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SUMMARIES
Outline and Significance of the International Comparative Study on Child Raising andFamily Life 2005
MAKINO Katsuko
The special section of this volume consists of four papers analyzing the results of the International
Comparative Study on Child Raising and Family Life 2005, a survey conducted by the National Women’s
Education Center in Japan, Korea, Thailand, the United States, France, and Sweden. The purpose of thesurvey was to clarify the characteristics and issues of home education in contemporary Japan throughcomparisons of the actual conditions of families, home education, and parents’ awareness in Japan and othercountries. The survey was also meant to provide data to be compared with the results of a similar survey
conducted back in 1994. The first paper gives an outline of the survey sample, and explains the methodology
as well as the contents of the survey. It also describes the characteristics of Japanese families on the basisof the survey data. For example, in the decade between the two surveys it was found that the number ofJapanese families with a child between ages 0 and 12 and in which both parents work is decreasing while
the number of families in which the wife is a fulltime homemaker is increasing. Compared with the othercountries surveyed, excluding Korea, Japanese fathers tend to entrust child-rearing to their wives, spend theshortest time with their children, work the longest hours, and endure the longest commuting times. Japaneseparents are the most indulgent of their children, yet the percentage of Japanese parents who are satisfied
with their child’s development is the lowest of the six countries surveyed, with the degree of satisfaction
decreasing in direct proportion to that child’s age. These characteristics are almost same as they were in1994. The next three papers in this special section discuss the following three issues related to the future ofchild-rearing and family life in Japan. The first explores the issue of why Japanese fathers spend the shortest
time with their children, why they entrust child-rearing to their wives, and why they are so little involved
with their children. The second clarifies the issue of division of labor by gender. And the third seeks toprovide the answers to these questions by reviewing child-rearing and family life in Thailand.

A Comparative Analysis of the Shortness of Weekday Contact between Father and Childin Japan and Korea: How This Influences the Father-Child Relationship and the Factors
That Contribute to the Short Contact Time
SAKAI KazufumiThis paper discusses the shortness of the weekday contact between father and child in Japan and Korea,
using data from the International Comparative Study on Child Raising and Family Life 2005 conducted by
the National Women’s Education Center in 2005. A study of the data brought us to the following conclusions
regarding Japan and Korea.
First, weekday contact between father and child is considerably shorter in Japan and Korea than inthe other four countries surveyed, and the average contact time and the manner in which it is distributed arevery similar in the two countries.

128Second, in both countries, the fathers who spent the least time with their children were most likely to
express concern about this. These were the same fathers who also were the most likely to feel that it was
their work that kept them from spending more time with their family and their children.
Third, in Japan, fathers who spent little time with their children were less likely to play a role indisciplining the children, tending to leave that up to the mother. But this tendency is not evident in Korea.
Fourth, in Japan, fathers who spent little time with their children tended to be indulgent, but again, thistendency is not evident in Korea.
Finally, an analysis of the factors affecting the father’s time with his child revealed that the child’s age
was a significant factor in the case of employed fathers who had their spouses and offspring in both Japanand Korea. But while long working hours were another important factor in Japan, in Korea, the father’s
weekly working hours did not appear to be a factor.
It was concluded from these findings that in Japan, reducing the father’s working hours was likely to bean effective way to increase the father’s time with his children during the week. In Korea, however, it would
seem that fathers must bear the heavy double burden of increasingly long work hours and more hours spentin childcare.

Parents’ Working Styles and the Social Environment for Children and Families: A Surveyof Six Countries
FUNABASHI KeikoThe purpose of this paper is to identify the characteristics of Japanese society from the perspective ofequality in parenthood, comparing differences in social environment as well as parents’ orientations towards
balancing work and childcare among the six countries of Japan, Korea, Thailand, the United States, France,and Sweden. Four types of social environments were defined on the basis of the survey results: extended
family childcare (Thailand), gender-defined childcare (Japan and Korea), support for a balance of work andchildcare (Sweden), and “patchwork” childcare (United States). The social environment for childcare in France
falls somewhere between Sweden and the United States. This paper presents a modified version of EspingAndersen’s three types of welfare states from the perspective of the family network. Also investigated are theways in which work and childcare are balanced between the male and the female parent. Evident are newly
emerging patterns such as that of men playing double roles and of attitudes centered on child-rearing, inaddition to the more traditional patterns of gender division of labour and maintaining an egalitarian balance.
All of these patterns of orientation were found to be influenced by the gender stereotypical assumptions andthe social environment for children and families in each of the countries surveyed. Our results suggest thatJapanese difficulties in balancing work and childcare are caused by (1) gender division of labour, (2) strong
orientation toward double roles for men, and (3) lack of a child-rearing centered attitude of men.

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Developments in Child Raising and Child Raising-Related Policies in Thailand: A Study
Based on the Comparison of Rural and Urban Areas
ETOH Sae
The purpose of this report is to elucidate the distinguishing characteristics of childcare in Thailandand of Thailand’s childcare policies as perceived through an analysis of the results of the International
Comparative Study on Child Raising and Family Life 2005, and to compare these findings with childcare
practices in the other countries surveyed. Over the past decade, Thailand has emerged as a “semi-advanced”
nation, and current childcare practices in this country are distinguished by the following characteristics:(1) Although there is a keen awareness of gender division of labor, 66% of the survey respondents belong
to double-income families. Fathers are willing to participate equally in childcare, and the parents are fairlysatisfied with their children’s upbringing. (2) Thai fathers spent the most time with their children of all thesix countries surveyed. Also, Thai parent-child relationship is the closest among the six countries. (3) By
2005, in both rural and urban areas, more parents expressed a keen interest in their children’s education,
especially in early childhood, than they had ten years ago. Thai parents’ choices regarding their children’seducation and the kind of support they seek in raising their children are made on the basis of environmental
and economic concerns. (4) By 2005, the Thai family norm had become stricter than it was ten years ago,and (5) a much greater number of Thai parents now say they do not enjoy raising their children. In fact,
Thai parents stand out among the other five countries surveyed for their lack of enthusiasm for raising theirchildren. Economic and lifestyles vary considerably between the countryside and urban areas in Thailand.
(6) Those in rural area were less likely to enjoy the task of raising their children while at the same time
their expectations were high that their children would take care of them financially in their old age. It seems
that children are expected to function as a social safety-net, and this expectation has grown since the 1977
Monetary Crisis. Further study must be made to better understand how these six primary characteristics
relate to each other.

How the Interpretation of Prohibitions against Indirect Discrimination Serve as anEndorsement of Flexible Work Styles and Equality: What Can Be Learned from the 1975
Sex Discrimination Act in the UK
HARADA Izumi
In Japan, in April 2007, the Act on Securing, Etc. of Equal Opportunity and Treatment between Men
and Women in Employment (amended), which has a provision against indirect sex discrimination, cameinto force. Under this law, conditions for the employment of women that substantially differ from those formen, such as stipulating height and weight, are now prohibited. In the UK, an employer’s refusal to allow aflexible working style for a woman has been interpreted in the courts as a kind of indirect sex discrimination
as per the provisions of the UK’s 1975 Sex Discrimination Act. Because of this, employers in the UK are
now, for all intent and purposes, under legal obligation to provide flexible working conditions for women as
well as men.
If women in Japan are to effectively balance work and family obligations and find fulfillment inemployment, there needs to be greater dissemination of flexible working styles. And for this, the same kindof interpretation of indirect sexual discrimination as described above needs to be more widely applied. This130

kind of interpretation is grounded in the definition of equality that is the premise of the newly amended Act.
The purpose of this paper is to examine this premise of equality, its inherent potential—realized in theway in which the provision against indirect sex discrimination is interpreted—to promote flexible working
styles, and how the concept is likely to be disseminated within Japan.
Examination of UK law and the Japanese constitution show that the prohibition of indirect sexual
discrimination is in fact the promotion of equal opportunity. In this respect, interpretations that support
flexible working styles are in keeping with the constitutional concept of equality and can be highly effectivein advancing equality.
While there is the danger that this kind of interpretation could lead to a greater stereotyping of genderroles, it is still an effective means of protecting the rights of women workers.
One thing that has become clear through this study of how flexible working styles can be promoted
through interpretation of legal requirements is that the provisions against indirect discrimination are notmeant to be applied with mechanical uniformity but should be interpreted as necessary to ensure the equalityof individual rights. In this respect, this newly amended Act presents a whole new theory of equality.

Donor Insemination and Changing Family Lifestyles
MINAMI Takako
Donor insemination (DI) has aroused much controversy recently as it relates to offspring conceived
through donor sperm, whether they have the right to know their origin, and to have access to the identity ofthe sperm donor. But the issues confronting DI families involve more than just changing government policies.
In revealing the fact that they have resorted to DI to have children and in acknowledging the existence of thesperm donor, DI families will be compelled to change their lifestyle, and society as a whole will be compelled
to reconsider the currently predominating perception of the family, a perception that is heteronormative andmale dominant. The distress of DI families is symbolic of how this kind of perception is oppressing family
lives in contemporary society.
The issues confronting DI families have changed with the systematization of DI procedures and changes
in social attitudes. Focusing mainly on the relationship between heterosexual DI families and sperm donors,
this paper will discuss the following points: why DI has been treated as something to be kept secret, whycouples hope to have a child by DI, how the rights of the offspring thus born will be acknowledged, how theabolition of donor anonymity changes DI families, and what kinds of new lifestyles these changes will open
up for families in general.

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Women Who Undertake New Challenges: Practical Considerations and Issues at a Gender
Equality Center
ITO Shizuka
In April 2006, Sankaku Planet (called the Active Plan Net Association in English), a non-profit
organization, was appointed the designated manager for the Nagoya City Gender Equality Promotion Center.
The women who play a central role in Sankaku Planet were formerly homemakers.  
The Sankaku Planet Project emerged out of the Tatsumaki Project, a public facility operated incollaboration with Nagoya City between 2003 and 2006. The Tatsumaki Project was based on the conceptthat women should do work that matches their life style. Through trial and error, the women of the project
constructed a system that made optimum use of their own social resources. As a result, the project brought
out the best of these women’s abilities, raised their consciousness regarding work, and imbued them with
self-confidence.
This project provides a model of how to support women attempting to re-enter the work force anddevelop their careers. Supporting these kinds of endeavors is a priority of the current Japanese government.
Programs are needed that not only train women for work, but also bring out their abilities through practiceand empower them via self-affirmation. More places for the implementation of such programs are needed.
In this paper, I examine the Tatsumaki Project to elucidate the processes of women’s careerdevelopment, define the conditions and issues faced by women who strive to re-enter the work force andundertake new challenges, and present a concrete proposal of ways to make good use of women’s socialresources.

The Recruitment Patterns of Women to the Lower House of the Japanese Diet
PARK In Kyung
Women’s representation in government is on the increase in Japan, but there is little empirical researchon women who enter politics. The purpose of this paper is to review the research that has been carried out
on this subject and to lay the groundwork for future empirical research. It begins with a historical study ofwomen candidates in general elections and of women representatives in the Japanese Diet. Next, it presents
an overview of studies on the recruitment patterns of women representatives. Finally, the paper concludes
with a section on research design and the items required for social background analysis.

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Women’s Career Development Research at the National Women’s Education Center ofJapan
HATANO Keiko
Support for women’s career development is an important aspect in achieving gender equality in Japan.
Research on women’s career development has been conducted at the NWEC (National Women’s Education
Center of Japan). This paper reports on the Center’s research on women’s career development throughlifelong learning for the three years from FY2003 to FY2005.
The Cabinet Office and Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology have beenpromoting policies for women’s career development since around 2002, with the objectives of finding asolution to the lack of human resources—resulting from the declining birth rate and the growing numberof the elderly—and promoting gender equality. These policies have focused on women’s career support
networks and the need for role models.
The research conducted at the NWEC has endeavored to collect and make presentations of the rolemodels for women’s careers. An attempt has also been made to find ways to apply these role models insupport programs. The next assignment is to do a survey of women’s NPO activities to clarify women’s
diverse career development and how to support their careers.

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