1.0
Background
1.1
State of Water and Sanitation in Kampala City: Where is the
Problem?
Water shortage and critical environmental degradation are affecting Kampala city just like manyother developing world cities. It is well documented that only close to 60% of urban dwellers in
Uganda can access safe-clean water. This means that two out of five people in Kampala lackaccess to safe water (Kwagala, 2002). Slum communities of Kampala city are the worst hit by the
problem (Agarwall et. al., 1999). Water shortage, poor health, sanitation and hygiene problemsin Kampala slums are thought to be associated with inadequate town planning, deficiency ofpolitical framework and absence of participatory planning among others (Kwagala, 2002).
To solve such problems, town planners and officials responsible for water, housing, sanitationand health need to have innovative and integrated programmes towards solving the water andenvironmental sanitation problem. One of such innovative and innovative approaches is ecologicalsanitation (EcoSan). EcoSan take the principle of environmental sanitation a step further. According
to Esrey (2000a), EcoSan means keeping our surroundings (the environment) clean and safeand preventing pollution.
EcoSan is a type of sanitation in which human waste is separated into its solid (faecal) and liquid(urine) parts. After this separation, the pathogens within the human waste can now be destroyed
and the waste used as soil additives, due to their richness in crop nutrients. Therefore, EcoSan
has an advantage over the traditional sanitation approaches of drop and keep (latrine) and thedrop and flush (W C). The later wastes water, while the former is known for spreading sanitation
related diseases like cholera and dysentery. Therefore, a city like Kampala, that has majority ofher persons living in slum settlements, requires a type of sanitation like EcoSan. This is because
EcoSan takes care of improved sanitation while conserving water. Unfortunately there is no clear
data on which to base the establishment and successful implementation of EcoSan technologies.
It is, therefore, against this background that this study was designed to establish the potential of
EcoSan as a water conservation and cleaner sanitation option for Kampala slum communities.

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1.2

Ecological Sanitation, what is it?

1.2.1
The Concept of EcoSan Toilets
Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) is a closed-loop system that treats human excreta as a resource.
Using the technique, faecal materials are separated from urine, and then the excreta are processed
locally on site until they are free of pathogens. Thereafter the sanitized excreta may be recycled
into the agricultural soils as fertilizers. By closing nutrient loops, environmental cleanliness, soil
fertility and crop yield per unit space may be improved. The EcoSan technique, therefore,
replenishes soil nutrients, improves sanitation and health of communities while conserving theenvironment. In turn, EcoSan can contribute to poverty alleviation. Unfortunately, the technique
is not popular and is likely to face resistance due to social cultural beliefs, knowledge and attitudesof the local communities.
So far, Ecosan has made little progress in Africa despite decades of promotion by donors. The
practical and environmental benefits of ‘closing the loop’ (i.e. recycling the nutrients in excreta)seem remote to most poor African households. There are, however, a number of physicalconditions – including high water table and hard rocky ground - which can increase thecomparative advantage of many forms of Ecosan technology.
1.2.2
Principles of EcoSan Technology
Eco-sanitation is based on three main principles:o
It offers a safe sanitation solution that prevents disease and promotes health bysuccessfully and hygienically removing pathogen-rich excreta from the immediate
environment.
o
It is environmentally sound as it doesn’t contaminate groundwater or use scarce water
resources.
o
It creates a valuable resource from what is usually regarded as a waste product.
A person produces about 500 litres of both faeces and urine in a year and human urine contains
about the same levels of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium as commercially produced fertilisers.
1.2.3
o
o
o
o
o

Attributes of EcoSan Toilets
Minimal use of water
Dehydration/aerobic composting (with or without urine separation)
May require drying/bulking material (ash, dry soil, lime, crushed sea shells etc.)
May be above ground to facilitate contents removal
Nutrients and sanitized excreta as end-products

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Is EcoSan anAppropriate Water and Environment Technology Option ... Kampala?
1.2.4

Types of EcoSan Latrines in Africa

In the late 1990s African NGOs introduced three types of EcoSan latrines:•••

Skyloo: a raised latrine with urine diversion and separate collection of urine andfaeces in a permanent structure that requires periodic (6-12 months) emptying of thereceptacle and transportation to a composting site.
Arborloo: a portable superstructure and no urine diversion covering a shallow pit thatfills in approximately one year after which the superstructure is moved and a tree canbe planted in the filled pit.
Fossa Alterna: two permanent pits and a portable superstructure, so that when one pit
is full the superstructure is moved on top of the other pit. The digested contents of pit not
in use can be safely emptied after a year.

Fossa Alterna and Arborloos work best when quantities of soil, wood ash and leaves are added
periodically to produce balanced compost. Skyloos require some ash to dry the faeces andincrease pathogen destruction.
1.2.5
Experiences with Ecological Sanitation in Uganda
The Directorate of Water Development (DWD) has been working on an EcoSan programme in
Kisoro and other townships in south-western Uganda. The programme is intended to address
different sanitation problem from those of Malawi, Zambia and South Africa (WSP, 2002). The
locality is densely settled and needs a good sanitation system, but water is at a premium, theterrain is rocky, and due to the nature of the geological formation, urban water supplies are easily
contaminated by polluted wastewater discharge. Ecological sanitation was introduced in an
attempt to solve this problem. Between 1999 and 2001, 140 compost toilets and 107 dehydration
toilets were installed in households, as well as seven dehydration public/school toilets (Robinson,
2002).
Unfortunately, MoH (2001) has reported that EcoSan technologies in Uganda had some
operational difficulties encountered due to leakage, overuse, and lack of maintenance, most ofwhich have been resolved. The public toilets, operated as a private business, are functioning
well. But persuading some of the families to switch over to using their new facilities in place of theirold pit facilities has not been easy. The difficulties surrounding the promotion of ecological sanitation
in a faecophobic environment were seriously under-estimated. In spite of these obstacles, avisionary plan has been developed to take EcoSan forward in the country as a whole with agreater emphasis on awareness building and education (WSP, 2002).
From the above analysis, one can conclude that urine-diverting toilets are on the threshold of
being accepted as a standard component in some low-cost housing developments. No one○

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doubts that reaching the world’s 400+ million people currently without proper means of sanitationin Africa is a major challenge. Commitment from government and the private sector is needed, andthe growth of an institutional framework that can offer alternative technologies including EcoSan,
balancing environmental concerns with the demands of water consumers is long overdue. Available
literature in regard to EcoSan technologies as an alternative to solving the current water andsanitation problems in Kampala city slums revealed gaps indicated below:•
Unexplained slow progress in achieving water and sanitation targets•
EcoSan technologies introduced in Uganda without proper in-depth studies to highlight
difficulties associated with EcoSan technologies•
Lack of enabling policies and frameworks that through which EcoSan environmental
and sanitation technologies (EST) could be promoted
It was, therefore, the purpose study to bridge the observed gaps.

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2.0
What Research Methods Were Applied?
2.1

Study Design

A combination of non-participant case study and cross-sectional survey designs has been used
for this study. This is the case because respondents to this study have varied education
backgrounds, survey and interview techniques were used for eliciting information. The hybrid
design was found appropriate for this study since it enables gathering information from different
respondents (cross-sectional survey) who have not participated in ‘EcoSan technologies (nonparticipant case study).

2.2

The Study Area and Selection

The study area comprised high population density areas of Kampala slums. The areas studied were
purposively selected on the basis of water and environmental sanitation problems. The criteria for
selecting the study area comprised: High population density, evidence of water pollution by the
sewage system, wetland or swampy settlement. Five slum areas, one from each of the five (Central,Kawempe, Makindye, Rubaga and Nakawa) divisions of KCC were used in this study. The areas
studied are shown in table 1 below.

2.3

Study Sample and Sampling Procedure

The study was conducted in five purposively selected settlements, one from each of the five divisionsof Kampala. From each slum area, 50 residents were randomly selected for interviewing. Additionally,
10 and four (4) local council official and technical staff respectively from each of the five divisions were
purposively identified for being responsible for and knowledgeable about water and environmental
sanitation issues. The study also included the nine (9) Members of Parliament who represent the fivedivisions of Kampala. Another set of respondents was that of 10 garbage collection staff. This research
therefore had a total of 329 respondents.

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ATPS Technopolicy Brief 17
2.4

Instruments and Data Collection Methods

Instrument
1 In-depth interview questionnaire
2 Focus Group Discussion Guide (FGD)
3 Interview guide4 Interview guide(water, environment, health, education)
5 Key Informant In-depth Interview Guide (KIIIG)
leaders)
6 Key Informant In-depth Interview Guide (KIIIG)

Respondents
9- members of parliament
250- local slum residents
250 – local slum residents
20- technical personnel
50 - local Councillors (local
10 – garbage collection staff

Figure 1: Table of instruments

2.5

Data Collection

Data was collected from the 250 slum residents and the 50 local councillors using questionnaires,interview guides and Focus Group Discussion Guides (FGDs). Two single sex FGDs one formen and another for women were conducted for the slum residents in each of the five researchsites, therefore a total of 10 FGDs were conducted with the respondents. Also one FGD per
division was conducted with the local councillors, giving a total of 5 FDGs for the Local Councillors.
Therefore, a total of 15 FGDs were conducted. The rest of the 99 respondents i.e. MPs,
Technical staff and Ministry official were subjected to In-depth Interviews (IDI).
Additional data was collected from policy documents, other publications from the divisions, KCC
district headquarters, National environment management authority (NEMA), Directorate of Water
development (DWD), MoWLE and online published and unpublished reports.

2.6

Data Analysis

Data collected using FDGs, and IDIs, was analysed qualitatively using the following steps:
Transcription, including translations from local languages to English. The transcribed information
was then; organised, indexed and coded using Nudist (N6) Qualitative Analysis Software (QAS).
The coded data was interpreted using content analysis techniques. After content analysis, theinformation were summarised into this research report.
On the other hand, data collected from the 250 residents using survey questionnaires wereanalysed using simple descriptive univariate statistics. Results from both analyses (qualitative

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Is EcoSan anAppropriate Water and Environment Technology Option ... Kampala?
and quantitative) was triangulated to facilitate drawing of strong conclusions and making valid
policy recommendations. Analysed information was presented in form of; illustrations, frequencies,
percentages, tables and charts.

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3.0
What are the Key Results?
3.1

Water and Sanitation Related Policies

3.1.1
EcoSan Technologies and Policy Performance
There are more differences in access to latrines around Uganda than in access to improved
water supplies. Sanitation access in schools is below the target while in rural areas sanitation in
not doing so bad. Also, evidence collected so far suggests that hygiene practices in households
are inadequate. The performance as measured against the hand-washing indicator is the mostworrying of all the water and sanitation indicators.
A review of the national Water Policy, 1999; the National Water and Sewerage Co-orporationand the Uganda water action plan, 1995) revealed that there is increasing recognition in the
sector that sanitation and hygiene has been given insufficient emphasis in the past. If maximum
impacts of improved water supplies are to be attained, then more emphasis on sanitation andhygiene activities and investment is required. In order to improve latrine coverage and handwashing it is necessary to revitalize the Kampala Declaration on Sanitation (KDS), which spells
out the roles of all stakeholders from household, community, leaders and institutions ion regard towater and sanitation. Analysis of available policy documents reveal that when fully revitalised, theKDS would cater for EcoSan technologies as they are found to be effective for high population
density communities like the Kampala slums from which this study was carried out.
3.1.2
Gender Policies and EcoSan Technologies
One of the six critical requirements set out in the water sector framework (MWLE, 2002) focuseson the meaningful involvement of women. The water and sanitation sector framework stipulates
that before any water technology is implemented, community mobilisation should have achieved
the following minimum requirements that:•That the composition of Water User Committees (WUC) and Water and Sanitation
Committees (WSCs) shall include at least 50% women; election of women as chair andtreasurer of the WUA/WSC is encouraged; half of the water point attendants and handpump mechanics shall be women;•
Training shall target women and their male colleagues;

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Is EcoSan anAppropriate Water and Environment Technology Option ... Kampala?
••The entire community shall be involved in discussing the siting of water sources withmen and women initially consulted separately;
All communications to communities shall be to both men and women

As regards use of EcoSan technologies in slum areas of Kampala is concerned, the involvementof both male and female users is even more critical. For EcoSan, the role of women would bevery critical as they would be more efficient at ensuring cleanliness of the EcoSan toilets andwould ensure efficient collection of the separated urine.

3.2

Sanitation Problems among Slum Dwellers in Kampala

3.2.1

Living Conditions and Sanitation problems among slum areas: Implications for EcoSan

Figure 1: Living Conditions of slum Dwellers
The five slums in which the study was carried out were largely situated in illegal swampy
settlements characterised by water logging at the slightest drizzle. On average the number of
persons living in an average living unit of 6x5 feet was found to be four (4). This means that on
average the per-capita space for one person is calculated to be 30/4 (7.5 sq ft per person). This
is indeed very small a space for an individual. As if this is not enough, residents of these slum
dwellers have to use either raised toilets that are very close to the dwelling units or resort to flying
toilets. Flying toilets refer to a practice of passing out human waste into temporary storage (inmost cases Kavera), at an opportune time, the Kavera and its contents are thrown away throughthe air (hence the code name flying toile). This kind of disposal has been pinned down to be oneof the causes of diseases like dysentery and cholera, which are so common among these slum
communities. The above discussed situation indicates that unless innovative approaches towater and sanitation are applied, the conventional approaches do not offer enough options tosolve the sanitation problems of the slum dwellers. Ecological sanitation (EcoSan) therefore has○

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potential of solving at least to some extent the problem of sanitation among slum dwellers. The
nature of housing in these slums offers opportunity of development of EcoSan technologies.

Figure 2: Flying toilet
3.2.2
Water quality in Kampala Slums
When asked whether water used for domestic chores was safe, majority 156 (62.4) indicated thatthey use water that is contaminated. Further investigation regarding causes of poor water quality
revealed that besides industries sanitation systems especially the congested toilets are potential
causes of pollution. Actually 178(71.2%) of the respondents believed that their sanitation systems
pollute water they use for household chores.
3.2.3
Cost and affordability of water among slum communities
Preference by respondents was use of tap water. Unfortunately, tap ware was found not to beeasily affordable to all users from Kampala slums. Study results indicated that of the households
connected to tap water systems, only 87 (34.8%) found water bills affordable while 73 (29.2%)
indicated that water was very expensive for them. Overall data obtained on affordability of water
concludes that indicated that water is generally unaffordable by the Kampala slum dwellers. Thisfinding is supported by the data from National Water and Sewerage co-operation (UNWSC).
Figure 14 below, indicates the UNWSC tariff structure in Kampala. For example public standpipe
and domestic water from NWSC cost Uganda shillings (UGX) 521 (USD $0.28) and 806 (USD
$0.44) Uganda shillings per cubic metre respectively. This is quite an enormous amount ofmoney, since majority of the slum residents 67.8% survive on less than $1.0 per day (Participatory
poverty assessment, 2004).
Despite the fact that cost of water is increasing basing on market rates, government of Uganda isworking hard to ensure that her citizens acquire meaningful access to water and sanitation
services. When interviewed on the issue of cost reduction, slum dwellers indicated that they have

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Is EcoSan anAppropriate Water and Environment Technology Option ... Kampala?
Poll ution l oading BO D (Kg/Day) from urban ce ntres (LVEMP, 2005)
10000
9 15 39000
8000

BOD (Kg/Day)

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2042

19 8 2

2000
776

1000

10 6

69

65

Busia

EntebbeJinja

KampalaLukayaMasakaMbarara

Mpigi

2

1982

776

9153

106

2042

69

65

2

0
BOD (Kg/Day)

Figure 3: Domestic water pollution in BOD (Kg/Day): data obtained from Lake Victoria
Environmental Management Programme, 2005
adopted: rain water harvesting, minimising washing frequencies and recycling waste water forother house hold water needs like moping. Therefore from results of this study, one can easily
deduce that slum dwellers are keen at use of conservation methodologies like recycling of water
and water use minimisation. This therefore indicates that EcoSan sanitation technologies that use
less water than the WC is a very good option for the water scarce Kampala slum communities.
3.2.5
Domestic Waste Disposal
Figure 16 above shows that among the 250 slum households in which the research was
conducted, 229 (91.6%) were not connected to the city sewage system. Reasons why thesehouseholds are not connected to the city sewer line range from lack of money, sustainable use
flush toilets to illegality of the settlements in which they live. The settlements are referred to as
illegal in that many if not all slum settlements world over, the five slums in which the study was
conducted (Bwaiise-Karerwe, Katwe, Nateete, Kamwokya-Kifumbira and Naggulu slums) are
informal settlements. Therefore with this kind of status, it wouldn’t be possible for a legal entity like
NWSC to invest there, lest they loose their investments.

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ATPS Technopolicy Brief 17
The implication of over 91.6% of the households not being connected to the city sewer line is thatmajority of these dwelling units use pit latrines and flying toilets. This type of sanitation poses great
danger and is a potential contaminator of the nearby domestic water sources and supplies.
Figure 17 below indicates coverage of sanitation types in the study area. Both shared andunshared covered pit latrines constitute the largest proportion of sanitation used by the slum
dwellers in the study area. The figure further indicted that 31(12.4%) of the total sample had norecognised toilet facilities. This is the famous flying toilets, which are indeed very dangerous tohuman health.

Connection to the city sewer line system
100

91.6

90
80

Percentage

70
60
50
40
30
20
8.4

10
0

%ge

Not Connected to City
SearageSyatem

Connected to City SearageSyatem

91.6

8.4

Connection
Figure 4: connection to the city sewer system

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