FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Fremantle Prison Engine House Excavation Report | 2014
Jayden van Beek, Stephen Wells and Ross Bertinshaw

Masters of Professional Archaeology
Discipline of Archaeology

FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In 2014 The University of Western Australia conducted an archaeological excavation of the Mainand South Yards of the Fremantle Prison Engine House, as part of the university’s five year
Memorandum of Understanding with Fremantle Prison. The investigation was led by Site and Field
School Supervisor Associate Professor Tom Whitley, and Assistant Supervisor Dr. Sean Winter, asa joint project between students enrolled in the Masters of Professional Archaeology program andthose in the undergraduate Field Methods unit.
The excavation was carried out between 28th September and 10th October 2014. The aim of theinvestigation was to examine the technology and processes involved with the chimney and theEngine House. In order to achieve this goal, four trenches were placed across the site, with three
in the Main Yard and one in the South Yard. Trenches 1 and 4 respectively aimed to locate theremains of the chimney structure and the flue which connected it to the Engine House, Trench 2
sought to locate the remains of the guard house in the Main Yard, and Trench 3 attempted tolocate the well which was believed to be in the south east corner of the South Yard. The locationsof the trenches were chosen based on the information provided by the available historical maps
and plans of the area.
Trench 1 was able to locate the south east corner of the chimney structure, as well as part of thebase of the chimney column itself. It was determined that the chimney structure was made up of acore of limestone blocks built onto the natural bedrock, with the brick chimney column built into the
middle of this, and a brick extension covered by a concrete render being built around the outside of
the core. Trench 2 was unable to uncover the intact remains of the guard house, though given that
it was probably a fairly light structure, like most of the other guard houses around the prison; it was
unlikely going to be found intact. However, the presence of an abundant amount of window glassand burnt timber beams does suggest that the trench was located over the original position of theguard house. Trench 2 did find a previously unknown set of stairs leading up from the Main Yard
into the South Yard. This was a significant find as they were not shown in any plans, and it
demonstrates the differences in the original heights of the ground. Trench 3 was the only trench
which did not succeed in its aims, as no evidence of a well was found within its boundaries. Trench
4 succeeded in finding the remains of the arched, brick flue leading out of the northern wall of theEngine House, which would have connected to the chimney structure.
From the information recovered from the excavation and the historical documents it has beensurmised that the burning of the fuel took place within the nearby boiler rooms, with the smoke
being transported through the flue and vented out of the chimney. The resulting waste was thenspread across the yards, resulting in a thick deposit of charcoal.
At the completion of the excavation the site was backfilled. Plastic and modern artefacts wereplaced at the concluding levels of the trenches so as to easily identify their extent and to help
preserve them should further investigations be carried out. All artefacts recovered from during theinvestigation were sorted, catalogued, and bagged, with a preliminary analysis being carried out.
All artefacts are currently in the possession of the Archaeology Department of The University ofWestern Australia, pending the final curation decisions of the Fremantle Prison staff.
As a separate part of the project the students also took part in recording graffiti within the prison
cells. Comparisons to photos from 1991 showed that the condition of the graffiti had deteriorated
over time, and at the present time there was is no complete documented record of what graffiti ispresent within the cells. This aspect of the project was purely for recording purposes. No
interpretations were carried out as part of this report. Over a six day period, 16 cells were recorded
within Division 1.

FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Table of Contents
1.0

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................ 1

2.0

BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1

3.0

METHODS ................................................................................................................................................................. 7
3.1

5.0

Preliminary Work and Excavation Procedures .............................................................................................. 7

3.1.1

Prior to Excavation .................................................................................................................................. 9

3.1.2

During Excavation ................................................................................................................................... 9

3.1.3

Post Excavation ...................................................................................................................................... 9

3.1.4

Recording Process .................................................................................................................................. 9

3.2

4.0

Fremantle and Prison Water System History Summary................................................................................ 3

Trench 1 Excavation ................................................................................................................................... 10

3.2.1

Trench 1 – Chimney Structure .............................................................................................................. 14

3.2.2

Trench 1 – Outside of Chimney Structure ............................................................................................. 16

3.3

Trench 2 Excavation ................................................................................................................................... 17

3.4

Trench 3 Excavation ................................................................................................................................... 20

3.5

Trench 4 Excavation ................................................................................................................................... 22

3.6

Artefact Sampling and Laboratory Analysis ................................................................................................ 26

STRATIGRAPHY AND INTERPRETATION ............................................................................................................ 27
4.1

Trench 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 27

4.2

Trench 2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 30

4.3

Trench 3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 32

4.4

Trench 4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 32

ARTEFACTS ........................................................................................................................................................... 33
5.1

Artefact Sampling and Laboratory Analysis ................................................................................................ 33

5.2

Preliminary Analysis ................................................................................................................................... 34

5.3

Discussion of Artefacts ............................................................................................................................... 36

5.3.1

Revolver Shell ....................................................................................................................................... 36

5.3.2

Gauge Tubes ........................................................................................................................................ 36

5.3.3

Medicinal Tonic Bottle ........................................................................................................................... 37

5.3.4

Boiler Rake ........................................................................................................................................... 38

5.3.5

False Spindle ........................................................................................................................................ 39

5.3.6

Turn Key ............................................................................................................................................... 39

5.3.7

Bricks .................................................................................................................................................... 40

FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

5.3.8

Clay Pipes ............................................................................................................................................. 42

6.0

GRAFFITI RECORDING ......................................................................................................................................... 42

7.0

MANAGEMENT DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 43
7.1

Artefact Management ................................................................................................................................. 44

7.2Management of Architectural Structures..................................................................................................... 44

7.2.1

Chimney Structure ................................................................................................................................ 44

7.2.2

Flue Structure ....................................................................................................................................... 44

7.2.3

Limestone Steps ................................................................................................................................... 44

7.3

Future Excavations and Investigation ......................................................................................................... 45

8.0

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................................ 45

9.0

REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................................... 46

TABLES
Table 1: Well Inventory 1894............................................................................................................................................... 4
Table 2: Number of Artefacts by Trench and Function ...................................................................................................... 34
Table 3: Cells Recorded for Graffiti ................................................................................................................................... 43

FIGURES
Figure 1: Engine house location plan showing trenches. .................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2: Location of Fremantle. ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3: Aerial photograph of Fremantle highlighting the prison. ....................................................................................... 3
Figure 4: 1897 plan showing old and planned new wells. ................................................................................................... 5
Figure 5: Proposed works for New Well and Pump Station. ................................................................................................ 6
Figure 6: Plan Engine House 1919. .................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 7: 1920 plan showing Guard House. ........................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 8: Detail from 1935 aerial photo showing Engine House and chimney. .................................................................. 8
Figure 9: Pre-excavation of context (015), showing the yellow sand from context (011) still mixed in. ............................. 10
Figure 10: Void in the east wall of T1, pre-excavation of context (021). ............................................................................ 11
Figure 11: Void in the east wall of T1, post-excavation of context (021). .......................................................................... 12
Figure 12: Post-excavation of cut through T1, with in situ gas/water pipe. ........................................................................ 13
Figure 13: String line marking the extent of the reduced trench. ....................................................................................... 13
Figure 14: Limestone core of the chimney, with the base of the brick “firebox” visible in the south east of thetrench. .............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 15: Post-excavation of “firebox”. ............................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 16: Chimney structure, with the brick extension and concrete render shown around the limestone core. ............. 15
Figure 17: Post-excavation of Sondage 2. ........................................................................................................................ 16

FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 18: Post-excavation context (017) looking east. ..................................................................................................... 17
Figure 19: Context (019) steps, leading out of Trench 2. .................................................................................................. 18
Figure 20: Post-excavation of Trench 2. ........................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 21: Post-excavation south facing section of Trench 2. ........................................................................................... 20
Figure 22: Trench 3 looking east: bedrock floor with PVC and plumbing pipes exposed. ................................................. 21
Figure 23: Post-excavation west facing section of Trench 3. ............................................................................................ 22
Figure 24: Trench 4 looking south: (034) partially excavated. ........................................................................................... 23
Figure 25: Trench 4 looking west, extended 30 cm west revealing brick wall (034). ......................................................... 24
Figure 26: Domed brick and mortar structure: Roof of flue. .............................................................................................. 25
Figure 27: Brick floor of flue. ............................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 28: Chimney structure, showing limestone core, base of the brick chimney column, brick extension, andconcrete render. ............................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 29: Section drawing showing contexts built up around the chimney structure. ...................................................... 28
Figure 30: Profile view of Trench 1 east wall, showing yellow levelling sand over demolition layers. ............................... 29
Figure 31: North wall of Engine House. ............................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 32: Post-excavation plan of Trench 2. .................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 33: Trench 2 east facing section and photo. .......................................................................................................... 32
Figure 34: Trench artefacts by number and weight. .......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 35: Functional distribution of material by trench. .................................................................................................... 35
Figure 36: Revolver shell................................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 37: Gauge tubes. ................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 38: Trademark listing for Bishops Adamant ........................................................................................................... 37
Figure 39: Medicinal tonic bottle. ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 40: Boiler rake. ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 41: False spindle. ................................................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 42: Turn key ........................................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 43: Statham and Gartcraig bricks ........................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 44: Assorted bricks................................................................................................................................................. 41
Figure 45: Assorted clay pipes. ......................................................................................................................................... 42

APPENDICESAPPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX CAPPENDIX D

Context Listing
Digital Data Listing
Discussion on Boilers and Pumps
Artefact Spreadsheet

FREMANTLE PRISON BATH HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In 2014 The University of Western Australia conducted an archaeological excavation of the Mainand South Yards of the Fremantle Prison Engine House, located to the north and west of theEngine House respectively (Figure 1), as part of the university’s five year Memorandum ofUnderstanding with Fremantle Prison. The investigation was led by Site and Field School
Supervisor Associate Professor Tom Whitley, and Assistant Supervisor Dr. Sean Winter, as a joint
project between students enrolled in the Masters of Professional Archaeology program and thosein the undergraduate Field Methods unit.

Excavation
Location
Figure 1: Engine house location plan showing trenches.

The excavation was carried out between 28th September and 10th October 2014. The aim of theinvestigation was to examine the technology involved with the chimney and the engine house. Thiswas carried out by excavating the remains of the chimney structure to the north of the Engine
House (Trenches 1 and 4), attempting to locate the guard house at the south east corner of theMain yard (Trench 2), and by attempting to locate a well in the south east corner of the South Yard
(Trench 3).

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

2.0

BACKGROUND

Fremantle Prison is located in Western Australia on the south eastern edge of Fremantle city
centre. Being located within the state of Western Australia’s second largest city, the prison is close
to developed road and rail transport. This makes the prison easily accessible by tourists andresearchers (Figure 2 and Figure 3).

Figure 2: Location of Fremantle.

The prison site is enclosed by a six meter high prison wall which is bounded on its western side by
a number of mid-19th century residential buildings. Inside the prison walls exists a number of cell
blocks, other buildings and features, some dating from the 1850s.
Fremantle Prison is an example of a mid-19th century colonial gaol which operated from its
construction in 1855 until its closure as a penal institution in 1991. Covering a such an extensive
period of time from the early decades of the Swan River Colony (founded 1829), Federation (1901)
and into the latter years of the 20th century the Fremantle Prison site with its range of intact convict
buildings and below ground material culture provides a unique resource for the people of Western
Australia.

2FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 3: Aerial photograph of Fremantle highlighting the prison.

The prison site is recognised as being historically significant and has been heritage listed on state,national and global registers. Recognised by UNESCO and receiving World Heritage listing,Fremantle Prison is the only built site to receive such international recognition in Western Australia.
A detailed history of Fremantle Prison can be found in Bavin (1994) and Fremantle Prison
Conservation Management Plan (DTF 2010).
The excavations carried out in 2014 were in the area associated with the “Engine House” whichlies in the south east part of the prison, south of the old bathhouse and reservoir area and north ofthe eastern workshops. The Engine House is where the boilers and pumps were located forpumping water from a new well established between 1896 and 1898 as part of the Fremantle
Water Scheme expansion. This is also where the present Tunnels Tour starts.

2.1

Fremantle and Prison Water System History Summary

The Fremantle water system initially began when between 1874 and 1888 water was pumped byhand to supply shipping in Fremantle from wells within the Prison (Fremantle Prison 2014). In 1884
Governor Broome approved the addition of some taps for Fremantle residents along thegovernment main that ran to the wharf to supply the ships (Hunt 1980). Requests for additional
supply of water from the prison saw a gradual expansion of the system.
In 1888 the construction of the tunnel system excavated by the convicts began. The tunnels serve
as a catchment area for water draining through the Tamala Limestone. They also connect anumber of wells located within the prison.
In 1890 a larger reservoir capable of holding 360,000 gallon was opened in the western side of the
Prison. The pumping system then consisted of two Tangye steam pumps and a hand pump. At thattime there were three wells, two in the eastern workshop area and one in the bathhouse (Western
Mail 8 November 1890, p. 10).

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

In 1892 the hand pump was replaced by a steam pump. A valuation of the Prison water system
was conducted in 1894 (Fremantle Water Supply Valuation – 30 April 1894) and gave a value of£5680. It also had a detailed inventory of the pumps and boilers as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Well Inventory 1894
Well

1

2

3

Location

Western Work Shop

Bath House

Old Engine House

Liningunlinedunlinedunlined

Wall

rock

rock

rock

Size

6' 0" diam

6' 0" diam

10' x 8"Water depth

5' 0"

5' 5"

7' 0"
1892

Date
Pump

Tangye 6" (no 9599)

Tangye 6"

Pearn 10"

Pumping Capability(gallons/h)

7,500

7,000

28,000Boiler Type and Size

Tangye 8' 0" x 3' 8"

Tangye 8' 0" x 3' 8"

12' 0" x 5' 0"Power (hp)

8

8

16

Pressure (psi)

50

50

80

Figure 4 is an 1897 plan showing the three old wells and the planned new well.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 4: 1897 plan showing old and planned new wells.

In 1898 additional waterworks was completed by Water Supply Towns Branch of the Public Works
Department. The older system only supplied the central part of the town. The new service
extended the area reticulated and included new pumping machinery in a new well plus a 1,000,000
gallon reservoir at the top of Monument Hill.
The new plant consisted of two Worthington pumps and two Babcock and Wilcox boilers. The
engines were 40 horse power each and could pump 62,500 gallons per hour. The pumping station
was located in the New Engine House and was connected though the prison wall by a 14” main to
the Monument Hill reservoir (Western Mail 4 November 1898, p. 8).
Figure 5 shows a plan of the works required for the new well including proposed walls, gates,
engine house building and attached chimney. It shows that the building is divided into a boiler roomwith flue going to an outside chimney with a separate engine/pump room located over the new
well. A new door into the engine house is also shown. The walls and the gates can all be seen on
the site today.

5FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

The original plan title includes the words “and proposed excision of pumping station from the prison
grounds”. This new system would be run by the Water Board and not the Prison which therefore
required the new walls and gates to Hampton Road for access of non-prison personnel andsupplies.

Figure 5: Proposed works for New Well and Pump Station.

The system ran until 1910 when the Prison and Fremantle were connected to the metropolitan
water scheme, which received its supplies from Victoria Reservoir in the Darling Ranges east ofPerth (Fremantle Prison 2014).

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

3.0
3.1

METHODS
Preliminary Work and Excavation Procedures

Prior to excavation, undergraduate students were provided with training on archaeological fieldwork methodology, site background and the research aims of the project. This was followed by a
two week excavation from 28 September to 10 October 2014, under direct supervision fromMasters of Professional Archaeology Students who were in turn supervised by Site and Field
School Supervisor Associate Professor Tom Whitley, and Assistant Supervisor Dr. Sean Winter.
The first stage of the excavation process was to select suitable locations for the placement of
trenches. The selected locations were chosen by examining existing historical maps and aerial
photographs, namely Figure 4 and Figure 5 discussed above, and Figure 6 which shows theEngine House on a 1919 plan. This plan shows a gate and path to the Engine House, the wall
between the main and south yards, and the chimney and possible guardhouse. Also shown is an
extra wall between the chimney and north wall of main yard.

N

Figure 6: Plan Engine House 1919.

Figure 7 is a 1920 plan, providing a similar view to Figure 6 above, but with extra detail showing
buttressing on the walls and the gate from the main yard to Hampton Road.
Figure 8 has detail from a 1935 aerial photo showing the Engine House, walls and chimney.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

N

Figure 7: 1920 plan showing Guard House.

Figure 8: Detail from 1935 aerial photo showing Engine House and chimney.

Participants of the field school were then divided into three teams each with a Trench Supervisor(Jayden van Beek – Trench 1, Ross Bertinshaw – Trench 2, Stephen Wells – Trenches 3 and 4).
Large scale trenches were used for excavating in accordance with the open area excavation
strategy developed by the Museum of London for complex open air excavations (MOLAS 1994). A
set of standard procedures for the recording process was set out prior to excavation detailing thefollowing methodology.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

3.1.1
•
•
•
•
•
•

3.1.2
•
•
•
•
•
•

3.1.3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

3.1.4

Prior to Excavation
A context number was allocated by the site manager from the site register.
A context recording form was commenced for each context, recording as much detail as
possible at that point in the excavation.
Starting elevation levels were recorded using the dumpy level.
Planning was conducted using the total station.
Photographs were taken containing both photo board and scale.
Where necessary scale plan drawings were made including its orientation and relation to
the site grid.

During Excavation
Changes or extra information was added to the context recording form.
A bulk sample of sediment was taken for analysis.
All excavated loose material was sieved.
Recovered artefacts were placed in plastic bags with contextual information written on the
bag with fragile items provided additional support in order to protect them.
Important features were mapped or photographed as required during excavation.
Point provenience recording of artefacts with the total station occurred as required.

Post Excavation
Context recording forms were completed and checked for accuracy.
Artefact bags were sealed and placed in central storage for duration of the excavation.
End elevation levels were taken using the dumpy level.
Planning was conducted using the total station and offset mapping.
Scale drawings at 1:10 were made in both profile and plan of the trenches.
Completed context recording forms were re-lodged with the central site folder.
Plastic and modern items were placed at the end level of each trench, and were thenbackfilled.

Recording Process

Throughout the excavation detailed photos were taken to record the progress of each trench andwhat was discovered in each. These photos were supported by total station recordings detailingthe location of the trenches and the features within them, along with plans of each trench andsection drawings of key parts. Each context layer was further detailed by taking dumpy levels,
recording descriptions of the soil and its contents, gathering bulk soil samples, and recording soil
colour with a Munsell Colour Chart and pH levels.
Given the preservation level of the trenches, the potential for them to remain open or alternatively
be re-excavated for display was considered by staff at Fremantle Prison. Given this potential
backfilling was completed with care taken to preserve the intact structural features to allow for the
possibility of re-excavation. Plastic and modern artefacts were placed at the bottom of each trenchso as to easily identify the depth reached in each trench in the event that they are reopened at alater date.

9FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

As part of this report a set of appendices were produced:
•
•
•
•

3.2

Appendix A – Provides a summary of the contexts which were recorded during the
excavation.
Appendix B – Provides a detailed listing of the digital data.
Appendix C – Provides a note discussing the boiler technology used for the Fremantle andCoolgardie Goldfields Water schemes.
Appendix D – Provides a summary spreadsheet of the catalogued artefacts.

Trench 1 Excavation

Trench 1 was placed over the suspected location of the western half of the chimney structure. The
south east corner of the trench was placed roughly 3 m north from the centre of chimney flue
inlet/outlet, and from there it measured 2 m north and 3 m west. With the maps suggesting that thecentre of the flue lined up with the centre of the chimney, it was thought that Trench 1 would be
able to locate the extent of the western half of the structure.
As with all of the trenches, excavation of Trench 1 started with the removal of the top layer of grassand soil, designated context (001). Beneath this was a dark brown loamy soil, designated context(004). Artefacts recovered from this layer were limited and were all contemporary, indicating that
this layer was mostly just a continuation of the topsoil. This context gave way to a layer of mottled
yellow sand. This new layer, context (011), appeared to be a fill layer which would have been used
to level off the ground for the grass. As it was possible for this fill layer to be very thick, a 45 cm
wide sondage, Sondage 1, was placed along the western wall of the trench to try and determine its
extent. After reaching a depth of roughly 65 cm, the dark grey layer (015) which was found beneath(011) had not transitioned to another context. Material removed from this context included bricks,
pipes, bars, and other structural material, suggesting that it was a demolition layer. Completingexcavation of (011) exposed (015) throughout the trench (Figure 9). The transition from the twolayers was not as neat as Sondage 1 suggested.

Figure 9: Pre-excavation of context (015), showing the yellow sand from context (011) still mixed in.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Excavation of context (015) confirmed the hypothesis that it was a demolition layer, with much
more structural material being recovered throughout the trench. As Sondage 1 suggested it was a
thick layer, it was removed via mattocks and shovels so as to speed up the process. Excavation
revealed a sizeable void which was found going into the wall at the south eastern end of the trench(Figure 10 and Figure 11). Considering the location of the chimney it was thought at the time that
this might have been part of the structure. A large amount of the structural material wasconcentrated on the eastern half of the trench, suggesting that this demolition material was fromthe chimney which had been piled up towards the middle. Context (015) eventually gave way tocontext (021), a lighter grey than the previous layer, a result of an increased amount of ash. This
context still appeared to be a part of the demolition layer, with more structural material being
removed. Yellow sand from (011) was still found mixed in with this context. Further examination of
the void in the south east corner of the trench suggested that it was just a gap underneath a sheetof metal held up by pipes, caused from the demolition rather than being a part of the structure
itself.

Figure 10: Void in the east wall of T1, pre-excavation of context (021).

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 11: Void in the east wall of T1, post-excavation of context (021).

This layer eventually came down onto a layer of concrete, context (052), which covered most of thetrench except for the south west corner where (021) continued. Cutting into this layer, from near
the north west end of the trench through to the north east end, was a cut (032), with the fill (033)containing an in situ water/gas pipe (Figure 12). Continued removal of (021) in the south west
section revealed a thin black lens of charcoal, which was briefly labelled context (038), before thatentire section came down onto a layer of crushed limestone, context (042). The removal of theconcrete layer (052) on the eastern half of the trench revealed a series of connected limestone
blocks, which formed the core of the chimney structure (040), while excavation of the western halfof trench transitioned to context (042). With the chimney structure having been found, the trench
was reduced in size by pulling in the western end by one metre (Figure 13).

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 12: Post-excavation of cut through T1, with in situ gas/water pipe.

Figure 13: String line marking the extent of the reduced trench.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

3.2.1

Trench 1 – Chimney Structure

The removal of the concrete layer (052) from the limestone core also revealed a series of in situ
bricks (047), running south of the pipe (033) just off the eastern wall, with a different soil on theeast side of these bricks (Figure 14 and Figure 15). With its location nearly lining up with thechimney flue, it was hypothesized that these bricks were the western wall of the chimney firebox(after the completion of the excavation this theory would change to these bricks simply being thebase of the chimney column). Excavation of the soil on the east of the bricks, context (041),
revealed a number of layers underneath, (044), (048), and (050), with the bricks continuing all theway down.

Figure 14: Limestone core of the chimney, with the base of the brick “firebox” visible in the south
east of the trench.

On the western edge of the structure, excavation of the crushed limestone layer (042) revealed
that the limestone blocks stepped down onto another flat platform roughly 30 cm wide (Figure 16).
It appears that this extension was constructed of bricks, context (053), which was then covered bya concrete render, context (054).

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 15: Post-excavation of “firebox”.

Figure 16: Chimney structure, with the brick extension and concrete render shown around thelimestone core.
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

3.2.2

Trench 1 – Outside of Chimney Structure

The remainder of context (042) to the west of the chimney structure in the reduced trench was then
excavated. During this more bricks were recovered, suggesting that this layer too was also fill. This
context then transitioned into a charcoal layer (049) throughout the remainder of the trench, which
was thought to be the waste from the burning process. After roughly 30 cm this context gave way
to a layer of saprolite, context (055), which then shortly came down onto the natural limestone
bedrock layer (029). It appears that the chimney structure was built straight onto the natural
bedrock, with no added foundation layer except for a small amount of cement spread across the
limestone.
In order to examine the extent of the added cement to the limestone bedrock, a sondage wasplaced in the recently excluded 1 m x 2 m at the western end of the trench. Sondage 2 was placed
running east-west through the trench on the north side of the pipe (033). Excavation revealed thesame context layers which had been found previously under (042) as discussed above (Figure 17).
Upon reaching the bedrock in the sondage there was no evidence of any added cement,suggesting that it only extended a very short distance from the base of the chimney structure.

Figure 17: Post-excavation of Sondage 2.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

3.3

Trench 2 Excavation

Trench 2, initially measuring 2 m x 2 m, was placed to the east of Trench 1 and slightly in front of
the wall separating the main and south yards of the Engine House area (Figure 1). The trench wasplaced slightly away from the wall as it was believed that the foundations would be shallow and thetrench width would be rapidly lost when they were exposed. The trench was located to find asuspected guardhouse that shows up in older plans (Figure 6 and Figure 7).
Excavation of the topsoil layer (001) revealed the start of a demolition layer intermixed with yellow
builder’s sand in the western corners of the trench. This context averaged a thickness of 5 cm.
Context (002) recovered some demolition material such as window glass and floor covering,perhaps from the Guardhouse with artefacts such as coloured plastic tape (probably for
reticulation) and so suggesting that this context can be associated with levelling and cleaning up of
the site. It averaged 3.5 cm in thickness.
The context beneath (002) was (009) and consisted of a layer of rubble featuring a mix of structural
materials including window glass, fixtures and fittings and ceramic pipe. It also included someindustrial material such as safety glass, gauge tubes and electrical insulators with a small amountof subsistence material such as bottles and cans.
There were also quantities of bricks, pieces of wood and a large burnt beam. It was decided toextend the trench in the south to the wall adding between 0.1 and 0.2 m to the trench width as nofoundations had yet been found. Context (009) averaged 19 cm in thickness.
A new context, (017) was started based on a reduction in the brick, cement and metal excavated.
However in the context an increase in slag showing the imprint of a grid, probably from furnace
cleaning, occurred. Figure 18 is a post excavation photo of context (017) looking East. The
thickness of this context averaged 14 cm.

Figure 18: Post-excavation context (017) looking east.
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

At this point a cut stone appeared in the south east corner of the trench which became context(019) and in the rest of the trench context (018) was started. Context (018) contained evidence of
demolition but also artefacts such as broken glass tubes, pieces of coal and small flakes of mica
which suggested the operational refuse from the boilers. On average context (018) was 18 cm
thick.
Under lying (018) was a black charcoal rich layer (020) which varied in thickness in the trench but
averaged 8 cm. Under it was a lensing clay layer (023) thicker in the centre and averaging 9 cm
overall. This context although thin contained a mix of artefacts of all the categories suggesting
general refuse disposal. One interesting artefact was a revolver cartridge discussed further below.
Once through the clay layer, context (028) proved to be another black charcoal layer and quite
thick averaging 30 cm.
This layer is probably the same as (020) and divided by the internal clay zone (023). Context (028)
had fragments of coal, slag probably from boiler cleaning as it has the semi-circular indentations
from the furnace grate. Within the zone are some bricks including a “Gartcraig” from Glasgow witha date range of 1876-1920. This is a fire brick so probably associated with the building of thechimney. There were also “Statham” bricks which was a local Perth brick company operating fromthe 1890’s.
Other artefacts included bits of metal, leather, clay pipe fragments, machine belts and seals. Also
found was a heavy duty iron rake head for cleaning out the boiler grate.
At the base of (028), a new context (030) of grey sand mixed with yellow and white limestone
rubble appeared. This was the start of the basement layer. Context (019) now had three steps
leading down into the trench with the final step lying on top of (030) (Figure 19).

Figure 19: Context (019) steps, leading out of Trench 2.
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

The base of the trench was cleaned and at the south end, the foundation to the wall was found(043). The foundation was simply a narrow step out of about 18 cm wide and made of gravel
mixed with mortar. This and the steps are shown Figure 20.

Figure 20: Post-excavation of Trench 2.

It was decided not to take the trench right both to the consolidated limestone floor as we had found
the foundation of the wall and the trench depth was almost at the safe digging limit of 1.4 m without
shoring.
Figure 21 is a cross section of the north wall of at the end of excavation. It shows the contexts andother features within the trench.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 21: Post-excavation south facing section of Trench 2.

3.4

Trench 3 Excavation

Trench 3, measuring 3 m x 1 m, was placed in the south eastern corner of the South Yard (Figure1). The trench is bounded to the south by the old engine house wall and to the east by the
Hampton Rd. prison wall. The trench was placed approximately 1 m from any walls to ensure that itwas not obstructed by building foundations.
The aim of Trench 3 was to look for evidence of an early well close to the south east corner of theSouth Yard. Given its position away from Trenches 1, 2 and 4, Trench 3 provided the potential toexamine differential utilisation of this prison space compared to the other trench areas.
Context (001) consisted of vegetation, mainly roots within grey brown sand which was compacted
in part due to underlying moisture content. This context revealed a mix of construction rubble whichappeared to be of relatively recent origin. Some industrial rubble (slag) was also found.
Below (001), context (003) consisted of grey brown sand, limestone pebbles (< 2mm diameter) andparticles of charcoal. Artefacts consisting of construction rubble, industrial fragments, structuraland other (clear glass bottle neck) categories were excavated. Also noted were assorted small birdbones. This material appeared to have been deposited as rubbish from demolition with somematerial being intended for levelling purposes.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Context (007) under (003) consisted of predominantly dark brown sand and patches of yellow sandcontaining charcoal. Evidence of burning was also indicated by charcoal deposits. Artefacts
included structural and industrial categories along with assorted bird bones. This was essentiallythe same as found in the previous context.
Two cuts each running east to west crossed Trench 3. Excavation of [010] and [014] revealed
intact PVC irrigation pipes (Figure 22). Charcoal and slag fragments, which were found withinthese two cuts, were likely to have been infill brought in from another location, possibly as waste
associated with the Engine House. The southern pipe had intact insulated wires following it. These
wires appeared to be associated with irrigation relays. Protruding into the trench from the west wall
was a plumbing pipe. This was either a disused gas or water pipe.

Figure 22: Trench 3 looking east: bedrock floor with PVC and plumbing pipes exposed.

Below (007), context (012) consisted of a charcoal layer. It contained industrial and construction
category artefacts. Compared to the above mentioned contexts this layer was considered relatively
sterile in terms of artefacts. The range of dates indicated from structural artefacts (various
thicknesses of window glass shards) is suggestive of a mixed context along with burning, either insitu or else deposited.
Context (016) beneath (012) indicated a change from charcoal to a compact brown sand layer.
This was the thickest layer so far with an average of 20 cm thickness throughout. Artefacts

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

included industrial and construction categories. There was evidence of burning or else depositionof burnt material in this context.
Context (27) was below (016) and contained a mixture of soil and ash before transitioning to thenatural bedrock layer of context (029). The soil became increasingly yellow and brown with large
limestone rocks. Artefacts were similar to those described above for context (016). Finding window
glass shards of varying thickness (suggesting different chronologies based on changing thicknessof the glass over time) and the ash deposits was indicative of burning events and mixing ofartefacts.
Context (029) consisted of a sterile layer of yellow sand and limestone bedrock. Upon reaching thislayer the trench was discontinued (Figure 23).

Figure 23: Post-excavation west facing section of Trench 3.

3.5

Trench 4 Excavation

Trench 4, measuring 2 m x 2 m, was placed between the south eastern end of Trench 1 and thechimney flue opening coming out of the northern wall of the Engine House (Figure 1). The south
end of the trench abutted the arch flue structure which had provided a link between the Boiler
Room and the chimney (Figure 24). The area under the arch had been bricked up to seal theentrance to the Boiler Room. Trench 4 was excavated with the intent to confirm the link between
the chimney base which was located in Trench 1 and the Engine House (Figure 5). Finding
remains of the connection between the chimney and Engine House would facilitate anunderstanding of the industrial processes at the site. In particular it might determine whether thechimney structure provided the heat to operate the boilers within the Engine House or else acted
as an exhaust whereby gases and waste exited the boilers through the chimney.
Context (001) consisted of grass and roots in grey sand, and contained some industrial artefacts.
This context was removed to reveal context (031) which consisted of sand, limestone and brickfragments. The fragments of limestone and brick increased in size as this context was dug out.
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

More rubble was noted at the southern third of the trench i.e. that nearest the Engine House wall. A
range of construction, industrial, recreational, subsistence and domestic artefacts were recovered.
Given the range of artefacts, this context was considered to be infill or the remains of some nearby
demolition.
A double brick wall (034) running north to south for the length of the trench was located at the endof (031) (Figure 24). This wall was up to eight brick courses high, largely intact and wasconstructed using an English Bond brick laying pattern. Cement rendering was still present on the
top layer and eastern side of the wall. The rendering of the eastern side of the wall indicates it was
the external side of the wall.

Figure 24: Trench 4 looking south: (034) partially excavated.

Context (031) transitioned into three separate contexts. To the east of (034) was context (035), a
brown soil which contained a mix of domestic, structural, and industrial artefacts. In the northwestof the trench was context (036), which extended from the north end to approximately 3/4 the lengthof the trench to the west of (034). This was a layer of grey, white and brown mottled sand.
Artefacts were mostly industrial (fragments of metal). At the south western corner of the trench wascontext (037), which was west of (034), and adjacent to (036). This context consisted of a thickmoist, clay like charcoal deposit. Unlike previous contexts, there was little structural material
recovered from (037). This is indicative of an in situ deposit and appears to link the heatingprocesses between the chimney and the Engine House boilers. An alternative explanation would
be that this deposit represents infill or dumping from the chimney when it was demolished and coal
fired heating was replaced by gas or electrical heating.
A line of bricks running north to south in Trench 1 indicated the probable location of a second or
western wall of the brick structure (034) in Trench 4. Because of this Trench 4 was extended by 30
cm to the west, and in doing so located a second double brick wall, which marked the western

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

extent of the flue (Figure 25 and Figure 24). This wall was also up to eight brick courses high,largely intact and constructed using an English Bond brick laying pattern.

Figure 25: Trench 4 looking west, extended 30 cm west revealing brick wall (034).

Between the two brick walls were a number of brick fragments, which may be either the collapsed
or demolished remains of the brick structure. Cleaning of the top brick layer of both walls now
making up (034) indicated the cutting of a 45 degree flange along the length of the inside bricklayer of each wall. This may be associated with a roof, which could have been “seated” on theflanges.
Context (046) was beneath (035), and consisted of yellow sand taking up 2/3 of the area to thesouth of (045). This appeared to be building sand and some limestone rubble, and was considered
to be infill.
Context (037) transitioned to (051), a layer of thick black charcoal and ash within the two brickwalls (034). Context (051) came down onto a brick floor, labelled context (057), linking the twowalls of (034). A collapsed domed brick and mortar feature at the northern end of (051) was
considered to be the remains of the roof of the flue (Figure 26).
Context (057) was cleaned to reveal evidence of ash and burning remains on the bricks (Figure27), similar to what was seen on the internal faces of (034).

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 26: Domed brick and mortar structure: Roof of flue.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 27: Brick floor of flue.

3.6

Artefact Sampling and Laboratory Analysis

Artefacts recovered during excavation were bagged at site based on material type or individually ifthey represented a particularly interesting find. Artefacts representing construction were primarily
omitted from collection based on curatorial limitations expressed by Fremantle Prison. Duringlaboratory analysis artefacts were cleaned and washed as appropriate, sorted, weighed, andcatalogued. Fragmentary and non-diagnostic pieces of metal and bone were bagged as a single
artefact based on context/feature due to the material offering no diagnostic information. Artefacts
were catalogued using a Microsoft Excel database recording weight, number of artefacts, general
type, and functional category as a minimum, with extra information pertaining to specific use or
datable attributes being added when available. Once analysed, artefacts were stored at the UWA
Lab pending curation and permanent storage at Fremantle Prison.
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

4.0

STRATIGRAPHY AND INTERPRETATION

4.1

Trench 1

The purpose of Trench 1 was to attempt to locate the main chimney structure, and to investigate its
construction. Having excavated down to the natural bedrock layer it was found that the structure
was built on top of the bedrock, with minimal concrete being used to flatten the surface. The most
likely order of construction would have been to lay the limestone blocks (040) to form the core of
the structure, with the brick chimney column (047) being built in the middle of the core (Figure 28).
The chimney inlet found in Trench 1 would have lined up with the flue found in Trench 4 which
would have been used to transfer heat or smoke. A brick structure (053) was then built around thecore, which was then covered over by a thin concrete render (054). The saprolite (055) which had
been removed to reach the bedrock would then have likely been redeposited around the structure.

Figure 28: Chimney structure, showing limestone core, base of the brick chimney column,
brick extension, and concrete render.

During the chimney’s use it appears that the burnt material which resulted from the process was
deposited into the Main Yard. This can be seen from the thick layer of charcoal (049) which was
found built up around the chimney structure. As this same charcoal layer was found in the othertrenches it suggests that the waste was deposited throughout the yard. This layer of charcoal built
up over time, and likely would have created a lot of dust when it was disturbed. As a result it seems
that a layer of crushed limestone (042) was deposited over the charcoal so as to help seal it, andto provide a potential walkway around the structure. This crushed limestone layer, at least aroundthe immediate vicinity of the chimney, and the limestone core itself was covered by a thin layer ofconcrete (052) (Figure 29). The pipe (033) that runs through the trench, which is likely a gas pipe,
cuts into the concrete layer. This means that it was put in afterwards, but it is underneath thedemolition layer which suggests that it was put in before the chimney was knocked down. It is
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

thought that the pipe was put in after the chimney was no longer being used, because if it was
running through the chimney column while it was in use the pipe would have quickly deteriorated.
Over time the chimney inlet has filled up with material such as soot and ash as due to the burning
process. This has resulted in a number of different layers within the base of the chimney column,
which were then covered over by the demolition material.

Figure 29: Section drawing showing contexts built up around the chimney structure.

After having been knocked down sometime after 1948, it appears that most of the structural
material was piled up over the centre of the chimney. This is evident from the much heavier
concentration of building rubble found in the east side of trench in contexts (015) and (021). It also
appears that a large amount of the material which was still usable was reused elsewhere, as mostof what was found in the trench was the fragmented remains of bricks, concrete, and metal pipes.
If all of the material from the chimney demolition was left in place there would likely have been asubstantially greater amount present within the trench. This demolition layer was then covered overby a layer of yellow sand (011) in order to level the ground off so that lawn could be placed on top(Figure 30). The yellow sand is also dispersed throughout the two demolition layers under it,suggesting that there was more than one episode of fill.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 30: Profile view of Trench 1 east wall, showing yellow levelling sand over demolition layers.

During the excavation there were two hypotheses regarding the function of the chimney. The initial
hypothesis was that the burning process took place within the chimney firebox. The heat would
then have been transferred into the boiler room, via the flue found in Trench 4, in order to heat thewater. This would mean that coal and other burnable material would have been shovelled into thefirebox through an access door (thought to have probably been on the east side of the structure).
The resulting waste would then have been removed and spread across the yards. The second
hypothesis, and now the accepted case, is that the burning took place inside the boiler room. This
would mean that the chimney was used to expel the smoke coming through the flue, and the“firebox” was there to collect the ash and other waste (in which case it is just the chimney inlet fromthe flue). This hypothesis is the more credible given the lack of burnt material which was found in
the chimney column and the technology of the boilers themselves (see Appendix C). If it was used
for burning it would be expected to find charcoal or other burnt fragments within the contexts at thebase of the column. The fact that only ash and soot were found within these contexts, as well as
the lack of fire damage to the bricks themselves, supports the hypothesis that no burning took
place within the chimney.

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4.2

Trench 2

Figure 32 is an end of excavation plan of Trench 2 in particular showing the steps in the south east
corner and the foundation of the wall in the south end. The steps in particular were a surprise as
they are not shown on any plan and were not known to the prison staff.
The likely sequence of events for Trench 2 is that between 1896 and 1898 the engine house andsecurity walls enclosing and the south and main yards and the wall separating the yards were built.
It is possible they were built initially without gates (as suggested by Figure 5) and these wereadded soon after to provide access for the water board personnel to operate and supply coal forthe pumping facility housed in the engine house.
A gate was put through the wall separating the yards and as there was a substantial height
difference between the yards (about 0.7 m) a set of three steps was built. The height difference isconfirmed by the levels taken at the base of Trenches 2 and 3 which were in the limestone regolithmaterial.
Once the boilers and pumping system began to operate a constant supply of fuel would have beenrequired. This was certainly coal as pieces of it have been found in Trench 2. It is possible wood
was also used as pieces or wood and charcoal were also found but they may be from the burningof refuse.
The wall between the chimney and northern wall of the main yard (shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7)
is probably a low retaining wall. Coal would be bought in via the gate to Hampton road anddumped over the retaining wall to the north of Trench 2 so that it could be easily carried to theboilers. Figure 31 is a photo of the north wall of the engine house where the boilers would havebeen housed. It shows old entry ways that would have allowed coal to go in and refuse out.

Figure 31: North wall of Engine House.
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Refuse from the boilers and machinery would also be dumped around Trench 2. This is shown by
the many gauge tubes and large quantities of slag from the thick charcoal and clay layers (i.e.
(020), (023) and (028) which accumulate to almost 0.5m thickness.

Figure 32: Post-excavation plan of Trench 2.

Figure 33 is an east facing section and photograph showing the various contexts. A number ofartefacts from the charcoal and clay layers (revolver shell, clay pipe bulb and medicinal tonic
bottle) suggest a 1900-1920 date range. This seems probable when considering the starting dateof pumping operations in 1898 and a finish date after, but possibly close to when Fremantle wasconnected to the public water supply around 1910.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 33: Trench 2 east facing section and photo.

The charcoal layers finish, presumably when operation of the pumping station stops or reduces.
On top of this is a series of mostly demolition layers containing more structural rather thanindustrial material. The guardhouse must have been built after the pumping station was no longer
required by the Water Board and returned to prison jurisdiction. This would have occurred between
1910 and 1919 when it is first shown on a plan (Figure 6). No guardhouse was required by theWater Board as there were few prisoners involved. However once this area became part of theprison again, a guardhouse between the north and south engine house yards would be required.
The guardhouse must have been destroyed when the chimney was demolished, sometime after
1948. No evidence of guardhouse foundations were found but this is to be expected as
guardhouses around the prison are light structures made typically of wood, fibro, large glass
panels which sit on wooden beams and concrete slabs. However, burnt beams, parts of concreteslabs, fibro-cement and lots of broken window glass suggest that we did find the location of theguardhouse.

4.3

Trench 3

Trench 3 presented as an area of burning events and likely deposition of large amounts material,
possibly from nearby boilers or burning processes. Deposition was intended as both a means ofdisposing of rubbish and levelling the area. The contexts provided clear stratigraphy but this was
attributed to human intervention rather than natural processes.
No evidence of an early well was found within the trench.
Subsequent comparison with artefacts from the other trenches provides insufficient evidence todifferentiate use of the area around trench from the others.

4.4

Trench 4

Trench 4 located a rectangular double brick walled flue with a brick floor, which connected the
Boiler Room to the chimney. The finding of a curved brick and rendered section of the roof of theflue (Figure 26) indicates that it was an enclosed structure. The external walls and roof of the flue
were likely to have been rendered with cement.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

The brick walls and roof consisting of the flue confirm schematic plans of the chimney and Engine
House being connected. Finding a thick charcoal and ash layer (051) between the walls of (034) isindicative of a coal fired heating system. It seems likely that any flow of material or energy between
the boilers and the chimney was directly through the brick flue rather than through any pipe
structure which might have been positioned inside the flue. This explains the presence of burned orcarbon deposits on the brick walls and floor of the flue. Deposits of ash and charcoal outside theflue structure (037) are most likely explained as infill from a series of Boiler House and chimney
cleanings.
The finding of a range of rubble and building remains other than at (037/051) is explained as infill
or rubbish from the demolition of the chimney (or other structures) when it was no longer used, due
to the replacement of coal fired boilers with gas or electrical powered units.
Evidence of possible burning events at the site may be attributed to either infill or disposal ofwaste.

5.0

ARTEFACTS

5.1

Artefact Sampling and Laboratory Analysis

The artefacts have been cleaned and sorted and then catalogued based on functional category
and artefact type to guide a preliminary analysis (see Appendix D). These are discussed below.
The following definitions were used as a basis for cataloguing the material by function:
Domestic:
Materials used in a domestic setting, but not created to be a permanentfeature in the landscape. These items included clothing and household items such as light bulbs
and furnishings.
Structural:
Material used in the construction of a permanent feature on the landscape such as
those related to buildings and other general construction. This category included items such as nails, brick
and window glass.

Industrial:and energy supply.

Items to do with an industrial process including the machinery, infrastructure

Subsistence:
Material related to the consumption of food or beverages including theremains of the food items themselves and the materials used in the consumption of the goods.
This included remains of cutlery, bowls, plates, bottles, cans as well as faunal remains. As aconvention, fragmented bone was assumed to be related to subsistence if otherwise unidentifiable.
Medicinal:
Material related to health or healing, included surgical equipment and glass
bottles and jars with diagnostic features indicating their use for medicinal purposes.
Recreational:
Material related to activities completed for enjoyment. Included in this is
items related to games and leisure activities. This included alcohol, tobacco, writing implements,
and game pieces.
Other:

Items identified but unable to be incorporated into the above categories.

Unknown:

Items that had no identified function.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

The artefact types were based on a broad view of the function of the artefact. These were a subsetof the category, aimed at giving a better understanding of the artefacts while making them easier tosort within the catalogue.

5.2

Preliminary Analysis

Table 2 summarises the weight of artefacts collected by function and trench. A more detailed table
including material type and context is included as an Excel file in the digital data and a version is
attached as Appendix C.
Table 2: Number of Artefacts by Trench and Function
Function
Trench 1
Trench 2
Trench 3

Trench 4

Total

Domestic

18

47

1

19

85

Industrial

122

379

170

50

721

Medicinal

1

4

1

6

Other

15

31

11

82

Recreational

7

27

2

36

Structural

220

485

86

188

979

Subsistence

137

80

24

187

428

Unknown

79

282

74

89

524

Grand Total

599

1335

380

547

2861

25

Figure 34 compares the distribution of the artefacts in the Trenches by number and weight. It
shows some differences but that Trenches 2 has the most artefacts followed by Trench 1. Trench 1
was the largest Trench but because a significant portion of it was the structure itself, it did notcontain as much removable material as Trench 2 over its whole area. Trench 3 was shallow, with
Trench 4 having a limited depth and area.

Figure 34: Trench artefacts by number and weight.
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 35 shows the functional distribution of artefacts by Trench. It shows that throughout all the
trenches Structural and Industrial materials are predominant followed by Unknown andSubsistence. The Recreational, Domestic, Other and Medicinal categories all have only small
numbers of artefacts and are usually represented in the surface layers which have been bought infor levelling purposes.

Figure 35: Functional distribution of material by trench.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

5.3

Discussion of Artefacts

A number of the more interesting artefacts recovered during the investigation are discussed below.

5.3.1

Revolver Shell

Figure 36 shows the shells recovered from context (023) in Trench 2. It is a 0.38” straight rimmed
revolver shell about 16.5mm (0.66”) long with a rim diameter of 10.9 mm (0.44”) and an outside
shell diameter of 9.8mm (0.39”).

Figure 36: Revolver shell.

The shell is badly corroded but on the base there is a partly legible inscription of “M 38 UMC”.
The 38 stands for the nominal bullet size of 38”. UMC stands for the Union Metallic Cartridge. This
headstamp was used from the 1860s for the company until 1911 when it was purchased byRemington (Ball 1997). After that UMC still appeared on cartridges but usually as REM UMC. The
bullet itself was perhaps for a Smith and Wesson revolver as the sizing appears close to that given
in Ball (1997: 121).

5.3.2

Gauge Tubes

A great number of gauge tubes were excavated from Trench 2. These are typically used in boilers
and other machinery to show fluid flow. For high pressure installations the gauges are contained
within very thick glass casings in case of tube breakage. A substantial amount of very thick glass(>10mm thick) was found during excavation which was probably from these safety enclosures.
Figure 37 is an example of some of the glass tubes found. These are inscribed with the name
“BISHOPS ADAMANT”.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 37: Gauge tubes.

Figure38
isthetrademarklistingforBishopsAdamant(from
http://www.glass.co.nz/trademarks.htm). It gives the company and location information. This
company appears to have operated from the late 19th to 20th century.

Figure 38: Trademark listing for Bishops Adamant

5.3.3

Medicinal Tonic Bottle

Figure 39 is a fragment of a medicinal tonic bottle with the part inscription “:C TONIC”. It was foundin context (028) of Trench 2.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 39: Medicinal tonic bottle.

5.3.4

Boiler Rake

Figure 40 is a rake probably used to clean out the boiler grate. It was found in context (028) withboiler slag and other industrial refuse in Trench 2.

Figure 40: Boiler rake.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

5.3.5

False Spindle

Figure 41 is a false spindle, possibly belonging to a fire hydrant unit which would have been kept
nearby. It was found within the demolition context (015) of Trench 1.

Figure 41: False spindle.

5.3.6

Turn Key

Figure 42 is an industrial turn key. It worked by placing the open square end over a spindle, andthen inserting a handle through the top section, which would then allow it to be more easily turned.
It was found within the demolition context (015) of Trench 1.

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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 42: Turn key

5.3.7

BricksDuring excavation, only those bricks which were in good condition and showed different
manufacturers were kept. Figure 43 shows bricks from two identified brick manufacturers (Stathamand Gartcraig). The Gartcraig are heat resistant fire bricks and have been discussed above but set
a date before 1920.
Statham was a Perth brick producer who operated from the 1890s to 1960s (Leighton 1997). They
produced a standard firebrick plus special shapes for Babcock-Wilcox firebox linings and boiler
seatings and flue covers for example.
The varying manufacturers suggest that the prison did not rely upon any one source, and the factthat most of the bricks which were found were fragmented suggests that the intact ones werereused elsewhere.
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FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Figure 43: Statham and Gartcraig bricks

Figure 44 shows some additional brick that have not been definitely identified by manufacturer.

Figure 44: Assorted bricks

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5.3.8

Clay Pipes

Pieces of clay pipe were excavated in Trenches 1, 2 and 4. Photographs of two bowls and a stem
are shown in Figure 45.
For Trench 2 the pipe came from the charcoal rich contexts (020), (023) and (028), which arepresumed to be from 1898 to sometime before 1920.
For Trench 1 the pipe is in the top demolition layer (015), just below the sand levelling layer (011).
It is possible it has been bought in from outside during covering and levelling of the demolition
surface which is after 1948.
The pipe piece from Trench 4 was found near surface during the trench opening.

Figure 45: Assorted clay pipes.

6.0

GRAFFITI RECORDING

As part of the 2014 Field School, each team spent two days recording graffiti in the main prison
block. These teams used the same recoding procedure as developed for previous studies. This
included filling out recording forms and taking photographs of each motif within cells. This part ofthe project was purely for recording purposes, and as such no interpretation was carried out aspart of this report.
Seventeen cells were recorded of which 16 were different (Table 3). Cell F73 was recorded by two
different teams. The recording forms and photographs are provided as part of the digital data
package from the Field School.

42

FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

Table 3: Cells Recorded for Graffiti
Floor
Cell
1

C4

1

D68

1

D70

1

D71

1

D73

2

E4

2

E7

2

E10

2

F71

2

F73

2

F73*

3

G6

3

G7

3

H67

3

H70

3

H71

3

H72

* Note: Cell F73 recorded by two different teams

7.0

MANAGEMENT DISCUSSION

Fremantle Prison is a heritage listed site with significant cultural heritage of national andinternational significance. The prison is a repository of resources which can shed light on the pastlife of the prison and its occupants. Archaeological detail may also offer a unique opportunity togain insight into how the prison and its inmates were perceived by local society.
Excavation of the Engine House site indicated the remains of the base of the chimney and flue
inlet. The remains of a flue were also located, linking the chimney to the Engine House boilers.
Limestone steps, which do not appear on any known plans, linking the Main and South yards werelocated.
A range of artefacts was also recovered. The majority of these were degraded through corrosion,
natural processes or burning.

43FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

All finds require cataloguing into three broad categories (along with other standards descriptors):•••

Public interest and worthy of display;
Research interest and worthy of curation;
No apparent display or research capacity.

Consideration is required by the Fremantle Prison Board about what criteria would be used toclassify an artefact as meeting the first category “worthy of display”. Considerations forclassification of “research interest and worthy of curation” will be determined by future researchers
but guided by the student archaeologists in consultation with their academic supervisors.
Given the above, two broad areas for future management need to be addressed:
•
•

7.1

What to do with what was found during the current investigation; andShould future excavation or other investigation of the areas be considered?

Artefact Management

Upon completion of cataloguing, those artefacts deemed worthy of display, and which are inaccord with the Fremantle Prison policies, should be prepared for display for the public. This work
is to be carried out by appropriately qualified Fremantle Prison staff or their associates. Those
artefacts deemed as worthy of research and curation are to be archived on site at the Fremantle
Prison.
Those artefacts deemed as being of no immediate use for display or research purposes should be
reburied on site where possible.

7.2
7.2.1

Management of Architectural Structures
Chimney Structure

There is the potential for the structure to be placed on display for the public. While this would
require significant excavation and preparation, it would enable the public to gain a sense of past
activity and to highlight the past use of the site as more than just a prison.

7.2.2

Flue Structure

As indicated above any public display of the chimney could include a section of the flue to indicate
its structural remains and to give the public a sense of how the chimney and boilers within theEngine House were linked.
Sections of the roof of the flue are relatively intact. These could be conserved for public viewing
either as part of any interpretative display involving excavated elements of the chimney and/or flueor else as part of a display within the Engine House.

7.2.3

Limestone Steps

These could be excavated and prepared for display. This display would also enable the public togain a sense of the ongoing fill/dumping activity which has taken place during the site’s use.
44

FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

7.3

Future Excavations and Investigation

The situation may change over time regarding what to do in the future so any recommendations
given should be considered as preliminary.
Unless there is a specific purpose or research question which requires additional detail to what has
been found and documented from the current investigation then no invasive or destructive further
investigation should take place.
Non-intrusive methods to map the extent of the building or other unknown structures may beundertaken. Again the only reason for undertaking this research would be to investigate a clearly
defined research questions or themes requiring site specific information.
Given the recommendation for a cautious approach to any further investigation, the following areas
may be worthy of consideration:•

As only the south west corner of the chimney was found, there is potential for further
excavations to be carried out in order to examine the rest of the structure. Future
excavations would likely focus on two areas: the east side of the chimney structure, and thesouth east corner and column of the chimney. A focus on the east side will potentially show
if there was an access doorway on that side, which would be suspected if the burning took
place within the chimney itself. Examining the south east corner and column of the chimney
will help to identify how the structure was connect to the flue, and will also help to identify
whether any burning activity took place within the chimney itself. As the current hypothesisis that the burning took place within the boiler room, future excavations showing that there
was no access door way to the chimney and that there was no evidence of burning in thecolumn would support this theory.

•

Plans from 1919 and 1920 show the existence of a wall running east to west to the north ofthe chimney. No evidence of this wall was seen during the current investigation. An
investigation to locate this wall could be warranted. It is expected that the area to the northof the retaining wall would be free of charcoal rand refuse but might have pieces of coaland a prepared surface for trucks to drop their loads.

•

A detailed study of the industrial process taking place at the Engine House site maynecessitate further investigation of the extent of the chimney structure and its physicalconnection to the flue (and the flue connection to the Engine House boilers). This may
involve further excavation should it not be possible to obtain such information from archival
sources.

8.0

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the work of all the people who made this project possible.
In particular we wish to thank the excavation teams who worked on the site, and supervisors
Associate Professor Tom Whitley and Dr. Sean Winter. We would also like to thank Olympia Cullity
Head Curator and Luke Donegan Heritage Conservation Manager from Fremantle Prison for theirassistance and advice.

45

FREMANTLE PRISON ENGINE HOUSE EXCAVATION 2014

9.0

REFERENCES

Ball, D. B. 1997, An Introduction to Metallurgical Cartridge Case Terminology, Identification andHeadstamps, Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 12:112-129.
Bavin, L. J. 1990, Fremantle Prison Conservation and Future Use: Archaeological Zoning Plan of
the Prison Compound. Report Prepared for Building Management Authority.
Bavin, L. 1994, The punishment administered: archaeology and penal institutions in the Swan
River Colony. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Western Australia, Crawley.
Department of Treasury and Finance [DTF] - Building Management and Works Division, 2010
Fremantle Prison Conservation and Management Plan.
Fremantle Prison 2014, Tunnels Fact Sheets.pdf, Retrieved on 26/10/12014 from<http://www.fremantleprison.com.au/Visit_Us/tours/tunnels/Documents/Tunnels%20Fact%2
0Sheets.pdf>.
Leighton, E.H. 1997, Bricks in Glen Forrest – The Story of the Statham Brickworks.
Museum of London Archaeological Service [MOLAS] 1994, Archaeological Site Manual, London:
Museum of London.
Smith, C.E. and H.D. Burke 2007 Digging it Up Down Under: A Practical Guide to Doing
Archaeology in Australia. New York: Springer.
Su-Jan Hunt 1980, Water – the abiding challenge, ed. F Morony, Metropolitan Water Board, Perth.
Winter, S. 2013, Global, regional and local networks: Archaeological investigation of the Western
Australian Penal Colony 1850 – 1875. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University ofWestern Australia, Crawley.

46

APPENDIX A
CONTEXT LISTING

Number
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
011
012
013
014
015
016
017
018
019
020
021
022
023
024
025
026
027
028
029
030
031
032
033
034
035
036
037
038
039
040
041
042
043
044
045
046
047
048
049

Type
Surface
DepositDepositDepositDepositDepositDepositCut
DepositDepositDepositCut
DepositDepositDepositDeposit
Structure
DepositDepositDepositDepositDepositDepositDepositDepositDepositDepositDeposit
Cut
Fill
StructureFill
DepositDepositDepositDeposit
StructureFill
Deposit
Structure
DepositDepositDeposit
Structure
DepositDepositDescription
Turf and attached soil all trenches
Mixed fill under (001) T2
Mixed fill under (001) T3
Mixed fill under (001) T1
VOID
VOID
Light yellow separated by (008) T3
linear dark feature T3
mottled grey under (002) T2
Pipe cut for (008) T3
yellow sand in T1
black charcoal under (007) T3
Fill of pipe trench [014] T3
Cut for pipe T3
demolition layer under (011) T1
brown soil under (012) T3
deposit under (009) T2
deposit under (017) T2
stone block SE corner T2
black charcoal under (018) T2
demolition layer under (015) T1
VOID
clay underlying (020) T2
brown soil under (012) arc shaped T3
ash N end of trench T3
mottled brown, ash, charcoal T3
S end trench ash layer T3
deposit under (023) T2
deposit under (023-027) T3
deposit under (028) T2
Opening trench - T4
linear EW cut T1
fill of [032] T1
NS brick linear feature T4
Fill of [034] brick drain T4
Limestone surface E of [034] T4
Charcoal at SE corner of T4
Black fill at W end T1 under (021)
Yellow/charcoal over (037) T4
Limestone platform T1
Fill of chimney firebox T1
Fill at west end of {040} chimney T1Wall and foundation T2
Darker fill under (041) in firebox T1
Limestone white fill W of {034} under[035] T4
yellow fill W of [034] under (035) T4
Brick structure firebox T1
Fill of [047] under (044) T1
black charcoal under (042) T1

Trench
all
T2
T3
T1

Comment

T3
T3
T2
T3
T1
T3
T3
T3
T1
T3
T2
T2
T2
T2
T1
T2
T3
T3
T3
T3
T2
T3
T2
T4
T1
T1
T4
T4
T4
T4
T1
T4
T1
T1
T1
T2
T1
T4
T4
T1
T1
T1

same as (037) & (028)

050
051

DepositDeposit052
053

Structure
Structure

054
055
056
057
058

Structure
Deposit
Structure
Structure
Cut

Clay under (044) in [047] T1
Charcoal layer under (045) within [034}T1
Cement floor under (021) T1
Brick covering on exterior [040] chimney
T1
Cement render exterior [053] T1
Deposit under (049) T1
Deposit under (055) T1
Floor of flue (brick) T4
Cut for PVC pipe west wall T4

T1
T1
T1
T1
T1
T1
T1
T4
T4

Previously recorded as [024]APPENDIX B
DIGITAL DATA LISTING

#

Item

Description

File

1

Context Register

Spreadsheet with context register

Context_Register_FPEH.xlsx

2Context Sheets

Scanned original context sheets for Trenches
1, 2, 3 and 4.

FPEH Context Forms.pdf

3

Photo Register

Scanned register of important photos (seeitem below)

Photo_Rec_Forms_FPEH.pdf

4

TrenchPhotographs

Directory with photos taken during
excavation. Important ones are crossreferenced by photo number in photo register.
Photos are in JPG format

Directory – Trench_Photos
Sub-Directories T1, T2, T3, T4,
Guardhouses

5

Drawing Register

Register of drawings

Drawing Register_FPEH.xlsx

6

Drawings

Each drawing is in JPG format which is ascan of the original pencil plans. The SVG
files are vector plans digitised from theoriginal pencil drawings for some of the pencil
plans.

Directory - Drawings

7

Artefact Summary
Data

Spreadsheet summarising the count andweight of artefacts by Trench, context,
function and material type.

Spreadsheet–
FPEH_Catalogue_Final.xlsx

8Artefact Photos

Photos of the artefacts in the report in JPG
format.

Directory – Artefact_photos

9

Graffiti
Photographs

Photos of each cell and the motifs in them.
Referenced to the graffiti shests

Directory – Photos_Graffiti with
sub-directories for each cell.

10

Graffiti
SheetsThe motif sheets for each cell collected bysub-directory

Directory – Graffiti_Sheets

MotifAPPENDIX CDISCUSSION ON BOILERS ANDPUMPSAppendix C
Discussion on Boilers and Pumps
This appendix is a discussion on the type of boilers and pumps that were used at Fremantle
Prison as part of the Fremantle Water Supply and also at the larger though similarly
equipped Coolgardie Goldfields Water Scheme.

What is a boiler?
A boiler is a closed pressure vessel in which steam is generated and then used for various
processes. During the Victorian period boilers were typically made of high grade wroughtiron panels assembled using rivets. In the 20th century, steel was used as it was stronger,
cheaper and was good for welding. The downside was steel could be more susceptible tocorrosion and pitting.

Types of Boilers
A simple boiler type is shown in Figure 1. It consists of a fire placed under a long cylinder.
The heat transfer is therefore limited to the outside walls of only part of the boiler. Figures 1,
2 and 3 below are from Subbarao (2014).

Figure 1: Simple boiler

An improvement on the simple boiler was the Cornish boiler, which is shown in Figure 2. Inorder to get greater efficiency, the fire is placed in the centre of the cylinder with water now
surrounding it. This is the type of boiler used in the older pumping installations (Wells 1, 2
and 3).

Figure 2: Cornish boiler.

A further development was to put two separate furnaces in the boiler, which helped improve
efficiency.

Figure 3: Lancashire boiler.
A further development was the water-tube boiler as shown in Figure 4. This is an example ofa Babcock-Wilcox boiler which was used on both the Fremantle and Goldfields waterprojects.
In the water-tube boiler, water flows through a set of pipe which is surrounded by the hotgases. This is a more efficient system with easier maintenance as individual water tubes canbe easily replaced. It is possible that the water pipes found in such a mess in Trench 1 andfrom the boiler.

Figure 4: Water-tube boiler.

Figure 5: Piping in Trench 1.
A number of other design additions were often added to boilers to further increase efficiency.
These included but were not limited to:Air Preheater – This was used to recover heat from the exhaust flue gases and was
installed between the economiser and the chimney. It heated the new air required for
combustion before it flowed to the boiler furnace.
Economiser - They are a device fitted to a boiler which saves energy by using the exhaustgases from the boiler to preheat the cold water used to fill it. The Goldfields pump station all
had economisers fitted.
Super Heater - This is a device used to convert saturated wet steam into dry steam before
use in pumping or other processes. Dry steam contains more thermal energy and improves
overall efficiency while being less likely to condense on engine cylinders. Both the Fremantle
Prison and Goldfield boilers used super heaters.

Fremantle Prison Water Supply
The contract for the supply for the pumping system was given to James Simpson andCompany who manufactured Worthington Pump in England under license. The Simpson
and Worthington companies were to merge in 1903. The pumping system details below aretaken from the Daily News of 29th January 1898.
“The plant consisted of two triple expansion vertical surface condensing Worthington
pumping engines and two Babcock and Wilcox water tube boilers fitted with “Schwoerer”
superheaters. The depth at which the water was tapped necessitated the pumps being fixed
about 45 feet below the engine house floor, the pump plungers being connected by wroughtiron spears direct to the engines which are placed above the engine house floor while
special arrangements have been made for balancing the weight of the rods. Each pump isarranged with internal double acting plungers working in gunmetal sleeves which give aneven flow water. After leaving the pumps, the water is taken up through the delivery pipe into
the surface condenser and passes round the outside of the tubes into the delivery main. The
air pumps are arranged directly beneath the low pressure cylinders to draw the condensed
steam from the surface condenser. The steam cylinders are placed in tandem; the highpressure cylinder on top, then the intermediate cylinder and both rest on the low pressure
cylinder, which is rigidly fixed to the main girders. This arrangement of cylinders makes thewhole of the working parts very accessible and an upper platform is arranged to enable thevalves, valve gear, etc. to be well within the reach of the driver.
This arrangement of cylinders makes the whole of the working parts very accessible, and an
upper platform is arranged to enable all the valves, valve gear et cetera to be well within thereach of the driver. All the steam cylinders are steamed jacketed. Steam is supplied at apressure of 100 lb per square inch and after leaving the boiler passes through the“Schwoerer” superheater. By this apparatus an additional 120°F is imparted to it so that thesteam reaches the high pressure cylinders at a temperature of 450°F and perfectly dry. J.
Simpson and Co have found by experiments with super heating that a great economy isobtained and they have already fitted a great number of boilers with these super heaters.
The engines are a 40 horse power each and with a 15 inch stroke the pumps are capable ofpumping at 62,500 gallons of water per hour.”
Figure 6 are advertisements for Babcock-Wilcox boilers and Worthington pumps.

Figure 6: 1898 advertisements for Babcock-Wilcox and Worthington.
Figure 7 is the US patent image for the Schwoerer Super Heater and a photo of what

appears to be one from the Engine House excavation site. A similar artefact was also left in
the NW wall of Trench 2.

Figure 7: Schwoerer super heater

Coolgardie Goldfield Water Scheme
It is interesting to also look at the Coolgardie Goldfield Water Scheme as much of theequipment, although on a much larger scale, used similar equipment which was supplied by
Simpson and Co. C.Y. O’Connor visited the prison in 1898 no doubt to investigate the new
prison pumping system.
The material below is from on the Institute of Engineers nomination of the Coolgardie Water
Scheme as a National Historic Landmark (1986).
The Coolgardie Scheme was based on a flow rate of 5,600,000 gallons per day through 30”
pipes using a total of eight pumping stations,
The first four stations each had a lift of 450’ with the next four having an average lift of 225’.
This was accomplished by each of the first four stations having a group of three of machines
and the next four each having two. So overall there were required 20 pumps and boilers
each of the same specification.
Each group had 303 HP including extra for contingencies meaning that the system had over
6000 hp of installed capacity.

Tenders went out in April 1899, which eventually went to James Simpson in March 1900.
This is the same company that provided the Fremantle equipment.
The pumping plant was the same throughout except the first four stations with 450’ head had
15” pump plungers while the second four had 21’ pump plungers. The engines werehorizontal, six cylinder, high-duty, triple expansion surface condensing engines of theWorthington duplex, direct acting type. The diameters of the high, intermediate and low
pressure cylinders were respectively 16”, 25” and 46” with the normal stroke of the pumpplungers 36” and the piston speed 150 ft per minute. Pump plungers are externally andcentrally packed and directly connected with steam pistons.
Each Babcock-Wilcox water-tube boiler supplied one engine. Each boiler had 81 tubes, eachtube 18‘ long and 4” in diameter, a single drum 23’ 7” long and 4’ in diameter withsuperheater placed between water-tube and drum. A Green economiser was provided foreach installation. The chimney stacks made of steel and are 5’ in diameter. Those at thefirst two stations are 130’ high at the third and fourth 100’ high and at the last four 90’ high.
The layout of a two pump station is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Coolgardie Scheme two pump station layout.

References
Fremantle Prison 2014, Tunnel Tour Fact Sheet.
Google 2014, US Patent for Schwoerer Super Heater 6 March 1894, retrieved on
13/11/2014 from http://www.google.com/patents/US515974.
Institution of Engineer, 1986, National Historic Engineering Landmark Nomination –Coolgardie Goldfields Water Supply 1898-1903, Retrieved on 13/11/2014 from <https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/portal/system/files/engineering-heritageaustralia/nomination-title/Coolgardie%20Goldfields%20-%20Nomination.pdf>.
Panchal J.M 2014, Boiler.pptx, Retrieved on 15/11/2014 from<http://svitvasad.ac.in/mechanical/download/Boilers.pptx>.
Subbarao P.M.V – Learning of Science through Major Inventions, Retrieved on 13/11/2014
from <
https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=
0CCMQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.iitd.ac.in%2F~pmvs%2Fcourses%2Fmel709%2Fmel7093.ppt&ei=MtdmVKrCL6S0mwW7toFI&usg=AFQjCNG01DF5PfBfLbjYFLP9HXZuFj3aw&sig2=__eGfDx8uXPlaO4XNhLg8A&bvm=bv.79142246,d.dGY>.

APPENDIX D
ARTEFACT SPREADSHEET