N. Mwangi, Kenya
Mahmut Parlaktuna, Turkey
Sylvia Ramos, Philippines
Colin Randall, Australia
Yoonho Song, South Korea
Joaquin Torres-Rodriguez, Mexico
Toshihiro Uchida, Japan
François-David Vuataz, Switzerland
Kasumi Yasukawa, JapanThe members of this group submit geothermal news
from their parts of the world, or relevant to their areasof specialization. If you have some news, a report, or
an article for IGA News, you can send it to any of theabove individuals, or directly to the IGA Secretariat,
whatever is most convenient. Please help us to become
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While the editorial team make every effort to ensure
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Send IGA News contributions to:
IGA Secretariat, c/o Samorka
Sudurlandsbraut 48, 108 Reykjavík, Iceland
fax: +354-588-4431
e-mail: iga@samorka.is
This issue of IGA News was edited by Eduardo
Iglesias. John Garnish proofread the articles. Producedby Gestur Gíslason for the IGA Secretariat. Design
layout by François Vuataz.

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19

I GA New s No. 80

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April - June 2010