TECHNOPOLICY BRIEF 4

WHO NEEDS TECHNOLOGYPOLICY?

Ha-Joon Chang

AFRICAN TECHNOLOGY POLICY STUDIES NETWORKPublished by
The African Technology
Policy Studies Network,
P.O. Box 10081, 00100 General Post Office,Nairobi, Kenya.
© 2002 African Technology
Policy Studies Network (ATPS)
Printed by

ISBN: 9966-916-18-0

ABOUT THE AFRICAN TECHNOLOGY POLICY STUDIES NETWORKThe African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multi-disciplinary network of researchers, policy makers, actors in the private sector and other end-users
interested in generating, promoting and strengthening innovative science and technology policies in Africa. With a regional secretariat in Nairobi, the network operates
through national chapters in 17 African countries, with an expansion plan to cover theentire sub-Saharan Africa.
One of the objectives of the network is to disseminate research results to policy
makers, legislators, the organized private sector, civil society, mass media and farmers’ groups through publications, dialogue and advocacy. Among its range of publications are the Working Paper Series (WPS), Research Paper Series (RPS), Special
Paper Series (SPS) and the Technopolicy Briefs.
Technopolicy Briefs Series are commissioned short papers written by experts from all over the world specifically to address current science andtechnology policy concerns and questions in Africa. The briefs are also
summaries of technical papers published under our WPS, SPS and RPS written to highlight significant policy recommendations. These briefs are writen
with the busy policymakers and non-specialists in mind. The materials aredesigned for general readership and help advance the advocacy andknwoledge brokerage roles of the ATPS.
ATPS is supported by a growing number of donors including the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the Carnegie Corporation of New York, theRockefeller Foundation, the World Bank, the OPEC Fund, Ford Foundation, CocaCola Eastern Africa, the African Development Bank, and the Royal Dutch Government.

Abbreviations and acronyms
ATPS
FDI
IMF
IP
IPR
NGOs
NICs
R&D
TNCs
TRIPS
UNESCO
WTO

African Technology Policy Studies Network
Foreign Direct Investment
International Monetary FundIntellectual Property
Intellectual Property Rights
Non-governmental Organizations
Newly Industrialized Countries
Research and Development
Transnational Corporations
Trade-related Intellectual Property Rights
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
World Trade Organization

Table of Contents
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

Why Do We Need Technology Policy
1.1
What is technology policy?
1.2
Why do we need technology policy?
1.3
Is technology policy inconsistent with a market oriented
economy?
What Makes a Good Technolopy Policy
2.1
Do developing countries need technology policy?
2.2
Technology policy in developing countriesa.
Research and developmentb.
Educationc.
Trainingd.
Infant industry promotione.
Intellectual property rightsf.
Summary

1
1
3
5
6
6
7
7
8
9

Technology Policy for Africa
3.1
Research and development
3.2
Education
3.3
Training
3.4
Infant industry promotion
3.5Intellectual property rights

11
12
13
14
16

Conclusion

17

References

18

1.0
Why Do We Need Technology Policy?
1.1.

What is technology policy?

In this brief, technology policy is defined as a set of government actions that affect thegeneration, acquisition, adaptation, diffusion and use of technological knowledge ina way that the government deems useful for the society rather than individuals. However,the legitimate domain of technology policy is a matter of debate.
There is, naturally, a large overlap between technology policy thus defined andindustrial policy that is interpreted as a set of government actions that influence thedevelopment of private industries to promote society-wide objectives. The overlapping
areas include policies, such as research and development (R&D) subsidies toindustrial firms, regulation of foreign direct investment (FDI) in relation to technology
imports or regulation of technology licensing in designated industries. The area that
does not overlap between the two policies include support for “basic R&D”, that do
not relate directly to particular industries or the management of the patent law andother intellectual property rights (IPR) laws. This means that, while most technology
policies can be regarded as part of industrial policy, there are some areas that are
unique to technology.
1.2.

Why do we need technology policy?

Broadly, there are two contending views on technology policy based on two distinct
views of technology and its evolution1. The first one, termed the “pro-market view”
argues that if left alone, profit-maximizing firms, driven by competitive pressure, will

A more theoretical discussion of the two contending views of technology policy can be found in H-J.
Chang & A. Cheema, ‘Conditions for Effective Technology Policy in Developing Countries – Learning
Rents, State Structures, and Institutions’, Journal of Economic Innovation and New Technology, forthcoming(2002)
1

1

ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4choose and develop technologies that are not only more profitable but also beneficial
to society. Behind this view lies the belief that price mechanism provides signals thatbest match the supply and demand for technologies. Supporters of this view, therefore,
argue for a market-based technology policy where the government basically allows
firms to do whatever they want in developing and adopting technologies and onlyintervenes because some technologies are easier to “copy” than others. The market,
therefore, does not offer adequate incentives for developing such technologies
because the returns from them may not fully accrue to the investor. If the technologies
have immediate commercial applications, the solution to the problem is the protectionof IPRs, especially through patents that basically grant a temporary (but in practicequite long, usually 20 years) monopoly to the inventors. If they are related to “basic”
knowledge, a possible solution is to subsidize the “basic R&D” activities that generatesuch technologies.
The above is a “possible” reason because in its extreme version, the “pro-market”
view would not even accept these interventions. In relation to IPR, for example, in the
19th Century many free-market economists believed that patents were also forms ofmonopoly and should, therefore, be abolished. The Netherlands actually did this in
1869 and did not revive the patent law until 1912. In basic R&D, there are also freemarket economists who believe that even this protection can be provided throughfar-sighted private sector funding, for example, encouraging the sector to fund basic
research in universities.
The alternative to the “pro-market” view of technology policy is the “state-promotion”
view that identifies a host of market imperfections especially prevalent in developing
countries that dampen the pace of technological innovation and learning. In thisview, two characteristics of technology are highlighted – the “tacit” and the “specific”
nature. “Tacitness” of technology means that it can never be fully codified into formal
instructions. If knowledge, including technical information, is tacit, it can be transferred
across individuals and organizations only at high costs. The closely related but
separate concept of “specificity” of technology means that it is often developed in an
attempt to solve particular problems rather than to establish some general principles.
For this reason, technology contains elements of knowledge that are “specific” to thecontext in it was developed. These two key characteristics of technology imply thatprices formed through arm’s-length dealings in anonymous markets are often
incomplete indicators of the true social value of the technology.
2Who Needs Technology Policy?
Thus, the advocates of the “state-promotion” view argue that policy interventions are
required because of various “failures” in the technology market. In this view, thegovernment should not only protect IPR (and also over-riding them if it is sociallydesirable) and subsidize basic R&D, but it should also enhance the learning
opportunities of firms adopting new technologies, for example, through importprotection and preferential government procurement policy. It should also directtechnological development and transfer in a way that encourages accumulation of
local technological capabilities, for example, by regulating technology licensing orcontrolling the behaviour of transnational corporations (TNCs). These are policies
that go well beyond the boundary of technology policy that is accepted by even the
more interventionist member of the “pro-market” school.
Except for some extremists, even pro-market economists would accept that there isneed for some technology policy. However, the appropriate scope of such policy canvary across commentators. There is a belief, therefore, that it is more useful to adopt
the broader definition of technology policy that is grounded in the “state-promotion”
view.
1.3.

Is technology policy inconsistent with a market-oriented economy?

Critics of technology policy like to present it as an anti-market intervention by thestate. They argue that except in very basic R&D, the market mechanism is able toprovide “correct” incentive for the generation, adoption and use of technology. On
that assumption, it is natural to conclude that any intervention, including technology
policy that restricts the freedom of rational choice of agents from the private sector, isinconsistent with the principle of a market-oriented economy.
However, this is a misleading characterization of technology policy. It is true that
some, but not all, types of technology policy, for example, policies on imports offoreign technology may restrict the freedom of certain private sector agents in the
short run. However, this can be done in a way that enhances the technologicalcapabilities of the economy thus creating more profit-making opportunities for all
and subsequently developing the market mechanism.

3

ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4There is no shortage of examples where state intervention choked off the generationand the adoption of new technologies. But the mere fact that certain elements in acountry’s technology policy restrict short run business freedom of certain agents
does not imply that it will hamper the development of the market mechanism.
Experiences of Japan, Korea and Taiwan prove otherwise. All these countries used
strong technology policy that sometimes restricted business freedom of certain privatesector agents but they were still extremely successful in the world market. Thisshows that an interventionist technology policy may ultimately be more pro-market if
it encourages the accumulation of technological capabilities and generates industrial
growth.

4

2.0What Makes a Good Technology Policy in a
Developing Country?
Some Lessons From the Experience of the Developed Countries, Including
the East Asian Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs)
2.1.

Do developing countries need technology policy?

After discussing general issues on the definition of technology policy, we want todiscuss the same subject in the context of developing countries. A major distinction
between a developing country and a developed country is that the former is notcapable of independently generating new technological knowledge. This is a generalstatement and we cannot deny that there are some scientists in developing countries
who have made some path-breaking discoveries or that many technicians indeveloping country have devised small but significant improvements in imported
technologies. However, it is fair to say that the difference between developed anddeveloping countries is the ability of the former to generate new technologicalknowledge. Once we accept this characterization, a pro-market economist may
argue that there is virtually nothing that the government of a developing country can orshould do in technology policy. Why is this?
We recall that the only technology policies that a pro-market economist will
recommend are the protecting of IPR and subsidizing basic R&D. However, indeveloping countries where there is little ability to generate new knowledge, there islittle basic R&D in the private sector to subsidize. Likewise, governments in thesecountries may protect patents and other IPRs but this will not be important because
domestic firms will not generate much patentable knowledge. Most of the technologies
that firms in these countries can profitably import and use may be “old”, therefore,
rarely protected by patents. If this is the case, there is very little that governments indeveloping countries can do in protecting IPR.

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ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4
2.2.

Technology policy in developing countries

Does the above argument mean that there is no room for technology policy indeveloping countries? Not necessarily. Once we accept the insights that inform thestate-promotion view, acknowledging a much wider set of “market failures” intechnology, technology policy becomes important even in the context of the developing
country for a number of reasons.
A. Research and development (R&D)
First, the fact that technology has tacit and specific elements means that even firmsthat are using “old” standardized technologies imported from abroad and, therefore
are not patented, may have to adapt those technologies to the local conditions. For
example, Japanese textile producers in the late 19th Century were compelled toadapt textile machines imported from Britain to suit the generally lower humidity inthe country. Another example is the relatively high price of metals in the early days ofindustrialization that made producers in Eastern Asia to substitute some parts ofimported machines with locally developed wooden spare parts.
The need for technological adaptation is so great that even until the 1960s, when
Japan was already an industrialized country, about one-third of Japanese corporate
R&D expenditure was devoted to understanding and adapting imported technologies
rather than developing original technologies. This means, therefore, that even at therelatively early stage of economic growth, developing countries need to acquire
some R&D capabilities that will allow them make rational adaptations. The absenceof such capabilities was one reason why early post-colonial technology transfer did
not work well in many countries. During that time, some machines imported todeveloping countries could not work well because the people lacked the capability
to adapt them to local conditions.
B. Education
When we talk of developing technological capability, the usual reaction will be about
increasing investment in education. There is no dispute that investment in education
is important in building technological capability. However, the question is what kindof education?
6

Who Needs Technology Policy?
Except at the elementary level, education can, and needs to be specialized. Industrial
strength of Japan that followed the German example owes a lot to the large numberof skilled workers produced by technical high schools. The experiences of Japanand other East Asia countries show the importance of controlling student numbers
and funding different university departments according to the overall industrial
development strategy. For example, there is little point in channelling money into
electronics engineering departments of universities when a country does not havean electronics industry, unless it has an explicit plan to develop the industry as was
the case of Korea and Taiwan in the 1970s.
C. Training
In addition to education, training is also necessary for building technologicalcapabilities. The industrial strengths of Japan, Korea and Germany are founded on
the existence of extensive high-quality training facilities. Training can be offered inhouse or externally, and different countries have combined the two options. In Germany,for example, external training and skills certification system have played a more
important role than in-house or on-the-job training used in Japan, where in-housetraining and re-training has been important in developing technological capabilitiesof the employees. Korea falls somewhere in the middle, although closer to theJapanese end of the spectrum.
D. Infant industry promotion
Technological capabilities created through investments in education and training
are embodied in individual workers. However, technological capabilities that areembodied in the firm through the rules and routines of the organization go beyond thecapacity of individual workers. The capability of the firm, therefore, is more than acollection of that of the employees. Such capabilities can only be accumulated
through production experiences that the firm employs to improve its rules and routines.
Therefore, the development of technological capabilities at the firm level is criticallydependent on the amount of production experience that the firms can have.
The key problem, however, that firms in developing countries face when they try tobuild up new technological capabilities through production experience in new areas
7

ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4
is that some firms in the more developed countries are more productive, making theaccumulation of any production experience impossible. This means that some kindof infant industry protection is necessary for the firms in developing countries to havebreathing space to accumulate experience in new areas.
Infant industries can be protected through tariffs and other trade restrictions, explicit
and implicit subsidies, appropriate restrictions on TNC activities, or preferential
treatment of domestic firms in government procurement. This, for example, is said tohave been important in the early development of Japanese computer industry. Fromthe 18th Century, when Britain was technologically behind Belgium and theNetherlands, through 19th Century in USA where the infant industry argument was firstsystematically developed, down to the late 20th Century in Korea and Taiwan, virtually
all successful developers have done this to develop new industries2
E. Intellectual property rights
Until recently, IPR issues have been considered less important by developing than indeveloped countries. On the one hand, domestic IPR laws were considered
unimportant since there were relatively few R&D activities in developing countries
that could generate patents or valuable trademarks. On the other hand, developed
countries had been relatively relaxed towards the infringement of their patents andtrademarks by developing countries until in the1980s.
However, IPR issues have become critical for developing countries from the late1980s because of the trade-related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) agreement in
the World Trade Organization (WTO) that is forcing developing countries to adopt
the pro-patentee IPR laws that are widely used in the developed countries. This,
however, has not changed the truth that IPR issues are still relatively insignificant fordeveloping countries as generators of new technology. However, in their status asadopters and users of new technology, the picture has dramatically changed.

2

The only exceptions were Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Hong Kong. For further details, see H-J.
Chang, Kicking Away the Ladder – Development Strategy in Historical Perspective (forthcoming, May,
2002, Anthem Press, London), especially chapters 1 and 2.

8

Who Needs Technology Policy?
A number of issues have come to light as a result of the TRIPS agreement. The firstone is the protection that developing countries, as the final consumers of technology,
are offering to the owners of intellectual properties (IP), for example, patents. As
observed in the debate surrounding the AIDS/HIV drugs, this can have a serious effecton general welfare of these countries. Another issue is the theft of traditional knowledge
that has been made easier by TRIPS. Companies in developed countries are actively
scouring the developing world for useful traditional knowledge for which there is noproprietary claim and, therefore, can be patented without any legal problem. Finally,
with the tightening of patents and other IPR protection, it now more difficult fordeveloping countries to acquire technology through reverse engineering and adapt
it to local conditions.
OthersThere are a host of other reasons why developing countries need technology policy.
These include:• promoting innovation• promoting agricultural productivity• advancing industrialization• alleviating poverty• spreading the gains of technological revolution including the information
communication revolution• encouraging environmentally friendly and sustainable development activities• promoting a clean environment
F. Summary
The scope for technology policy in a developing country is much wider thanwhat is conventionally perceived. The conventional view on technology policy narrowly
focuses on basic R&D and patents but they are not important for developing countries.
From this view, it is frequently argued that there is little need for technology policy indeveloping countries. However, once we recognize the tacit and specific nature oftechnological knowledge that leads us into the state-promotion view of technology
policy, we are compelled to widen our definition of technology policy to include thosethat influence the development of technological capabilities. These include policies
that concern technological capabilities of individuals, for example, education and
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ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4
training (external and in-house) and those that concern the development ofcapabilities of firms, such as trade protection, subsidies and government procurement
policies. Finally, following the TRIPS agreement, more attention needs to be paid to
IPR issues.

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3.0
Technology Policy for Africa
Below, some lessons for Africa are drawn from the preceding discussions. Africa
comprises countries at different levels of technological development, from South
Africa that, in several industries, is near if not exactly on the world’s technologicalfrontier, some countries that are yet to start serious industrialization. Therefore, thediscussion inevitably involves over-generalization and simplification.
3.1.

Research and development (R&D)

Most African countries are in the early stages of industrialization and they need todevelop basic technological capabilities, first, rather than investing money in R&D
activities. However, this does not mean that they should not engage in R&D. As
mentioned earlier, developing countries still need some R&D activities to effectively
absorb and adapt imported technologies. In some areas, for example, certain crops,
tropical diseases, among others, African countries may have to undertake someR&D because firms in the developed countries who have the capabilities may consider
the African market too small to justify the R&D outlays. The fact that pharmaceuticalcompanies in the developed country are spending more R&D money in slimming
than malaria drugs confirms this.
If developing some R&D capabilities is necessary, organizational and incentive
structure that face various R&D institutions in African countries will have to be reviewed.
Given that most of these institutions are public or semi-public, there has to be a firm
government initiative to maximize returns from investments in these institutions.
Although organizational reform may be important, the quality of R&D personnel will
have to be enhanced. This factor is tied to improving tertiary level education. Improving
R&D capabilities is not likely to be a priority for most African countries and, therefore,
other issues like IPR, education, training and promoting infant industries are likely tobe the core of their technology policies.

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ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4
3.2.

Education

To improve education, African countries should emphasize specialized technicaleducation especially at secondary, followed by tertiary levels other than raising thegeneral level of education because, by historical standards, general educational
achievements in many African countries are not exceptionally unfavourable.
Between 1860 and 1870, for example, Norway, Spain and Italy were at similar levelsof economic development (measured by the admittedly imperfect per capita income)with Kenya, Uganda and Côte d’Ivoire of today. However, the former countries had
literacy ratios of 35%, 25%, and 20% respectively, while the latter had literacy ratios of
78%, 40%, and 62% in 1995 (all the following African figures are for 1995). Theremay be African countries that are doing rather poorly on this account by historicalstandards, for example, Senegal (33%) and Benin (37%) have literacy ratios that area bit lower than European countries, such as Sweden and France at 55% of the mid19th Century at similar levels of income. However, there are also countries that are
doing exceptionally well by historical standards. Lesotho, a country at a similar levelof development to that of Senegal and Benin, with 71% literacy ratio, outdoes France
and Sweden by a substantial margin and far outstrips Austria (30%). Zimbabwe(85%) does much better than USA (65%), the Netherlands (70%), and Belgium (50%)
who, in mid-19th Century, were at similar levels of development as where Zimbabwe
is today.
Literacy and other basic skills are worthy in itself, but only in its value for economic
growth. It is fair to conclude from the above statistics that many African countries do
not need to radically increase their spending on general education. What African andother developing countries need more are “skilled workers” trained by technical highschools and on-the-job and well-designed in-house training programs. Such workers
are considered to have been crucial in helping the industrialization of Japan, Germany
and Korea. Unfortunately, there is virtually no mention of the need to train more skilledworkers in the numerous discussions on human capital that litter development
literature. In the annual World Development Report, the institution publishes thenumber of scientists and engineers in R&D but provides no statistics on categories,
such as technicians and skilled workers.

12

Who Needs Technology Policy?
African countries need to strengthen technical education in systems based on British
or French curricula that put little emphasis on the subject. Given the technologicalrequirements that face most of these countries, except South Africa, the focus needs
to be on the secondary level. Introducing compulsory technical education in all
secondary schools, like Korea did in the 1970s and the 1980s, or establishing Germanstyle technical high schools (later used by the Japanese and the Koreans) can also
be examined.
Emphasizing the importance of technical education at the secondary level is not anargument for ignoring problems facing universities and other tertiary educational
institutions in Africa. Raising the quality of tertiary education that is incomplete in
Africa is important even simply for producing good teachers. According to the United
Nations Scientific, Educational, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), while theenrolment ratio (percentage of age groups) at the primary level for sub-SaharanAfrican countries was below average for developing countries (78% vs. 91%) in
1995, at the tertiary level, it was only about one-quarter of the average for the same
countries (2.9% vs. 11%). Moreover, the content of university education is also highlybiased against technical subjects. For example, by mid-1990s, South Africa produced
5 to 6 times more university graduates in humanities and social sciences than innatural sciences and engineering, whereas the ratio for Korea was around 1:1.5.
This means that African countries not only need to invest more in tertiary education
but they also need to re-direct efforts towards technical subjects.
3.3.

Training

African countries also need to invest more in industrial training. Research show thatindustrial training in Africa is highly deficient even in the more industrialized countries
like Zimbabwe and South Africa. Policies that need to be contemplated and havebeen used by more successful countries include:•
introducing compulsory training for workers in large firms•
subsidizing industrial training•
establishing public training institutions•
introducing German-style public skill certification system

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ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4
The public certification system will increase the incentive for workers to invest in
training by making it easier for potential employers to recognize their skills.
3.4.

Infant Industry Promotion

In addition to enhancing technological capabilities at the individual level throughbetter education and training, African countries need to find ways of enhancing
capabilities at firm level by allowing the promotion of infant industries. Tariff protectionis the most obvious tool for infant industry promotion, but it is not the only or even themost important means that can be used. There are many other tools that have beenused successfully. They include:• export subsidies• tariff rebates on inputs used for exports• conferring of monopoly rights• cartel arrangements• directed credits• investment planning• control on the activities of foreign companies (e.g., ownership restrictions,
local contents requirement, export requirements)• preferential treatment of national firms in government procurement policy
Two caveats need to be made. First, as experiences show, infant industry promotion
policies do not guarantee successful development of firm-level technological capabilities. In many developing countries, it degenerated into the cushioning of inefficient industries. The success of Japan and other East Asian countries in applicationof these policies have indicated that they are not realistic. They need to comply withoverall national technological capabilities and, above all, be based on the ability andthe willingness of governments to discipline the recipients of their support in casethey do not deliver the results. Policy failures need to be quickly admitted and problems rectified.
Many people argue that the African countries should not use active infant industry
promotion policies because they do not have an effective state of the kind describedabove, but this is an overly negative attitude. State reforms may be necessary in many
African countries and it is possible to achieve them, for example, until the 1940s and14

Who Needs Technology Policy?
the 1950s, respectively, many contemporary observers regarded Taiwan and Korea
governments as basket cases of corruption and incompetence. It is only throughcontinuous political and administrative reforms that these countries built effective
states. While it is necessary, in the short run, for African governments to calibrate theirintervention strategy according to their political and administrative capabilities, it
should be emphasized that such capabilities and other social actions can be changed
through deliberate actions by governments.
The second caveat that applies to the proposal for infant industry promotion policies
to enhance firm-level technological capabilities is that many of the recommended
policies are frowned upon today, if not actively banned, by donors and internationalorganizations like the WTO, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund(IMF). The best examples include:• tariff protection for infant industries• local contents requirement for foreign companies through the TRIPS
agreement of the WTO• preferential treatment of national firms in government procurement• export subsidies (through the WTO subsidies rule)
In the short run there is little that individual African countries can do to change thesepolicies. However, all the exemptions and loopholes that exist need to be exploited,for example, agricultural subsidies and others available to depressed regions are
acceptable to the WTO and like many developed nations, African countries should
use them to the maximum. Regional subsidies, especially, can be linked to the newly
developing practice of industrial “clustering”. Those who qualify as the least developed
countries in the WTO provision should also exploit their exemption from the ban onexport subsidies to the maximum to enhance the production experiences of theirfirms.
More importantly in the long run, African countries should work together with otherdeveloping countries and civil society campaign groups to change WTO rules andother elements in the current global governance regime. The success of the Africangroup in the recent WTO ministerial talk in Doha on drug patents and agricultural
market access is a positive example that even the weakest countries can influenceinternational policy agenda if they work together on the basis of an intelligent campaign
strategy.
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ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4
3.5.

Intellectual Property Rights

For the African countries, the most important task is to convince the world that patents
and other IPRs are socially-conferred monopoly rights and, therefore, can and shouldbe over-ridden when they harm the greater social good, for example, the case of
AIDS/HIV drugs. The TRIPS agreement acknowledges this matter because it allows
compulsory licensing. In practice, however, there are many procedural difficulties
and political pressure on countries not to engage in compulsory licensing except thepowerful countries, for example, the 50% discount that the US government extracts
from Bayer for the patent of the anti-anthrax drugs by threatening to use compulsory
licensing. If this undesirable situation is to change, African countries, as the main
victims of the AIDS/HIV epidemic, should lead the campaign to support the view thatlegally-endowed monopoly that accompanies patents and other IPRs can be justified
only when the benefits they generate by creating new knowledge is more important
than the costs they impose by exercising monopoly.
African countries also need to campaign for an international regulation on the theft oftraditional knowledge. As some of the major sources of untapped traditional
knowledge, they have a great stake in establishing rules on the ownership and theuse of these resources. It is possible to think of a solution where developed countries
are compelled to make TRIPS more advantageous to African countries as acompensation for the benefits that they had derived from free use of the traditional
knowledge.
Finally, African countries and other developing countries need to push for revision in
TRIPS so that they can easily adapt imported technologies. All developed countries
progressed on the basis of often illegally importing advanced technologies andadapting them to local conditions. The governments of virtually all these countries
openly sponsored industrial espionage, while many of them offered very weak or noprotection to foreign IPRs. Developing countries should emphasize that preventing
them from following a similar path is depriving them of a key instrument for economic
development.

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4.0
Conclusion
There is little that developing countries, especially poorer ones like most Africancountries, can do about technology policy if it is narrowly defined in basic R&D andintellectual property rights. However, once we accept a broad and more realistic
definition of technology policy, there are many things that the poorer African countries
can and should do, such as:• developing some R&D capacities and improving the governance of R&D
institutions• improving the quality of the workforce by investing more in training andtechnical education at the secondary levels• enhancing technological capabilities of firms by enabling them to havegreater production experience through various broadly defined infant industry
promotion policies
With the TRIPS agreement, these countries now need to be more proactive in dealing
with IPRs issues, although most of them will involve collective action among developing
countries on the international scale. All these policies need greater resources, betterorganization or even political and administrative reforms to succeed. Some of themwill require changes in the international rules of the game. However, none of these
difficulties are insurmountable and there is a wealth of experience from Europe,
North America, and East Asia that African countries can draw from to devise aneffective technology policy that is adequately calibrated to meet their material,
technological and political conditions. There are also new actors, especially nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), such as the African Technology Policy Studies
Network (ATPS) whose help the African countries can enlist in developing newtechnology policy. It will not be an easy task, but failure to do so will hamper industrial
recovery and development in the continent for even longer. Time for more aggressive
and lateral thinking has arrived.

17

References
Chang, H-J. and Cheema, A. (2002): Conditions for Effective Technology Policy in
Developing Countries – Learning Rents, State Structures and Institutions, Journal of
Economic Innovation and New Technology, (forthcoming)
Chang, H-J. (2002): Kicking Away the Ladder- Development Strategy in Historical
Perspective, Anthem Press, London.

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ATPS Technopolicy Briefs Series
Who Benefits from the New International Intellectual Property Rights Regime? And
What Should Africa Do? by Ha-Joon Chang(ATPS Technopolicy Brief 1)
How Can We Constitutionalize Innovation, Technology and Intellectual Property in
Kenya ? by Bernard Sihanya(ATPS Technopolicy Brief 2)What Can Biotechnology Do For Africa? How Can The Associated Risks And
Uncertainties Be Managed? by Norman Clark(ATPS Technopolicy Brief 3)
Who Needs Technology Policy? by Ha-Joon Chang(ATPS Technopolicy Brief 4)

Professor Ha-Joon Chang works at the Faculty of Economics and Politics, Universityof Cambridge

For more information this series and ATPS Contact:

The Executive Director
The African Technology Policy Studies Network
3rd Floor, The Chancery, Valley Road
P.O. Box 10081 00100 General Post Office
Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254-2-2714168/092/498
Fax: +254-2-2714028
Email: info@atpsnet.org