ISSN
1346-7328
国 総 研 資 料 第 264号
平 成 17年
7月
ISSN
0386-5878
土 研 資 料 第 3977号
平 成 17年
7月

国土技術政策総合研究所資料
Technical Note of National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
No. 264
July 2005

土

木

研

究

所

資

料

Technical Note of Public Works Research InstituteNo. 3977
July 2005

第 ３ 回
日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議
報 告 書
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 3RD JAPAN-U.S. GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCEON DRINKING WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND WASTEWATER CONTROL

平成16年7月12日～15日
米国・ハワイJuly 12-15, 2004
Hawaii, U.S.

国土交通省

国土技術政策総合研究所

National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Japan

独 立 行 政 法 人

土 木 研 究 所

Incorporated Administrative Agency
Public Works Research InstituteCopyright © (2004) by N.I.L.I.M. and P.W.R.I.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any means,nor transmitted, nor translated into a machine language without the written
permission of the Director-General of N.I.L.I.M. and the Chief Executive of
P.W.R.I.
この報告書は、国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所所長、独立行政法人
土木研究所理事長の承認を得て刊行したものである。したがって、本報告書の全部又は一部の転載、複製は、国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所所長、独立行政法人土木研究所理事長の文書による承認を得ずしてこれを行ってはならない。

国土技術政策総合研究所資料
第264号
平成17年7月
土 木 研
第3977号

究所 資 料
平成17年7月

第 ３ 回
日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議
報 告 書

国土交通省
独立行政法人

国土技術政策総合研究所
土木研究所

下水道研究部

リサイクルチーム／水質チーム

概要
この報告書は、平成16年7月12日～15日に米国ハワイで行われた「第３回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議」における議事録及び発表資料等を取りまとめたものである。同会議では、日米の政府・自治体・研究機関の代表者により、水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する両国の現状と課題について発表と意見交換が行われた。
キーワード: 水道水質管理、下水道技術、流域管理、二国間協力

Technical Note of NILIM
No. 264
July 2005
Technical Note of PWRI
No. 3977
July 2005

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 3RD JAPAN-U.S. GOVERNMENTAL
CONFERENCE ON DRINKING WATER QUALITYMANAGEMENT AND WASTEWATER CONTROL

Water Quality Control Department,
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Japan
Recycling Research Team & Water Quality Research Team,
Incorporated Administrative Agency
Public Works Research Institute

Synopsis
This publication contains the proceedings of the 3rd Japan-U.S. Governmental Conference on
Drinking Water Quality Management and Wastewater Control, which was held in Hawaii, U.S.
during July 12-15, 2004. In this Conference, current status and subjects of drinking water
quality management and wastewater control were presented and discussed by government andmunicipal officials and researchers of Japan and U.S.
Key Words: Drinking Water Quality Management, Wastewater Control, Watershed Management,
Bilateral Cooperative Research目次

１．はじめに ··············································································································································· 1
２．経緯 ······················································································································································· 1
３．会議開催の意義 ···································································································································· 1
４．日程及び参加者 ···································································································································· 2
５．会議の概要 ··········································································································································· 4
5.1

開会 ··············································································································································· 4

5.2

議題 1：水道水質管理の概要 ····································································································· 5

5.3

議題 2：下水道分野の現状 ········································································································· 6

5.4

議題 3：水道分野における微生物的課題 ·················································································· 7

5.5

議題 4：水道分野における科学技術の振興 ·············································································· 8

5.6

議題 5：水道分野の新技術 ········································································································· 9

5.7

議題 6：雨水対策と下水道 ······································································································· 10

5.8

議題 7：アジアにおける国際援助 ··························································································· 12

5.9

議題 8：健全な水循環の形成 ··································································································· 12

5.10 議題 9：流域管理 ······················································································································· 13
5.11 議題 10：排出枠取引 ············································································································································· 15
5.12 議題 11：水道分野における早期警戒システム ······································································ 17
5.13 議題 12：水の再利用 ················································································································· 17
5.14 議題 13：バイオソリッドの再利用 ·························································································· 19
5.15 議題 14：内分泌かく乱化学物質 ····························································································· 20
5.16 議題 15：施設更新 ····················································································································· 22
5.17 議題 16：臭気問題 ············································································································································ 23
６．総括 ····················································································································································· 25
７．視察の概要 ········································································································································· 25
８．おわりに ············································································································································· 26
別添資料
別添 1

第 3 回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議日程 ······························· 27

別添 2

第 3 回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議日程（英文） ··············· 30

別添 3

第 3 回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議名簿（英文） ·················34

別添 4

第 3 回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議概要 ······························· 38

別添 5

第 3 回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議概要（英文） ··············· 40

別添 6

会議及び視察の写真 ···············································································································42

発表資料
1. 過去に学び、未来に向かう ·········································································································· 43
米国環境保護庁

ローレンス・ライター

2. 米国の水道及び水質に関する最近の動向 ··················································································· 49
米国環境保護庁

サリー・グティアレツ

3. 米国の飲料水に関する規制の紹介 ······························································································· 57
米国環境保護庁

アン・コーリングトン

4. 日本の水道の歴史について ·········································································································· 61
厚生労働省

柳橋泰生

5. 日本の水道水質基準の改正について ··························································································· 73
厚生労働省

若山宏

6. 下水道事業、法制の現状と今後 ··································································································· 89
国土技術政策総合研究所

高橋正宏

7. 日本のクリプトスポリジウム集団感染事例から学んだこと ·················································· 107
国立感染症研究所

遠藤卓郎

8. 病原性微生物のモニタリングは飲料水の安全確保に有効か？ ·············································· 121
米国水道協会研究財団

マルティン・アレン

9. 水道分野における科学技術の振興 ····························································································· 127
国立保健医療科学院

浅見真理

10. 米国水道協会研究財団の戦略的研究計画 ················································································· 145
米国水道協会研究財団

ジェームス・マンワリング

11. 日本における水道用膜処理施設の現状と技術開発の動向 ······················································ 149
水道技術研究センター

藤原正弘

12. 汽水の淡水化 ································································································································ 155
エル・パソ上下水道局、米国水道協会研究財団

エドモンド・アルチュレータ

13. 大阪市における合流式下水道の改善―雨天時活性汚泥プロセス－ ····························································· 161
大阪市都市環境局 松本広司
14. 雨水とニューヨーク市 ·············································································································································· 177
ニューヨーク市環境保護部下水道局 アル・ロペス
15. 米国農務省のアジアにおける水関係援助 ············································································································ 183
米国農務省 スーザン・オーウェン
16. 自律型分散水システムの活用に向けて ····················································································· 189
東京大学環境安全研究センター

山本和夫

17. 琵琶湖流域における排水管理 ···································································································· 201
滋賀県琵琶湖環境部

森野久栄

18. 流域管理 ······································································································································· 217
米国環境保護庁

ジェームズ・ハンロン

19. 流域管理のための経済効率性と費用負担に関する検討 ·························································· 221
国土技術政策総合研究所

吉田敏章

20. 米国環境保護庁第 10 管区における水質取引 ··········································································· 239
米国環境保護庁

クレア・シャーリー

21. 日本における水質汚染事故対策 ································································································· 243
厚生労働省

柳橋泰生

22. 水道水源の早期警戒システムに関する研究 ··············································································· 267
米国環境保護庁

ジェームス・グッドリッチ

23. 日本における下水処理水再利用の現状 ····················································································· 275
国土技術政策総合研究所

南山瑞彦

24. 水の再利用······································································································································ 295
ブラック・アンド・ヴィーチ社

ディック・クチェンライザー

25. バイオソリッドの再利用におけるリスクマネージメント························································ 301
土木研究所

尾﨑正明

26. 汚泥／バイオソリッドの再利用··································································································· 307
ヴァージニア工科大学

ジョン・ノヴァク

27. 水道における内分泌かく乱化学物質とその他関連化学物質の挙動 ········································ 311
国立保健医療科学院

国包章一

28. 下水処理場における内分泌かく乱化学物質の実態····························································································· 323
土木研究所 岡安祐司
29. 上水道における内分泌かく乱化学物質の除去技術····························································································· 339
米国環境保護庁 キャサリン・シェンク
30. 水道施設の更新に関する意志決定及び資金代替案に関する研究の役割－耐震計画について·················································································································· 345
北海道大学創成科学研究機構

眞柄泰基

31. 社会基盤の改築更新についての意思決定過程および財源負担方法に関する調査の果たす役割······················································································································ 363
日本下水道事業団 須賀雄一
32. 水道施設の更新決定プロセスにおける研究の重要性 ······························································ 373
米国水道協会研究財団 ジャン・チェン
33. 高度浄水処理における臭素酸の生成と制御 ············································································· 381
東京都水道局

宮垣融

34. 下水処理場における臭気の検出と制御 ················································································································ 397
米国水環境研究財団、インフィルコデグレモン社

バーノン・ルーシー

１．はじめに平成 16 年 7 月に、米国ハワイ州において「第 3 回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議」が開催され、日米両国の上下水道を巡る最近の課題について和やかな中にも熱心な討議が行われた。16 分野の議題に対して日米双方から 32 編の発表があり、最終日には、討議の総括が行われ、議論の確認と次回の会議を平成 18 年に開催すること等が合意された。
本報告書は、今後の下水道分野における政策研究、技術開発の推進及び国際協力の促進のために、日本の下水道分野から本会議に参加した国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所、独立行政法人土木研究所、
日本下水道事業団、滋賀県琵琶湖環境部及び大阪市都市環境局が本会議の概要をとりまとめたものである。なお、水道分野の発表と討議の概要については、とりまとめにあたり国立保健医療科学院の国包部長をはじめとする水道分野の参加者の御協力をいただいた。
２．経緯
日米両国間の水道、下水道分野の技術交流は、かつて分野毎に実施されてきた。下水道分野では、日米環境保護協力協定（US-Japan Environmental Protection Agreement）に基づき、昭和 46 年より日米下水処理技術委員会（US-Japan Conference on Sewage Treatment Technology）を継続的に開催してきたが、平成元年に開催された第 12 回委員会において、建設省土木研究所と米国環境保護庁研究所を中心とした技術交流のための日米下水道ワークショップへと変更の取り決めがなされた。これに基づき、平成 2 年につくばで第 1 回ワークショップが開催され、平成 7 年までに計 5 回のワークショップが開催された。
ワークショップでは、水質汚濁防止、都市流域の水質管理、下水の高度処理、合流式下水道の改善といった課題を中心に、技術交流、意見交換、研究成果の交換が行われた。一方、水道分野では、日米環境保護協力協定に基づく「日米水道水質管理会合」が昭和 62 年から平成 6 年まで計 4 回開催された。
しかし、上下水道をとりまく課題は、流域を一体としてとらえた水量・水質の管理、クリプトスポリ
ジウムや内分泌攪乱化学物質の問題等、共通の課題や共有すべき情報が多く、上下水道関係者が一堂に会して情報、意見交換を行うことが有益である。そこで、両分野の会議を「日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議」として統合することとし、第 1 回会議が平成 11 年 7 月に米国コロラドス
プリングスにて、第 2 回会議が平成 14 年 10 月に東京にて開催された。本会議は、第 2 回会議における合意に基づき米国で開催されたものである。
３．会議開催の意義
下水道技術に関しては、病原性微生物や内分泌攪乱化学物質の制御、合流式下水道越流水の対策等の課題が、公共用水域の利用や生態系の保全のためその重要度を増している。また、雨水対策、下水処理
水や下水汚泥の再利用は、流域管理の視点が不可欠であり、排出枠調整による流域管理の検討が進められている。さらに、下水道施設の改築更新についても技術開発の果たす役割が大きくなっている。これ
らの課題を受け、国土交通省下水道部及び国土技術政策総合研究所下水道研究部は「第 3 次下水道技術
五箇年計画」を平成 16 年 5 月に策定し、下水道分野における技術開発の方向性及び開発すべき技術を示したところである。
水道水質の管理においては、平成 16 年に WHO 飲料水水質ガイドライン第 3 版が発行され、厚生労働省では水道水質基準の見直しが行われた。この中で、水源の管理、消毒副生成物の問題、クリプトスポ
リジウム等耐塩素性病原微生物の問題、内分泌攪乱化学物質に関する問題など、多様な問題が提起され‑1‑

てきていることを踏まえ、微生物や化学物質による健康リスクの評価とその管理の充実・強化を重要な課題として取り組んできている。
一方、米国においても水道水中の微生物や化学物質による健康リスクの評価と管理、雨天時における下水の管理は以前から重要な問題であり、水質取引等、流域管理の一層の推進が求められている。また、危機管理が水道においても最重要課題として取り上げられるようになった他、施設の改築更新や研究の振興が課題となっている。
このように日米両国は、水道水質管理及び下水道技術の分野において、多くの共通の問題を抱えており、相互に情報を交換し、対策について議論することは、両国のみならず国際的にも意義が深く、また、
上下水道が連携した流域管理を推進する観点からも重要である。
４．日程及び参加者「第 3 回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議」は、平成 16 年 7 月 12 日～15 日の 4
日間にわたり米国ハワイ州コオリーナで開催された。このうち 3 日間は発表及び討議が行われ、7 月 13日午後と 7 月 15 日には水関連施設の視察が行われた。本会議には、米国環境保護庁国立リスク管理研
究所（National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL), U.S. EPA）統括部長の Laurence W. Reiter氏を団長とする 17 名の米国代表団と、日本国側の高橋正宏 国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所下水道研究部長を団長とする下水道分野 9 名、柳橋泰生 厚生労働省健康局水道課水道水質管理官を団長とする水道分野 10 名が参加した。参加者の所属と氏名を表 1 と表 2 に示す。また、会議次第を表 3 に示す。
表 1 参加者名簿（日本国代表団）【下水道分野】○高橋正宏
国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所 下水道研究部長
吉田敏章
国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所 下水道研究部下水道研究室 研究官
南山瑞彦
国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所 下水道研究部下水道研究室長
尾﨑正明
独立行政法人土木研究所 材料地盤研究グループリサイクルチーム 上席研究員
鈴木穣
独立行政法人土木研究所 水循環研究グループ水質チーム 上席研究員
岡安祐司
独立行政法人土木研究所 水循環研究グループ水質チーム 研究員
須賀雄一
日本下水道事業団 技術開発部 研究員
森野久栄
滋賀県琵琶湖環境部 湖南中部流域下水道事務所 主任研究員
松本広司
大阪市都市環境局 下水道部工務課計画係長【水道分野】○柳橋泰生
厚生労働省 健康局水道課水道水質管理室 水道水質管理官
若山宏
厚生労働省 健康局水道課水道水質管理室 技官
国包章一
国立保健医療科学院 水道工学部長
浅見真理
国立保健医療科学院 水道工学部 生活衛生適正技術開発主任研究官
遠藤卓郎
国立感染症研究所 寄生動物部長
眞柄泰基
北海道大学創成科学研究機構 特任教授
山本和夫
東京大学環境安全研究センター 教授
宮垣融
東京都水道局 玉川浄水管理事務所砧浄水場長
藤原正弘
財団法人水道技術研究センター 理事長
佐藤侃二
社団法人日本水道協会 工務部技術課 副主幹※ ○は団長を示す。所属及び役職は会議開催時点のものである。

‑2‑

表 2 参加者名簿（米国代表団）○Lawrence W. Reiter

Acting Director, National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL),
U.S. EPA（米国環境保護庁 国立リスク管理研究所 統括部長）

Sally Gutierrez

Director, Water Supply & Water Resources Division, NRMRL, U.S. EPA（米国環境保護庁 国立リスク管理研究所 水道・水資源部）

James A. Goodrich

Water Supply & Water Resources Division, NRMRL, U.S. EPA（米国環境保護庁 国立リスク管理研究所 水道・水資源部）

Kathleen Schenck

Water Supply & Water Resources Division, NRMRL, U.S. EPA（米国環境保護庁 国立リスク管理研究所 水道・水資源部）

Ann Codrington

Standards and Risk Management Division,
Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water, U.S. EPA（米国環境保護庁 地下水・飲料水部）

James Hanlon

Director, Office of Wastewater Management, U.S. EPA（米国環境保護庁 下水道管理部）

Claire Schary

Office for Environmental Management & Information, U.S. EPA - Region 10（米国環境保護庁 第 10 管区環境管理情報部）

Susan J. Owens

Deputy Director, Research & Scientific Exchanges Division,
International Cooperation & Exchanges, Foreign Agricultural Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture（米国農務省 海外農業サービス局）

Al Lopez

Deputy Commissioner, Bureau of Wastewater Treatment,
New York City Department of Environmental Protection（ニューヨーク市環境保護部下水道局）

Edmund G. Archuleta

El Paso Water Utilities, Chair, AwwaRF（エル・パソ上下水道局、米国水道協会研究財団）

John Novak

Professor of Civil Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University（ヴァージニア工科大学）

James F. Manwaring

Executive Director, Awwa Research Foundation (AwwaRF)（米国水道協会研究財団）

Martin J. Allen

Director - Technology Transfer, AwwaRF（米国水道協会研究財団）

Jian Zhang

Project Officer, AwwaRF（米国水道協会研究財団）

Daniel Woltering

Director of Research, Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF)（米国水環境研究財団）

Vernon Lucy

WERF, President/Chairman of the Board, Infilco Degremont, Inc.
（米国水環境研究財団、インフィルコ・デグレモン社）

Dick Kuchenrither

Senior Vice President, Black & Veatch Corporation（ブラック・アンド・ヴィーチ社）※ ○は団長を示す。所属及び役職は会議開催時点のものである。

‑3‑

表 3 会議次第
第 1 日 7 月 12 日
歓迎挨拶
開会挨拶
議題 1: 水道水質管理の概要
議題 2: 下水道分野の現状
議題 3: 水道分野における微生物的課題
議題 4: 水道分野における科学技術の振興
議題 5: 水道分野の新技術
議題 6: 雨水対策と下水道
議題 7: アジアにおける国際援助（C. Jamile）（柳橋、高橋、L. Reiter）（柳橋・若山、S. Gutierrez、A. Codrington）（高橋）（遠藤、M. Allen）（浅見、J. Manwaring）（藤原、E. Archuleta）（松本、A. Lopez）（S. Owens）

第 2 日 7 月 13 日
議題 8: 健全な水循環の形成（山本）
議題 9: 流域管理
（森野、J. Hanlon）（吉田、C. Schary）
議題 10: 排出枠取引
議題 11: 水道分野における早期警戒システム （柳橋、J. Goodrich）
視察 [ワイフェ地下水源]
第 3 日 7 月 14 日
議題 12: 水の再利用
議題 13: バイオソリッドの再利用
議題 14: 内分泌かく乱化学物質
議題 15: 施設更新
議題 16: 臭気問題
会議要約への署名
閉会挨拶（南山、D. Kuchenrither）（尾崎、J. Novak）（国包、岡安、K. Schenck）（真柄、須賀、J. Zhang）（宮垣、V. Lucy）（柳橋、高橋、L. Reiter）（柳橋、高橋、L. Reiter、S. Gutierrez、他）

第 4 日 7 月 15 日
視察 [ホノウリウリ下水再生施設、ハラワ水源]※ （）内は発表者等を示す。

５．会議の概要
5.1

開会

現地を代表して、クリフォード・ジャミール（ホノルル水局、管理者兼技監）氏から、日米両国の関係者にハワイの温かい歓迎精神で歓迎の挨拶とともに、海水淡水化と下水処理水の再利用を推進するホノルルの水道に関して、簡単な紹介があった。
続いて、米国環境保護庁国立リスク管理研究所統括部長ローレンス・ライター氏より、「過去に学び、
未来に向かう」と題して開会挨拶があった。ひ素の新基準、内分泌かく乱化学物質、早期警告型毒性試
験、計算科学を用いたリスクアセスメント手法について研究を進めていく旨、また、持続性、すなわち、
環境と経済性の両面から次世代に持続可能性を確保することが強く求められていることなどが紹介された。
次に、柳橋泰生

厚生労働省健康局水道課水質管理官から、本会議の開催に当たり、米国側の尽力に感謝する旨と、日本では、10 年ぶりの水質基準の改正、水道ビジョンを発表したところであり、本会議‑4‑

の成功を期待する旨の挨拶があった。また、高橋正宏

国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所下水道部長

からは、日本では「第 3 次下水道技術五箇年計画」が策定されたところであり、下水道技術と流域管理の視点が重要である旨、日米の情報交換が重要であり、また、上下水道が連携した流域管理を推進する観点が重要である旨の挨拶があった。
5.2

議題 1： 水道水質管理の概要（1） 米国の水道及び水質に関する研究の最近の動向（米国環境保護庁

サリー・グティアレツ）「米国の水道及び水質に関する研究の最近の動向」について紹介があった。米国環境保護庁では、水道に関する研究のテーマとして、１）配水網システム、２）水源保護（飲料水の水質確保）、３）微生
物の起源探索、４）バラスト水の処理技術の評価に関する研究を行っていることが紹介された。配水網システムに関しては、消毒剤の変更による管壁からの鉛の溶出が見られたこと、水源保護については、流域のノンポイントソースの制御について調査、研究を行っており、水源保護のためのプロジェクトを推進していること、微生物の起源探索については、分子生物学的手法等を用いて、糞便性の汚染の起源探索で、動物種が特定できるようになったことなどが紹介された。
（2） 米国の飲料水に関する規制の紹介（米国環境保護庁

アン・コーリングトン）

EPA ができる前は、健康省が基準を担当していた。ルイジアナの水道水中に有機化学物質が数多く発見されたことから、水の安全性に関する研究が開始され、特に発ガン性物質に関する検討が始まった。
1986 年の改正で、基準値の決定方法についても決めるようになった。
基準値の策定において、健康影響と、コスト面における実現可能性、顧客の負担についても考慮し、
顧客説明書（CCR: Consumer Confidence Reports）を発表することが求められている。
水質に関する課題としては、ヒ素、ラドン、硫酸、微生物、化学物質の副生成物、地下水管理、ろ過
水の逆洗水の再利用などが課題となっている。
健康影響、処理性、分析方法、存在状況を考慮し、基準値が定められている。
ヒ素の基準値超過のおそれがある水道としては小規模水道が多く、小規模水道では地下水を起源とするところが多い。
【討議】
カリフォルニアにおいてクロラミン処理の際に生成するジメチルニトロソアミン（NDMA）が問題となっていることに関して、その検討の進捗状況について質問があり、米国側から、NDMA については、関心が高いが、毒性や処理性の検討を行っている段階であり、まだ基準値の設定には至っていないと回答があった。
また、ヒ素の基準値の改正の時期について質問があり、米国側から、2006 年 1 月に予定されていると回答があった。
（3） 日本の水道の歴史及び日本の水道水質基準の改正について
日本の水道の歴史について（厚生労働省

日本の水道水質基準の改正について柳橋泰生）（厚生労働省 若山宏）

日本の近代水道は、1987 年の横浜の物が最初だが、都市に飲用水を供給するシステムとしての水道は、
16 世紀には建設されており、江戸時代には 100 万人以上の人に供給する水道（玉川上水等）が整備された。日本では、前回の水質基準の改正から約 10 年が経過し、新たな消毒副生成物の問題、耐塩素性病
原微生物の問題、進行する水源の水質汚染の問題、WHO 飲料水水質ガイドラインの改正等を受けて、水道水質基準の改正を行ったところである。厚生労働省は水質基準の改正に当たり、2002 年 7 月に厚生‑5‑

科学審議会に諮問し、2003 年 4 月に厚生科学審議会からの答申を受け、同年 5 月に水質基準を改正し、2004 年 4 月 1 日から新しい水質基準が施行されたところである。
従来の日本の水質基準は、全国的に問題を生ずるような項目を対象に設定し、地域的な問題や特定の浄水方法などで問題となる項目については、通知による指導で対応するという方法を採ってきた。しかし、今回の改正ではそのような考え方を改め、特定の地域、原水の種類又は浄水方法によらず、人の健康の保護又は生活上の支障を生ずるおそれのあるものについてはすべて水質基準を設定することとした。
水質基準の設定に当たっては、「浄水において評価値（従来の基準値）の 10 分の 1 に相当する値を超えて検出され、又は検出されるおそれの高い項目を水質基準とする」こととした。その結果、従来の46 項目から 13 項目追加、9 項目削除して、新たな水質基準として 50 項目を設定した。
また、水質基準とされなかった項目については、一般環境中で検出されている項目、使用量が多く今後水道水中でも検出される可能性がある項目などについて、水道水質管理上留意すべき項目として、水質管理目標設定項目 27 項目を設定した。この中には国民の関心の高い農薬も含まれ、国内における検出状況や使用量等から 101 種類の農薬をリストアップし、総農薬方式による評価を導入することとした。
今回の改正においては、全ての水道事業者に水質検査を義務付ける項目は基本的なものに限定し、その他の項目については各々の事業者の状況に応じて省略できるシステムを導入した。ただし、水質検査
は水質管理の上で極めて重要な位置を占めることから、これが適切かつ透明性をもって行わなければならない。そのため、水道事業者に対し、水質検査計画の作成・事前公表を義務付ける制度を導入することとした。
厚生労働省では水質基準の見直しに当たっては、一定期間の経過後に水質基準を改正する方式を改め、WHO が取り入れたシステムと同様に、最新の科学的知見に対応して逐次水質基準を見直す逐次改正方式によることとなった。そのため、水質基準の見直しを議論する専門家会議を設置したところである。
【討議】
評価値の 10%以下しか検出されない項目のみを水質基準とした場合、定量下限の高い物質は基準に入らな
いのではないかと質問があり、日本側から、基準値の策定に当たっては、定量下限が評価値の 10%以下となっていることを確認してから検討を行ったため、問題とはなっていないと回答した。また、食品安全委員会ができたことによる基準値設定のプロセスに関して、今回の改訂における対応状況について質問があり、日本側から、食品安全委員会ができ、食品安全委員会の毒性評価に従い一日耐用摂取量（TDI: Tolerable Daily
Intake）を設定することとなるが、今回の改訂は食品安全委員会の設立前に当たるため、そのプロセスとはなっていないが、次回の改訂では食品安全委員会に諮問を行い、示された TDI を用いる必要があると回答した。さらに、農薬が基準に入らなかった理由について質問があったが、日本側から、農薬の検出値は極めて低かったため今回の改訂の基準に照らすと基準値には入らなかったが、農薬については国民の関心が高く、多種類の農薬が使われているため、総農薬方式を採用し、また、有機りん系の農薬についてはオキソン体が生成され、神経毒性を示すことがわかっており、現在も調査を継続中であると回
答した。
5.3

議題 2： 下水道分野の現状（1） 下水道事業、法制の現状と今後（国土技術政策総合研究所高橋正宏）

日本では、近年下水道整備が急速に進展したが、ここ数年は行財政改革による公共事業の見直しなどの影響で、投資スピードが落ちている。しかし、下水道事業への期待は多くの方面で高まっており、そ‑6‑

の重要性を科学的に評価し、広く宣伝することが必要である。我が国の下水道事業は、流域別下水道整備総合計画に基づいているが、本年、下水道法施行令の大幅改正を行い、下水道の環境保全に果たす役
割を法的に明確化した。計画放流水質を放流先の状況に合わせてきめ細かく設定すること、および計画
放流水質に対応する処理方法を政令で位置づけたこと、合流式下水道の越流水対策を、期限を切って明確化したことなどが重要な改正点である。
また、PRTR 法の施行に伴う化学物質管理や、バイオマスニッポン戦略など、新たな下水道の使命に対しても、着実に対応している。
本年、国土交通省と国土技術政策総合研究所は、第 3 次下水道技術五箇年計画を策定した。本計画は、国土交通省の「国土交通省技術基本計画」に示された 5 つの主要課題を、下水道技術に対応させて、12の中課題、32 の技術開発項目を設定したものである。
【討議】
米国側から災害対策や安全性確保のための費用は誰が負担しているのかという質問がなされ、基本的にそれらは、国の補助金及び一般財源から支出されていると回答があった。また、下水道の処理に関わる費用は、利用者負担が原則であるが、小規模な自治体では建設費、処理費用をすべてまかなうことはできず、一般財源からの充当があることも説明された。
5.4

議題 3： 水道分野における微生物的課題（1） 日本のクリプトスポリジウム集団感染事例から学んだこと（国立感染症研究所 遠藤卓郎）
日本では、これまで、3 件のクリプト集団感染が判明している。1994 年平塚では 461 名、1996 年の越生では 8812 名、2002 年の淡路では 129 名の患者数を出している。淡路の事例では、高校生が北海道の旅行中に感染したものと考えられている。越生の事例について、詳細な検討を行ったところ、299 名の短期暴露が、あり、平均 5.9 日で発症している。そのうち、若い年代で、極めて短期で発症している。
越生での事故については、400m 上流に処理場があり、下流の浄水場の処理が悪く濁度が上がったことが原因と見られているが、感染のピークを観察すると、必ずしも濁度と直接の相関関係が見られず、患者数の急激な拡大に関する因果関係が明確とは言い難い。もう一つの因子として、一般的に人間は気温が 25 度以上になると生水を飲む機会が増えるとされていることから、データを再解析すると、気温が 25 度を超えた 5～6 日後に感染者数が急激に増加している。これは、通常の料理等では 20ml しか生
水を摂取しないところが、気温が 25 度以上となり 200ml 程度の生水を飲んだことが急激な感染者数の増加につながったものと考えられる。生水のリスクを考える際には、気温を考慮することも重要である。
（2） 病原性微生物のモニタリングは飲料水の安全確保に有効か？
（米国水道協会研究財団

マルティン・アレン）

病原性微生物のモニタリングには膨大な資源が投入されているが、試験に供される水は極一部である。
むしろ、水源管理や、濁度、温度、アルカリ度、降雨、pH、大腸菌、電気伝導度といった代替指標を用いた処理モニタリングが重要である。
水道汚染に係る病原微生物は原虫類（ジアルジア、クリプトスポリジウム）、細菌類（ビブリオ、サルモネラ、赤痢菌、キャンピロバクター、マイコバクテリウム）、ウイルス（培養可能なウイルス類）など多様で、病原体監視の必要性は理解する。しかし、現行の検査方法では迅速性・定量性など技術面（希薄な病原体の検出、その生死判定、培養日数）あるいは、設備を含めた人材面での困難さが付きまとう。微生物検査に代替するシステムとして、危害度分析重要管理点方式（HACCP: Hazard Analysis andCritical Control Point）の導入など、『水源保全・管理と処理の最適化と管理』へ移行を考えるべきであ‑7‑

る。具体的には、濁度、温度、アルカリ度、降雨、pH、大腸菌、電気伝導度等を指標とし、多数存在す
る小規模浄水場にも適用できるシステム管理の構築が必要であり、併せて、消費者のニーズへの対応（customer acceptability）が必要である。
他に、ボン・ワークショップ（ドイツ、ボン開催）の紹介が行われた。
【討議】
日本側から、水源の病原性微生物管理はなおもって有効なのではないかという指摘があり、発表者からは、確かに、水源ではある程度有効であるが、コストから考えると、代替指標によるコントロールをすることが有効と考えられる、という回答があった。
また、微生物問題への対応の中で、水源監視に水系の病原体の種類、量（平常時負荷量と異常時の最大負荷量）に関心を示していない点、配水系におけるバイオフィルム対策に触れていない点が問題と思われた。HACCP（Water Safety Plans）概念の導入に際しては、指摘の点に関する情報整備が必須用件であると考えられた。
5.5

議題 4： 水道分野における科学技術の振興（1） 水道分野における科学技術の振興（国立保健医療科学院浅見真理）

日本では、省庁再編時に内閣府に総合科学技術会議が設けられ、科学技術の振興に当たっている。科学技術関係予算 3.6 兆円のうち、厚生労働省関係予算は 1090 億円のみである。重点分野となっているラ
イフサイエンス、IT、環境等の課題は年々伸びている。厚生労働省についても、厚生労働科学研究費の伸びが著しい。環境分野の中では「健全な水循環の形成に関する研究」が重点課題の一つであり、厚生労働省でも地域内の水循環の確保、家屋内の水循環の確保について研究を行っている。特に水道技術研究センターの e-water, EPOCH 等の重点プロジェクトが進み、膜の導入箇所も増えてきている。
一方、日本の水道全体が置かれている状況を見ると、施設整備費が減少しており、2025 年には、除却費が整備費を上回るおそれがある。産業界では、売り上げの 4％程度が研究開発に使われており、特に伸びが著しい電気、情報関連での投資の高さが研究開発の振興とひいては経済の活性化に貢献している。
水道研究発表会のテーマ数は年々増加しており、特に浄水処理技術、水質関連分野が増えている。厚生
労働省の進める研究としては、統合的な水管理に関する研究テーマ、化学物質、感染症に関する情報収集が行われている。
厚生労働省では、研究の優先順位付け、緊急性の高い事業での技術の導入、その促進、第三者機関による事業評価を組み合わせ、研究振興の良い循環の形成を図る予定である。
【討議】
健康に関する研究は範囲が広いと思われるが、どのように優先を定めているかについて質問があり、日本側から、厚生労働省の研究範囲は広く、健康上の研究課題との優先順位付けは重要な課題であるが、厚生科学審議会の助言・決定を受けて、厚生科学課が調整を行っているとの回答があった。また、研究費の予算について、民間と公的機関の出資比率はどうかとの質問があり、日本側から、正確な比率は出ていないが、民間においては研究経費への出資比率が高いため、民間の研究費の方が大きいと考えられるとの回答がなされた。
（2） 米国水道協会研究財団の戦略的研究計画（米国水道協会研究財団

ジェームス・マンワリング）

米国水道協会研究財団では、予算は 30 百万$=33 億円程度であり、850 課題を助成しており、500 の報
告書を出している。

‑8‑

残留物、流域管理、水資源、海水淡水化の研究も重要と考えている。水質の向上に関する研究として
は、公衆衛生、水質分析とモニタリング、有機、無機、微生物に関する研究を行っている。処理、管理と汚染の最小化戦略、基準遵守、処理後の最終処理も課題となっている。
研究の振興に当たっては、ビジネストレンド、社会のトレンド、施設のトレンドを踏まえることが重要であり、施設の更新が水の有効率を上げること、環境規則の厳格化、市場の再構築、合併、水道の民営化などが、統合的な水資源管理に関係する重要な観点であると考えられる。
その他の研究テーマとしては、環境におけるリーダーシップ、水質改善、臭素酸管理戦略、ハロ酢酸、
汚染物候補リスト、大腸菌規則、内分泌攪乱化学物質、赤水対策等がある。
【討議】
日本側から、研究財団の研究課題選択においては、評価委員会により競争的に課題の採択が行われて
いるかについて質問が出され、米国側から、以下の回答がなされた。委員会の討議によりテーマを決定
し公募し、競争的にプロジェクトの選択がなされる。15 人の評価委員会により、プロジェクトの可否について検討される。また、水道事業体により実施することができるかについても検討が行われる。国内の水道ばかりではなく、大学や海外の研究にも助成を行っている。
また、日本側から大口需要者が、他の水源に変更することができるかについて質問があり、米国側から、州にもよるが、渇水時を除き一般的に他の水源に変更することはできないとの回答がなされた。
5.6

議題 5： 水道分野の新技術（1） 日本における水道用膜処理施設の現状と技術開発の動向（水道技術研究センター藤原正弘）

日本における水道浄水における膜ろ過施設の普及は、水道用膜処理技術に関する大型の国家的プロジ
ェクトが 1991 年から実施されたことに始まる。クリプトスポリジウム対策用の技術として膜ろ過技術
が国にも正式に認められたことなどにより、その後全国の小規模水道を中心に導入が着実に進んだ。現
在では、全国の 374 施設で採用されており、その処理能力総水量は日量約 24 万 m3 となっている。
なお、現在も e-Water と呼ばれる産官学共同の研究開発プロジェクトにより膜処理技術の新しい技術の研究開発が活発に行われている。
日本における膜プラントの現時点のメンテナンスの状況は次の通りである。物理洗浄については、有機膜で 20～120 分ごと、無機膜では約 6 時間ごとに行われているケースが多い。薬品洗浄については、
6 ヶ月～2 年ごとに行われている。膜の交換がどの程度で必要かは、膜プラントの採用が比較的新しいので十分な情報がないが、3 年～7 年（有機膜）、10～15 年（無機膜）と見られる。大まかな膜プラン
トのコストについては、イニシャルコストは処理水量 1m3 あたり 30～40 万円、ランニングコストは処理水量 1m3 あたり、電気代 8 円、薬品代 1 円、薬品洗浄代 16 円程度である。
これまで日本では膜プラントは小規模な水道浄水施設に採用されてきた。しかし、現在大規模な施設
でも膜の導入が検討されている。現在導入が計画されているのは、東京都 4～8 万トン/日、横浜市 10～20 万トン/日、鳥取市 8 万トン/日、福岡市 16 万トン/日の 4 つである。
日本では膜プラントの普及のため、施設建設に対する国庫補助制度をはじめ色々な社会的システムが設けられている。膜プラントの装置認定システムもその一つである。JWRC では、浄水技術評価委員会を設け、この委員会のもとに、メーカーが開発した水道用浄水装置について、評価・認定をする事業（水道用浄水装置性能調査事業）を実施している。このほかに、クリプトのトレーサー開発などを行っている。

‑9‑

海水淡水化に関しては、70 施設が稼働中であり、沖縄以外は小規模である。沖縄の RO 膜は 4 万トン/日の規模である。福岡では、UF 膜-RO 膜 5 万トン/日の規模のものが現在建設中（近く供用開始予定）
である。
【討議】
米国側から、廃水、廃棄の処理の費用は含まれているかとの質問があり、日本側から、小規模な施設
では排水の規制がないため、含まれていないと回答がなされた。
米国側から、審査の時に何を考慮しているかとの質問があり、日本側から、効率、膜の構造等を見ている。審査にかかる費用は企業が負担しているとの回答がなされた。
米国側から、審査の期間について質問があり、一般的には 6 か月以下であるが、問題があるケースでは 1 年以上かかることがある。四季を通じたパイロット試験結果が必要となることがあるとの回答がなされた。
（2） 汽水の淡水化（エル・パソ上下水道局、米国水道協会研究財団

エドモンド・アルチュレータ）El Paso 市はメキシコとの国境で、海抜 4000 フィートのところにある。降雨が極端に少なく、水源確保が課題である。表流水の利用の他、水の再利用が図られている。地下水は塩分を含んでいる。
ヒ素の基準が施行される 2006 年までに施設改善投資に$76 百万かかる。年率 3.5％の給水区域の増加があり、新しい水源開発が必要である。
1 日あたり 27,500,000 ガロン（27.5 MGD）規模の汽水地下水の淡水化施設を計画している。これには$72 百万かかる。
水資源の確保策として、現在の実態は、節水の呼びかけ、水の再生利用、表流水の利用、地下水の利用があげられる。計画中の施策としての汽水地下水の淡水化施設の建設のほか、地下水の輸入も検討中である。水の再利用も進めるが、溶解性の無機物質の集積が、水資源の継続性の点で問題である。膜の値段が下がり、淡水化導入の可能性が増してきた。
汽水の淡水化のためのプロジェクトには井戸、管路、淡水化施設の建設が含まれる。その予定総額$72.0 百万の内訳は次のとおりである。

5.7

混合井戸

$13.0 百万供給井戸

$6.0 百万管路$15.0 百万淡水化プラント$26.5 百万廃水（井戸による）$11.5 百万議題 6： 雨水対策と下水道（1） 大阪市における合流式下水道の改善―雨天時活性汚泥プロセス－（大阪市都市環境局 松本広司）
本市では、早くから浸水対策とともに公衆衛生の確保が課題であり、これらの課題に対処するため、合流式下水道を採用して下水道整備を進めた。その結果、現在では下水道普及率はほぼ 100％に達しており、その内 97％が合流式下水道となっている。しかし、合流式下水道からの雨天時越流水が公共用水
域の水質汚濁の一因となっていることから、快適な水環境を創出するため合流式下水道の改善対策に精力的に取り組んでいる。
改善対策では、放流汚濁負荷量を「分流式下水道並み」に削減することを目標に、①管渠内堆積物の除去として、マンホール底部のインバート化、管渠の不良勾配の改善、②雨天時下水の貯留として、雨‑ 10 ‑

水滞水池の建設等を実施している。特に、道頓堀川に対する対策では「水の都大阪」の再生に向けて大規模貯留管を建設している。また、③雨天時下水の処理として、本市が開発した雨天時下水活性汚泥処理を導入している。
雨天時下水活性汚泥処理は、下水処理場に流入する晴天時下水量の 3 倍の流入水（3Q）を活性汚泥法で処理するもので、1Q は通常通り反応タンクの流入端から流入させるが、2Q は反応タンクの最終段へ流入させ、活性汚泥の吸着能力を生かすとともに、最終沈殿池での固形物負荷を極力増加させないようにするものである。実施設を用いて本処理法の処理状況を調査した結果、BOD、SS とも 90％以上と高い除去率が得られ、十分良好な処理が行われていることが確認できた。また、放流負荷量の削減効果では、BOD で 6 割、SS で７割とかなり高い割合で削減できることが分かった。
【討議】
米国側から、合流改善の目標は分流式下水道並みであると言うことであるが、それは放流負荷が分流並みと言うことか、との質問があり、そのとおりであるとの回答があった。また、3Q 以上の下水にはどのように対処するのかという質問があり、貯留と 3Q 法との組み合わせで対処するという回答があった。
（2） 雨水とニューヨーク市（ニューヨーク市環境保護部下水道局 アル・ロペス）
1987 年の水清浄法を受けて、ニューヨーク市下水道局は 1998 年に州汚濁物質排出削減制度（SPDES:
State Pollutant Discharge Elimination System） に取り組むこととなった。このシステムでは、実施プログ
ラム、雨水の採取と監視、対策の評価の 3 つを行うことが求められている。実施プログラムには、市民への周知、水際の調査と監視、流出事故への対応、雨天時の浮遊物質対策、雨水流出時に緩衝地域を設けるブルーベルト作戦などが含まれている。市の 425 マイルに及ぶ水際を調査したところ、3,900 カ所
以上の雨水排出口があり、公共の排出口は 700 カ所、残りは民間の排出口であった。汚染された雨水を排出する可能性のある事業所に対しても、最適管理手法(BMP: Best Management Practice)の適用を指導している。
これらの結果、ニューヨーク湾内の 53 カ所の測定点において、溶存酸素濃度はこの 30 年間で 3mg/l
程度上昇し、糞便性大腸菌も百分の一に減少した。市内のビーチはシーズン中閉鎖されることが亡くなったし、魚の大量死も最近 2 年間で起きていない。雨水の流出負荷の 72%を捕捉することができるよう
になった。
【討議】
日本側から、市が実施している各種の事業についてどのような予算配分担っているのか、どのように組織が事業に関わっているのかという質問があり、これら事業は様々な予算の内数となっているため、予算配分を説明するこつは難しいが、全体で年間３億ドルの予算、9,000 人が関与しているという回答があった。また、日本側から全体のプログラムには数値目標はないという説明であったが、その場合、対策手法の選定の根拠となるものは何かという質問があり、EPA マニュアルなどを参照し、BMP を実施しその効果をモニタリングする、結果は EPA にも報告されてマニュアルに反映されるとの回答があった。日本側から日最大許容負荷量（TMDL）を決定するに当たって、面的汚染源をどのように扱っているのかという質問があり、モデル解析を使用するとの回答があった。米国側から、雨水は管渠から排出されるので面的汚濁源としては取り扱わないこと、モデルは 1990 年代から利用されているが、地域の水環境の実態が研究され、これから新しいモデルを使った見直しが進むものと思われるというコメントがあった。

‑ 11 ‑

5.8

議題 7： アジアにおける国際援助（1） 米国農務省のアジアにおける水関係援助（米国農務省 スーザン・オーウェン）
米国農務省には、海外農業サービス局があり、その中に国際協力開発部

調査学術交流課がある。同課は国際的な調査学術研究の可能性について、優先順位を決定し奨励する役割を担っている。具体的内容としては、国際協力を推進して、食の安全性、持続可能な農業・資源管理、貿易・市場育成などに関する米国と外国との協力を援助している。
現在、中国の黄河流域で水質のリアルタイム観測を行っている米国、中国の諸機関に対する援助を行っている。これは、黄河の流域管理計画の一環である。また、この流域管理計画には、黄河下流域におけるビール排水の膜処理による再利用パイロットスタディーも含まれている。水不足の地域において排水の再利用水を灌漑用水として利用することにより、より清澄な水を必要とする都市用水などに水を回すことができる。
また、米国農務省は 2008 年の北京オリンピックに向け再生水を修景用水として利用するプロジェク
ト、および畜産廃棄物を緑化のためのコンポストとして利用するプロジェクトを提案し、中国側と調査している。
現在、農務省は天然資源の開発利用に関する日米会議（UJNR）で水パネルを提案している。これは、日米の専門家が共同してアジアの水問題解決のためのイニシアティブを執ろうという提案である。この共同事業は、米国が行い成功した飲料水、排水再利用、流域管理のデモンストレーションプロジェクト
や、中国等との協力関係を基礎として実施することができる。アジア地域での活動としては、米中の共同事業への日本の専門家招請、メコン流域における流域管理の諸活動、北アジアの黄砂、水―土砂管理などを視野に入れた地球環境変動に関する共同研究の立ち上げなどが考えられる。
5.9

議題 8： 健全な水循環の形成（1） 自律型分散水システムの活用に向けて（東京大学環境安全研究センター山本和夫）「水危機に直面する地球」の問題は、持続可能な開発における水の問題であり、畢竟、人口爆発による食料不足及び衛生危機の問題である。このような全地球的環境問題に取り組むことに加えて、我が国においては、近い将来に予測される大幅な人口減少の局面にどう対応するかが問われている。高度成長期の都市を支えるために、遠くにダムを建設し水資源を開発してきた時代は過ぎ去り、ダム開発に頼らない水活用社会の実現が力説されている。
確かに、明治以来の近代水道の普及により、全国ほぼ隈なく飲料水として衛生的な水の供給が実現し、水系感染症を激減させた。このことは医療・保健の長足の進歩と相俟って、長寿命国の実現に貢献した。
高度成長期に激甚であった未処理の都市生活排水による河川水質汚濁は、近年の急速な下水道の普及に
より、大きく改善された。しかし、現在の都市の水システムはいささか硬直化している。さらに、都市における水の需要は新しい局面を迎えようとしている。飲料水や雑用水などの従来型需要に加え、様々な潜在的な需要がある。例えばヒートアイランド現象に苦しむ東京などでは水を積極的に都市の熱管理に利用することが有効となるはずである。たとえば、屋根・外壁面或いは路面散水や緑化等、直接間接の蒸発潜熱の利用、水冷冷房方式の復活等々、様々な工夫が可能である。その際、発生するエアロゾルやミスト中に病原体が存在して空気中に飛散しないよう、その安全性を確実に担保する水を作り出す技術が必要となる。

‑ 12 ‑

持続可能な水活用社会を実現するにあたって、我々は水システムのあるべき姿として「自律分散持続型」水システムを提案している。自律とは、システムの経営において自律していることであり、技術的には多様な水資源の利用が前提となる。また、自律システム間のネットワーク型の調整が可能な重層的自律システム群が構築されなければならない。分散とは、システムの経営範囲が小規模で分散していることであり、コミュニティーレベルにおける多様なリスクベネフィットに関わる参加型意志決定を可能とし、また重層的システム群においてはシステムリスクを分散することにある。持続とは、持続可能なメンテナンスをシステムとして実現することであり、総体としての自律分散持続型水システムにおいては、3Es（Economy, Environment, Equity）を実現するコミュニテイーにおける参加型の経営、維持管理を通じて、地域における持続型の雇用を創出し、さらに重層的システム群の自律的調整により、グローバ
ルな視点での持続可能性を追求する自主的システム改善が継続的に行われるべきものである。このような「理想」水システムを構成することにより、持続可能な水活用社会を実現し、新しい水利用が展開されると考えられる。
終末処理場や大規模浄水場に代表されるような集約型水管理システムはスケールメリットがあることは確かであるが、水を集約し、汚染物質も集約する。一方、都市における排水源は散在しており、また、需要源も都市中に散在する。都市で排出される下水は散在する水資源としてとらえることができるが、その水を利用するためには小型かつ高度な水浄化システムが必要である。また、浄化された水の貯蔵を考えるとき、浅層地下水を都市における貯留池として考えると分散型のシステムが効率的に機能する。熱管理のための水も分散的に利用してこそ効果を発揮する。
一般に、分散型水システムは維持管理が困難で、かつエネルギー消費が大きくなると考えられている。
現状技術のままでは、それは正鵠を射た評価といえる。しかし、家庭用燃料電池の実用化が目前に迫り、未利用エネルギーとしての廃棄物バイオガス化を都市ガス燃料電池システムに組み合わせることにより、例えば、デイスポーザー対応エネルギー節約型高度浄化システムの実現は俄然と現実味を増しているし、太陽光発電などの分散型エネルギー供給と組み合わせるには、分散型水システムの方がむしろ合理的となる。維持管理の問題解決の鍵は、参加型システムの構築にあるが、それも情報技術の革新によりユビキタス社会が到来しようとしており、いわば素人が参加する維持管理を支援する技術群の土壌は醸成されてきている。従って、現在はともかく将来においては、分散型水システムの「維持管理が困難
で、かつエネルギー消費が大きい」という隘路は解消される可能性が大きい。だからこそ、そのための技術開発を推進する必要がある。
【討議】
分散型水システムの構想については、概ね賛同を得た。分散型システムであることの維持管理サービ
スやモニタリングの方法について議論された。
5.10

議題 9： 流域管理

（1） 琵琶湖流域における排水管理（滋賀県琵琶湖環境部森野久栄）

琵琶湖は、人口、産業、資産、都市機能が集積した日本の枢要な地域である近畿圏約 1,400 万人の貴重な水資源である。
1972 年から 1997 までの間、国家プロジェクトとして「琵琶湖総合開発事業」が実施され、琵琶湖の水資源の有効利用が促進され、洪水湛水被害の解消など成果があった。
しかし、近年の社会経済情勢、人々の様々な活動様式等の急激な変化により、琵琶湖の水質や自然環
境は大きく変貌したことから、琵琶湖を「健全な姿で次世代へ伝える」ためにマザーレイク 21 計画を‑ 13 ‑

2000 年 3 月に策定した。この計画では、「琵琶湖と人との共生」を基本理念として、水質保全、水源涵
養、自然的環境・景観保全を 3 つの柱として、行政、県民、事業者が協力し琵琶湖保全に取り組むこととしている。
マザーレイク 21 計画においては、これまでの排水処理対策を実施しつつ、2010 年には生活排水処理率 100％を目指すと共に更なる処理水準の向上を図ることとしている。また、面源対策に本格的に取り組むとともに、自然浄化機能の評価の検証、流入汚濁物質の正確な把握を行うための調査研究を進め、水質保全施策の効果的、効率的な展開を図ることとしている。特に市街地からの初期降雨による汚濁物
質の流出を抑制するためのノンポイント対策に取り組み、草津市内においてその施設が稼動している。
近畿圏の貴重な水資源である琵琶湖は、まさに流域の統合的管理が必要である。水資源は、上下流の住民にとって共有の財産であり、全ての受益者、国、地方公共団体、住民がお互いに協力し、その保全に責任を負うことが重要だと考えている。琵琶湖の水質保全のために実施している超高度処理、ノンポ
イント対策等の下水道事業においても、事業が有する広域的な便益を考慮し、琵琶湖・淀川流域という流域単位の観点から、住民の意見も踏まえ、その位置づけを検討することが必要であると考えている。
【討議】
米国側から環境こだわり農業（ECA）について、その施策は全体の何パーセントを占めているのか、
また、環境こだわり農産物を生産する農家に対し補助金はどの程度出しているのかという質問があった。
日本側の回答は以下のとおり。該当する栽培面積は、現在では 3%程度であるが、3 年後には 13％を目指している。今年度の補助金は、栽培面積 1ha あたり平均で 51,000 円程度である。
（2） 流域管理（米国環境保護庁

ジェームズ・ハンロン）

流域手法（watershed approach）はプログラムの実施や意思決定のための概念的手法であり、EPA のプ
ログラムの実施にこの手法を組み入れなければ流域の環境目標を達成することは困難である。飲料水や下水に関わる複雑な課題や、膜処理技術や合流式下水道越流水（CSO）対策等の技術の複雑さが存在す
るが、個別の問題を流域という場で考えることにより、より適切な解決策を探ることができる。一方、流域手法は、適切なデータと科学に裏付けられたものでなければならない。
米国の約 40％の水域は汚濁され、その原因となる汚濁物質は栄養塩類、堆積物、金属、有機物、病原体、温度等、水域によって異なり多岐にわたっている。また、水質に影響を与えるものとして、動植物
生息地の変化、侵入種及び汚濁した堆積物がある。汚濁源については、点源、雨水及び非点源に分類でき、このうち点源については 1950 年代-1970 年代に対策が進み、雨水に関するプログラムについてはお
およそ過去 10-12 年間に焦点が充てられてきた。点源負荷をどれほど削減しても環境基準を達成できな
い水域があることも分かっており、非点源の対策が重要である。
流域に関するプログラム（水質基準、日最大許容負荷制度（TMDL）、モニタリング、全国汚濁物質
排出削減制度（NPDES）、水源の保全、非点源対策）は、連邦政府、州政府、地方政府、地域団体等により実施される。流域での役割は規制、誘因、自発性、技術及び事業実施に大別されるが、ステークホ
ルダー毎に関与の形態は異なる。例えば、連邦政府は、基準の策定や経済的誘因について主導的役割を果たす。流域に関するプログラムについても、各々のステークホルダーの関与形態を整理できる。そして、流域手法にはすべての重要なステークホルダーの関与が必須である。
流域管理を支える EPA の最近の取り組みとして、栄養塩類の基準、モニタリングの向上、雨水プログ
ラム、集中家畜飼養施設（CAFO）、流域ベースの排水許可、水質取引、ケーススタディのための流域補助金、といった資料の発行があげられる。

‑ 14 ‑

【討議】米国では水質の基準は処理水だけに適用されるのかという質問がなされたが、州の水質管理はすべての水が対象となり、特に 3 マイル内の責任を担っているという回答がなされた。また、いろいろな規制があり、窒素、温度、重金属等は法に基づいたもので規制されていて、どの規制内容にするか及びどの水源を対象にするかを議論し、基準を適合させるとのことである。次に、生物影響化学物質はどのように考えているのかという質問が日本側からなされ、銅などの重金属は守られているが、農業への規制強化や臭いなども防止する必要があるとの回答がなされた。これに対し、日本では生物指標による基準ができたというコメントがなされた。
日本では多くの自治体が流域に関与しているが、米国では水質管理を誰が主導的に行うのかという質問がなされたが、上流・下流とあり、下流の基準も満足する必要があるとの回答がなされた。メキシコの例では、EPA と州とが協議したが、この場合、取扱いや管理は複雑であると付け加えられた。日本側からは、米国における州の存在と日本における中小自治体の存在という相違点が指摘された。最後に、米国側から、州がノンポイント、ポイントも含めて、水質が満足するようにコントロールすると説明が
なされた。
5.11

議題 10： 排出枠取引（1） 流域管理のための経済効率性と費用負担に関する検討（国土技術政策総合研究所吉田敏章）

日本の公共用水域の水質管理の分野では、排出枠取引と課徴金制度とを勘案し、経済的誘因を取り入れた制度設計が検討されている。これは、経済効率性、経済的誘引及び費用負担の公平性という 3 つの観点を踏まえ、規制という枠組みや流域下水道整備総合計画といった流域管理の制度の見直しが求められていることを受けている。
検討、提案された制度は、排出枠調整と名付けられるものであり、水質環境基準を達成するために、その流域内における下水処理場が高度処理の費用の総計が最小化されるように負荷削減が調整され、それに応じて費用負担がなされるものである。より具体的な型として、取引型と課徴金型とがあり、いずれの場合も基金を通じて、下水処理場からの排出負荷量に応じた金銭のやりとりがなされる。
東京湾流域を対象としたケーススタディにおいては、排出枠調整の導入により、高度処理費用が 30%以上削減され、追加的に 2 割程度の COD 負荷削減効果を伴うことが推定された。また、水質取引制度において懸念されるホットスポットの問題は、発生しないと判断された。高度処理の費用負担について
は、処理水量あたりで評価すると、制度の導入によって均等化されることが確認され、取引型よりも課徴金型の方が均等化の度合いが高かった。
排出枠調整は、費用削減という経済効率性のみでなく、追加的な負荷削減の可能性、費用負担の公平性、流総計画の着実な実施並びに下水処理場のより適切な管理という利点も有するので、前向きに導入を検討していくことが望ましい。
（2） 米国環境保護庁第 10 管区における水質取引（米国環境保護庁

クレア・シャーリー）水質取引に必要な条件は、一般に、市場を推進するものとしての規制、排出者間における費用の違い、負荷削減の技術的能力及び取引を可能とする機会の存在である。米国では、TMDL により点源と非点源に負荷量の枠があてはめられ、これが取引を推進する規制としての役割を果たす。ここに、点源については発生源毎に負荷量が割り当てられるが、非点源については農業のような範疇毎に割り当てられる。
また、非点源は、BMP が推進されるよう州・連邦政府からの補助がある。水質取引の設計における課題‑ 15 ‑

としては、取引が局所的な水質悪化をもたらしうること、非点源対策を強制する手法・権限がないことがあげられる。水浄化法（CWA）は水質取引につき規定していないが、EPA は水質取引の方針を 2003
年 1 月に発行した。同方針は、取引の地理的範囲、推奨する取引水質項目、技術・水質ベース基準と取引との関係等を示している。
EPA 第 10 管区では、水質取引に関する事例として、アイダホ州におけるりんの取引及びオレゴン州
における温度の取引がある。アイダホ州の Boise 川流域は、流域内の中心的都市 Boise 市における急激な人口増加等を受け、りんの削減が求められている。農業からのりん負荷量は流域からのりん負荷量の50％を占めているが、りん削減の規制は流域内の数少ない点源にかけられている。りんの効率的な削減のために、点源と面源間の取引が設計された。取引システムの設計においては、国家汚染物質排水防止システム許可で時間がかからないようにするため動的な市場ベース取引を設計したり、BMP のリストに許容される実践や測定を規定したり、同等の負荷削減効果を達成するため場所に応じた取引比率を設定したり、民間組織が取引システムを監督できるようにする等の工夫がなされている。なお、本取引は、
TMDL の策定を待って今後実行に移される。
オレゴン州の Tualatin 川では鮭のために水温を下げなければならないが、流域内は点源が少なく、州内で最大の下水道事業体である Clean Water Services（CWS）は放流水の温度を 1.5 度（華氏）下げる必要がある。しかし、このためには放流水を冷却しなければならず、5,000 万ドルの設置費と 200 万ドル/
年の運転費を要する。そもそも、川の水温の上昇は、下水処理場からの放流水だけでなく、100 年以上にわたり農家が河岸の木を切り倒したことにも起因している。そこで、川の水温の効率的な低下のために、温度の取引が設計され、これは河岸の回復、河川流量の増加及び処理水の再利用からなる。河岸の回復とは、河岸にて土着の植物を植樹して日陰を増やすものであり、太陽光が遮られる面積を元に必要な植樹量が決定される。下水道事業体が植樹を行い、維持管理のための費用を農家に支払うという仕組みである。
また、EPA 第 10 管区は、水質取引の基礎的な情報を提供するために「水質取引評価ハンドブック」を発行した。これは、水質取引の適性に関する判断、環境や経済の分析、取引制度の設計につき、流域
内のステークホルダーを指導することを意図したものである。
【討議】
米国側から発表者に「水質取引の開始時に、特定の BMP による負荷削減量のデータベースを構築したり、クレジットの割り当てを行ったりするのか。」という質問がなされ、「農家は負荷削減のために採用した手法を明示しなければならず、これに対し EPA は従うべき方式を伝える。農家はその手法の種類や規模に応じてりんの負荷削減量を計算するが、その計算はどれだけ侵食が抑制され河川へのりんの流出が防げるかということに基づく。」という回答がなされた。また、BMP のモニタリングに関する質問がなされ、以下の回答がなされた。「農家は手法の採用と実践につき月末に報告しなければならず、
また、その機能は実証されなければならない。クレジットはその月のみ有効となる。河川でのモニタリ
ングについては TMDL のためには行われておらず、ほとんどの手法は直接的にモニタリングすることはできない。湿地は、直接的にモニタリングできる手法の一つであり、沈殿物の削減量を推定できる。」
さらに、動的な市場ベース取引と排出モニタリング補強（DMR: Discharge Monitoring Reinforcement）につき質疑応答がなされた。
日本側からは、「ステークホルダーに含めるために、点源に関するデータベースを EPA は保有しているか。」という質問がなされ、「NPDES 許可に関連し、点源のデータベースを保有しており、州政府と協同して水質取引への興味を各点源に尋ねる。」という回答がなされた。また、抗生物質は水質取引の対象水質項目として検討していないのかという質問がなされ、そのような物質を取引する準備はまだ‑ 16 ‑

できていないと思われるという回答がなされた。さらに、民間組織による取引システムの監督及び取引の遵守につき質問がなされ、「取引の追跡・記録やクレジットの管理など、システムの正確さを保つのが民間組織による監督の内容であり、これは州政府の監査を受けている。遵守については、EPA は州政府と連携して負荷削減がなされているかの検査を行っており、EPA は取引の買い手に対する罰則の規制を有する。」という回答がなされた。
5.12

議題 11： 水道分野における早期警戒システム（1） 日本における水質汚染事故対策（厚生労働省柳橋泰生）

水道の水質事故の原因は、人為ミス、自然災害及びテロに分けられる。日本では、水道へのテロは 1978
年に千葉県で発生した。日本の国土は細長く、河川が急勾配であり、大都市は河川下流部に位置する場合が多い。日本の水道は、給水人口 25 万人以上の水道事業体（74 事業体）が全人口の半分以上に対して水を供給している。水道法では、第 23 条において給水の緊急停止の措置を規定している。水源は表流水が 72％（量）である。水質事故は年間 90 件程度発生している。原因の半分は油である。
厚生労働省では、1997 年に「厚生労働省健康危機管理基本指針」及び「飲料水健康危機管理実施要領」
を定め、都道府県等に通知し、飲料水を原因とする国民の生命、健康の安全を脅かす事態に対して行われる健康被害の発生予防、拡大防止等の危機管理の適正を図っている。水道事業体では、30％が水質事
故に対するマニュアルを整備している。水道事業体における取組の具体例として大阪府と札幌市について紹介する。大阪府では、コイを用いた生物センサー及びガスクロマトグラフによる連続監視を実施している。札幌市では、水源、給水栓等の遠隔監視システムを稼働させている。
（2） 水道水源の早期警戒システムに関する研究（米国環境保護庁

ジェームス・グッドリッチ）

水源の監視、保全等のためのシステム的アプローチを確立することを目的として研究を行った。水源や水道水の水質変化を検知することのできる種々のセンサー技術を評価した。また、早期警戒システムの開発を検討した。
水道水の監視項目としては、塩素、温度、溶存酸素、酸化還元電位、ｐＨ、濁度等があり、センサーが開発されている。水源水や工程水についても同様にセンサーがある。これらについて、精度、確度等の評価を行った。
また、水源水質の生物学的監視システムについて研究を行った。銅、カドミウム、ダイアジノン、アトラジン、トルエン及びシアンとミジンコの行動、藻類の蛍光、二枚貝の殻の開き、魚の呼吸等との関係について研究を行った。
【討議】
日本側から、微生物を検知するセンサーはないかとの質問が出されたが、無いとの回答であった。また、生物学的センサーについて、殺虫剤と除草剤ではどちらの感度が高いかとの質問が出され、殺虫剤ではないかとの回答があった。
5.13

議題 12： 水の再利用（1） 日本における下水処理水再利用の現状（国土技術政策総合研究所南山瑞彦）

日本の年平均降水量は約 1,700mm で、世界の平均の約 2 倍あるが、国土面積が狭く人口が多いため、
人口 1 人当たりの年降水総量は、諸外国より少ない。日本では、1978 年の異常渇水を契機に、都市内に‑ 17 ‑

おける貴重な水資源確保の観点から、福岡市において 1980 年に水洗用水として下水処理水の再利用が開始されて以来、水洗用水、融雪用水、環境用水、工業用水、散水用水等様々な用途に下水処理水が再利用されるようになってきている。平成 13 年度で約 1.9 億 m3 が再利用されており、その重要性は今後益々高まっていくことが予想される。
今後、下水処理水の適切な再利用がより一層重要なものとなると考えられるため、現在、衛生学的安全性、美観、施設機能障害の観点から、下水処理水再利用に関する技術上の諸基準について検討を行っている。検討の一環として、下水処理水再利用の現状調査や、美観に関する基準検討に必要となる再生
水の外観に関する利用者の意識についてのアンケート調査を実施した。その結果、修景・親水用水としての利用が増加傾向にあり、修景用水では利用先における生態系への悪影響防止の観点から消毒方法としてオゾン消毒及び紫外線消毒の採用率が他の用途に比べて大きくなっていた。また、修景・親水用水
利用では他の用途に比べ藻類増殖に関する苦情が多かった。再生水の外観に関する利用者の意識調査では、再生水の色度、濁度、臭気強度が利用者の嗜好に対してどのような影響を与えるかを調査したが、明確な相関関係は見いだせなかった。今後さらに検討を進め、下水処理水再利用の技術的な基準策定のための基礎的な情報の集積に努めることとしている。
【討議】
米国側から臭気の単位に関する質問がなされ、「一定の温度条件（30℃）において、1 単位は無希釈で、2 単位は純水で 1 対 1 に希釈され測定される」という回答がなされた。また、工業分野における再生水利用量が減少した理由及び工業分野での再生水利用を促す誘因の有無について、質問があった。利
用量減少の理由は恐らく経済的な理由であり、また、工業分野では再生水利用に誘因はないとの回答がなされた。
再生水の価格は、El Paso 市ではとても高いが、日本での価格について質問があった。再生水の価格や費用は本調査の対象外であり不明であるが、今後の調査課題になるべきだという回答がなされた。また、福岡市では再生水のための費用は高いが、その価格は低く設定されているというコメントが加えられた。
（2） 水の再利用（ブラック・アンド・ヴィーチ社

ディック・クチェンライザー）

米国の中西部等では水資源が逼迫していることもあり、米国での水の再利用は今後益々増加すると見込まれている。用途は灌漑にとどまらず、工業利用、事業所での水洗用水利用、レクリエーション利用、散水利用等多岐にわたる。再生水の水源も都市下水処理水、工業廃水処理水、雨水等様々である。米国
では 1,500 の再生処理施設があり、都市下水の 5％が再利用されている。41 の州で再利用のための規則やガイドラインが定められている。再利用の用途により規則やガイドラインは異なり、非直接飲用や食用作物用農業利用等厳しいものから、環境用水や非食用作物用農業利用等あまり厳しくないものもある。
米国水環境研究財団（WERF: Water Environment Research Foundation)では、水の再利用に関連し、処理方法、微生物検出・リスク評価、化学物質汚染、パブリックアクセプタンスに関する研究を推進している。例えば、処理方法の研究としては膜処理技術等の研究、微生物モニタリングでは、DNA マイクロアレイの開発やクリプトスポリジウムの迅速検出手法等の研究、化学物質汚染の分野では医薬品の挙動やバイオアッセイ等の研究、パブリックアクセプタンスの分野では市民への情報提供の方法等の研究である。再利用の分野ではこれまで 45 のプロジェクトが進められ、総額では１千万ドル強となる。
米国では人口増加等により水の再利用は益々重要になると考えられるため、国内外の他機関とも協力しつつ、引き続き再利用のための研究を進めていく。

‑ 18 ‑

【討議】日本での水の再利用はビルディング等でのオンサイトのものが主であるが、米国におけるオンサイトの再生水利用に関する統計データは存在するかという質問がなされた。「米国では、ほとんどの処理場
における水の再利用用途は灌漑用水及び処理場内の非飲用水であり、都市部の大規模な処理場ではゴル
フコース等への再利用も見られる。また、国家レベルでの統計データは整備されていないであろう。」との回答であった。
次に、「パブリックインボルブメント（PI）が水の再利用を推進するためには重要であるが、分散化（decentralization）は PI を加速化するのではないか」というコメントが日本側からなされた。これに対し「確かにそのとおりであり、小さな処理施設は地域住民の意識をひきつける。PI によっても納得しな
い少数の住民がどうしても残るが、PI は事業の実施に重要である。」というコメントが米国側からなされた。
また、日本側から、WERF と WateReuse Association（WateReuse）という組織の概要につき、質問がなされた。「WERF は 12 年前に設立され、年間 800 万ドル程度の予算を有しており、その多くの割合が米国環境保護庁から来ている。WateReuse Foundation は 5 年前に設立された組織であり、特に水の再利用に関わる課題に焦点を充てている。EPA は WERF、AwwaRF 及び WateReuse との協力関係を有する。」という回答がなされた。
5.14

議題 13： バイオソリッドの再利用（1） バイオソリッドの再利用におけるリスクマネージメント（土木研究所尾﨑正明）

日本では、平成 11 年に PRTR（Pollutant Release and Transfer Register）制度が導入され、平成 15 年 3月より集計結果の公表が行われている。下水道事業者も、人の健康や生態系に有害な影響を及ぼす可能性のある化学物質について、環境中(大気、水域、土壌)への排出量及び廃棄物に含まれての事業所外への移動量を自ら把握し、行政機関へ届け出ることとなった。
PRTR 対象物質のうち重金属について、下水道施設における流入実態と処理過程での挙動を調査した
結果、処理できずに処理水中に含まれるもの、濃縮されて脱水汚泥・焼却灰に含まれるもの、水処理系と汚泥処理系を循環しているもの、大きくはこれら 3 種類に区分されることが分かった。
さらに、汚泥有効利用製品の環境に対する負荷量について、建設資材を対象に検討した結果、溶出液
中の濃度は低いものの一定割合で溶出することが分かった。また、溶融スラグ骨材について基準化が行われており、安全性に関する評価が行われていることを紹介した。
【討議】
日本側の委員から、札幌市におけるヒ素の汚染について事例紹介があり、汚泥の再利用について協力してほしいとの要請があった。米国側からは、在来の材料についても安全性に関する基準化が行われて
いるかについて質問があり、日本側から再生品のみ対象とされているとの回答があった。また、リスク
マネジメントに関して病原性微生物も対象としているかとの質問があり、日本側から原虫やウィルスについて検討を開始しているとの回答がなされた。
（2） 汚泥／バイオソリッドの再利用（ヴァージニア工科大学

ジョン・ノヴァク）

バイオソリッドについて農業利用、焼却、埋立が目下の課題である。焼却については、住民から非常に強い反対があり、進む目途が立っていない。また、遠心脱水で病原性微生物が活性化するという非常に興味深い現象があり、嫌気性消化の影響について検討している。

‑ 19 ‑WERF ではバイオソリッドに関して様々な研究を実施している。特に、感染性に関しては関心が高く、来年度のビッグプロジェクトになると考えている。1）集団感染、ケースコントロール研究、2）特定の感染性、3）全国調査、土地利用とバイオソリッドの研究を想定している。
【討議】
日本側から、どのような病原性微生物を想定しているかとの質問があり、米国側からサルモネラ・大腸菌などについて、水処理のグループでも興味を持っており、現 在、専門家グループで検討しているとの回答があった。また、微量化学物質についてはどうかとの質問があり、米国側から 17β-エストラジオール（Ｅ2）、エストリオール（Ｅ3）などを想定しており、現在、健康評価グループとともに検討を行っているとの回答があった。さらに、遠心脱水で病原性微生物が再活性化する理由について質問があり、消化によって発生する有機酸がなんらかの影響を与えていることも考えられるとの回答があった。
また、再活性化する事例を聞いたことがあるとのコメントがあった。
5.15

議題 14： 内分泌かく乱化学物質（1） 水道における内分泌かく乱化学物質とその他関連化学物質の挙動（国立保健医療科学院

国包章一）フタル酸ジ-2-エチルヘキシル（DEHP）とフタル酸ジ-n-ブチル（DNBP）の浄水処理過程における挙動について、全国の浄水場11ヶ所を対象に調査を行ったところ、原水中のDEHPとDNBPは、いずれも急速ろ過などによってある程度まで除去されること、DEHPはDNBPに比べて、汚泥やスカムにより高濃度に濃縮される傾向があることなどを確認した。さらに、これらの浄水場のうち3ヶ所を選んで、浄水処理及び排水処理過程におけるDEHPとDNBPのマスバランスについて詳細な調査を行い、原水中に含まれているDEHPとDNBPの多くが汚泥中に移行して、ごく一部だけがスカムに蓄積されることを明らかにした。
また、以前に水道で広く使われていたタールエポキシ樹脂塗装管からの、フタル酸エステル類、ノニ
ルフェノール、ビスフェノールA、多環芳香族炭化水素（PAHs）などの溶出特性を明らかにするため、特別に製作した供試管を連続通水実験装置に設置して常時連続的に通水し、一定時間を経過するごとに供試管を取り外して溶出試験を行ったところ、初期にはこれらのうち一部の物質の溶出が認められたが、数ヶ月後には溶出がほとんど認められなくなった。供試管からの溶出が認められた物質のうちの一つであるピレンについては、別の実験により、水中の残留塩素と反応してその塩素化物や、臭素イオンの共存下では臭素化物が生成されること、このようにして生成される一臭素化ピレンは、ピレンよりも高い
Ahレセプター結合活性を示すことなども明らかにした。
【討議】
通水開始後6ヶ月で化学物質の溶出がなくなったとのことであるが、形成された生物膜によって溶出が抑制されることは考えられないかとの質問があった。これに対して、その後のデータによれば、一部の化学物質では溶出量がむしろ増加しており、取り外しと組み立てを繰り返しているうちに、管に傷が付いたためではないかと考えており、今後もうしばらく実験を続けて、最終的に実験を終了する段階で、生物膜による影響についてもできれば検討したいとの回答がなされた。また、アントラセン類の塩素化により、一部の物質についてはレセプター結合活性が100倍も上昇しているが、溶出物を検討しているのかとの問いについては、Ahレセプターアッセイだけでなく反応経路や生成された化学物質に関する検討を行っているが、標準物質がなく同定には至っていないとの回答がなされた。

‑ 20 ‑

（2）下水処理場における内分泌かく乱化学物質の実態（土木研究所 岡安祐司）

国土交通省が実施した日本の下水処理場における内分泌かく乱化学物質の実態調査結果と、独立行政法人土木研究所が合わせて実施した組み換え酵母（Sumpter 株）によるエストロゲン様活性の実態調査
結果が示された。これらの調査結果から、下水中のエストロゲン様活性に貢献する物質群として、遊離体エストロゲンの 17β-エストラジオール（E2）およびエストロン（E1）、ノニルフェノール（NP）が抽出された。遊離体エストロゲンは大部分が人畜から排出される際に、エストロゲン様活性が無い抱合体の形態に変換されてから排出され水環境中で脱抱合し、遊離体エストロゲンに変換することが知られている。日本の 20 箇所の標準活性汚泥法を用いている下水処理場の流入下水と二次処理水について、硫酸抱合体、グルクロン酸抱合体について実態を調査し、その結果、流入下水では、これらの物質は遊離体エストロゲンの濃度を大きく上回る濃度で検出され、二次処理水では流入下水に比べてわずかに減少するか、むしろ増加している結果が示された。また、NP に関しては、NP の前駆物質であるノニルフェノールポリエトキシレート（NPEO）、NPEO の分解生成物であるノニルフェノキシ酢酸（NPEC）について、日本の 12 箇所の標準活性汚泥法を用いている下水処理場の流入下水、二次処理水の実態が示された。結果は、長鎖の NPEO が減少し、わずかな短鎖の NPEC の生成がみられた。NP に関しては下水処理工程で減少したが、最終的な fate については、汚泥への移行が考えられるため、この調査結果からは不明であった。
【討議】
日本側から、下水処理工程を構成する必須工程である消毒工程におけるエストロゲン関連物質、ノニ
ルフェノール関連物質の変化の可能性についての質問があった。塩素を添加する浄水処理の消毒工程では、エストロゲン様活性が上昇する可能性があることが既往の報告で示されているという情報が提供された。また、塩素、オゾン、UV を用いた消毒工程や、急速砂ろ過法などの高度処理工程におけるエス
トロゲン関連物質、ノニルフェノール関連物質の変化について調査を継続しているという回答があった。
（3） 上水道における内分泌かく乱化学物質の除去技術（米国環境保護庁 キャサリン・シェンク）
1996 年に内分泌攪乱物質に関する Safe Drinking Water Act が改正されて以降、飲料水源中における内分泌攪乱物質について関心が払われている。米国の河川における内分泌かく乱化学物質の汚染実態は、
17β-エストラジオール（天然女性ホルモン, E2）、エチニルエストラジオール（合成女性ホルモン, EE2）、
テストステロン（天然男性ホルモン）、ノニルフェノール（NP）などが検出されている。E2, EE2, エス
トリオール、プロゲステロン、テストステロン、ジハイドロテストステロンについて、LC/MS を用いた分析方法の確立や、MVLN アッセイによるエストロゲン様活性の評価を実施している。さらに、ベンチスケールの凝集沈殿法、粒状活性炭法、ナノフィルトレーション法を用いた内分泌かく乱化学物質の除去について検討した。粒状活性炭を利用する方法に関連しては、EE2 に関する等温吸着係数、移動係数、拡散係数などの情報が収集され示された。
【討議】
日本側から、粒状活性炭の必要量に関しての質問があった。EE2 のみを除去する場合と、他の有機性物質も含めて除去する場合で必要量が異なると考えられるとの回答があった。米国側からは、凝集沈殿による EE2 の除去特性に関する質問があった。詳細については不明であるが、凝集沈殿による除去効果も大きいと考えられるとの回答があった。さらに EE2 の分析に関して、LC/MS 法による測定結果とバイオアッセイ法による測定結果との相関について質問があり、固相抽出における回収率が低濃度域での不安定さに影響していることが示唆されるとの回答があった。

‑ 21 ‑

5.16

議題 15： 施設更新

（1） 水道施設の更新に関する意志決定及び資金代替案に関する研究の役割－耐震計画について（北海道大学創成科学研究機構 眞柄泰基）
水道ビジョンは、水道でしか生活用水や都市用水の確保が出来なくなったわが国にあり、その持続的な発展が不可欠であることから、そのための対策を経営管理、水道技術等広範な対応をとらなければならないことを明らかにしたものである。災害による水道被害のうち、修復費用や被害件数が最も多いのが地震によるものであり、水道ビジョンでも水道施設の耐震化を重要な課題として提起し、そのための目標を設定している。
阪神淡路大震災における被害事例を報告した。その後、厚生省が明らかにした水道施設耐震マニュア
ル等が策定され、水道事業体に耐震化対策を促し、阪神淡路大震災後 1～2 年は緊急遮断弁等管路施設
や緊急貯水槽の整備が積極的に進められた。しかし、現在では、政府が東海沖地震や南海沖地震など危
険地域の存在を明らかにしているにもかかわらず、耐震化事業が阪神淡路大震災以前のレベルとなっていることを指摘した。このようなことから、水道ビジョンでは東海沖地震等の危険地域に存在する水道施設の耐震化事業を積極的に進めなければならないとしている。
耐震化にかかる費用と便益分析を人口 10 万人のモデル地域で行った事例を紹介した。この費用便益分析によって、耐震化することによって地震による損失を減少させることは明らかである。しかし、耐震化によって生ずる便益は耐震化に必要なコストを上回ることがない。このようなことから、耐震化事
業は水道事業者の水道は地震時でも断水しないあるいは短期間に供水開始するという水道事業に責任を自覚し、水道利用者に耐震化事業を実施するために水道料金を改定せざるを得ないことを理解してもらうような、リスクコミニュケーションが重要であることを指摘した。
【討議】
耐震化にかかるコストは誰が負うべきかの質問があった。水道事業は基本的に独立採算性で実施されているから、国の補助はあっても、そのコストの多くは水道料金で対応しなければならない。費用便益の手法は有効なリスクコミュニケーションのツールであるとの共通理解が得られた。
わが国のみならず、災害発生時には水道事業者も市民も災害対策に熱心であるが、しばらくすると熱意が薄れてくるのは共通であるとのコメントがあった。
（2） 社会基盤の改築更新についての意思決定過程および財源負担方法に関する調査の果たす役割（日本下水道事業団 須賀雄一）
日本における下水道普及率は 2002 年までに約 65%に達し、1,700 以上の下水処理場が稼動中である。
このうち、15 年以上経過して老朽化した処理場の割合は 35%に達しており、施設および機器の改築更新
事業への需要が高まりつつある。また、水質規制の強化により、下水処理の高度化が求められており、改築更新事業を実施する場合にも、施設の単純更新ではなく、機能向上を伴う更新が求められている。
この問題に対応するために、下水道事業を実施する地方公共団体は多くの財政負担を求められており、財政事情の悪化の要因となっている。
日本下水道事業団は、下水道に関する専門的知識を有する職員の少ない地方公共団体の下水道事業を支援するために 1972 年に設立された組織であり、これまでに多くの下水処理場の計画、設計、建設に関与してきた。改築更新事業についても効率的な改築更新事業実施のための支援、および処理機能の高度化、効率化への技術的支援が求められている。
これらの要望にこたえるために、日本下水道事業団は、地方公共団体の財政計画の策定、劣化診断・
耐震診断・処理機能検査等の機能診断、改築基本計画の策定、改築設計･施工を体系化した新しい改築
業務マニュアルを作成した。また、膜分離活性汚泥法の実用化や、エネルギー回収型の汚泥処理等、処‑ 22 ‑

理機能の向上に関する技術を開発している。さらに、下水道施設特有の、硫酸によるコンクリート腐食問題を解決し、構造物の耐久性向上を図ることを目的として、耐硫酸コンクリートおよび補修モルタルを開発している。
【討議】
コンクリートの耐硫酸性向上のためにどのような材料を使用しているのかという質問がなされたが、特許出願作業中であり、現段階では公表できないとの回答がなされた。また、日本における下水道施設の標準的耐用年数に関する質問がなされ、土木構造物については 50 年、設備関係については概ね 15 年との回答がなされた。
（3） 水道施設の更新決定プロセスにおける研究の重要性（米国水道協会研究財団 ジャン・チェン）
AwwaRF では、水道工学・技術的な研究ばかりでなく、水道施設更新のための意志決定支援ツールの開発にも研究の重点を置いている。米国東海岸都市は、水道創設が古く、例えばフィラデルフィア市では配水管の過半数がいまでも普通鋳鉄管が用いられており管内面が鉄錆こぶにより管径が細くなったり、外面腐蝕による漏水事故が多発している。このようなことから、AwwaRF では現場ライニング技術を検討し、日本や英国の技術の導入調査等を行ってきている。
米国では多くの水道施設が更新時期に達しており、漏水や水道への信頼性の低下が経済的に負担となっている。
このため、今後 10 年から 30 年間は施設の改築更新のための多額の投資が求められている。
現在、米国の水道管の延長は、約 160 万 km であり、鋳鉄管が使用されている場合が多い。一方、更新される
水道管の延長は年間で約 8,000km であり、このペースで水道管の更新事業を進めていくと、全てを更新するまでに約 200 年かかる計算になる。このため、低コストで効率的に更新事業を行なうための調査の必要性が高まっている。
AwwaRF には、調査のための実用的な手法の確立への先導的役割、国際協力を必要とする調査、豊富な知識や情報を有する人材の蓄積が期待されている。現在実施している調査内容は、現状評価や長期的予測、 実
態調査等、情報収集に関するものが 20 課題、改築更新技術に関する調査が 8 課題、意思決定過程や更新計画のマニュアル化や支援体制に関するものが 15 課題である。
これらの調査により、全米各地の水道施設の効率的な改築更新事業が実施されており、「社会基盤に関する調査は、正しい意思決定のための保険である」との認識のもとで、AwwaRF の果たす役割は大きい。
【討議】
米国においては、水道および下水道の利用に対する各家庭の料金負担額が、家計支出の 0.5%程度でしかない点についてその理由は何かとの質問がなされたが、第 2 次大戦後、施設の整備が十分に行われた結果、新たな施設整備費があまり発生していないためであるとの回答がなされた。また、米国における水道の漏水率についての質問がなされ、約 8％であるとの回答がなされた。
5.17

議題 16： 臭気問題

（1） 高度浄水処理における臭素酸の生成と制御（東京都水道局

宮垣融）

1992 年金町浄水場への高度浄水処理導入以来、カビ臭に関する苦情はなくなったが、オゾン処理による臭素酸の生成が問題となった。
この問題に対し、高度浄水処理が導入されている浄水場で、オゾン処理における臭素酸生成量をコントロールする上で重要な因子を検索・検討した結果、オゾン注入量のコントロールを厳密に行うととも‑ 23 ‑

に、pH コントロールを併用することで当面は対応できるとした。その上で必要に応じて促進酸化処理を導入することも視野に入れ、酸化促進剤の同時注入の有効性や注入比率調整、また下降管注入方式についての検討を行って一定の結果を得た。
また、消毒用次亜塩素酸ナトリウム中の臭素酸低減化のため、原料塩を臭素イオン濃度の低いものに変更している。
さらに臭素酸の生成は原水中の臭素イオン濃度に依存するため、河川水中の臭素イオンの低減化を国等に求めていく。そのためには、河川水等の臭素イオン濃度の実態調査を進めていく必要があると考えている。
（2） 下水処理場における臭気の検出と制御（米国水環境研究財団、インフィルコ・デグレモン社 バーノン・ルーシー）
米国では下水道の臭気に関する国民の関心が高まっており、WERF では、放流水質、バイオソリッド
とともに臭気問題の改善が同等に重要な課題であると位置づけている。研究ファンドは臭気問題解決のためのプロジェクトを立ち上げており、第一期のプロジェクトで、臭気のアセスメント、測定、制御に関する既往調査のとりまとめを行った。その結果、いくつかの課題の中から、第二期のプロジェクトとして測定や制御技術などさまざまな面で困難な問題ではあるが、汚泥由来の臭気について嫌気性消化－バイオソリッドの臭気に的を絞って研究することとなった。
フェーズ 2 では処理施設における臭気発生機序の把握をめざし、全米 11 カ所およびカナダにおいて汚泥安定化のため嫌気性消化プロセスにおける臭気に影響する因子の特定を行った。その結果、ケーキ
中の生物利用可能タンパク質がより強く発臭していること、脱水方法によって臭気の程度が異なること、臭気は、揮発性全硫黄との相関が高いこと、嫌気性消化の水理学的滞留時間（HRT）を 40 日以上にすることで臭気は低減することなどが明らかとなったが、実施設に低コストで適用できる臭気制御法は明
らかにはならなかった。
そこで、第三期のプロジェクトとして低コストでバイオソリッドケーキからの臭気を制御できる方法の開発を行うこととした。第三期は開始されたばかりであるが、原理的には嫌気性消化汚泥中の生分解
性硫黄化合物を分解すること、または、臭気の原因となる硫黄化合物が揮散しないように汚泥中に固定する方法が検討されよう。実験室規模での成果を実規模まで拡大し、WERF 会員（自治体）が利用できる手法を提示することが第三期プロジェクトの目的である。
【討議】
下水道の活性汚泥に由来するカビ臭について米国での対応方法が尋ねられ、下水処理場臭気の大気拡
散へは覆蓋での対応が行われるとの回答があった。日本では、河川が短く下水処理場由来の放線菌によるカビ臭が下流の浄水場に被害を及ぼす例があるが、水への着臭についての方策についてはどうかとの問いに、浄水場によるオゾン処理での対応をしていると回答があった。
また、嫌気状態では細胞の破壊からタンパク質が遊離して臭気となるが、硫黄化合物の固定はどのようにするかとの質問にはアルミ系無機凝集剤を使用しているとの回答があった。これに対して、日本では汚泥の農業利用を考慮して、塩化第二鉄が汚泥処理系の臭気制御のために広く使われているとのコメントがあった。
日本側からバイオソリッドの有効利用として、エネルギー利用の実態について質問があり、ニューヨークでは消化ガス発電を民間会社が行っており、そのほか、ボイラー、マイクロガスタービン、燃料電
池、ディーゼルエンジンの動力などでエネルギー利用が行われているとの回答であった。

‑ 24 ‑

６．総括
16 議題、32 編の発表及び討議が終了した後に、本会議の総括が行われ、会議概要につき日米両国間の合意が得られた。日米両国間の合意内容は次のとおりである。
9

本会議は、水道水質及び下水道技術の分野での研究と政策の発展のための情報交換という重要な目的を有しており、水道水、下水並びに流域の適切な管理の重要性は、米国と日本に共通であることが確認された。

9

参加者は、このような情報交換の重要性に鑑み、今後も相互の活動を継続し、2 年後に以下のような課題について合同会議を続けることで合意した。
－流域管理－水道水質管理と下水道技術に関する進展－微生物と化学物質汚染に関するリスク評価と管理－浄水処理と下水管理のための新技術－緊急時に対する対応－水の再利用9

次回に関する調整窓口は、米国環境保護庁国立リスク管理研究所
氏と日本国厚生労働省国立保健医療科学院

キャスリーン・シェンク

浅見真理氏が務める。

７．視察の概要（1） ワイフェ地下水源
7月13日午前ワイフェ地下水源の現地視察を行った。ワイフェ地下水源は、深さ1,500フィート（457m）
あり、一日あたり、7百万～9百万ガロン（2万6千～3万4千m3）の水を取水している。水文学者が有効な地下水源を見つけたことから1921年に尾根の200フィート（61m）下からほぼ水平に建設された重力式取水管である。
水源の保護の観点から安全な取水量としては、一日あたり5百万ガロン（1万9千m3）程度が望ましいといわれており、水源の保護に留意する必要がある。
直径90cmほどの取水管に沿って、数cmの浅い水の中を30分ほど歩き、水路の奥の湧水は火山岩のろ過を受け、水質は極めて良好であり、冷たく甘い口当たりであった。
（2） ホノウリウリ下水再生施設
7 月 15 日午前、ホノウリウリ下水再生施設の現地視察を行った。本施設は、ホノウリウリ下水処理場に隣接しており、同処理場からの処理水をさらに処理し、灌漑用水又は工業用水として周辺地域に供給している。水資源の限られるオアフ島にて、清浄な地下水を保全するために、重要な施設となっている。
オアフ島には多数の小さな下水処理場があるが、同処理場は 27 MGD（約 10 万 m3/日）の汚水を処理する島内で 2 番目に大きい処理場である。処理方式については、一次処理後、プラスチック媒体を用いた生物処理を行い、最終沈澱池を経る。処理水は塩素消毒されずに島から 2 マイル離れた海洋に放流される。また、汚泥はコンポストとしてリサイクルされる。
同処理場から本施設には、処理水質 BOD 30mg/l、SS 20mg/l が保たれて、処理水が送られる。同施設の処理は R-1、RO という 2 種類に分けられ、R-1 は急速ろ過・砂ろ過・紫外線消毒からなり、RO はMF 膜処理・RO 膜処理からなる。R-1、RO による処理水は、給水管により本施設周辺のゴルフ場、工業団地に送られ、灌漑用水、工業用水として利用される。合計 12MGD（約 45,000m3/日）の処理能力を‑ 25 ‑

有するが、現在のところ 2MGD（約 7,600m3/日）の再生水が供給される。現在でも供給先拡大のために給水管の建設中である。
（3） ハラワ水源
7 月 15 日午後、ハラワ水源の現地視察を行った。本水源には、地下水を水道原水として汲み上げるために、地上から帯水槽にまで掘られた施設がある。また、本水源の周辺は、耐乾燥植物庭園（xeriscapegarden）として整備され、水資源保全の啓蒙施設としての役割を果たしている。
本施設は斜め立坑（inclined shaft）であり、1941 年から 1945 年にかけて建設が行われた。地下水は、
36 インチ（約 90cm）のパイプにより 6feet/s（約 1.8m/s）の速さで送水される。帯水層の水面は、海水面より 23 フィート（約 7m）高い程度であり、水質を監視するために塩分濃度が測定されている。立坑
内は、軌道により動くゴンドラで移動することができ、帯水層の上部をガラス越しに見る機会に恵まれた。なお、9 月 11 日のテロ以降、この立坑に入る見学ツアーは取りやめられており、今回の現地視察はそのテロ以降初めての見学であった。
この xeriscape garden は、1989 年から開園され、週 2 日間（水曜と土曜）の午前 10 時から午後 2 時まで、一般に開放している。desert rose 等水分の消費が少ない植物が多種植えられており、綺麗な公園として整備されている。多くの地域住民に愛用され、啓蒙効果が高いとのことである。
８．おわりに今回の会議は、16 分野の議題につき日米双方から 32 編の発表があり、最後まで熱心な議論が行われ、日米双方、水道、下水道双方の情報交換という点では極めて有意義なものであった。発表者と質問者の議論は、休憩時間や昼食時間、レセプションでも活発に行われた。これは、日米の上下水道が直面している課題が共通であり重要であることの証左と考えている。
次回の会議は、平成 18 年に日本で開催される予定であり、その際には、今回の会議で得られた貴重な情報を有効に活用し、下水道が解決しなければならない諸課題に対する解決策を持ち寄り、報告できることを期待したい。
最後に、本会議の開催にあたり御協力いただいた日米両国の関係各位に厚く御礼申し上げたい。

‑ 26 ‑

別

添

資

料

別添 1
日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議日程
第１日目 平成 16 年 7 月 12 日

午前

座長： 米国環境保護庁

サリー・グティアレツ

歓迎挨拶
ホノルル市水局
開会挨拶

クリフォード・ジャミール

過去から将来に向けて

米国環境保護庁

ローレンス・ライター

開会挨拶
厚生労働省健康局水道課水道水質管理室

柳橋泰夫

国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所下水道研究部

高橋正宏

議題 1： 水道水質管理の概要
米国の水道及び水質に関する研究の最近の動向
米国環境保護庁

サリー・グティアレツ

米国の飲料水に関する規制の紹介
米国環境保護庁

アン・コーリングトン

日本の水道の歴史及び日本の水道水質基準の改正について
厚生労働省

柳橋

泰生

厚生労働省

若山

宏

議題 2： 下水道分野の現状
下水道事業、法制の現状と今後
国土技術政策総合研究所

高橋正宏

議題3： 水道分野における微生物的課題
日本のクリプトスポリジウム集団感染事例から学んだこと
国立感染症研究所

遠藤卓郎

病原性微生物のモニタリングは飲料水の安全確保に有効か？
米国水道協会研究財団
第１日マルティン・アレン

平成 16 年 7 月 12 日

午後

座長： 米国環境保護庁

サリー・グティアレツ

議題 4： 水道分野における科学技術の振興
水道分野における科学技術の振興
国立保健医療科学院

浅見真理

米国水道協会研究財団の戦略的研究計画
米国水道協会研究財団

ジェームス・マンワリング

議題5： 水道分野の新技術
日本における水道用膜処理施設の現状と技術開発の動向
水道技術研究センター

藤原正弘

汽水の淡水化
エル・パソ上下水道局、米国水道協会研究財団、エドモンド・アルチュレータ‑ 27 ‑

議題6： 雨水対策と下水道
大阪市における合流式下水道の改善－雨天時活性汚泥プロセス－大阪市都市環境局 松本広司
雨水対策とニューヨーク市
ニューヨーク市下水道局 アル・ロペス
議題7： アジアにおける国際援助
米国農務省のアジアにおける水関係援助
米国農務省

スーザン・オーウェン

米国政府主催による歓迎レセプション
第２日目 平成16年7月13日

午前

座長： 国立保健医療科学院

国包章一

議題8： 健全な水循環の形成
自律型分散水道システムの活用に向けて
東京大学環境安全研究センター

山本和夫

議題 9： 流域管理
琵琶湖流域における排水管理
滋賀県琵琶湖環境部

森野久栄

流域管理
米国環境保護庁

ジェームズ・ハンロン

議題 10： 排出枠取引
流域管理のための経済効率性と費用負担に関する検討
国土技術政策総合研究所

吉田敏章

米国環境保護庁第 10 管区における水質取引
米国環境保護庁

クレア・シャーリー

議題 11： 水道分野における早期警戒システム
日本における水質汚染事故対策
厚生労働省

柳橋泰生

水道水源の早期警戒システムに関する研究
米国環境保護庁

ジェームス・グッドリッチ

第２日目 平成16年7月13日

午後

視察（ワイフェ地下水源）
日本政府による返礼レセプション
第３日目 平成 16 年 7 月 14 日

午前

座長： 米国水環境研究財団

議題 12： 水の再利用
日本における下水処理水再利用の現状
国土技術政策総合研究所

南山瑞彦

水の再利用
ブラック・アンド・ヴィーチ社

ディック・クチェンライザー‑ 28 ‑

ダニエル・ウォルタリング

議題13： バイオソリッドの再利用
バイオソリッドの再利用におけるリスクマネージメント
土木研究所

尾﨑正明

汚泥／バイオソリッドの再利用
ヴァージニア工科大学

ジョン・ノヴァク

議題 14： 内分泌かく乱化学物質
水道における内分泌かく乱化学物質と関連物質
国立保健医療科学院

国包章一

下水処理場における内分泌かく乱化学物質の実態
土木研究所 岡安祐司
上水道における内分泌かく乱化学物質の除去技術
米国環境保護庁 キャサリン・シェンク
第３日目 平成 16 年 7 月 14 日

午後

座長： 米国水環境研究財団

ダニエル・ウォルタリング

議題 15： 施設更新
水道施設の更新に関する意志決定及び資金代替案に関する研究の役割－耐震計画について
北海道大学創成科学研究機構

眞柄泰基

社会基盤の改築更新についての意志決定過程および財源負担方法に関する調査の果たす役割
日本下水道事業団 須賀雄一
水道施設の更新決定プロセスにおける研究の重要性
米国水道協会研究財団 ジャン・チェン
議題 16： 臭気問題
高度浄水処理における臭素酸の生成と制御
東京都水道局

宮垣融

下水処理場における臭気の検出と制御
米国水環境研究財団、インフィルコ・デグレモン社 バーノン・ルーシー
閉会挨拶
厚生労働省

柳橋泰生

国土技術政策総合研究所
米国環境保護庁高橋正宏

ローレンス・ライター、サリー・グティアレツ

閉会レセプション
第４日目 平成 16 年 7 月 15 日

終日

視察（ホノウリウリ下水再生施設、ハラワ水源）‑ 29 ‑

他

別紙 2
AGENDA
Japan-U.S. Governmental Conference
on Drinking Water Quality Management and Wastewater Control
July 12-15, 2004
Monday, July 12
Moderator: Sally Gutierrez, U.S. EPA
9:00 - 9:05

WelcomeClifford Jamile, Manager and Chief Engineer, Honolulu Water Board, US

9:05 - 9:20

Opening Remarks: Learning from the Past, Looking Toward the Future
Lawrence W. Reiter, Acting Director,
National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL), U.S. EPA

9:20 - 9:35

Opening Remarks
Yasuo Yanagibashi, Director, Office of Drinking Water Quality Management,
Water Supply Division, Health Service Bureau, MHLW, Japan
Masahiro Takahashi, Director, Water Quality Control Department,
National Institute for Land Infrastructure and Management, MLIT, Japan

9:35 - 10:05

Update on U.S. Drinking Water and Water Quality Research
Sally C. Gutierrez, Director, Water Supply and Water Resources Division, NRMRL,
U.S. EPA

10:05 - 10:35

Introduction to the United States Drinking Water Regulations
Ann Codrington, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, U.S. EPA

10:35 - 10:50

BREAK

10:50 - 11:20

Overview of Drinking Water Quality Management in Japan
Yasuo Yanagibashi, Director, Office of Drinking Water Quality Management,
Water Supply Division, Health Service Bureau, MHLW, Japan
Revision of Drinking Water Quality Standards in Japan
Hiroshi Wakayama, Technical Official, Office of Drinking Water Quality Management,
Water Supply Division, Health Service Bureau, MHLW, Japan

11:20 - 11:50

Overview of Wastewater Control/Regulatory Activities, Issues, and Directions
Masahiro Takahashi, Director, Water Quality Control Department,
National Institute for Land Infrastructure and Management, MLIT, Japan

11:50 - 12:20

What is Learned from Cryptosporidiosis Outbreak Cases in Japan
Takuro Endo, Director, Department of Parasitology,
National Institute of Infectious Diseases, MHLW Japan‑ 30 ‑

12:20 - 12:50

Does Pathogen Monitoring Ensure Safe Drinking Water?
Martin Allen, Director, Technology Transfer, Awwa Research Foundation, U.S.

12:50 - 13:50

LUNCH
Moderator: Sally Gutierrez, U.S. EPA

13:50 - 14:20

Promotion of Research in Water Supply
Mari Asami, Senior Researcher, Department of Water Supply Engineering,
National Institute of Public Health, MHLW, Japan

14:20 - 14:50

Overview of AwwaRF Strategic Research Plan
James Manwaring, Executive Director, Awwa Research Foundation, U.S.

14:50 - 15:20

Water Purification System with Membrane Filtration Process in Japan
Masahiro Fujiwara, President, Japan Water Research Center, Japan

15:20 - 15:50

Desalination of Brackish Groundwater
Edmund Archuleta, Immediate past Awwa Research Foundation Chair,
General Manager, El Paso Water Utilities, U.S.

15:50 - 16:05

BREAK

16:05 - 16:35

Combined Sewer System Improvement in Osaka City
—Wet Weather Activated Sludge Process
Hiroshi Matsumoto, Chief of Planning Section, Project Planning Department,
Sewerage Division, Environment and Sewerage Bureau, Osaka City, Japan

16:35 - 17:05

Storm water and New York City
Al Lopez, Deputy Commissioner, Bureau of Wastewater Treatment,
New York City Department of Environmental Protection, U.S.

17:05 - 17:30

UDSA Water Activities in Asia
Susan J. Owens, Research & Scientific Exchanges Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture

18:30

Welcome Reception Hosted by U.S. - Ocean Foyer

Tuesday, July 13
Moderator: Japanese Representative
8:30 - 9:00

Towards Autonomous and Decentralized Water System for Wise Use of Water andCreating Healthy and Sound Water Environment
Kazuo Yamamoto, Professor, Environmental Science Center, The University of Tokyo,
Japan

9:00 - 9:30

Wastewater Management in the Lake Biwa Basin
Kyuei Morino, Deputy Technical Director, South-Central Regional Sewerage Office,Department of Lake Biwa and the Environment, Shiga Prefecture, Japan‑ 31 ‑

9:30 - 10:00

Watershed Management
James Hanlon, Director, Office of Wastewater Management, U.S. EPA

10:00 - 10:15

BREAK

10:15 - 10:45

Investigations on Economic Efficiency and Cost Sharing for Watershed Management inJapanToshiaki Yoshida, Researcher, Wastewater System Division,
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, MLIT, Japan

10:45 - 11:15

Water Quality Trading in EPA Region 10
Claire Schary, Office for Environmental Management and Information, Region 10,
U.S. EPA

11:15 - 11:45

Overview of Measures Taken Against Accidental Water Resource Pollutions in Japan
Yasuo Yanagibashi, Director, Office of Drinking Water Quality Management,
Water Supply Division, Health Service Bureau, MHLW, Japan

11:45 - 12:15

Source Water and Drinking Water Early Warning System Research
James Goodrich, Water Supply and Water Resources Division, NRMRL, U.S. EPA

12:15 - 18:00

LUNCH AND AFTERNOON FIELD TRIP

18:00

Reception Hosted by Japanese

Wednesday, July 14
Moderator: Sally Gutierrez, U.S. EPA
9:00 - 9:30

Present State of the Treated Wastewater Reuse in Japan
Mizuhiko Minamiyama, Head, Wastewater and Sludge Management Division,
National Institute for Land Infrastructure and Management, MLIT, Japan

9:30 - 10:00

Water Reuse
Dick Kuchenrither, Senior Vice President, Black and Veatch, U.S.

10:00 - 10:30

Study on Risk Management for Reuse of Biosolids
Masaaki Ozaki, Team Leader, Recycling Research Team, Public Works Research Institute,Japan

10:30 - 10:45

BREAK

10:45 - 11:15

Sludge/Biosolids Reuse
John Novak, Professor of Civil Engineering,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, U.S.

11:15 - 11:45

Behavior of Chemicals Suspected of EDCs and Other Related Chemicals in Drinking
Water Supply
Shoichi Kunikane, Director, Department of Water Supply Engineering,
National Institute of Public Health, MHLW, Japan‑ 32 ‑

11:45 - 12:15

Occurrence of Endocrine Disrupters in Wastewater in Japan
Yuji Okayasu, Researcher, Water Quality Research Team,
Public Works Research Institute, Japan

12:15 - 12:45

Evaluation of Drinking Water Treatment Technologies for Removal of Endocrine
Disrupting Chemicals
Kathleen Schenck, Water Supply and Water Resources Division, NRMRL, U.S. EPA

12:45 - 13:45

LUNCH
Moderator: Sally Gutierrez, U.S. EPA

13:45 - 14:15

Role of Research in Infrastructure Rehabilitation/Renewal Decision Process andFinancing
Yasumoto Magara, Professor, Creative Research Initiative "SOUSEI",
Department of Environmental Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan

14:15 - 14:45

Role of Research in Infrastructure Rehabilitation/Renewal Decision Processes andFinancing Option
Yuichi Suga, Research and Technology Development Division,
Japan Sewage Works Agency, Japan

14:45 - 15:15

Role of Research in Infrastructure Rehabilitation/Renewal Decision Processes
Jian Zhang, Project Officer, Awwa Research Foundation, U.S.

15:15 - 15:30

BREAK

15:30 - 16:00

Bromate Formation and its Control in Advanced Water Treatment System
Tohru Miyagaki, Director, Kinuta Purification Plant, Bureau of Waterworks,
Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Japan

16:00 - 16:30

Identifying and Controlling Odor in the Municipal Wastewater Environment
Vernon Lucy, President/Chairman of the Board, Infilco Degremont, Inc., U.S.

16:30 - 17:30

Closing Remarks/Meeting Summation
Yasuo Yanagibashi, Director, Office of Drinking Water Quality Management,
Water Supply Division, Health Service Bureau, MHLW, Japan
Masahiro Takahashi, Director, Water Quality Control Department,
National Institute for Land Infrastructure and Management, MLIT, Japan
Sally C. Gutierrez, Director, Water Supply and Water Resources Division, NRMRL,
U.S. EPA

18:30

Closing Reception Hosted by U.S. – Ocean Foyer

Thursday, July 15
ALL DAY FIELD TRIP

‑ 33 ‑

別添 3
ROSTER OF U.S. SPEAKERS
2004 JAPAN-U.S. GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE
Martin J. Allen, Ph.D.
Director – Technology Transfer,
Awwa Research Foundation
6666 W. Quincy Avenue,
Denver, CO 80235

Al Lopez
Deputy Commissioner, Bureau of Wastewater
Treatment, New York City Department ofEnvironmental Protection
96-05 Horace Harding Expressway,
2nd Floor Low Rise, Flushing, NY 11373

Edmund G. Archuleta
Chair, Awwa Research Foundation
El Paso Water Utilities
1154 Hawkins Blvd (79925), P.O. Box 511,
El Paso, TX 79961-0001

Vernon Lucy
President/Chairman of the Board,
Infilco Degremont, Inc.
2924 Emerywood Parkway, Richmond, VA 23294

Ann Codrington
Standards and Risk Management Division (4607M),
Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW,
Washington, D.C. 20460

James F. Manwaring, P.E.
Executive Director, Awwa Research Foundation
6666 W. Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235

James A. Goodrich, Ph.D.
Water Supply & Water Resources Division,
National Risk Management Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 W. Martin Luther King Drive,
Cincinnati, OH 45268

John Novak
Professor of Civil Engineering, 419 Durham Hall,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, VA 24061

Sally Gutierrez
Director, Water Supply & Water Resources Division,
National Risk Management Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 W. Martin Luther King Drive,
Cincinnati, OH 45268

Susan J. Owens
Deputy Director, Research & Scientific Exchanges
Division, International Cooperation & Exchanges,
Foreign Agricultural Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture
1400 Independence Avenue, SW, South Building,Room 3229, Washington D.C. 20250

Jim Hanlon
Director,
Office of Wastewater Management (4201M),
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW,
Washington, D.C. 20460

Lawrence W. Reiter
Acting Director, National Risk Management
Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 W. Martin Luther King Drive,
Cincinnati, OH 45268

Dick Kuchenrither
Senior Vice President, Black & Veatch Corporation
8400 Ward Parkway, Kansas City, MO 64114

Claire Schary
Office for Environmental Management &Information,
U.S. EPA – Region 10 (EMI-163)
1200 Sixth Avenue, Seattle, WA 98101‑ 34 ‑

Kathleen Schenck
Water Supply & Water Resources Division,
National Risk Management Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 W. Martin Luther King Drive,
Cincinnati, OH 45268

Jian Zhang
Project Officer, Awwa Research Foundation
6666 W. Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235

Dan Woltering
Director of Research,
Water Environment Research Foundation
635 Slaters Lane, Suite 300, Alexandria, VA 22314‑ 35 ‑

ROSTER OF JAPANESE SPEAKERS
2004 JAPAN-U.S. GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE
Dr. Mari Asami
Senior Researcher,
Department of Water Supply Engineering,
National Institute of Public Health, MHLW
4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8638

Mr. Tohru Miyagaki
Director, Kinuta Purification Plant,
Bureau of Waterworks,
Tokyo Metropolitan Government
2-9-1Kitami, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 157-0067

Dr. Takuro Endo
Director, Department of Parasitology,
National Institute of Infectious Diseases, MHLW
1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8640

Mr. Kyuei Morino
Deputy Technical Director,
South-Central Regional Sewerage Office,Department of Lake Biwa and the Environment,
Shiga Prefecture
6-5-9 Ogaki, Rittou, Shiga 520-3024

Dr. Masahiro Fujiwara
President, Japan Water Research Center
Toranomon Denki Bldg., 2-8-1, Toranomon,
Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0001

Mr. Yuji Okayasu
Researcher, Water Quality Research Team,
Water Environment Research Group,
Public Works Research Institute
1-6, Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8516

Dr. Shoichi Kunikane
Director, Department of Water Supply Engineering,
National Institute of Public Health, MHLW
4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8638

Mr. Masaaki Ozaki
Team Leader, Recycling Research Team,
Material and Geotechnical Engineering ResearchGroup, Public Works Research Institute
1-6, Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8516

Prof. Yasumoto Magara
Professor, Creative Research Initiative "SOUSEI",
Department of Environmental Engineering,
Hokkaido University
Kita-13, Nishi-8, Kita-ku,
Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628

Mr. Kanji Sato
Technical Researcher, Technical Division,
Engineering Department,
Japan Water Works Association
4-8-9 Kudan-Minami, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0074

Mr. Hiroshi Matsumoto
Chief, Project Planning Department,
Sewerage Division,
Environment and Sewerage Bureau, Osaka CityWTC 33F, 1-14-16 Nanko-kita, Suminoe-ku,
Osaka 559-0034

Mr. Yuichi Suga
Research and Technology Development Division,
Japan Sewage Works Agency
Shimosasame 5141, Toda, Saitama 335-0037

Mr. Mizuhiko Minamiyama
Head, Wastewater and Sludge Management Division,
Water Quality Control Department,
National Institute for Land and InfrastructureManagement, MLIT
Asahi 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0804

Mr. Yutaka Suzuki
Team Leader, Water Quality Research Team,
Water Environment Research Group,
Public Works Research Institute
1-6, Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8516‑ 36 ‑

Dr. Masahiro Takahashi
Director, Water Quality Control Department,
National Institute for Land and InfrastructureManagement, MLIT
Asahi 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0804

Mr. Yasuo Yanagibashi
Director, Office of Drinking Water Quality
Management, Water Supply Division,
Health Service Bureau, MHLW
1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8916

Mr. Hiroshi Wakayama
Technical Official, Office of Drinking Water Quality
Management, Water Supply Division,
Health Service Bureau, MHLW
1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8916

Mr. Toshiaki Yoshida
Researcher, Wastewater System Division,
Water Quality Control Department,
National Institute for Land and InfrastructureManagement, MLIT
Asahi 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0804

Prof. Kazuo Yamamoto
Professor, Environmental Science Center,
The University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033‑ 37 ‑

別添 4
会

議

概

要

日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議
平成 16 年 7 月 12 日－15 日
平成 16 年 7 月 12 日－15 日、米国ハワイ州オアフ島コオリーナにおいて、第 3 回日米水道水質管理及び下水道技術に関する政府間会議（第 7 回日米水道水質政府間会議）が、開催された。4 日間にわたり、
水道水質及び下水道管理に関する科学技術及び政策に関する情報交換を行った。会議の一部として、ホノルル水局の水道施設と下水再生施設（ワイフェ取水トンネル、ホノウリウリ下水再生施設及びハラワ
水源）の見学を行った。
会議は、ホノルル水局

クリフォード・ジャミール氏の歓迎挨拶により始まり、米国環境保護庁国立

リスク管理研究所統括部長

ローレンス・ライター氏、厚生労働省健康局水道課水道水質管理官

泰生氏、国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所下水道研究部長

柳橋

高橋正宏氏の開会の挨拶が行われた。

技術的な内容については、まず、米国環境保護庁によるリスク管理研究、水道水質規制の状況について発表が行われた。日本側からは、水道水質管理と基準、下水道に関わる管理・規制の現状及び方向性について発表が行われた。日本のクリプトスポリジウム症の集団発生事例の解析、米国の感染性微生物
モニタリングの位置づけについて、発表が行われた。日本の水道分野の科学技術推進の現状についても発表が行われた。また、新たな議題として、膜や海水淡水化による新しい水源の確保に関する技術の進歩についての発表が日米双方から行われた。
合流式下水道越流水等の雨天時排水に関しては、大阪市とニューヨーク市の事例について討議が行われた。米国農務省により、アジア地域での活動概要の発表が行われ、アジアの水利用に関する新しいイ
ニシアチブに関して日本側からの参画の可能性について提案があった。
分散型水循環システムによる健全な水循環の革新的概念についても発表が行われた。米国の流域管理の現状や日本の琵琶湖の下水管理の現状に関するケーススタディにつき討議が行われた。経済的誘因を活用した新しい水質管理手法について、両国からの詳細なケーススタディの発表をもとに、議論された。
水質事故と早期警戒システムに関する研究の概要についても発表が行われた。

‑ 38 ‑

下水処理水の再利用の現状及び下水汚泥のリスク管理に関する広範な発表が行われ、統合的な水循環についても討議が行われた。内分泌攪乱化学物質に関する課題は、両国にとって引き続き関心のあるト
ピックであり、浄水及び下水処理過程における物質の挙動の研究について討議が行われた。
施設の改築更新及び資金調達に関しては、ますます課題が大きくなっており、両国から発表並びに議論が行われた。日本の高度浄水処理における臭素酸の生成と制御に関する研究や米国の下水環境における臭気の同定と管理に関する研究についても発表及び討議が行われた。
総括と今後の活動
本会議は、水道水質及び下水道技術の分野での研究と政策の発展のための情報交換という重要な目的を有しており、水道水、下水並びに流域の適切な管理の重要性は、米国と日本に共通であることが確認された。参加者は、このような情報交換の重要性に鑑み、今後も相互の活動を継続し、2 年後に下記のような課題について合同会議を続けることで合意した。次回に関する調整窓口は、米国環境保護庁国立
リスク管理研究所

キャスリーン・シェンク氏と日本国厚生労働省国立保健医療科学院

務める。
課題：
－流域管理
－水道水質管理と下水道技術に関する進展－微生物と化学物質汚染に関するリスク評価と管理－浄水処理と下水管理のための新技術－緊急時に対する対応－水の再利用
平成 16 年 7 月 15 日
米国環境保護庁国立リスク管理研究所

厚生労働省健康局水道課

統括部長

水道水質管理官

ローレンス・ライター

柳橋 泰生

国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所
下水道研究部長
高橋 正宏‑ 39 ‑

浅見真理氏が

‑ 40 ‑

‑ 41 ‑

別添 6
会議及び視察の写真

写真 1 会議の様子

写真 2 参加者の集合写真

写真 3 会議概要への署名

写真 4 ワイフェ取水トンネル孔口

写真 5 ホノウリウリ下水再生施設

写真 6 ハラワ水源‑ 42 ‑

発

表

資

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Learning from the Past, Looking Toward the Future
過去に学び、未来に向かう

Lawrence W. Reiter, U.S. EPA
米国環境保護庁

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米国の水道及び水質に関する最近の動向

Sally Gutierrez, U.S. EPA
米国環境保護庁

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‑ 60 ‑

Overview of Drinking Water Quality Management in Japan
日本の水道の歴史について

Yasuo Yanagibashi, MHLW, Japan
厚生労働省‑ 61 ‑

柳橋泰生

Overview of Drinking Water Quality Management in Japan

Yasuo YANAGIBASHI
Director, Office of Drinking Water Quality Management
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare

1. The beginning of water supply systems in JapanThe first water supply system in Japan was built in the Warring State Period in the
16th century. Each of the warring lords built a big town around the castle in the area heoccupied, where securing a supply of drinking water and domestic water was a vital challenge
for them. In 1545, the Hayakawa Water Supply System was built in Odawara, which was themain city in the Kanto Area at that time. In 1590, when Hideyoshi Toyotomi, who later in thesame year gained full control of the nation, transferred Ieyasu Tokugawa to Edo (now Tokyo),the construction of the Koishikawa Water Supply System was started (this system was laterrebuilt as the Kanda Water Supply System). Ieyasu Tokugawa assumed control of the nation
after the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 and established a shogunate government in the city ofEdo. Edo then started its history of development as the nation’s political capital. In 1654, theTamagawa Water Supply System (43 km (27miles) in length and with a 92 m (302feet)difference in elevation) was completed in Edo. This system is considered to be the originalform of the current water supply systems in Tokyo and is still partially in use in the current
system. It is estimated that the Tamagawa Water Supply System supplied water to 1.2 million
people in Edo, which with a population of approximately 2 million, was the largest city in theworld at that time in 1787. In the same period, about 40 other cities and towns constructed asimilar water supply system.
In 1854, the Japanese government signed the Japan-U.S. Treaty of Amity and Japan
opened its doors to other countries for the first time since the beginning of the 200-year long
period of isolation. As international exchange became more active, waterborne infectious
diseases, such as cholera and typhoid, started to invade Japan from other countries and spreadthrough the nation. In the first 20 years of the Meiji Era (1868–1912), more than 410,000
Japanese were infected by cholera bacteria, and more than half of those infected lost theirlives. The outbreak served as an alarm signal for the government officials who in turn
recognized the need for a modern water supply system. The momentum to build water supply
systems was especially high in towns near a harbor, where the threat of a cholera attack was
higher.
1‑ 62 ‑

2. Spread of the modern water supply systems
In 1883, the government of Kanagawa Prefecture invited a British engineer, Henry
Spencer Palmer, to carry out a survey and to design a pressurized water supply system that
could continuously supply filtered water in Yokohama through iron pipes. The construction
was finished in 1887, and the system, which carried water from the Sagami River, started
services. Following Yokohama, water supply systems were constructed and services werestarted in Hakodate, Nagasaki, Osaka, Tokyo, Hiroshima, and Kobe.
By 1930, as many as 700 water supply systems were completed in Japan. After agovernment funded subsidy system for small water supply service was started in 1952,
construction of water systems proceeded at an accelerated rate. By 1960, as many as 14,984
systems were built, supplying water to 53% of the nation’s population. The number ofsystems reached 19,364 in 1970, but decreased to 14,580 by 2000 due to the integration ofsmall systems into a single comprehensive system that covers a wider area. More recently, theofficial definition of private water supply systems was changed in 2002 to cover a wider rangeof systems, and as a result, the total number of systems on record in the same year (17,599
systems covering 97% of the nation’s population) became higher than the previous year.

3. The current legal system regarding water supply systems in JapanThe high rate of spread of the current water supply systems in Japan is largely due
to the Water Works Law, which was established in 1957 aimed at the well-planned
construction of water supply systems and the protection and improvement of existingwaterworks. Currently, the following types of systems are supplying water to consumers inJapan under the regulations listed below.
It should be noted that the Water Works Law specifies a “water supply system” as awhole facility that is used to supply water suitable for human consumption (i.e., drinking
water) through pipes and other types of structures. Facilities that are temporary constructions
are exempted from the scope of the law.
(1) Types of water supply systems
a. Water supply service:
A service that supplies drinking water through a water supply system to a
population of 101 or larger, responding to a demand from the public.
2‑ 63 ‑

b. Small water supply service:
A service that supplies drinking water through a water supply system that supplies
water to 5,000 consumers or fewer. Although not defined by the Law, water supply service
that supply water to more than 5,000 people are customarily referred to as “jo-suido jigyo”(literally “upper water supply services”).
c. Wholesale water supply service:
A service that provides water to water suppliers.
d. Private water supply system:
A water supply system for private use at a school or company dormitory, sanatorium,or other type of public housing whose the number of consumers exceeds 100 or whose
maximum daily capacity of water supplied exceeds 20 cubic meters (706 cubic feet).
e. Small scale private water supply system:
A water supply facility that uses water supplied by a water supplier as the only
water source and is equipped with water tank(s) whose total effective capacity exceeds 10
cubic meters.
(2) Obligations and regulations in accordance with the type of water supply system
The Water Works Law provides the following regulations according to the type ofwater supply system.
a. Applicable to all types of water supply systems:i.

Application of drinking water quality standards:
The standards that apply to water that is supplied by a water supply system are
specified by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW).
ii.

Application of facility standards:
The technical standards that apply to water supply facilities are specified by the
MHLW. These standards also include those for chemicals, such as coagulants, pH control
chemicals, and powdered activated carbon.
b. Applicable to water supply service, wholesale water supply service, and private watersupply system
3‑ 64 ‑

i.

Notification and inspection prior to the start of service:
Prior to the start of a water supply service, water suppliers, etc. must notify the
Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare of the start of service and carry out inspections of thewater quality and facility.
ii.

Technical administrator of water service:
Water suppliers, etc. must employ a technical administrator for the water service totake charge of technical matters.
iii.

Water inspection:
Water suppliers, etc. must carry out regular and emergency water inspections tocheck the quality of the water they supply.
iv.

Health check:
Water suppliers, etc. must provide regular and emergency health checks for
employees who work at intake facilities, purification plants, or drainage basins.
v.

Hygienic measures:
Water suppliers, etc. must take hygienic measures, including disinfection of thewater by chlorine.
vi.

Emergency suspension of water supply:
Water suppliers, etc. must immediately suspend the water supply and notify related
authorities should the supplier learn of the possibility that the water being supplied is harmful
to public health.
vii.

Consignment of services:
Water suppliers, etc. may consign technical practices concerning water management
to another water supplier, the private sector, etc.
c. Applicable to water supply service and wholesale water supply servicesi.

Authorization of business operation:
Any parties who are planning to start business as providers of water supply services
must obtain authorization from the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare. When a supplierexpands its service area, the change of business operation must be authorized by the Minister.
Authorization of water supply service and wholesale water supply services with 50,000 or
fewer customers is made by the prefectural governor concerned.
4‑ 65 ‑

ii.

Permission for suspension and discontinuation of service:
Water suppliers, etc. may not suspend or discontinue the water supply service
without authorization from the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare. When a watersupplier, etc. transfers all the practices of its water supply operation to another party, it must
notify the same Minister of the transaction.
iii.

Supervision of construction by an engineer:
Water suppliers, etc. must have a qualified engineer supervise the construction ofwater facilities.
iv.

Provision of information:
Water suppliers, etc. must provide consumers with information on the plan and theresults of water quality inspections and other matters.
d. Applicable to water supply servicei.

Water supply regulations:
Water suppliers must lay down regulations concerning water supply conditions
including the water rate.
ii.

Obligation to supply water:
Water suppliers may not refuse a request for a contract to supply water from a
consumer inside its service area without a justifiable reason.
iii.

Water service installations:
Water suppliers may refuse a request for a contract to supply water when the
structure or material of the consumer’s water supply equipment or facility does not comply
with standards designated by the government ordinance. Water suppliers may appoint thebuilder of the water service installation. Water suppliers may enter the land and/or buildingsof the consumer in order to carry out inspection of the water service installation.
iv.

Request for inspection:
The water consumer may request the water supplier to conduct inspections of awater service installation and the quality of the water supplied.
v.

Installation of fire hydrants:
Water suppliers must install fire hydrants to be used for public fire-fighting
operations. (Small-scale water utilities are exempted from this regulation.)5‑ 66 ‑

e. Applicable to private water supply systemsi.

Confirmation of conformity of facility standards:
Parties who are installing a private water service installation must have theprefectural governor confirm that the facility conforms to the applicable facility standards
prior to the start of construction.
f. Applicable to small scale private water supply systemsi.

Compliance with management standards:
The party who installs a facility must manage the facility in compliance with theordinance of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.
ii.

Inspection of management status:
The party who installed the facility must allow inspection of the management statusat least once a year by an organization of the local public corporation or an inspection
organization registered with the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare.
(3) State subsidy for facility construction
The Water Works Law states that the state government may subsidize local public
corporations that provide water supply service or wholesale water supply service to cover partof their costs. The subsidies from the state government for water supply services are classified
into two types: subsidies for the development of water resources or the construction ofadvanced water treatment and other facilities by water supply services and wholesale watersupply services; and construction of facilities for small water supply service. These
government subsidy systems have promoted the spread of water service installations andsuppressed possible regional differences in water utility rates.
In fiscal 2003, approximately 150 billion yen was budgeted for these subsidies.

4. History of the legal system for waterworks(1) Enactment of the Waterworks OrdinanceIn 1890, when the Waterworks Ordinance (the “old Water Works Law”) was
instituted, municipal governments were the only type of organization that were authorized tooperate waterworks. The government recognized that operation of drinking water service
6‑ 67 ‑

installations, which had a public mission to prevent epidemics of cholera and other infectious
diseases, should not be consigned to the private sector, for it would impose a substantial
influence on the administration of hygiene. The ordinance went through five stages ofamendment, and as a result, eventually allowed non-governmental bodies to construct andoperate water service installations. In addition, a certain part of the authority of the Ministerof Home Affairs was entrusted to prefectural governors.
(2) Enactment of the Water Works Law
In 1957, the current Water Works Law was enacted after some flaws wererecognized in the old law. For example, many cases of epidemics of waterborne infectious
diseases originated from water service installations for private use, which were not covered by
the old law.
The new Water Works Law stipulates the obligations of the water suppliers in theirbusiness operation and hygiene and safety measures. It also regulates procedures for statesubsidies and the operations of wholesale water supply services and private water service
installations.
(3) Amendment of the Water Works Law
While water supply systems spread over a wide area of Japan rapidly after theenactment of the Water Works Law, some serious problems have arisen. The rapid growth inpopulation and industrial activities have imposed a large burden on the existing water supply
systems. The concentration of population in large cities and the progress of industrialization
has brought serious problems with the quality of water at its sources. Under these situations,the need for water resources development and enlargement of water supply areas has become
more clearly recognized. In response to these situations, a new state subsidy system wasestablished in the budget for fiscal 1967.
In 1977, the Water Works Law was amended to allow the following items: 1)
Prefectural governors may carry out the Water System Arrangement Plan for Wide Area
Supply at the request of the local public entities concerned, 2) water suppliers, etc. may
request the governmental institutions concerned to take appropriate measures to maintain thewater quality at its source, and 3) systems that supply water using a storage tank with a certain
size (systems in buildings that obtain their water from a water supplier, for example) aredefined as small scale private water supply systems and specific regulations apply to thesesystems.
7‑ 68 ‑

The amendment of the law in 1996 stipulated the licensing system for water systemconstruction companies. Until then, each water supplier could designate the construction
company for water supply facilities following the local ordinance and other regulations. In
this amendment of the law, a national licensing system was established for engineers for theconstruction of water supply facilities. This amendment allowed qualified engineers to workin water supply facility construction at the request of a supplier located anywhere in thenation.
The amendment in 2001 was made under the main theme of “enforcement ofwaterworks management systems.” It permitted the entrustment of management practices tothird parties and facilitated the procedures to merge water suppliers. A new definition, private
water supply system, was applied to water supply systems that had a high capacity but had notbeen regulated by the law. The amendment also clarified the responsibilities of watersuppliers and installers of storage tanks that are stated in water supply regulations determinedby the supplier. Disclosure of information to water consumers was also encouraged in theamendment.
In 2003, another amendment of the Water Works Law was made to introduce newprovisions on water quality inspection. Before this amendment, designation by the Minister of
Health, Labour and Welfare had been required when a water supplier chose a water quality
inspection institution to whom to entrust their water quality inspection and inspection of the
management status of private water supply facilities. In this amendment, however, aregistration system for such inspection institutions was introduced. Now the institutions are
required to meet the registration standards, including items to ensure the credibility of these
inspections.
(4) Current status of water quality standards
The Waterworks Ordinance (the “old Water Works Law”) of 1890 did not include
provisions for water quality standards. In 1908, the Waterworks Council laid down the Agreed
Method of Examination as the national standard method for inspecting the water quality. In
1958, the Drinking Water Quality Standards were established based on the current Water
Works Law, which was enacted in the previous year. After amendments in 1960, 1966, and1978, the standards went through a substantial amendment in 1992. In May 2003, about 10
years after the previous amendment, water quality standards were revised one more time inpart in response to the amendment to the Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality by the World
Health Organization (WHO). The latest standards have been effective since April 2004.

8‑ 69 ‑

5. Conclusion
For Japanese waterworks, the 20th century was an era in which its services wereextended to consumers throughout the nation. How to carry on these services in a sustainable
way is a critical challenge for waterworks in the 21st century. Specifically, sustainable
operation, including proper replacement, maintenance, and management of the existing
facilities, must be carried out as the nation’s population is decreasing rapidly. In addition,
while the spread of the water supply systems has reached 97% of the population, the rest
(approximately 4 million people) still depend on well water, which does not necessarily
supply an appropriate quality of water. Appropriate measures need to be taken especially inthese areas to improve the water quality management systems.
In June 2004, the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare issued their “Vision ofwater services,” a long-term plan for the nation’s water supply services. The Vision will be afundamental tool to develop governmental measures for the forthcoming years.

9‑ 70 ‑

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7KHYLVLRQRIZDWHUVHUYLFHV‑ 71 ‑

Revision of Drinking Water Quality Standards in Japan
日本の水道水質基準の改正について

Hiroshi Wakayama, MHLW, Japan
厚生労働省‑ 73 ‑

若山宏

Revision of Drinking Water Quality Standards and QA/QC for Drinking Water Quality
Analysis in Japan
Hiroshi WAKAYAMATechnical Official, Office of Drinking Water Quality Management
Water Supply Div., Health Service Bureau
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
1. Introduction
Since first enacted in 1958 based on the Waterworks Law, Drinking Water Quality
Standards (DWQSs) have undergone a series of amendments to comply with the scientificknowledge accumulated as time passes. Among those amendments, the one conducted in 1992
was especially significant. It increased the standard items from 26 to 46 in order tosubstantially reinforce and enhance drinking water quality management.
Approximately 10 years have passed since the amendment in 1992, and problems
with new disinfection byproducts, such as trihalomethane (THM), and bromic and haroacetic
acids, and chlorine-resistant pathogenic microorganism, such as Cryptosporidium, have arisen.
Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) has started preparation for a fully-fledged
revision of the Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality for the first time in 10 years.
In July 2002, in order to respond to such situational changes surrounding water
quality management, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) consulted the
Health Science Council about revision of DWQSs. Following a response from the Council ofApril 2003, the MHLW laid down a new set of standards in May 2003, which went into effecton April 1, 2004.
The report by the Health Science Council suggested a credibility assurance system
to be introduced to drinking water quality analysis, which is conducted to ensure the ultimate
safety of drinking water. In responding to this suggestion, the MHLW specified the legal
obligation of institutions that carry out drinking water quality analysis based on the
Waterworks Law in order to initiate a credibility assurance system.
2. Revision of Drinking Water Quality Standards
2.1. Fundamental principles
Traditionally, the Drinking Water Quality Standards (DWQSs) of Japan were set for‑ 74 ‑

substances and items that are commonly seen throughout the nation as the source of the
problem. For problems that are seen only locally or in specific methods for water purification,
governmental instructions were made as a form of administrative guidance throughnotification.
In the revision of DWQSs, such principles were reconsidered, and the newstandards were established based on the two fundamental principles described below.
1) Standards are set for all substances (or items) that have the possibility of having anadverse effect on the protection of health and/or livelihood of people depending on thelocality, type of untreated water, or purification method, even when the detection level ofthe substance (or item) is low on a national basis.
2) Water suppliers are obliged to carry out drinking water quality analysis only for the basic
items and may exempt some of the non-basic items from analysis according to thesituation.
Although a decision to simplify the drinking water quality analysis items is made atthe discretion of the water suppliers, this decision must be appropriate and transparent
because drinking water quality analysis are a vital factor in drinking water quality
management. Thus, a new system was introduced to require water suppliers to prepare a water
quality analysis plan that indicates the boundaries for analysis and publish the plan for water
consumers prior to the analysis.
2.2. Revision of Drinking Water Quality Standards
a. Drinking Water Quality Standards (50 items)
The DWQSs were established under a policy to include as many items as possible
even if they are associated only with regional or personal issues. Specifically, it was decided
that the DWQSs would include “items that are detected or can possibly be detected in purified
water at a level of 10% or higher of the assessment value (excluding items that happen toshow a high level due to a singular value).” When calculating the assessment values, themethod used for the existing standards was applied in principle.
The items subject to the standards were reviewed in accordance with the new
definition, and new items were specified. As a result, the number of items subject to the
DWQSs increased from 46 to 50 (Table 1).

‑ 75 ‑

- New items added to the standards (13 items) 1) Escherichia coli, 2) Boron, 3) 1,4-Dioxane, 4) Bromate, 5) Chloroacetic acid,6) Dichloroacetic acid, 7) Trichloroacetic acid, 8) Formaldehyde, 9) Aluminum,10) Geosmin, 11) Nonionic surface active agents, 12) 2-Methylisobormeol(2MIB),
13) Total organic carbon (TOC)- Items removed from the DWQSs (9 items) 1) Total coliforms , 2）1,2-Dichloroethane, 3) 1,3-Dichloropropene, 4) Simazine,5) Tiuram, 6) Thiobencarb, 7) 1,1,2-Tricholoroethane, 8) 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 9)
Potassium permanganate consumption
It is notable that a disinfection byproduct (haloacetic acid) and taste andodor-causing substances (geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol) were added to the list;
Escherichia coli was added while coliform bacteria in general were removed; potassium
permanganate consumption as an index for organic substances was removed; and total organiccarbon (TOC) was added.
Among the biological standard items, Escherichia coli was newly adopted as anindex for fecal pollution, which is the major cause of water-borne infectious diseases.
Although E. coli has been known to be the best index for this purpose, the total coliforms had
been used as a standard item in the old system due to technical limitations on measuring E.
coli. As effective measuring techniques for E. coli have been developed, the bacterium wasadded to the list of standard items to increase the accuracy of the fecal pollution index. During
the discussion to select the items, the heterotrophic bacterial (HPC) was considered as a
candidate in addition to the general bacteria. The HPC was not adopted this time, however,
due to the insufficient amount of essential data available in Japan.
Potassium permanganate consumption has long been used as an index for organic
substance levels. It is pointed out, however, that the measurement of this substance has many
flaws; the method cannot clearly identify the exact substance that is actually measured andnon-organic substances are also included in the measurement, for example. In contrast, in themeasurement of total organic carbon (TOC), the specific item measured (the amount ofcarbon that makes up the organic substances in this case) is clearly known. In addition, aproper measuring instrument (TOC analyzer) is available for highly accurate measurement.
Because of these advantages, the TOC was adopted as the standard item instead of potassium
permanganate consumption. However, a grace period was given until March 2005 before the
TOC becomes an obligatory item for standards. This is to facilitate the shift in measuring
items by water suppliers who have been using potassium permanganate consumption as anindex for the management of purification treatment processes.

‑ 76 ‑

In addition to the substances and items listed above, the “items not listed in the
DWQSs, but can possibly be detected in purified water at the level of 10% or higher of thestandard value in some cases” are now categorized as “Complementary Items to Set theTargets for Water Quality Management.” Also, the “items on which necessary information andknowledge should be collected” are now categorized as “Items for Further Studies.”b. Complementary items to set the targets for water quality management (27 items):
Items in this category do not need to be included in the standards because of the low
detection levels or provisional evidence of toxicity. This category includes items normallydetected in the natural environment and items that have the potential to be detected indrinking water because of their use in large quantities. This is a category that will draw theattention of the people/parties concerned with supplying water (Table 2). Although inclusionin this category does not necessitate a water quality analysis, analysis is recommended in linewith the DWQSs for the sake of data collection and accumulation of knowledge.
c. Items for Further Study (40 items)
The items in this category were excluded from the list of the DWQSs or
Complementary Items to Set the Targets for Water Quality Management. They include items
whose toxicities have not yet been determined, or where concentrations in drinking water are
not clear. Further studies are necessary to accumulate information and knowledge on these
items (Table 3).
d. Pesticides
There were no specific pesticides to be classified in the DWQSs at the time of therevision in 2003. However, since pesticides in drinking water have a high public interest
factor, they were classified as Complementary Items to Set the Targets for Water Quality
Management as “pesticides”. MHLW decided to introduce evaluation by the total pesticidelevel. In evaluating by the total pesticide level, currently, 101 items were listed as “pesticides”
based on their detection and consumption levels in Japan. Water suppliers must ensure that
consumers feel their water supply is safe by monitoring the total pesticide level with due
consideration given to the usage period and the conditions in the area around the water source.
- The Total Pesticide Level The target level is set for each of the 101 pesticides. The sum of the ratio of themeasurement value (DVi) to the target value (GVi), where i is a specific pesticide, should‑ 77 ‑

not be greater than 1.

DVi
≤1
i GVi

DI = ∑

DI: Value of measurement standard
DVi: Measurement value of pesticide i
GVi: Target value of pesticide i
2.3 Water quality analysis plan
A new principle was adopted in the this revision of DWQSs. The traditional ideathat “DWQSs consider only those items that are the cause of nationwide problems; items thatare the cause of local problems are dealt with by administrative guidance throughnotification” was changed to embody the principle of setting a legal standard for all items that
may cause a problem even if they are seen only locally. At the same time, the imposition ofwater quality analysis on water suppliers is limited to basic items and other items may beomitted under certain circumstances. This would reduce some of the rather heavy burden ofwater quality analysis for water suppliers and allow them to implement analysis that bettersuits the regional situations in a more rational form. Although the decision to simplify thewater quality analysis items is made at the discretion of the water suppliers, this decision must
be appropriate and transparent because water quality analysis is a vital factor in water quality
management. Thus, a new system was introduced that requires water suppliers to prepare andpublish a water quality analysis plan each year prior to the analysis.
- Items that must be included in the water quality analysis plan 1) Fundamental policy of water quality analysis.
2) Items on which the water quality analysis is performed, location of water sampling,frequency of analysis, and reason for performing the water quality analysis.
3) Items for which the water quality analysis is omitted and the reason for omission.
4) Information related to temporary water quality analysis.
5) Specifics of commission when a water quality analysis is entrusted to anotherorganization.
6) Special considerations that must be observed at the time of water quality analysis.
2.4. Rolling Revision of Drinking Water Quality Standards
The Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality of WHO discontinued the system whererevision of the guidelines was made on a regular basis. Instead, a new system was adopted
where the guidelines are reviewed and revised consecutively in responding to the availability‑ 78 ‑

of the latest scientific knowledge. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW)
decided to follow suit and adopted the rolling revision system. The MHLW has established acommittee of experts who will discuss the issues on the review of drinking water quality
standards.

3. Quality assurance and control of drinking water quality analysis
3.1. Drinking water quality analysis system in Japan
The Waterworks Law of Japan limits the analysis organizations for drinking watersupplied by water suppliers to the following three types of organizations.
1) Analysis organizations of the water suppliers
2) Analysis organizations of the local public
3) Analysis organizations* registered by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare* In order to be registered as an analysis organization by the Minister of Health, Labour andWelfare, the organization must meet the standards laid down by the Waterworks Law.

3.2 The current situation of drinking water quality analysis
Water quality analysis is carried out to ensure the conformity of the water quality
with the standards and to confirm the safety of the water supplied. The drinking water quality
analysis, therefore, evaluates the whole water management system carried out by the watersupplier.
When measuring the items listed in the DWQSs, a wide range of accurate
measurements are required at a level from mg/L to ng/L. This requires highly advanced
facilities and equipment as well as skilled engineers.
However, the results of the control survey, which has been carried out by MHLW
every year since fiscal 2000, have proven that the accuracy of measurement of theorganizations that conduct water quality analysis is not always satisfactory.
To maintain the quality of drinking water, a guarantee of safety is indispensable.
The situation described above is a critical matter from the viewpoint of the risk managementof drinking water quality.
3.3 Introduction of accuracy and credibility assurance system in water quality analysis‑ 79 ‑

In order to solve the problem described above, a report by the Health Science
Council proposed a credibility assurance system to be introduced for water quality analysis. In
responding to this proposal, the MHLW consulted ISO9001 and ISO17025 and laid down theregistration standards in the Waterworks Law as a measure of credibility assurance for thewater quality analysis organizations registered by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare.
Specifically, the following scheme was established as a national framework toensure the accurate results of analysis.
a. Organizational scheme for water quality analysis (Figure 1)
i. The water quality analysis
Chief executive ofthe drinking water
division and credibility
quality analysis
assurance division must be
established independently ofManger ofManger ofeach other.
the credibility
the drinking water
assurance divisionquality analysis division
ii. The water quality analysis
division must designate amanager who supervises all
Head of the physical andHead of the biologicalchemical analysis
inspectors.
analysis department
departmentiii. The credibility assurance
division must be specialized in
Figure 1. Organizational scheme for water quality analysis
the operational management ofwater quality analysis and maintenance of accuracy.
iv. The credibility assurance division must designate a manager who is in charge of thewhole operation of the division.
v. The credibility assurance division must inspect the water quality analysis division.
- The tasks of the manager of the water quality analysis division 1) To supervise the water quality analysis division.
2) To confirm that the analysis procedures are carried out in compliance with thestandards manual and to take necessary measures if compliance cannot be confirmed.
3) To implement corrective measures.
4) To perform other tasks as needed.
- The tasks of the manager of the credibility assurance division 1) To carry out periodical internal audits.
2) To handle the paperwork that is necessary to carry out accuracy management analysis.

‑ 80 ‑

3) To report the results of the internal audits and accuracy management analysis to the
manager of the water quality analysis division.
4) To perform other tasks as needed.
b. Preparation of written manuals
i. Standard manuals that specify the procedures for water quality analysis must be prepared.
ii. Regulations for operational management and accuracy assurance of water quality
analysis must be prepared.
iii. The overall process of water quality analysis must be carried out in conformity with the
documents listed above.
iv. The documents listed above must be prepared in the process of documentation, analysis,
and authorization.
- Types of Standard Operation Papers 1) Procedures for water quality analysis
2) Handling of samples
3) Handling of reagents
4) Maintenance of machinery and equipment- Types of regulations 1) Authorization, responsibility, and interrelation of each division in the organization
2) Management of documents
3) Management of records4) Education and training
5) Non-compliance of procedures and corrective measures
6) Procedures for internal audits
7) Procedures for implementation and planning of accuracy management
8) Procedures for trust of drinking water quality analysis
9) Procedure for publication of drinking water quality analysis reports
10) Procedures for procurement of goods11) Others
4. Conclusion
The drinking water system has taken root as part of the country’s infrastructure andis playing a vital role in maintaining the functioning of society. However, it is true that there
are growing concerns among the public over the safety of water supply systems due to thecontamination of the source. There is also a sense of distrust in the quality and taste of‑ 81 ‑

drinking water.
There is a vital and urgent agenda for concerned parties to dispel many of theseconcerns and distrust to maintain the availability of safe water. The Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare is determined to make its efforts to improve the credibility of the qualityof drinking water, and to make this acceptable to the public.

‑ 82 ‑

Table 1. Drinking Water Quality Standards
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

Items
Standard Value
Standard Plate Count
100 per 1 ml
E. coli
Not to be detected
Cadmium
0.01mg/L
Mercury
0.0005mg/L
Selenium0.01mg/L
Lead
0.01mg/L
Arsenic
0.01mg/L
Chromium (VI)0.05mg/L
Cyanide ion and Cyanogens chloride
0.01mg/L as Cyanide
Nitrate and Nitrite
10mg/L as Nitrogen
Fluoride
0.8mg/L
Boron
1.0mg/L
Carbon tetrachloride
0.002mg/L
1,4-dioxane
0.05mg/L
1,1-Dichloroethylene
0.02mg/L
cis- 1,2-Dichloroethylene
0.04mg/L
Dichloromethane
0.02mg/L
Tetrachloroethylene
0.01mg/L
Trichloroethylene
0.03mg/L
Benzene0.01mg/L
Chloroacetic acid
0.02mg/L
Chloroform
0.06mg/L
Dichloroacetic acid
0.04mg/L
Dibromochloromethane
0.1mg/LBromate0.01mg/L
Total trihalomethanes (Total of Chloroform, Dibromochloromethane,
0.1mg/LBromodichloromethane and Bromoform)
Trichloroacetic acid
0.2mg/LBromodichloromethane
0.03mg/L
Bromoform
0.09mg/L
Formaldehyde
0.08mg/L
Zinc
1.0mg/L
Aluminium
0.2mg/L
Iron
0.3mg/L
Copper
1.0mg/L
Sodium
200mg/L
Manganese
0.05mg/L
Chloride ion
200mg/L
Calcium, Magnesium (Hardness)
300mg/L
Total residue
500mg/L
Anionic surface active agent
0.2mg/L(4S, 4aS, 8aR)-Octahydro-4,8a-Dimethylenaphtalene-4a(2H)-ol (Alias: Geosmin) 0.00001mg/L (Note 1)
1,2,7,7 - Tetramethylbicyclo[2,2,1]Heptane-2-ol (Alias: 2-Methylisobolneol) 0.00001mg/L (Note 1)
Nonionic surface active agent
0.02mg/L
Phenols
0.005mg/L in terms of Phenol
Organic substances (Total Organic Carbon) (Note 2)
5mg/L (Note 2)
pH Value
5.8 ～ 8.6
Taste
Not abnormal
Odor
Not abnormal
Color
5 degreeTurbidity
2 degree

Note 1) The number “0.00001mg/L” means “0.00002mg/L” until March 31, 2007 in the columns 41 and 42
which refers to the water supplied by the water system already installed at the time of the enforcement of thisdi 2) The column 45 stating “Organic substances (the amount of Total Organic Carbon)” means “Organic
Note
substances (consumption of Potassium Permanganate)” and “5mg/L” means “10mg/L” until March 31, 2005.

‑ 83 ‑

Table 2. Complementary Items to Set the Targets for Water Quality Management
No

Item

Target Value

O-01

Antimony

0.015

O-02

Uranium

0.002P

O-03

Nickel

0.01P

O-04

Nitrite-Nitrogen

0.05P

O-05

1,2-dichloroethane

0.004

O-06

trans-1,2-dichloroethylene

0.04

O-07

1,1,2-Trichloroethane

0.006

O-08

Toluene0.2

O-09

Diethylexyl phtalate

0.1

O-10

Chlorite

0.6

O-11

Chlorate

0.6

O-12

Chlorine dioxide

0.6

O-13

Dichloroacetonitrile

0.04P

O-14

Chlorale hydrate

0.03P

O-15

Pesticides (Note1)

1

O-16

Chlorine residue

1

O-17

Hardness（Ca, Mg）

10-100O-18

Manganese

0.01

O-19

Free carbon dioxide

20

O-20

1,1,1-Trichloloethane

0.3

O-21

Methyl-t-butylether（MTBE）

0.02

O-22

Organic substance（Potassium

10(3)permanganate consumption）
O-23

Threshold Odor Number

3TON

O-24

Residue on evaporation

30-200O-25

Turbidity

1 degreeO-26

pH Value

Approx.7.5

O-27

Causticity（Langelier’s Index）-1～0

Note1) The total of “each measurement value / each target value” should not be more than 1. 101 items are listed for“pesticides”.
Note）Target value is not set for Heterotrophic Plate Count, however, it is recommended to carry out water examination
toward the future standardization.

（Unit：mg/L（※O-23,25,26,27 are excluded））‑ 84 ‑

Table 3. Items for Further Study
No

Item

Target Value

I-01 Silver-

I-02 Valium

0.7

I-03 Bismuth-

I-04 Molybdenum

0.07

I-05 Acrylamide

0.0005

I-06 Acrylic acid-I-07 17-β-Estradiol

0.00008P

I-08 Ethynyl-Estradiol

0.00002P

I-09 Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid（EDTA）

0.5

I-10 Epichlorohydrin

0.0004P

I-11 Chloroethene

0.002

I-12 Vinyl Acetate-I-13 2,4-Deaminotoluene-

I-14 2,6-Deaminotoluene-

I-15 N,N-Dimethylaniline-

I-16 Stylene

0.02

I-17 Dioxin, etc

1pgTEQ/L (P)I-18 Triethylenetetramine
I-19 Nonylphenol

0.3P

I-20 BisphenolＡ

0.1P

I-21 Hytrazine-

I-22 1,2-Butadiene-

I-23 1,3-Butadiene-

I-24 Dibutyl phtalate

0.2P

I-25 Dybutyl benzyl phtalate

0.5P

I-26 Microcystin－ＬＲ

0.0008P

I-27 Organotin compounds

0.0006P(TBTO)

I-28 Bromochloroacetic acid-I-29 Bromodichloroacetic acid-I-30 Dibromochloroacetic acid-I-31 Bromoacetic acid-I-32 Dibromoacetic acid-I-33 Tribromoacetic acid-I-34 Trichloroacetnitrile-

I-35 Bromochloroacetnitrile-

I-36 Dibromoacetnitrile

0.06

I-37 Acetaldehyde-

I-38 ＭＸ

0.001

I-39 Chloropicrin-

I-40 Xylene

0.4（Unit：mg/L（※I-17 are excluded）‑ 85 ‑

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‑ 88 ‑

Overview of Wastewater Control/Regulatory Activities/Issues andDirections
下水道事業、法制の現状と今後

Masahiro Takahashi, National Institute for Land Infrastructure andManagement, MLIT, Japan
国土技術政策総合研究所‑ 89 ‑

高橋正宏

OVERVIEW OF WASTEWATER CONTROL/REGULATORY ACTIVITIESISSUES AND DIRECTIONS
M. Takahashi
Director Dr. Eng.
Water Quality Control Department
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
Asahi 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0804 JAPANABSTRACT
Sewerage systems play an extremely big role in the water cycle and waste material
cycle in Japan. There are many regional cities where sewerage systems still must be
constructed, and even in large cities, vast financial resources are necessary to improvecombined sewers and upgrade system functions to introduce advanced treatment.
This paper deals with,
1. State of sewerage systems and wastewater treatment in Japan.
2. Rainfall discharge and combined sewers overflow control
3. Recent sewerage system regulations and systems that include design effluent water
quality and treatment methods, planning the improvement of combined sewers,
chemical risk management and The Biomass Nippon Strategy.
4. Third Five-Year Plan for Sewerage Treatment System Technology.
KEYWORD
Sewerage system, Wastewater treatment, Rainfall discharge, Combined sewers overflow
control, Design effluent water quality, Chemical risk management, Third Five-Year Planfor Sewerage Treatment System Technology
STATE OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS IN JAPANPrioritizing the construction of sewerage systems in Japan has increased theirpenetration rapidly as shown by Figure 1. But the recent reform of the administrative
structure has been accompanied by a review of public works projects, resulting in a 6%
cut and a 7% cut in funds for sewerage system construction last year and this year
respectively. There are many parts of regional cities where sewerage systems still must
be constructed, and even in large cities, vast financial resources are necessary to
improve combined sewers and upgrade system functions to introduce advanced
treatment. For these reasons, now is the time for a broad discussion of the way thatsewerage system works are conducted.

1‑ 90 ‑

Figure 1 Rapid penetration of sewage system in Japan
Sewerage treatment
In Japan, 16 billion m3/year of water are used for domestic purposes, and 12.9 billion
m3 are discharged to wastewater treatment plants (WTP) as sewerage. As shown in
Figure 2, even during water shortages, wastewater treatment plant effluent is constantly
discharged, becoming a valuable water resource. It is, therefore, necessary to perform
more advanced treatment to conserve and restore the environment.
In March 2002, 1,718 wastewater treatment plants were in operation. Many of thesewastewater treatment plants primarily remove organic material by the oxidation ditch
method or the conventional activated sludge process, but many other treatment plantsthat discharge water to important water resource areas and to closed water bodies use
the enhanced biological nutrient removal process and other methods that can remove
phosphorus and nitrogen. Table 1 shows a breakdown of these plants. The wastewater2‑ 91 ‑

treatment plants referred to here operate treatment systems that perform centralized
treatment of urban wastewater under the management of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport. Others are wastewater treatment plants that perform
centralized treatment in fishing, lumbering, and agricultural towns and on-site treatment(johkasou) that treat wastewater from individual households; two types that serve about
10% of the population.
Table 1 Breakdown of WTP
Designed maximam dry wether
Less than(m3 / day)
4
Treatment prosess
Sedimentation
2
Conventional activated sludge
43
Step aeration
1
Oxygen activated sludge
1
Extended aeration
20
Oxidation ditch
586
Denitrification and nitrification
3
Anaerobic Anoxic oxic1
Anaerobic and oxic
15
Sequencing batch reactor
59
High rate compact activated sludge
Rotating biological contactor
12High rate trickling filter
Low rate biofilm
22
High rate biofilm
24
Anaerobic aerobic biofilm
15
Activated sludge with coagulant
1
Other
11
Total
816
Subtotal of advanced treatment

62

3‑ 92 ‑

Morethan 500

5-10

10-50

50-100 100-500

56

309
8
4
2
36
2
5
15
4
5
5
2

113
9
1

132
5
4

7

3
4
20

2
157

4
8
409

4
2
137

8
177

22

2
669
23
11
27
699
8
11
64
69
6
22
4
22
26
15
9
31
1718

14

45

16

64

16

217

1
5
77
1
1
6
4
2

16

6

1
1

2

Total

Figure 2 Water Cycle in Japan4‑ 93 ‑

Rainfall discharge and combined sewers
In Japan’s cities, houses and roads are densely concentrated and rainfall penetration
functions are extremely limited. In these districts, rainfall discharge is an important roleof sewerage systems. But there are limits to the discharge capacity of city rivers where
they flow between densely built up districts, and there are many locations where it isdifficult to discharge rainwater from sewerage systems. So systems are established tointegrate sewerage systems with rivers and to prevent inundation damage by, forexample, storing rainwater throughout a river basin.
In large cities where sewerage systems have been constructed for a long time, many
combined sewer systems are operated, but the concentration of population and industry
in cities has increased the dry weather flow, and combined with the decline of rainfall
penetration functions in cities, large quantities of sewerage overflows into water bodies
during rainfall. In many cities, therefore, new large intercepting sewers or rainfall
storage tanks are constructed in order to strengthen rainfall removal functions andreduce wet weather overflow. The improvement of combined sewers is explained indetail below.
SEWERAGE SYSTEM REGULATIONS
Comprehensive basin-wide planning of sewerage systems
This refers to planning done to enact upper-level plans over individual seweragetreatment projects in a river basin in order to most effectively provide sewerage systems
needed to achieve the water quality environment standards for its rivers, and for thecoastal area. When a river basin is completely inside a single prefecture, the plan isenacted under the authority of the prefectural governor to divide the pollution load
among cities, towns, and villages. In a case where it spans more than one prefecture, thenational government coordinates the plans to allot the load that should be reduced
among the concerned prefectures. Figure 3 shows an image of such a plan. By August
2003, plans had been enacted for 126 bodies of water.

5‑ 94 ‑

Figure 3

Image of Comprehensive basin-wide planning of sewerage systems

Design effluent water quality and treatment methods
In order to achieve the pollution load established through the comprehensive basin-wideplan for sewerage systems, each wastewater treatment plant sets its design effluent
water quality. Normally this is set for the pollutant load reduction of BOD and SS, but
in cases where water quality environment standards are set for phosphorus and nitrogen,these pollutant loads must also be reduced. Under the Sewerage Law Enforcement
Order that was revised this year, treatment methods to achieve the designated design
effluent water quality are stipulated. These stipulated treatment methods or othertreatment methods that have been confirmed to provide equal or superior treatment
capacity must be used. Table 2 shows the relationship of the design effluent water
quality with the treatment method. And in all cases, the design effluent water quality
must not be BOD of 15mg/l or higher. And the design effluent water quality for
coliform groups is uniformly set at 3,000/ml, but this value must be revised in the
future.

6‑ 95 ‑

Table 2. Design Effluent Water Quality – Typical Treatment Method Relationship
Additional processing

Design effluent water quality

Typical treatment
methods

rapid
filtration

coagulant
admixtureorganic
material
admixture

BOD mg/l

T-N mg/l

T-P mg/lStandard activatedsludge method

No

No

No

10 to 15

-

-

Yes

No

No

Max. 10

-

-

No

No

No

10 to 15-

Max. 3

Yes

No

No

Max. 10-

1 to 3

Yes

Yes

No

Max. 10-Max. 1No

No

No

10 to 15

(Max. 20)

(Max. 3)

Yes

No

No

Max. 10(10 to 20)(1 to 3)

Yes

No

Yes

Max. 1010 to 20

(1 to 3)

Yes

Yes

No

Max. 10(10 to 20)

Max. 1

Yes

Yes

Yes

Max. 10Max. 10[0.5 to 1 or
Max. 0.5]

No

No

No

10 to 15

Max. 20

-

Yes

No

No

Max. 1010 to 20

-

No

Yes

No

10 to 15

Max. 20

Max. 3

Yes

No

Yes

Max. 10Max. 10

-

Yes

Yes

No

Max. 1010 to 20

1 to 3

Yes

Yes

Yes

Max. 10Max. 10[1 to 3 or 0.5
to 1]

Anaerobic – aerobic
activated sludge method

Anaerobic – anoxic
aerobic method

Nitrification anddenitrification process

Planning the improvement of combined sewers
The improvement of combined sewers is positioned in the Sewerage Law Enforcement
Order that was revised this year. Its basic concept is to achieve the following threegoals.
(1) Pollution load reduction: The annual BOD load that is discharged must be equal toor less than that from a separate sewer system.
(2) Guaranteeing public hygiene: The frequency that untreated sewerage is discharged
from all outlets must be reduced by at least 50%.
(3) Reduction of debris screening: In principle, debris must not be discharged from any
outlets.
But because the improvement of combined sewers is extremely expensive andtime-consuming, the above targets must be achieved within the next ten years. And forlarge-scale combined sewers in cases where a sewerage system operated by a city, town,
or village drains a basin of 1,500ha or more and in cases where a sewerage system
operated by a prefecture drains a basin of 5,000 ha or more, the goal is improvement
within 20 years. The water quality of the overflow water after improvement must be
average BOD of 40mg/l after a typical rainfall between 10 and 30mm. And the7‑ 96 ‑

temporary effluent water quality before improvement must be 70mg/l or less.
Chemical risk management
With the start of the submission of PRTR (Pollutant Release and Transfer Register) in
2001, full scale risk management of chemicals in the environment began. PRTR is amethod of clarifying, tabulating, and releasing data indicating what sources discharge awide variety of hazardous chemicals, to what extent they are discharged into theenvironment, or if they are carried out of business premises in waste material.
Businesses that manufacture or use 354 designated chemicals that are covered by thesystem must independently clarify the quantity they discharge into the environment andthe quantity that they transport out of their business premises to treat as waste material,
and report their findings to an administrative body once a year.
The administrative body processes and tabulates the data, estimates the quantity of thesechemicals that are discharged from homes, farms, automobiles, and other sources, andreleases both classes of data.
Wastewater treatments plants that are predicted to treat influent containing designatedchemicals above a certain scale are also legally required to submit reports. They mustmeasure the concentration of designated chemicals in the effluent and smoke discharged
from the plant under standards such as the effluent water quality standard and submit
PRTR reporting on the results of these measurements.
Chemicals discharged into sewerage systems by business premises are also covered by
the notification system. This permits wastewater treatment plants to confirm whichbusiness premises in their service area are discharging chemicals.
Because it is predicted that this might result in chemicals that effect the functions of thesewerage treatment plant entering the plant, or in chemicals that the sewerage treatment
plant cannot process flowing into the plant then passing through the plant to have anegative impact on the water environment, or cause other problems, the Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure and Transport has prepared, the “Manual for Chemical Risk
Management in Sewerage Treatment Plants.” And the National Institute for Land andInfrastructure Management has undertaken research to confirm the compatibility of therelationship of PRTR notification with the quantities of these chemicals actually inwater environments.
The Biomass Nippon Strategy
The Biomass Nippon Strategy is a strategy contrived to achieve Biomass Nippon: asociety that utilizes all of the biomass that consists of agricultural, forestry, and marine
resources, organic waste material, and other organic resources with biological origins asenergy and as products.
It is positioned as a cooperative effort by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, andFisheries, the Ministry of the Environment, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure andTransport in the Basic Policy Concerning Economical and Financial Restructuring 2002
(Cabinet Decision of June 25, 2002).
The Biomass Nippon Strategy will rapidly and intensively advance based on achievableutilization measures in order to prevent global warming and create a recycling oriented
society. Its national goals are to utilize at least 80% of biomass produced from wastematerial converted to quantity of carbon and at least 25% of unused biomass converted
to quantity of carbon by 2010. The heart of the strategy is organic waste materials

8‑ 97 ‑

produced by agriculture, animal husbandry, and forestry, but the priority is now
sewerage sludge. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport completed theManual for the Enactment of Basic Plans to Utilize Bio-solids (Draft) in August 2003
for use by regional governments that are promoting the use of sludge.
Its achievements include the reuse of sewerage sludge (accounts for about 19% of allindustrial waste material) as construction material or as fertilizer to achieve a seweragesludge recycling rate of 60% by the end of 2002. Progress has also been seen in the
production of electric power by digester gas from sludge, the use of heat pumps to useheat produced by sewerage, and other ways of using sludge as an energy source.
THIRD FIVE-YEAR PLAN FOR SEWERAGE SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY
Outline of the plan
As the beginning of this new century brings an astonishing and sweeping transformationof the social environment of Japan, we face global scale environmental problems andthe aging society accompanied by a falling birth rate that is lowering our population. We
must, therefore, not only undertake conventional sewerage treatment plant projects, butmust transcend the limitations of existing technologies to create bold concepts todevelop new technologies in order to provide new systems suited to the public’s needs
and that meet the demand to respond effectively to these rapid changes.
The Sewerage and Wastewater Management Department of the City and Regional
Development Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and theWater Quality Control Department of the National Institute for Land and InfrastructureManagement established a committee to study and enact the Third Five Year Plan for
Sewerage System Technology in cooperation with other concerned research institutes in
September 2003. The committee carried out its revision based on information,
documents, and views obtained from academic experts and held public hearings to enact
the Third Five Year Plan for Sewerage System Technology.
Based on the fundamental concept, “Society that uses technology to create safety, anenvironment, low cost life, and vigorousness, and that is open to all,” the plan presents
specific research and development goals for the relatively short period of five years
while considering long-term goals, and also stipulates the content of technology
development to be conducted by the national government during this period.
Background to the enactment of the plan
In 1994, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (at that time, the Ministry ofConstruction) undertook the Five Year Plan for Sewerage System Technology (First
Five Year Plan for Sewerage System Technology) that was initially enacted as asewerage technology development and introduction plan, then in 2000 at the dawning of
the twenty-first century, the Ministry enacted the New Five Year Plan for Sewerage
System Technology (Second Five Year Plan for Sewerage System Technology) basedon the concept, “New Century of Water, Communities, and the Globe Created byEveryone,” and has worked to develop, introduce, and popularize sewerage treatment
technologies.
But in the midst of a technological revolution in other fields such as information andcommunications, it has become increasingly important to apply these new technologies
to sewerage treatment plants in order to provide them more efficiently.

9‑ 98 ‑

In response to these circumstances, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
enacted the Basic MLIT Technology Plan in 2003, and based on the Priority Plan for theProvision of Social Capital, it clarified technology research and development policies ofthe MLIT for the next five years in technological fields that support the provision of allsocial capital including sewerage systems.
Technologies related to sewerage systems are linked to a broad range of technologies
including civil engineering, building construction, hygiene, machinery, electrical, etc. In
order to provide researchers conducting technological development with a sharedawareness of the present state and needs of sewerage system technology so that they
conduct research guided by a common policy, medium-term goals and policies must be
concretely established.
We have clarified the present state of sewerage systems considering the above
circumstances and enacted the Third Five Year Plan for Sewerage System Technologythat describes and present policies for the development and introduction of new
sewerage system technologies based on evaluations of the major technologies
developed under the Second Five Year Plan for Sewerage System Technology.
Major challenges
The Third Five Year Plan for Sewerage System Technology is, as a plan enacted in linewith the Basic MLIT Technology Plan that presents a broad outline of policies fortechnological development necessary to establish future social capital, intended tocoordinate technology and development strategies throughout the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport. The five goals stipulated as development strategies in the
Basic MLIT Technology Plan are presented as Major Challenges. To accurately reflectchanges in social conditions influencing sewerage systems, Intermediate Challenges arelisted under the Major Challenges as key words, and Technology Development Items
are established as even more detailed challenges.

10‑ 99 ‑

‑ 100 ‑Table 3, Major Challenges, Intermediate Challenges, and Technology Development Items
Major Challenges
Intermediate Challenges
Technology Development Items(1) Technologies to plan inundation counter-measures from the river basin management perspective
1. Creation of cities safe from
(2) Advanced technologies for inundation countermeasures.
disasters
I Safe and worry free life(3) Technologies to construct earthquake resistant sewerage systems(4) Technologies to monitor hazardous substances and to evaluate hazardous substance risk
2. River system risk management(5) Technologies to remove/detoxify hazardous substances(6) Technologies to introduce economical methods of reducing pollution load
3. Creation of a sound water(7) Technologies to enact water cycle master plans
cycle and a good water(8) Technologies to construct water cycle open data bases
environment through river basin(9) Technologies to evaluate impacts on the water environment
management(10) Technologies to conserve and create good water environments
4. Preserving the water quality of (11) Advanced technologies to remove nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.
river basins(12) Technologies to remove pollutant load from rainfall overflow water etc.
(13) Technologies to encourage the reuse of treated wastewater(14) Technologies to reduce sewerage sludge
II Creating beautiful and sustainable
5. Managing sewerage system(15) Advanced technologies to utilize the energy retained by sewerage sludge
national land
resources(16) Technologies to effectively use sewerage sludge as a material resource(17) Technologies to optimize the organic waste material flow in regional societies(18) Technologies to improve urban environments
6. Responding to urban renewal(19) Advanced technologies for sewerage systems in response to changes in urban structures(20) Technologies to locally utilize low level heat emitted by sewerage systems(21) Technologies to lower the energy consumed by sewerage treatment plants
7. Conserving the global(22) Technologies to use natural energy to recover and treat sewerage
environment(23) Technologies to control the emission of global warming gasses(24) Technologies to recover energy by utilizing organic resources in cities(25) Technologies to lower life cycle costs
8. Efficient provision ofwastewater treatment plants(26) Technologies to economically and quickly construct wastewater treatment plants(27) Technologies to perform efficient plant management and sound plant operation
9. Efficient management of
III Comfortable low-cost life
wastewater treatment plants(28) Technologies to effectively upgrade/modify and to reconstruct wastewater treatment plants
10. Promotion of links with other(29) Technologies to promote links with other industries
industries
IV Vigorous society with greater
11. Responding to(30) Sewerage treatment system technologies to respond to globalizationinternational competitive strengthinternationalization(31) Technologies to conduct projects cooperatively with the public
V Society in which all people feel as if
12. Public participation
they are a full member of society(32) Advanced technologies to establish project evaluation methods to promote efficiency and accountability

11CONCLUSIONS
Sewerage systems play an extremely big role in the water cycle and waste material
cycle in Japan. Sewerage treatment has a big impact on all kinds of water use including
its use as drinking water in river basins, the restoration of water environments, and on
artificial water use in cities. Remaining problems related to the control of rainfall
include preventing inundation, reducing non-point pollution sources, and using
rainwater to cultivate ground water resources. It is essential to make the maximum useof the resource value of sludge that accounts for 19% of all industrial waste material in
Japan in order to prevent global warming and effectively use our natural resources.
These challenges include many that cannot be easily overcome only by seweragesystem related measures. It is important to establish both river basin systems and anation-wide system to respond to these challenges.

12‑ 101 ‑

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DFFRXQWDELOLW\‑ 105 ‑

What is Learned from Cryptosporidiosis Outbreak Cases in Japan日本のクリプトスポリジウム集団感染事例から学んだこと

Takuro Endo, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, MHLW,
Japan
国立感染症研究所‑ 107 ‑

遠藤卓郎

What is Learned from Cryptosporidiosis Outbreak Cases in Japan
Takuro ENDO and Shinji IZUMIYAMA
Department of Parasitology
National Institute of Infectious Diseases
Toyama 1-23-1, Shinjuku-Ku Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
Whilst previous models used to explain the causal event(s) to induce large-scale
outbreak of cryptosporidiosis have studied the affects of turbidity increase either indrinking-water or in source water on the spread of the disease to consumers, a newmodel used in the current study tests the affects of other variables such as an increased
temperature and thus inducing changes in quantities of unboiled water consumed byindividuals.
All the data used in the present manuscript are those already reported elsewhere byother workers, some were in Japanese and others were in English.

1.

Case report

There have been three outbreaks of large-scale cryptosporidiosis in Japan(1-2).
1.1.

Hiratsuka Case:

The first recognized cryptosporidiosis outbreak was in August and September 1994.
As of September 3, Kanagawa Prefectural Health Department received informationthat 22 customers who visited either of 10 public houses in a building at Hiratsuka City,
which is located in Kanagawa prefecture complained of cholera-like or flu-like
symptoms. Epidemiological surveys by questionnaires revealed that 461 out of 736
individuals who visited one of the public houses/restaurants became ill with theclinical manifestations including mucous and/or watery diarrhea (96.7%), abdominal
cramps (61.6%), fever (54.2%: lower than 39℃ = 84.1%, higher than 39℃ = 15.9%),
malaise(37.1%), nausea (32.8%) and headache (29.3%). Five were hospitalized.

Interviews with the patients showed no evidence of food items served in the public
houses that might significantly be associated with risk for developing illness. Oocystsof C. parvum were identified in12 (48.0%) out of 25 stool specimens. Cryptosporidial
oocysts were also demonstrated in tap water and other water samples from a receivingtank, an elevated tank, a domestic sewage pit, a sanitary sewage pit and an artesian
well water tank. Tanks and pits were constructed adjacent to each other on a basement‑ 108 ‑

floor of the building and there were cross connections between tanks and pits at theupper part of the tanks to reduce inner pressure in the receiving tank. Accidental
malfunction of the drainage system, according to the owner of the building, caused
contamination of drinking water with sanitary sewage through the cross connection.
1.2.

Ogose case:

The second case of the waterborne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis was detected when
there was a sudden increase in absentees among school children due to severe diarrhea
and abdominal cramps during early June to the middle of July, 1996, in Ogose, which islocated in Saitama prefecture, approximately 50 km northwest from Tokyo. Routinestool, food or beverage cultures failed to yield a pathogen. Stools subsequently weresent to laboratories at Saitama Provincial Institute of Health, where C. parvum was
isolated one week after the onset of a large-scale outbreak. It took another one week to
identify the oocysts from the city's tap water.
Of the total population of 13,809, 12,345 (89%) were interviewed. Of those, 8,812(71.4%) had illnesses with watery diarrhea and abdominal cramps; 24 were admitted tohospital. None of the patients developed bloody stool. Average length of illness was
4.1 days. Illnesses had subsided by the beginning of July.
Around 75% of the city's total water supply came from a mixture of surface waters(including river-bed water) from the Oppe River, its tributary and from a ground water(deep well), and was treated with prechlorination, coagulation and sedimentation,
followed by rapid filtration. Approximately 0.4 km upstream from water intake, there
is an effluent opening for the treated domestic and sanitary sewage (Fig. 1). According
to the business log there, there was little rainfall during the middle of May to June,
1996 resulting in severe drought. Approximately one week before the onset of outbreak(on May 25), unusually high turbidity 92 Unit (1U≒0.65NTU) was recorded in
sedimentation tank water.
1.3.

Awaji case

The third case was reported in February, 2002. As of March 3, Hyougo Prefectural
Health Department received information that 31 high school students and the teaching
staff who went to Hokkaido on a school excursion complained of severe diarrhea.
Epidemiological surveys by questionnaires revealed that 129 out of 212 individuals
became ill with the clinical manifestations including watery diarrhea (96.7%) and othersymptoms.

‑ 109 ‑

2.

Persons with brief exposure
Study participants met the following criteria: (1) They were nonresidents of the cities(or buildings) where outbreaks occurred; (2) they had visited only once there during
outbreaks; and (3) they had either laboratory-confirmed cryptosporidiosis or waterydiarrhea (clinical cryptosporidiosis). For each of the following cases, threereconstructed the incubation distribution curves in lines are presented in Fig. 2.
2.1.

Hiratsuka caseAs the outbreak of diarrhea has occurred among customers who visited either of 10
public houses in a building at Hiratsuka City, 299 the patients met the above criteria.
The mean incubation period was 6.0 days (95% C.I. 5.9-6.2 days). The solid line in Fig. 2
corresponds to a log-logistic distribution with median 5.5 days and 95% quantile: 7.6
days.
2.2.

Ogose caseDuring the outbreak period, 16 individuals, 7 primary school boys and 9 adultvisitors, had stayed less than 24 hours and reported having consumed tap water orbeverages containing unboiled tap water while in the Ogose Water Work service area.
The mean incubation period was 6.4 days (95% C.I. 6.0-6.8 days). The dotted line in Fig.
2 corresponds to a log-logistic distribution with median 5.8 days and 95% quantile: 7.0
days.
2.3.

Awaji case

Altogether 126 individuals with severe diarrhea who went to Hokkaido on a school
excursion met the study participant criteria. The mean incubation period was 6.4 days
(95% C.I. 6.2-6.6 days). The broken line in Fig. 2 corresponds to a log-logistic
distribution with median 5.9 days and 95% quantile: 7.6 days.

3.

Water consumption
Recent questionnaire survey (n=859) on daily intake of unboiled tap water showedthat approximately 50% of the people did not use unboiled tap water or bottled waterat all for drinking, and the average quantity of water consumed by individuals was 209
ml (Fig. 3) (3). From our preliminary estimation, the daily intake of unboiled tap water
consumed automatically through dietary process, tooth brushing and others issomething around 20 ml or less.

‑ 110 ‑

According to a marketing survey done by one of the biggest beer companies, peoplechange their drinking items properly as temperature increases; at 23-25°C and below
they enjoy drinking coffee, tea or other liquid items just for their tastes; over 25°C theystop drinking hot drinks; at 28-30°C and beyond they consume plain water to quench
their thirst (personal communication). In summary, there is a threshold temperature, at
25 C, beyond which people start to have plain water and other cold liquid items torelieve their thirst.

4.

Causal event(s) leading up to the large-scale outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in
Ogose

4.1.

Trends by date of onset over time

In the current study, reported date of onset of illness identified by a questionnairefrom May 1 through July 15, 1996 (Fig. 4) was reexamined. The figure shows that thecounted number of diarrhea events among survey participants peaked periodicallyevery 5 days, starting from May 10 through June 20 (Fig 4, dotted line). This might
represent available approximation of the date of onset of those who had vague
recollection of the date of onset of the disease. To smooth a data series and to identify
changes in trends, the predicted number of cases with a 5-day moving average is
depicted in the same figure (solid line).
4.2.

Correlation between turbidity and illness

Like other cryptosporidiosis outbreak cases, the Ogose outbreak was preceded by a
sharp increase in the turbidity of source water to 92 KTU (1 KTU = 1.7NTU) for a shortperiod (Fig. 5). This was believed to have affected the treatment plant and resulted in
the high load of cryptosporidial oocysts in the tap water to a level high enough tocause a large-scale outbreak of cryptosporidiosis. However, there was no evidence that
supports this presumption of cause and effect. With a single exposure, even if it werehigh doses of the oocysts in drinking water due to elevated turbidity, onset of illness
would have ceased within a few days after initial onset of the event (Fig. 2), while theoutbreak continued for a month from June 1 to July 4, 1996. Time series of both daily
maximum and average turbidities of the source water before and during the outbreakand daily counts of illness are shown in Figs. 6a-f. No correlation was observed
between daily counts of onset of cryptosporidiosis and turbidity at given lag periods
from 7 to 9days; based on a distribution of incubation periods in the population of 6days (median incubation period) + days required for water treatment and distribution.

‑ 111 ‑

4.3.

Correlation between temperature and illness

Alternatively, the current analysis suggests that there may also have been a small
increase in transmission of gastroenteritis cases in 2-3 weeks before the large outbreak,regardless of elevation of turbidity (Fig. 5).
Since it was a time of seasonal transition from spring to summer when the Ogose
outbreak occurred, we drew attention to the correlation between temperature andillness. It is assumable that people drinks more water as temperature increased, whichmay, in turn, result in the increase in the risk of infection if water were polluted to acertain extent by cryptosporidial oocysts. The daily maximum temperature before May
21 was below 22 °C, then gradually increased to 25 °C in successive 3 days. From May
24, it exceeded 25°C, and reached to 28 °C on May 26, the 6 day before the first peak ofdate of onset (93 diarrhea cases) (Fig. 7).
Figure 8 shows the relation between the gastroenteritis events and the daily
maximum temperature with a lag of 6 days during pre-outbreak period. The daily
counts of illness increase markedly when daily maximum temperature exceeded at 25
C, the threshold temperature as was reported trend of water drinking habit. Provided
that people there started to drink a cup of unboiled tap water (200 ml) to relieve theirthirst as the daily maximum temperature exceeded the threshold temperature, and that
there was low level of contamination of Cryptosporidium oocysts in drinking water as
seen in Fig. 5, the risk of infection due to Cryptosporidium increased 10 times, resulting
in approximately 100 gastroenteritis cases in a day.
The daily estimated number of oocysts in tap water was calculated base on theumber of reported cases in each day using 20 ml (below 25°C) and 200ml (25°C andbeyond) for the amount of water consumed in accordance with the water drinking
habit, and were plotted with a lag of 6 days on the Fig. 9. The number of oocysts
remained to be around 0.5 oocysts/L in tap water during pre-outbreak and the initialstage of large outbreak from early May to May 29. Then the number of oocysts
increased to the order of 100 oocysts/L on May 31, in consequence of sewage recharge
system to put water back into the river (Fig. 1), leading up to the large-scalewaterborne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Ogose. In other words, 0.5 oocysts/L isenough to induce 100 diarrhea cases (cryptosporidiosis) when 14,000 residents in
Ogose drink a cap of unboiled tap water.
Although there are a number of data estimates being used in the present study as
substitutes for data that do not currently exist, it is sensible to note that there was clear
association between amount of drinking water consumed and cryptosporidiosis in‑ 112 ‑

Ogose case.
5.

References
1

Yamamoto N, Urabe K, Takaoka M, Nakazawa K, Gotoh A, Haga M, Fuchigami H,
Kimata I, Iseki M. Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis after contamination of the public
water supply in Saitama Prefecture, Japan, in 1996. Kansenshogaku Zasshi. 2000
Jun;74(6):518-26.

2

Kuroki T, Watanabe Y, Asai Y, Yamai S, Endo T, Uni S, Kimata I, Iseki M. [Anoutbreak of waterborne Cryptosporidiosis in Kanagawa, Japan] Kansenshogaku
Zasshi. 1996 Feb;70(2):132-40. (In Japanese)3

Yano K, Hosaka M, Otaki M, Tanaka A, Iyo T, Tosa K, Ichikawa H. Daily usage oftap water and bottled water for drinking in Japan. (2000) Japan Society on Water
Environment. (In Japanese)‑ 113 ‑

Distribution

1.0

House

0.9

House

Cumulative Probability

0.8

House

Water
treatment
plant

Oppegawa river

40

1000
800

140
120

600

100
80

400

60
200

20

7/5

6/30

0
6/25

0
6/20

200

6/15

20

6/10

400

6/5

40

5/31

600

5/26

60

5/21

800

Incident Cases

7/15

7/10

7/5

6/30

6/25

6/20

Fig. 4. A five days moving average view of onsetof illness and observed number of cases in Ogose.

80

5/16

6/15

Time in Days

1000

5/11

6/10

6/5

5/31

5/26

0
5/21

0

100

5/6

10

40

Fig. 3. Frequency of average daily intake of unboiled
water and its cumulative frequency. (Redrawn fromYano et al. 2000)

5/1

8

160

Quantity of water consumed (mL)

KTU (Kaorin Turbidity Unit)

6

180

5/16

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

0

600

0

400

20

200

10

4

200

5/1

20

2

Time in Days
Fig. 5. Time series of daily counts of illness and daily maximum
turbidity in source water of the Ogose water treatment plant.

‑ 114 ‑

Incident Cases

60

0.1

Fig. 2. Maximum likelihood fit of incubation distributionsof persons with brief exposure among 3 outbreak cases.

Incident Cases

30

0.2

Number of days since exposure

Cumulative Frequency (%)

800Frequency (%)

40

0.3

0

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of sites ofwater and sewage treatment processes in Ogose.

100

0.4

0.0

Intake

50

0.5

5/6

Discharge

0.6

5/11

Sewagedisposal
plant

0.7

A) Maximum turbidity with a 7-day lag period.

B) Average turbidity with a 7-day lag period.

450

450

400
System 1

Incident Cases

350

400

System 2

350

300

300

250

250

200

200

150

150

100

100

50

50

0

0

0

20

40
60
Turbidity

80

0

100

C) Maximum turbidity with a 8-day lag period.

450

400

400

350

350

300

300

250

250

200

200

150

150

100

100

50

50

0

0
20

40

60

80

0

100

E) Maximum turbidity with a 9-day lag period.

10

15

20

25

30

D) Average turbidity with a 8-day lag period.

450

0

5

5

10

15

20

25

30

F) Average turbidity with a 9-day lag period.

450

450

400

400

350

350

300

300

250

250

200

200

150

150

100

100

50

50
0

0
0

20

40

60

80

0

100

5

10

15

20

25

Fig. 6. Correlations between both daily maximum and average turbidities of source
water and illness at lag periods of 7 - 9 days during pre-outbreak period.

‑ 115 ‑

30

30
25

150

20

100

15

6/10

6/5

5/31

5/26

5/21

5/16

5
5/11

0
5/6

10
5/1

50

500

Incident Cases

200

Maximum temperature (°C)

35

100
50

6/9

6/4

5/30

0

Estimated concentration of oocysts (/L)

150

5/25

100

20

25

30

35

Fig. 8.
Relation between daily counts of illness andmaximum temperature at a lag period of 6 days during
pre-outbreak period.

5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
5/20

200

Maximum temperature (°C)

200

5/15

300

15

Fig. 7. Time series of daily counts of illness anddaily maximum temperature.

5/10

400

0

Time in Days

Incident Cases

Incident Cases

250

Time in Days
Fig. 9. Daily counts of illness and estimated number ofoocysts in tap water at a lag period of 6 days during
pre-outbreak period.

‑ 116 ‑

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‑ 125 ‑

Promotion of Research and Technology in Water Supply Field
水道分野における科学技術の振興

Mari Asami, National Institute of Public Health, MHLW, Japan
国立保健医療科学院‑ 127 ‑

浅見真理

Promotion of Research and Technology in Water Supply Field
Mari ASAMI, Dr.Eng.
Senior Researcher for Environmental Health and Hygiene Engineering R&D
Department of Water Supply Engineering,
National Institute of Public Health
4-6-1 Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8638 JAPANasami@niph.go.jp

Abstract
Japanese Government is strongly promoting Science and Technology.

The Council for Science andTechnology Policy (CSTP) of the Cabinet Office is playing a great role in promotion of science andtechnology in especially in health science field.
of very important issue.

Promotion of research in water in environment is one

Trend of research projects especially in water supply field are described.

Inaddition, effective way of promotion of water supply engineering is discussed.

1. Promotion of Science and Technologies in JapanThe Japanese government has set out seven priority areas on the basis that advances in these areas
should help the nation prosper in the 21st century:
1.

Provide solutions to environmental problems

2.

Provide solutions to the problem of there being fewer children and an aging society

3.

Revitalize the regions

4.

Restructure the cities

5.

Advance Science and Technology (S&T)

6.

Nurture human resources and promote education and culture

7.

Bring into realization a nation that is led by the world's most advanced IT

As is seen from the above, S&T is included in the list of priority areas that Japan intends to focus on,
because it is widely recognized that the nation cannot survive without a heavy reliance on theadvancement of S&T. The most recently published White Paper (2001) bears the title: "Creativity ofJapan's Science and Technology" and this report characterize the key objectives of Japan's S&T agenda.
The Council for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP) of the Cabinet Office (April 1, 2001),
implemented the second phase of the S&T Basic Plan to work towards that goal. To accomplish theseobjectives the CSTP has set the goal for the country to spend 24 trillion yen on S&T for the coming 5

1‑ 128 ‑

years, commencing April, 2001 (FY'01). This amount is 7 trillion yen more (over 40% higher) thanthat allocated for the first 5-year phase of the S&T Basic Plan. The total draft budget request this year
for S&T- related items is 3.6 trillion yen in FY'04, reflecting an increase of 2.0% over the previous
Fiscal Year, even though there was an overall decrease of 17% in the General Account. This level offunding is the clearest possible indication that the Government of Japan has placed strong emphasis on
its perceived importance of the promotion of S&T, even though the Japanese economy now is in a very
serious situation.
! Reform of the S&T system to generate excellent outcomes! Strategic approach to areas and fields expected to grow in the future! Internationalization of S&T activities in Japan

Prime Minister and Other Relevant Ministers
Monthly Meeting

CSTP: Council for Science and Technology Policy, Cabinet Office-Annual Guideline for Resource Prioritization-Inter-ministry Coordination

MEXT: Ministry of Education, Sports, Science and Culture
MHLW: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
MLIT: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
MOE: Ministry of Environment
METI: Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry．．
．．

Fig. 1 Scheme of Promotion of Science and Technology in Japanese Government

Following the administrative reform begun in January 2001, 59 national research laboratories out of 89
underwent reform and were transformed into Independent Administrative Institutions (IAIs). As well,
the Council for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP) of the Cabinet Office was formed by thereorganization of the old Council for Science & Technology (CST), which had belonged to the oldPrime Minister's Office.

Another reform, all 98 of the national universities have been now an"agency" status.
The CSTP is the central advisory body of the Japanese government tasked with the formulation of
S&T policy; it must guide the direction which the country takes in research. One significant change

2‑ 129 ‑

occurring as a result of the reform is that a general CSTP meeting is now held once per month so as todiscuss, in the presence of the Prime Minister, a wide range of S&T issues. CSTP guides the future
direction of Japan's S&T agenda and budget.
On behalf of the Japanese Government, CSTP promotes research and technology with key-focus on
these subjects.
!

Life Science!

Nano-technology!

Information Technology!

Environment!

Social Infrastructure!

Materials

M ETI

M LIT

MOE

D iet

SC AO N PA
JD A M P H P T
CAO

M A FFM O FAMOJ
MOF

M H LW

M EXT

Fig.2 S&T-related budget request for FY '04 by Ministry/Agency
Abbreviations:
SCAO: Secretariat of Cabinet Office
CAO: Cabinet Office
JDA: Japan Defense Agency
NPA: National Police Agency
MPHPT: Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommunications
MOJ: Ministry of Justice
MFA: Ministry of Foreign Affairs
MEXT: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
MHLW: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
MAFF: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
METI: Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry
MLIT: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
MOE: Ministry of Environment

Trend of governmental budget relating on Science and Technology is shown in Fig.3.
researches relating to Life Science and Environment are improving in amount.

3‑ 130 ‑

Budget forLife Science IT Env Nano Energy

Infra Frontier

FY2004
FY2003
FY2002
FY2001
To MHLW

Atomic Energy

Engineering

Fig.3 Trend of governmental budget relating to S&T in Japan

Other trials are being made in many organizations.

Establishment of TLO (Technology Licensing

Organization) and supporting organization is being encouraged to promote practical application ofresearch.

A dopted projects

m illion yen

1,500

45,00040,000B udgetT hem es

35,00030,0001,000

25,00020,00015,000500

10,000
5,000
0

0
1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

R esearch grants and num ber of projects

Fig.4 Trends in research budget and projects, Health and Labour Research Grants

4‑ 131 ‑

The increase of competitive research fund is also an indicator of promotion of science and technology.
Fig.4 shows the increase of Health and Labour Sciences Research Grants by the Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare.
Health and Labour Science Research Grants is offered to researchers who conduct researches that may
be considered to contribute to the enhancement of health sciences to answer people's needs in health,welfare and life sanitation fields.

Applicants are publicly gathered through the Web pages, and they

are selected based on evaluations made by the review committee.
Research budget for water supply promoted by Water Supply Division, Bureau of Health Services,
MHLW, is included in this research budget.
CSTP especially takes initiative on research with key focus on the theme below in environmental
studies;!

Global warming!

Gavages-to-zero Project and Resource Cycle!

Environmentally Sound Water-Cycle in Watershed and City Revitalization!

Total Management of Chemical Risk!

Water Cycle in Global Scale

2. Researches in Water Cycle Management
MHLW is promoting the Environmentally Sound Water-Cycle Project, under the supervision by CSTP.
The Project is aiming at 1) Sustainability in Watershed to improve efficiency of water, and 2) Decreaseof water discharge and contamination to realize harmonious coexistence of human and other creatures
to meet the aim of the Initiative of CSTP.
The Environmentally Sound Water-Cycle Project consists of 6 Study Objectives (projects) and eachpromoting organization;" Sound Water Cycle in watershed ->e-water project, JWRC
" Sound Water Cycle in town ->epoch project, JWRC
" Sound Water Cycle in house-> Japan Water Pluming Engineering Promotion Foundation, JWRC
" Control of infectious disease via water-> Setsunan Univ.

" Dissolved Organic Substances in Source Water-> National Institute of Environmental Studies" GIS assisted water source control->NIPH5‑ 132 ‑

Environmentally Sound Water Cycle
Water Cycle in Watershed（
Research Objective)
Water Cycle in Town
SupplySupplySupplySupplyReuse

Drainage

Discharge
Reuse

Reuse
Reuse

Treatment
Devices

Kitchen

Reuse

SupplyDischarge
Reuse

Discharge
SupplySupplyGardening

Discharge

Water
Purification
Plant

Absorption

Reuse

Treatment
Devices

Discharge

Adjustment of Absorption and Drainage

Use of Energy in
Discharge

Water Source Conservation

HousesWater Cyclein House

Reuse

Small Water Cycle in House

Decrease of Burden in DrainageRiver

Fig.5 Environmentally Sound Water Cycle (Research Objective)

3.

Investment in Water Supply

Water Supply is facing a big challenge in reforming water facilities and composition waterworks
engineers in water works are rapidly changing.

Fig. 6 shows Annual Investment to Water Supply andWater Supply Prevalence in Japan which clearly presents the change or decrease of annual investment
to water supply in whole country.
Fig.7 shows the trend of annual investment and retirement costs and stock for water supply in wholecountry.

The retirement cost is estimated to exceed the investment cost after 2025, and the total stockof the facilities is estimated to decay after the year by the estimation by every five years.
This change is going to affect on the key research objective in water supply field.

6‑ 133 ‑

1,600,000

90.0

1,400,000

80.0

1,200,000
投資
額 1,000,000

70.0

百
万
円

800,000

50.0

600,000

40.0

400,000

30.0

200,000

20.0

0

10.0
S 28 S 31 1960
S 34 S 371965
S 40 S 43
S 46 S1975
49 S 52 1980
S 55 S 581985
S 61 H 11990
H 4 H1995
7 H 10 2000
H 13
1954
1970
FY

Annual Investment (million yen)

100.0

60.0

Prevalence of Water Supply (%)

1,800,000

水
道
普
及
率
％

年FY
度

Annual Investment
to額WaterSupply水道
普 及 率 (1954-2001)
投資

Fig. 6 Annual Investment to Water Supply and its Prevalence in Japan

2.5

70
Stock in Total
Investment

50 ス
Retirement cost

ト
ッ
40
ク
額

30

兆 1.0
円

(trillion yen)

投
資 1.5
額

60
Stock

Annual Investment andRetirement cost(trillion yen)

2.0

兆

20 円

0.5

10

0.0

0

H7
H1
2
H1
7
H2
2
H2
7
H3
2
H3
7
H4
2
H4
7
H5
2
H5
7
H6
2

0
H2

5

S6

0

S5

5

S5

S4

S4

0

1965 70 75 80 85 90 95 2000 05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
FY
年度

Fig.7 Annual Investment, Retirement
Cost
and Stockinク額
Total in Water Supply
投資額
除却額
ストッ
Facilities

7‑ 134 ‑

Cost for research investment and its proportion to total sales in all industries is shown in Fig.8. The
proportion has gradually increased in these 10 years and changed from 2.5% in 1991 to 3.3% in 2000.
The proportion of research investment varies between industries.
industries relating to water supply field.
proportion of research investment.

Fig. 9 shows its difference among

Electric devices and chemical industries have highHigh proportion of research investment seems to encourage

Proportion of Research (%)

Research Cost in total (million yen)industrial development.

Research
Cost
Proportion of
Research

1991

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

FY

Fig.8 Research Investment and its Proportion to Total Sales in all Industries
7.0

40000

6.0

Sales
%

5.0

25000

4.0

20000

3.0

15000

2.0

5000

1.0

0

0.0

Ci
vil
E

Ot
he
rs

10000

ng
in e
er
in g
Ch
em
ist
ry
Bi
gs
te
el
No
n
st
ee
l
Me
ch
an
El
ic s
ec
tri
c
de
vic
Tr
es
an
sp
or
ta
tio
n

Sales (Billion yen)

30000

Proportion of research (%)

35000

Fig. 9 Sales and Proportion of Research Investment in Fields of Relevant Industries
to Water Supply (upper 45 companies)
8‑ 135 ‑

Trend of research topic and key issues can be caught by looking into the number of presentations in
Annual Research Meeting of Japan Water Works Association.

Fig. 10 shows the trend of topics

presented at the Annual Research Meeting of Japan Water Works Association.
presentations is increased and doubled in these 20 years.

The number ofPresentations on ‘Purification’ and ‘Water

Quality’ are especially increasing.
Fig.11 shows changes in research theme followed by MHLW, especially on water quality.

Target ofresearch has been gradually changed; however, it is clear we are always facing emerging contaminants.

1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
19791983

TOPICS

EnglishR isk,D isaster
W ater Q uality
M echanics
D evices
D istribution
P urification
W ater R esource
P lanning
A dm inistration

19841988

19891993

19941998

19992003

Fig.10 Trend of presentations in Annual Research Meeting ofJapan Water Works Association

4. The 'e-water' Project and the 'Epoch' Project
Two big projects are being conducted by Japan Water Research Center, JWRC, by the Health andLabour Research Grant described before.

Both started from 2002 FY under the ‘Environmentally

Sound Water-Cycle’ project.
E-water!

Establishment of energy-saving water purification systems.

!

Reduction in the amount of sludge in water purification systems.

!

Observation of water sources for safe water supplies.

!

Efficient use of water in water purification systems.

!

Reduction in project costs.

9‑ 136 ‑

Fig.11 Researches in Water Supply Field promoted by MHLW since 1996

M inistry ofEnvironm ent

1996

1997

1998

A griculturalchem cals in →w ater resources

1999

2000

S urfactants in w ater resources
A lgae C ontrol

2001
→

→

Treatm ent of
Infectious →D esease via
W ater
A lum ,
N onionSurfactant

H ealth S ciences R esearch G rants

U rgent
D isasterH ealthSpecialH ealth S ciences R esearch G rants

H ighly Effective
W ater Treatm ent
M ethod

Infection
C ontrol‑ 137 ‑

P rospection and Estim ationof W ater S upply D am age by →Earthquake

Endcrine
D isrupting
C hem icals→

on andD evel P rospecti
Estim ation of

W ater Supply →D am age by
Earthquake

M TB E,D ioxane,B rom ate,A crylam ide
m onom er→→

D evelopm ent of A ssistant S ystem of→ Enviro
nm entD am age R ecovery
ally
→

sound
w atercycle

C ontrolof Infectious D esease →P rasite C ontrol →via W ater

2006

P harm aceuticals→

R olling R evision of D rinking
W ater Q uality Standards

G IS assisted W ater
S ource P rotection

Envir
→ onm

ental
ly
soun
d
w ate
r
W aterborne Infectious → cycle

D esease C ontrol

D etection of
M icroorganism s in
B io terrorism

Toxic C hem icals in
W aterP rasite C ontrolin W ater S ource and W ater

→

2005

C oncentration of D iEthylhexyl-P htalate in W ater →Treatm ent

R evision of D rinking W ater Q uality
S tandards

nt of
A dvanD evelopm ent of H ighly Effective W ater Treatm ent→ ced
W ater M ethod
Treat
m ent
→

2004

D ioxin in D rinking W ater

Endcrine D isrupting C hem icals in
W aterP rospection and Estim ation of
W ater S upply D am age by
Earthquake→ opm e2003

C ontrolof M usty O dor→

D ioxin C ontrol →C ryptosporidium inw ater2002

R isk A ssessm ent and controlof
P arasites

10

R isk A ssessm ent and controlof P arasites

Epoch project!

Research on the technology for water quality management inside of pipeline!

Counter measures for maintaining safe tasteful water, increasing the effective water ratio andfulfill effective use of energy

5.

Promotion of research

Final goal of research is to improve quality and stability of water supply.
and practice is very important.

Promotion of research

To overcome the so-called ‘death-valley’, MHLW is going todevelop method of promoting research into practice. That may include; Prioritization of Research
Policies, Promotion and Introduction of New Technology, Allocation of Subsidy to Small Water
Supply based on Water Supply, Accumulation of Case Study that may contribute speed-up
examination by MHLW and External Review.
Prioritization of
Policies

PLAN

Research

Case Study by Model Plan

Practice

Competitive Grant

SEE

DO

Evidence
External Review

Promotion ofIntroduction of
New Technology
Allocation of Subsidy
to Small Water Supply
Based on Study Result

Accumulation ofCase Study

Fig. 11 Promotion and Introduction of Research for Water Supply

References
1. Report of the Council for Science and Technology Policy, the Cabinet Office (2001-2004)(http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/)
2. Outline of Health and Labour Sciences Research Grant, Division of Health Sciences, Minister's
Secretariat, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, 2004
3. Nagata, R., Asami, M., Takagai, E. and Nakatani, H., Scientific communication in science andtechnology, Health and Labour Research Grants (HLSRG): Reports of Researches Supported
by HLSRG., Information Science and Technology, Vol.54, No.6, pp.289-293 (2004)
4. Report of 'Water Vision', Division of Water Supply, Health Service Bureau, Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare (http://www.mhlw.go.jp/topics/bukyoku/kenkou/suido/vision.html)

11‑ 138 ‑

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米国水道協会研究財団

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&RQFHQWUDWH‑ 160 ‑

Combined Sewer System Improvement in Osaka City
―Wet Weather Activated Sludge Process—
大阪市における合流式下水道の改善―雨天時活性汚泥プロセス―

Hiroshi Matsumoto, Environment and Sewerage Bureau,
Osaka City Government, Japan
大阪市都市環境局 松本広司

‑ 161 ‑COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT IN OSAKA CITY
- WET WEATHER ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS Hiroshi Matsumoto, Enao Takayanagi
Environment and Sewerage Bureau
Osaka City Government
1-14-16 Nanko-kita, Suminoe-ku, Osaka 559-0034 Japan
ABSTRACTThe sewered ratio in Osaka City is almost 100% in population and the combined sewers
have been adopted in approximately 97% of the sewered area. However, the combined
system presents pollution of public water bodies, because untreated sewage is discharged
from combined sewer overflow outfalls and pumping stations together with stormwater
when sewage flow exceeds the capacity of sewer systems during wet weather.
Accordingly, improvement of the combined sewer system is one of the most important andpressing issues to be addressed for the city. Osaka City set a phased target to implement
its combined sewer system improvement program, particularly the middle term target was
set as reducing discharged pollutant loads from the combined sewer system to theequivalent level of a separate sewer system. To meet this target, we have conductedvarious studies and developed wet weather activated sludge Method as a unique technology
for continuous treatment of wet weather sewage. From the results of effluent quality
surveys, it was verified that discharged pollutant load can be reduced by average 73% in SS
and 61% in BOD with wet weather activated sludge process compared to the conventional
process. Since this method can exert considerable effects without significant changes ofexisting facilities, Osaka City is promoting application of this method to all sewage
treatment plants as well as construction of stormwater reservoirs.
KEYWORDS
Combined Sewer System, Water Pollution, Discharged Pollutant Load, Wet Weather
Activated Sludge Process, Stormwater Reservoir
INTRODUCTION
Osaka City is the largest city in western Japan with the resident population of 2.63 million(daytime population: 3.6 million) and an area of 220 km2. It is located on the estuary of
the Yodo River and the Yamato River, therefore, the geography of Osaka is mostly flat andlow, except for some small areas such as the Uemachi Plateau extending in the north-south
direction. Accordingly, stormwater drainage has long been an urgent issue to beaddressed. Also, epidemics of infectious diseases that posed public health risks in 19th
century have facilitated the improvement of wastewater drainage in a possible short time.

‑ 162 ‑

Under such circumstances, Osaka City
adopted combined sewer systems,
because it could be constructed withlower costs and it had an advantage ofeasiness in installation in the area
where there were many narrow roads
at that time. With continuous efforts inconstructing combined sewer systems,
the sewered ratio in Osaka City hasreached to almost 100% in populationand the sewage system has greatly
contributed to the water quality
improvement in the public water
bodies. Currently, combined sewers
have been constructed in about 97% of
the sewered area, as shown in Fig. 1.

Sewage treatment plants

12

Pumping stations

46

Overflow sewer outfalls

56

Total of sewer outfalls

114

Area served by a combined
sewer system
Area served by a separate
sewer system

However, the combined sewer systemcauses contamination of public water
bodies, because untreated sewage is Fig. 1: Areas Served by Combined Sewer Systems
discharged from CSO (combined
sewer overflow) outfalls and pumping
stations together with stormwater when combined flow exceeds the capacity of the sewer
systems during wet weather.
The role of sewage systems in the conservation of water quality in public water bodies has
become increasingly important. In order to create a pleasant and comfortable water
environment, reduction of pollutant load on public water bodies during wet weather
conditions is an urgent issue to be addressed. Accordingly, Osaka City is intensively
carrying out projects for CSO (combined sewer overflow) control.
OUTLINE OF OSAKA CITY’S COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM IMPROVEMENTPROGRAMIn the combined sewer system
improvement program, Osaka
City has set its target as“reducing annual pollutant loadfrom the combined sewer system
in both dry and wet weather tothe level of equal or less thanthat of a separate sewer system”
and we are carrying out various
improvement measures.

‑ 163 ‑

As shown in Fig. 2, components of the program are categorized to the removal of pollutant
sediments in sewers and storage and treatment of wet weather wastewater. We are
implementing this program by combining these measures effectively in integrated manners.
Improvement of sewer structure
The Osaka city is located mostly on a soft alluvial ground. In addition, ground subsidence
due to industrial use of an excessive amount of ground water for the rapid growth ofindustries during 1950s to 1970s has caused the inappropriate gradient of sewer, resulting
in the accumulation of sediments in the sewer lines. Besides, sediment traps, which havebeen set at the bottom of manholes to facilitate sewer dredging, are the one of the major
causes for accumulation of sediments during dry weather.
Therefore, in order to reduce pollutant load during wet weather, sediment traps were filled
and instead invert channels were installed at the bottom of all manholes so that the
sediments in sewers is transferred into sewage treatment plants as smooth as possible
during period of dry weather. Sewers with inappropriate gradients are being rectified
when they are renewed or replaced.
Storage of wet weather wastewater
The aim of temporal wastewater storing in wet weather is to capture the runoff water in theinitial phase of a rainfall event, containing high concentration of pollutant for later
conveyance to sewage treatment plants for treatment by activated sludge process after thestorm. Osaka City is utilizing stormwater reservoirs and large trunk sewers constructed
for flood control as well as for storage of stormwater.
1) Stormwater reservoirs
Stormwater reservoirs are designed to store the stormwater equivalent to 5 mm rain in thetargeted areas. At present, they have been constructed at two locations in the city. Since
the land for sewage facilities are limited, stormwater reservoirs are constructed with otherfacilities, for example, rapid sand filter units for advanced treatment and facilities otherthan sewage purposes in order to use limited space efficiently. An example of such
facility is shown in Fig. 3.
Upper level: Rapid Filtration

Fig. 3: Stormwater Reservoir Coupled with
Rapid Filter Units
Lower
Stormwater
ReservoirFig.
2:level:Main
Componentsof the Combined Sewer
System Improvement Program in Osaka City
‑ 164 ‑

As an another example, Dotonbori River,flowing through a downtown area of the city,
is a valuable waterside amenity space andrepresents the unique sceneries of Osaka,
however, there are 28 combined sewer
overflow outfalls along Dotonbori River andits upstream Higashi-Yokobori River asshown in Fig. 4. Consequently, Osaka City
has designated the both rivers as importantwater areas to carry out improvement
program intensively for water quality
protection, and decided to construct a large
stormwater storage tunnel (6 m in diameter,
4 km in length, capacity of 140,000 m3)
designed to capture the whole volume ofstormwater runoff for the designed rainfall
event (a 10-year return period rainfall event).
In parallel, pedestrian promenades areconstructed along Dotonbori River toincrease its amenity value.
2) Utilization of large stormwater sewers

HigashiyokoboriSakuragawa Trunk Sewers

Kitahama-Ousaka
Stormwater Trunk Sewers

Remarks

Sewage treatment plants (S.T.P)
Pumping stations (P.S)
Existing trunk sewers
Planning trunk sewers
Overflow sewer outfalls

Fig. 4: Stormwater Storage Pipe along
Dotonbori River for CSO Control

Currently, Osaka City is constructing
large-scale stormwater tunnels andpumping stations for flood control, andsome facilities have already been in use.
Such large-scale stormwater sewers withlarge diameter are laid quite deep and arebasically not used during dry weather andstormwater overflowing from existing
sewers enters into them during wet
weather. These large stormwater sewers
are primarily used for discharging ofstormwater runoff for controlling flood.
In addition to this, in case of light rainfall,these can be used for storage of
Fig. 5: Utilization of Large Stormwater
stormwater runoff instead of discharging
Tunnel for CSO Control
for later conveyance to sewage treatment
plants, which will results in the reduction of discharged pollutant load. An example ofdiversion structures is shown in Fig. 5.
Treatment of wet weather wastewater
In the current process in Osaka city, three times (3Qsh) of design peak hourly wastewater‑ 165 ‑

flow in dry weather (1Qsh) is
ActivatedWet
sludgeweather
supposed to be conveyed to sewage
treatment
wastewater
treatment plants during wet weather.
(1Qsh)(3Qsh)
Among 3Qsh, 1Qsh is treated by the
1QshPrimary
Finalactivated sludge process, while thesedimensedimentation
tationremaining 2Qsh is treated only bytank
Aeration tanktankpassing primary sedimentation tanks
to remove solids and discharged
Discharge after
into public water bodies (Fig. 6).
sedimentation
However, discharged pollutant load
(2Qsh)
Return sludgeof 2Qsh is still high due to theFig. 6: Conventional Wastewater Treatment
primarytreatmentof
only
during Wet Weather
sedimentation. Therefore, we havecarried out studies and developed
new method to treat the 2Qsh of wet weather wastewater by feeding it into the last cell of
aeration tanks in the activated sludge process (Fig. 7), that is named as 3W Method (Wet
Weather Wastewater treatment method)
Wet

Activated

2Qshsludgeweather
Since the treatment plants oftreatment
wastewater
Osaka City are equipped with
(3Qsh)(3Qsh)
1Qsh
channels for step feeding to bePrimaryFinalapplicable for both conventional
sedimensedimentation
tationactivated sludge process and step
Aeration tank
tank
tank
aeration process, 3W Method
can be introduced with relatively
small changes of existing
Discharge after
sedimentation
facilities. Thus, this method is
Return sludge(2Qsh)
cost effective in construction anduseful in ensuring immediate
Fig. 7: Wet Weather Activated Sludge Treatment
effect, we are planning to
introduce the 3W Method to all
12 sewage treatment plants. As of March 2004, 3W Method is in use in Suminoe
Treatment Plant and south treatment ficility of Hirano Treatment Plant.

WET WEATHER ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS FOR COMBINED SEWER
SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT
Principle of 3W Method
1) Quick pollutant removal by adsorption of activated sludge‑ 166 ‑

In general, pollutants are adsorbed by the activated sludge in the first 30 minutes, and thendecomposed gradually (Fig. 8). In 3W Method, the hydraulic retention time of wet
weather wastewater in the final cell of aeration tank is as short as several tens of minutes.
In spite of such a short time, pollutants are adsorbed to the activated sludge and thenremoved quickly.
2Qsh
Although the adsorption capacity of
1Qshactivated sludge is limited, it is recoveredFinalsedimenactivated sludge gradually decomposes
tationAeration tanktankpollutants in the treatment process. In
3W Method, activated sludge that has
adsorbed pollutants in the final cell of an
Pollutantremoval byaeration tank, is conveyed to the final
adsorption
Return sludge
sedimentation tank and returned to thefirst cell as a return sludge. Then, as theactivated sludge goes through the first Recovery of adsorption performance in this process
middle cells, pollutants are decomposed
Fig. 9: Recovery of Activated Sludge’s
the activated sludge recovers its
Adsorption Performance
adsorption capacity before it reaches the
final cell of the aeration tank. This
continuous process ensures the stable treatment of 3W method. (Fig. 9)

as
the

and
and

2) Reduction of solids load on final sedimentation tanks by step feeding
In general, Camp’s sedimentation theory is used for determining overflow rate. However
this theory is not applicable for this case since because it gives the constant value of solids
load on a final sedimentation tank regardless of the MLSS concentration. In the 3W
Method, solid load is evaluated based on the flux theory.
At the just beginning of 3W Method operation, the MLSS in the final cell of the aeration
tank is transferred to the final sedimentation tank. Since this concentration decreases
immediately by the dilution, solids load Concentrationon the final sedimentation tank does not
become so high under the steady state
operation.
Assuming that influent and effluent SS,
stagnation of solids in the
3Qshfinal sedimentation tank
When compared withTimeand activated sludge
1Qsh influent
return sludge pipe, andAdsorption
Decomposition
withdrawal of excess(for approx.Sludge
30 min) concentration → same
Solids load → 2.54 times
sludge (production and
Fig. 8: Characteristics
of Pollutant Removal
2Qshdecomposition of sludge)
1Qshby the Activated Sludge
are negligible, then, in the
Sludge concentration → 0.45 times
Solids load → 1.18 times(Assumption: influent/effluent SS negligible, with return rate of 30%)

Fig. 10: Comparison of Influent Solids Loads‑ 167 ‑

case where wastewater of 3Qsh is fed into the first cell of the aeration tank without stepfeeding with a return ratio of 30%, solids load reaches to 2.54 times that of 1Qsh treatment.
On the other hand, when the step feeding is applied, sludge concentration in the final cell of
the aeration tank is diluted to 0.45 times of 1Qsh treatment, resulting in reducing the solids
load to approx. 1.18 times (Fig. 10).
The above fact shows that, in the 3W Method, the most important point is to cope with theinitial stage of operation when the solids load is high. After this stage, there will be noserious problems posed as far as solids load is concerned.
Introduction of 3W Method into existing facility at Hirano Sewage Treatment Plant
The Hirano Sewage Treatment Plant consists of two treatment facilities; South and East
treatment facilities. Both are operated under the anaerobic/aerobic activated sludge
process and their maximum daily treatment capacities are as follows.
South treatment facility : 117,000 m3/day
East treatment facility : 152,000 m3/day
Total: 269,000 m3/day
To verify the effectiveness of the 3W Method, this method was applied to the south
treatment facility (maximum daily wastewater flow: 117,000 m3/day) of the Hirano Sewage
Treatment Plant and its performance was investigated. For this purpose, step gate No. 4 ofthe south aeration tank was automated to adjust its weir height automatically in response to
the level of wet weather wastewater of the influent channel so that 1Qsh of wastewaterflows into the aeration tank through step gate No. 1 and the remaining wastewater flows
through step gate No. 4.
Wet weather conditions, rainfalls, and facility’s operating conditions obtained by fiveoperations in FY2001 are given in Table 1. The average water quality before and after
application of the 3W Method is also shown in Table 2.
Table 1: Various Conditions During Wastewater Treatment by 3W Method (FY2000)

Date of Operation
Total rainfall (mm)Rainfall duration (hr)Duration of treatment by 3W (hr)Total treated amount (m3)
Max. flow (m3/hr)(Qsh)Max. OFR in final sedimentation
tank (m/day)
Initial water temperature (°C)
Initial MLSS (mg/L)

Jun. 9,
2000
30.9
10.5
3
30,324
11,5991.98

Sept. 11,
2000
165.0
36.2
45
469,639
13,5342.31

Sept. 23,
2000
27.9
4.8
5.6
62,00813,151
2.25

Oct. 20,
2000
17.1
6.8
9.7
97,41812,656
2.36

Jan. 7,
2001
16.9
8.8
11.8
102,896
11,936
2.45

49

56

54

57

59

21
1,930

29
1,510

28
500a)

25
790

17
1,850

‑ 168 ‑

Initial SVI (mL/g)
135
86
101a)
* a) measured just after the start of 3W operation.
* 11/12 tanks are used on Oct. 20, 2000; 10/12 tanks are used on Jan. 7, 2001

127

97

Table 2: Water Quality of 3W Method (FY2000)

SampleParameterJun. 9,2000
148(100 - 250)

Sept. 11,
2000
104
(54 - 190)

Sept. 23,
2000
153
(48 - 270)

Oct. 20,
2000
140(27 - 340)

Jan. 7,2001
326(250 - 420)

Influent ofprimary
sedimentationtank

SS (mg/l)
BOD (mg/l)

58(44 - 67)

68
(31 - 95)

64
(29 - 98)89
(32 - 250)

343
(240 - 450)

Effluent fromprimary
sedimentationtank

SS (mg/l)---

40(34 - 51)58
(37 - 94)50
(36 - 69)98
(65 - 130)

BOD (mg/l)---

40(22 - 58)40
(29 - 51)50
(26 - 72)125(100 - 160)

SS (mg/l)

5.7(4.0 - 6.7)

6.3
(5.0 - 7.0)

8.4
(7.0 - 11.0)

10.0(8.0 - 14.0)

15.1(7.6 - 27.0)

BOD (mg/l)

2.0(2.0 - 2.0)

3.8
(3.0 - 5.0)

4.6
(3.0 - 6.0)

7.4
(6.0 - 10.0)

13.7(6.0 - 21)

Treated water* BOD of treated water is nitrification-inhibited BOD.

“---” denotes faulty measurement.

Performance of the 3W Method
The results showed that the 3W Method could reduce effluent pollutant load by 59 to 91%
in SS (73% in average) and 27 to 78% in BOD (61% in average) from that of conventional
processes employing only a primary treatment (Fig.11).
Comparison of effluent solids load in BOD

Comparison of effluent solids load in SS

Primary treatment

Activated sludge
treatment

80

80

Activated sludge
treatment

84%

20

27%

0

16%
Conventional
treatment60

by 73%

40

Reduction

60

78%

by 61%

100
Primary treatment

Reduction

100

40
20
0

After applicationof the 3W Method

39%
22%
Conventional
treatment

After applicationof the 3W Method

Fig. 11: Effect of the 3W Method in Effluent Solids Load Reduction during Wet Weather‑ 169 ‑

FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR THE 3W METHOD APPLICATION
These investigation results showed that the 3W Method is one of the effective approaches
for improvement of combined sewer systems. By the end of March 2004, 3W Method is
introduced at Suminoe Sewage Treatment Plant and south treatment facility of Hirano
Sewage Treatment Plant as mentioned above. Furthermore, various data are still being
collected and further studies are being conducted through the practical operation of thesefacilities in order to consider the following subjects.
Simultaneous use with advanced wastewater treatment of N and P
Regarding the simultaneous use with advanced wastewater treatment of N (nitrogen) and P(phosphorus), an experiment was carried out to confirm if the 3W Method could work withadvanced wastewater treatment (two-step feeding type nitrification/denitrification process)without giving adversely effects on this.
The results showed that, though the treatment of nitrogen and phosphor tends to be
somewhat disrupted shortly, nitrogen removal performance was recovered in five hours
after completion of the 3W Method operation and phosphorous removal performance inabout three days. Disruption of nitrogen treatment was caused by ammonia nitrogen
included in the effluent from the aeration tank due to the short retention time of wastewater
fed into the final cell. The phosphorus treatment disruption is caused by DO brought by
the influent of wet weather wastewater.
The above-discussed phenomena are not subject to the 3W Method operation but generally
to the combined sewer systems with biological nitrogen and phosphorus treatment method.
Therefore, these will not pose any significant problems to simultaneous use of the 3W
Method and advanced treatment of N and P.
Simultaneous use with carrier-added activated sludge process
Due to the limited space for new sewage treatment plants in Osaka City, carrier-added twostep feeding type nitrification/denitrification process (carrier-added AOAO process) iscurrently considered the best option for advanced wastewater treatment for nitrogen
removal that can be introduced into existing sewage treatment plants. The facility for
carrier-added AOAO process was installed in FY2003 at Konohana Sewage Treatment
Plant in Osaka city. Soon after the facility is in operation, investigation will be conducted
to clarify the effectiveness of simultaneous use with a carrier-added AOAO process and3W method.
Furthermore, when the 3W method is used in combination with carrier-added process,carrier separation screen that can allow 3Qsh flow through has to be developed and theprevention of clogging of the screen need to be carefully examined.

‑ 170 ‑

CONCLUSION
Subjects arising from the combined sewer systems are common to the cities having thistype of facilities. As Japanese citizens have gotten more interest on surrounding water
environment and realizing the higher level of water quality of public water bodies is getting
to be expected, disadvantages of combined sewer systems have been highlighted and theirimprovement has attracted public attention.
Under such circumstances, Osaka City is investigating current situations of wet weather
wastewater discharged from the stormwater outfalls. The investigation will be continued
in the future in order to accumulate more information experiences. By effectively using
these investigation results, we are going to develop several possible measures for
improving the existing combined sewer systems. In addition to this, it may be our duty toobtain the understanding of the relevant stakeholders before implementing the combined
sewer system improvement by disclosing the expected effects of the improvement and thecosts for each measure to the citizens in due course.
In order to meet the demand for efficient and economical improvement for combined sewer
systems under the current financial constraints of Osaka City, soft approaches which ensure
appropriate operation and management of these facilities, for instance, capturing the firstflush of wet weather wastewater without losing its timing are important as well as theconstruction of hard-facilities such as stormwater reservoirs. Also, further modification andrefinement of existing facilities, including the continuous treatment of wet weather
wastewater mentioned above have to be considered. By effectively implementing thesemeasures, improvement of combined sewer systems will be achieved as soon as possible.
REFERENCES (all references are written in Japanese except 4 and 8.)
1. Furukawa K. (2002), “Activated Sludge Treatment of Wet Weather Wastewater (3W
Method) in Osaka City,” Journal of the Japan Sewage Works Association
2. Japan Sewage Works Association (2001), “Guidelines and Their Interpretation for
Planning and Design of Sewage Treatment Systems, 2001 Edition (Prequel),” p119
3. Japan Sewage Works Association (2002), “Guidelines and Their Interpretation for
Improvement of Combined Sewer Systems, 2002 Edition,” p1, p109, and p253
4. Kubota, K., and Moriyama S. (2001), “Performance Evaluation of Actually Installed
Activated Sludge Process for Wet Weather Wastewater (3W Method),” Proceedings for
38th Symposium on Sewage Works, p141
5. Shiomi, T. (1999), “Measures against Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) in Osaka City,”
IAWQ 8th International Conference on Urban Drainage
6. Sugano, M. (1994), and Ebara, “Study on Activated Sludge Treatment of Wet Weather‑ 171 ‑Wastewater (2),” Proceedings for 31st Symposium on Sewage Works, p823
7. Sugano, E., and Yamamoto S. (1993), “Study on Activated Sludge Treatment of Wet
Weather Wastewater,” Proceedings for 30th Symposium on Sewage Works, p810
8. Takayanagi E., Shimaoka T., and Kato T. (1996a), “Activated Sludge Treatment of Wet
Weather Wastewater, “ WEF 69th Annual Conference
9. Takayanagi E., Shimaoka T., and Kato T. (1996b), “Activated Sludge Treatment of Wet
Weather Wastewater and Estimation of Its Performance,” Proceedings for 33rd Symposium
on Sewage Works, p264
10. Takayanagi, E., Sugano, E., and Yano, K. (1992), “Activated Sludge Treatment of Wet
Weather Wastewater by Combined Sewer System,” Proceedings for 29th Symposium on
Sewage Works, p781
11. Yano K. , Takewaki S. , Yamaguchi M. (2002) , “ Performance of Installed ActivatedSludge Process for Wet Weather Wastewater at the Suminoe Treatment Plant ”,
Proceedings for 39th Symposium on Sewage Works, p728

‑ 172 ‑

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USDA Water Activities in Asia
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米国農務省 スーザン・オーウェン‑ 183 ‑

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Towards Autonomous and Decentralized Water System for Wise
Use of Water and Creating Healthy and Sound Water Environment
自律型分散水システムの活用に向けて

Kazuo Yamamoto, Environmental Science Center,
The University of Tokyo, Japan
東京大学環境安全研究センター‑ 189 ‑

山本和夫

TOWARDS AUTONOMOUS AND DECENTRALIZED WATER SYSTEM
FOR WISE USE OF WATER AND CREATING HEALTHY AND SOUNDWATER ENVIRONMENT
Kazuo Yamamoto
Environmental Science Center, The University of Tokyo

Introduction
The issues on the globe facing Water Crisis are the problems againstsustainable development of water resources due to the overpopulation,
resulting in food shortage and sanitation crisis. In addition to tackle on
mitigating these global population pressures, Japan is to be facing asignificant population drop in near future. Another question arises: how
can we regenerate big cities after their end of growth? The time has passed
already, when we built dams far away from the cities in order to meet theirhigh-growth of water demand. It is, now, emphasized that we need to createa society by wise-use of water but not by further dam construction. However,looking at the cities in reality, water in the cities is neither wisely nor
rationally utilized yet. It is because the existing water systems are not able
to cope with such a demand.
Since Meiji Era, a rapid development of modern water supply systems had
certainly realized safe and a low cost supply of drinking water all over Japanand had dramatically reduced the risks of water-born infectious diseases;
this contributes to long-life expectancies of Japanese, coupled with aremarkable progress in medical and health cares. Water pollution, fromwhich we had seriously suffered during the high rate of economic growth
period after the World War II due to untreated domestic and industrial
wastewater, has been significantly improved by sewerage construction.
However, present city water systems become a bit rigid and are losing
flexibility.
For example, although the major uses of water in cities are non-potable ones,
so-called ‘tasty water’ is equally supplied after a high-cost advanced‑ 190 ‑

treatment and long pipe-transportation regardless of its use. The younger
generation, nevertheless, likes to buy bottled water and doesn’t drink tap
water. Although urban shallow aquifer is worthwhile to be considered as anurban water stock, it is still over regulated. Of course, we need to learn thelessons from our experiences of excess groundwater usage that had seriously
caused land subsidence and saline water intrusion in the past, but the
groundwater-uptake ban already gained a remarkable recovery of thegroundwater level especially in the downtown area of some big cities inJapan. Too much rise of the groundwater level creates another problem offloating urban underground structures like subway stations, city buildings,
and so on. That’s why we need to wisely use of urban groundwater. It is also
pointed out that we can positively prevent from groundwater pollution when
we use it.
The groundwater usage, especially shallow one, must be balanced with its
cultivation. Rainwater infiltration is one of the major sources of thecultivation. It is, therefore, important to control the rainwater quality fromthe viewpoint of the cultivation as well as the quantity control to which wehave paid attention much from the viewpoint of infiltration capacity andurban storm water management.
Rainwater harvesting is also analternative of wise-use of water.
Water shortage comes from drought period. We can’t expect the rainwater
infiltration for that period, while urban wastewater is constantly produced
as long as the urban activity is maintained. The treated wastewater must be
considered as a stable and ubiquitous urban water resource, and it can beused for groundwater recharge. This also contributes a rehabilitation ofurban creaks indirectly. It is emphasized that large centralized wastewater
treatment plants located at river downstream or seaside are not expected tohave such a role. A wastewater treatment plant is not just a treatment plantbut an environmental water plant to create sound urban water environment.
We need to reconsider the wise-use of their ubiquitous nature bydecentralization of wastewater treatment plants.
Furthermore, a new aspect of wise-use of water is to positively use the latent
heat of water to mitigate urban heat-island.
In addition to‑ 191 ‑

evapotranspiration though plants, a variety of direct and indirect uses ofwater are worthwhile to be considered such as water film on city building
walls, sprinkling water on roads, revival of water-cooling air-condition, andso on. It is noted that we must carefully choose or develop the watertechnologies that assures safety in order to prevent from pathogen
contamination into the generated mist or aerosol.
Autonomous, Decentralized, and Sustainable Water Systems
The 3Es (Economy, Environment and Equity) are indispensable to us ingetting regional sustainability as well as the global one. Public participation
is believed most effective to achieve 3Es. Reviewing presently available
technologies in our society, most of them have been developed andcontinuously improved seeking for efficiency and scale of merit as much as
possible. But we have to consider how to change the traditional values ofmass-production and mass-consumption to the ones of sustainableproduction and consumption. In this regard, longer life products and theirmaintenance are becoming more important on the way to make our society
recycle-oriented.
The sustainability of a water system is not an exceptional case.
Then, we may raise the question: Autonomous, decentralized, andsustainable water systems: Can we realize them in mega cities?
‘Autonomous’ means that a water system is autonomously managed,
choosing a variety of available water resources; existing and new ones
depending on their technical development. Decentralization makes the
management boundary small enough for the people concerned to participate
in the decision making process on risk-benefits of the community water
system. The decentralization consisting of a network of small systems alsoenables us to disperse the system risk in fragments. Sustainability must be
realized in the maintenance. As a whole, through a participatory
management and maintenance in the community water system, the systemcreates community employments and a continuous and active improvement
will be done by autonomous adjustment among the network of the water
systems, seeking the global sustainability. The question is whether such‑ 192 ‑

water systems can replace existing big water supply and sewage
infrastructures in the context of urban regeneration especially for mega
cities. This makes an epoch of water system seeking a sustainable society
with wise-use of water.
Needs for Technological Development to Realize the Decentralized System
Centralized large-scale water system consisting of water supply andsewerage has a certain scale-merit in terms of life cycle cost and energy
consumption. But the concentration of wastewater means, at the same time,
the concentration of the pollutants included and transported. The water
demands, i.e., the use points are dispersed in cities; this exactly corresponds
the dispersed wastewater generation in the cities. If the wastewater isregarded as an urban water resource, its ubiquitous nature is preferable toits dispersed utilization. The wastewater, of course, requires advanced
treatment in order to ensure its public acceptance as safe environmental
water. The treated water can be re-used directly, but it is also used as arecharge source of groundwater. The shallow aquifer is regarded as a stockyard of the treated water, expecting its further maturation and stabilization.
This open recycle system must effectively work in decentralized network ofwater systems, having a function of equalization of imbalance between
individual demand and supply.
In general, the drawbacks of decentralization are well recognized that not
only increase in number of maintenance points and but also their diffusion
consequently cause difficulty in maintenance and increase their cost andenergy consumption. This is true as far as presently available technologies
considered. However, recent information technology development enables
us to help the users to participate in the maintenance by having aninteractive guidance or on-demand professional maintenance service. Cheap
monitoring tips for various water qualities will be available in near future.
On site energy recovery as bio-gas in combination with cogeneration of city
gas-fuel cell system will also be cost competitive in small-scale in near future.
For example, an on-site advanced anaerobic treatment system of domestic
wastewater equipped with a garbage disposer is becoming promising more as
one of the best mix in the light of rational energy recovery from both

‑ 193 ‑

wastewater and solid wastes. Therefore, the bottle neck of the present
drawbacks of the decentralization will probably disappear in near future, if
proper technologies are developed and applied.
We really need R&D for the above. The following are the list of research
topics we need to comprehensively organize, although the list is still
fragmental. .
1) On-site advanced interface technologies between water system andenvironmental waters
2) Shallow groundwater management
3) Urban rainwater quality management
4) Safe-water technology and management for urban heat control
5) Public participation & user-friendly maintenance support system
6) Urban-water regeneration planning for decentralization.
The figure below shows the relation between the research topics required.
Urban Heat Management

Health Risk of
Water Circulation
on small-scale

Aerosol

MWTP renovation New
Disinfection
Tech.

ParticipatoryMaintenanceSupport
SystemEnergy recovery
coupled withsmall energy-system

Control of oligotrophs

New
Drainage
SystemUsageAdvanced wise
Treatment water
quality control

Technical Support
Service fordecentralized system

Rain

Urban Heat
Absorption

Wastewater
Organic
Solid Wastes

Advanced
Treatment

Small Industry
Rainwater
Infiltration

Ecological HealthInnovation of Existing Water Supply
地下水涵養Innovation of existing Sewage

Monitoring & Control of Health Risk of Hazardous Substances and Microorganisms

Urban Water StockManagement of Shallow Groundwater as Urban Water Stock‑ 194 ‑

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琵琶湖流域における排水管理

Kyuei Morino, Department of Lake Biwa and the Environment,
Shiga Prefecture, Japan
滋賀県琵琶湖環境部‑ 201 ‑

森野久栄

Wastewater Management in the Lake Biwa Basin
Kyuei MORINO

South-Central Regional Sewerage Office
Department of Lake Biwa and the Environment
Shiga Prefecture Government, Japan
1. Lake Biwa and the Yodo River Basin(1) Overview of the Yodo River Basin
The Yodo River originates from Lake Biwa, the largest lake in Japan. It flows toward
the south as the Seta River as it enters Otsu City in Shiga Prefecture. Continuing
toward the Kyoto Basin, it becomes the Uji River in Kyoto Prefecture. Within the Kyoto
basin, after joining the Kizu River from the south and the Katsura River from the north,
it becomes the Yodo River. The river flows to the southwest, through the Osaka Plain,
finally flowing into Osaka Bay. The Yodo River Basin is enormous, with a total
catchment area of 8,240 km2. The basin covers six prefectures; Shiga, Kyoto, Mie,Nara, Osaka and Hyogo. It has created the foundation for the development of thesociety, the economy and the culture of the entire Kinki region. Moreover, with respect
to the climate and basin condition, as compared to other Japanese rivers and lakes,
the water of Lake Biwa and the Yodo River is calm, contains abundant life and possess
an almost divine quality. The Yodo River has contributed to the prosperity of agriculture
since the Yayoi period and, since ancient times has also played an important role as awater transportation route. For many years, river improvement and irrigation
constriction activities have been promoted, thus the Yodo River has held a leading rolein the development of Japan’s water resource management.
In
general,upstream areas
tend toward agreater amountofagriculture
usage,
while
downstream
areas
are
Kyoto
utilized more forresidential,
Shiga
commercial andindustrial
purposes.
In
Hyogo
particular, sincethehigheconomic
Osaka
growth period of
the late 1960s,
the accumulation
Fig.1 Lake Biwa and the Yodo River Basinof population andindustry has progressed tremendously. Furthermore, as a result of increasing
urbanization, land usage has changed very rapidly within the suburbs of the large cities
of Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe as well as around the outskirts of Lake Biwa.
The water from Lake Biwa and the Yodo River is utilized for a variety of purposes,
such as domestic water supplies, for industrial and agricultural applications, in power
generation, for environmental usage and the other purposes. Water in the basin is used
repeatedly. It is utilized in upstream areas, such as the upper stream of the Seta Riverand in dams, then used again in the middle stream via the Lake Biwa Canal and the Uji
River, mainly as it passes through Kyoto City. The same water is again used in the1‑ 202 ‑

downstream area within the Osaka Plain. As the result, there are many sewer outlets in
upstream areas and water supply intakes are located in its downstream areas.

:W.T.P

Lake
Biwa：Intake

Kyoto

Katsura
River

Kizu
River

Yodo
River

Osaka
Bay

Osaka

Fig.2

Intake and Discharge System(2) Overview of the Lake Biwa Basin
Lake Biwa, located in the center of Shiga Prefecture, is the third oldest, after Lake
Baykal and Lake Tanganyika. Due to its 4 million year history, Lake Biwa possesses
abundant biological diversity, being habited by approximately 600 species of animals
and 500 plant species including 50 endemic ones. There are approximately 460 rivers,
ranging in size from small to large, that flow into the lake. However, the only outflows
from Lake Biwa are the Seta River and the man-made Lake Biwa Canal. It is estimatedthat the complete exchange of all water in the lake requires approximately 19 years.
Lake Biwa is a national treasure that continues to provide numerous benefits to the 14
million people in the Kinki region, supplying vital water to their households andindustries, providing an abundant source of fishery products and offering tourists andresidents alike a venue for rest and relaxation.
The catchment area of Lake Biwa encompasses 80% of the total 4,017km2 area of
Shiga Prefecture. Within Shiga Prefecture, about one half of the total land area isforests and mountains. The remaining half is apportioned into Lake Biwa itself,
agricultural lands used mainly as paddy fields and urban areas/roads. These forestsand paddy fields have been useful for conservation of Lake Biwa’s environment,
through their ability to recharge water sources, prevent sediment runoff andretain/purify water.

2‑ 203 ‑

Table 1
Overview of Lake Biwa
Shiga Prefecture Land Area
4,017 km2
Lake Biwa Catchment Area
3,174 km2
Lake Surface Area
670.25 km2
Shoreline
235.20 km
Storage Capacity
27.5 billion m3
Maximum Depth
103.58 m
Average Depth
41.20 mAverage Depth of the Northern Lake
approximately 43 m
Average Depth of the Southern Lake approximately 4 m
2. Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project(1) Overview
The Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project was launched in 1972 as anational program based on a special measures act of the Diet, and was concluded in
March 1997. The primary objectives of the project were to develop additional water
resource for the downstream region and to reduce the threat of floods in the lakeshore
areas, while preserving the natural environment of the lake and restoring a water
quality that was rapidly showing the effects of pollution. The project was a system that
integrated all water resource development projects undertaken on behalf of Lake Biwa.
The project consisted of three major areas; water utilization, flood control andconservation, and cost approximately 1,905.5 billion yen.
＜TotalC ost:１,905.5 billion yen＞

Flood control/W ater
R esource D evelopm ent
in Lake B iw a
18.5%

Fisheries 0.4％
Fishery
P ort 0.1％

N ight S oil 0.6％

C onservation
44.5%

Land Im provem ent
11.5% W ater U tilization
16.8%
Indusrtialw atre supply
0.8％

Sew erage
26.6%

R uralS ew erage 3.5％
Livestock W aste D isposal 0.1％
W aste D isposal1.1％

Flood C ontrol
W ater W orks 4.0%
20.2%
S abo
3.1%

Forset C onservation
2.1％
R eforestation 2.8％

D am
3.2%

W ater Q uality M onitoring 0.1％

R oad
11.3%

C ity P ark 0.6％
N ature P ark 0.1％
N ature C onservation 0.1％

R iver9%
P ort 0.4％

Lake B iw a C om prehensive D evelopm ent P roject

Fig.3

Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project(2) Special Financial Measures
One of the most remarkable features of the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development
Project is a special financial framework established under the act, and this framework
became the pioneering approach of the legal system for the water resource
developments in Japan.

3‑ 204 ‑

○Special Subsidies from the national government
The national government provided special subsides for various programs of the Lake
Biwa Comprehensive Development Project.
○Cost sharing of local government in river basin
The local governments in the downstream areas that benefit form water resource
development were required to share some cost for the Lake Biwa Comprehensive
Development Project implemented by Shiga Prefecture or municipalities in theprefecture. The share of local governments was determined based on the allocation
rates of the newly developed water volume (40 m3/sec), and the total amount wasapproximately 60.2 billion yen. In addition, Osaka and Hyogo Prefectures were further
requested to loan 5 billion yen to Shiga Prefecture.
○The Lake Biwa Management Fund
In order to secure the financial resource for operating, maintaining and managing
facilities regarding Lake Biwa, Shiga Prefecture was approved to establish the Lake
Biwa Management Fund. The fund was established with approximately 10 billion yen in
1997 when the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project was completed.
(3)Outcome
Various programs undertaken as Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project
have brought about improvement of infrastructures for not only the Lake Biwa Basin but
also the entire Lake Biwa and the Yodo River Basin. The flood damages were
eliminated by the construction of embankment and drainage facilities. Furthermore, due
to the various measures taken for the low water level control, damages during the
drought periods became quite less. Moreover, among 22 programs of the Project, 11
programs were concerning environmental conservation, and therefore living andnatural environment in the Lake Biwa Basin have improved tremendously. Regarding
the water quality, in spite of the population increase in the basin, the amount ofpollution loads was greatly reduced in line with the progress of sewerage developments.
The water quality of the rivers in the basin, especially, that of the rivers flowing into
Southern Lake Biwa, was improved, and also eutrophication of Lake Biwa was
suppressed.

S ew ered P opulation(%)

R iver:B O D

80

5

60
4

50
40

3

30

2

20
1

10
0

0
197 8 198 1 198 4 198 7 199 0 199 3 199 6 199 9 200 2

Fig.4

Effect of Sewage Works

4‑ 205 ‑

ＣＯＤ、ＢＯＤ（m g／ｌ）

670
S ew ered P opolation(%)

N othern L ake:C O D

3. Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation Plan (Mother Lake 21)(1)Overview
Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project succeeded in providing a more
effective utilization of the water resources of the lake and in significantly reducing flood
damage. However, achievements were much more modest in the areas ofenvironmental preservation and water quality conservation. Due to rapid economic
growth and current material consumption, the past few decades have broughttransformation of nature and culture in and around Lake Biwa. Despite active efforts toprotect the environment, the lake is constantly plagued with problems such as foulodors from tap water, freshwater red tides, outbreaks of aoko water blooms, and thedisplacement of native species by a proliferation of introduced species. Around the lake,
there are worrisome developments, such as the deterioration of the naturalenvironment and scenic landscapes, including reduction in the area of reed beds, theattached lakes, shoreline forests, farmland, and upland forests, as well as thedegradation of the natural water cycle.
Considering this situation, Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation Plan (MotherLake 21) was compiled in 2000 to pass a healthy and bountiful lake to the next
generation. Under a guiding principle “Symbiosis between Lake Biwa and the people”,
it is to develop collaboration among local people, business entities and governments.
The plan consists of three areas; 1) maintaining water quality, 2) improving therecharge capacity of the soil and 3) preserving the natural environment and scenic
landscapes.
R ed T ides

P opulation (Thousand)
1,600

A oko B lo om s

35

1,400

30
N um ber of days

1,200
1,000

800

600

25
20
15
10

400

5
200

0
19
99

20
01

19
95

19
97

19
93

19
89

19
91

19
85

19
87

19
81

19
83

19
79

19
75

19
77

19
71

19
73

19
67

19
69

19
65

19
63

19
59

19
61

19
55

19
57

1 997

1 995

1 993

1 991

1 989

1 987

1 985

1 983

Fig.6

1 981

Population in Shiga Prefecture

1 979

Fig.5

1 977

0

Water Condition in Lake Biwa

(2) Water Quality Conservation
So far, efforts to protect the quality of water in Lake Biwa have centered on point
source discharges. Emphasis has been placed on wastewater treatment in theprovision of sewerage systems and the issuing of effluent regulations from factories
and work places. Nonetheless, the water quality of Lake Biwa has not improved. The
reasons are complex, including changes in the structure of effluent runoff, increase inpollutant loads and the accumulation of nutrients in the lake.
In addition to continuing the current wastewater treatment strategy, introducing newtechnologies to upgrade the standards of treatment, we will tackle non-point sources.
Our goal is coverage of 100% in domestic wastewater treatment by the year 2010. To
do so, we intend to promote more efficient and effective uses of various facilities suchas off-site system; sewerage and on-site system; purification tank, considering theircharacters and local conditions.

5‑ 206 ‑

Table 2
Area
Maintaining
Water Quality

Objectives in the Mother Lake21 PlanFirst Stage Objectives(Year 1999 to 2010)
Restore the influent load tothat of the late 1960s

Improving the
Recharge
Capacity of
Soil

Secure an adequate areaof forests and farmland for
rainfall infiltration

Preserving the
NaturalEnvironment
and Scenic
Landscapes

Secure strategic points forcreation of networks to belinked with biotopes

Table 3

Second Stage Objectives(Until Year 2020)
Return water quality to thelevel before malodorous tap
water, freshwater red tides
and the blue-green algae
began to be commonly
observed in the late 1960s
Improve the rainfall
infiltration and hold capacityof forests and farmland

Desired State(Until Year 2050)
Water quality returned to
the level of the late 1950s

Establish a framework ofbiotope networks

Lake Biwa that presents
beautiful and uniquescenery in all four
seasons, containing avariety of living creaturesin a rich natural
ecosystem that preserves
the environment of thelake

Living together with
forests to make full use of
the natural water cycle

Water Quality in the Mother Lake21 Plan
COD

Total Nitrogen

Total Phosphorus

1.0 mg/L

0.2 mg/L

0.01 mg/L

Environmental
Standards

QualitySouthern Lake

(Year 2002)

3.3 mg/L

0.34 mg/L

0.018 mg/L

(Late 1960s)

2.0 mg/L

0.28 mg/L

0.016 mg/L

(Year 2002)

2.7 mg/L

0.25 mg/L

0.008 mg/L

(Late 1960s)

1.8 mg/L

0.22 mg/L

Current Situation

Northern Lake

The current shares of
non-pointsourceloadings
flowing into Lake Biwa, fromother land uses and nature aswell as agriculture, remain at
47% of COD, 55% of total
nitrogen, and 32% of total
phosphorous.
Therefore wewill promote measures tomaintain water quality inagriculturalareas,
while
launching full-scale measures
aimed at cutting the load fromurban areas.
Agriculture authorities intend

Fig.7 Outbreak of Aoko Water Bloom

6‑ 207 ‑

to promote “environmentally conscious agriculture (ECA)”. ECA refers to agricultural
practices in which the use of chemical inputs is reduced more than ordinal practices,
organic quality materials are properly used, and water discharge from farms is properly
managed. Agricultural products can be labeled as ECA Products if they are produced
be using chemical inputs of which the quantity is smaller than that used in the codes ofpractices by 50% or more and by reducing negative impact on Lake Biwa andenvironment. To do so, Shiga prefecture provides farmers with financial incentives
based on contracts between the Governor and farmers for implementing ECA.
River authorities intend to implement some river purification projects, including
removing sludge from lake bottom and controlling pollution loads from inflowing rivers.
When the water level is normal, river water will be purified by aquatic plants such as
reeds (vegetation purification) in lagoon areas, in consideration of the lakeshore
ecosystem as well as landscape. At the initial stage of flooding, river water is
temporarily held in a detention pond to settle pollutants and discharge only supernatant.
At the later flood stages, pollutants are naturally settled in the lagoon (flow settlement)
to reduce pollution inflow to the lake.

Fig.8

River Purification System

7‑ 208 ‑

4. Sewerage Development(1)Ultra Advanced Wastewater
In order to prevent the further eutrophication of Lake Biwa, we have adopted anadvanced treatment process in wastewater treatment plants to remove both nitrogenand phosphorus. However, the portion of the pollution load flowing into Lake Biwa fromthe plants is increasing in line with the expansion of the sewer coverage. We are now
introducing “ultra advanced treatment”. The ultra advanced process consists ofremoving total nitrogen, total phosphorus and COD. For removing total nitrogen, we
has begun to adopt a stem inflow multi-stage nitrification denitrication process in newly
constructed facilities, which showed a success in achieving target quality. The metallic
salt coagulants (PAC) are now added at the end of the biological reaction tank toremove phosphorus. In addition, coagulants will be added before the sand filtration forfurther removal. Currently COD is removed biological process and sand filter. Since
biologically undegradable components can not be removed by the above processes,
we decided to adopt a physico-chemical treatment process based on a combined
process of ozonization and biological activated carbon treatment. Experiments arebeing carried out at a pilot plant (design capacity 6,500m3/day) to establish
maintenance/operation method and confirm cost from this year.

DISTRIBUTIONTANKI NFLUENMETHANOLＰＡＣ
FINAL
SEDIMENTATIONTANKPRIMARY
EFFLUENTANOXICTANKAIROBICTANKRETURN SLUDGE

Fig.9

EXCESSSLUDGE

Ultra Advanced Treatment

Biological treatment

生物処理（ステップ流入式多段硝化脱窒法＋後脱窒段）

current
targetOXYGEN

OZONE

AIR
GASS

ＰＡＣ
OZONE
GASS

EFFLUENT
SAND FILTEROZONE REACTOR

BIOLOGICALACTIVATEDCARBON FILTER

Physico-chemical treatment

物理化学処理（砂ろ過＋オゾン酸化＋生物活性炭処理）8‑ 209 ‑

COD
6mg/l
3mg/l

T-N
6mg/l
3mg/l

T-P
0.05mg/l
0.02mg/l

(2)Purification of storm water in urban areas
In sewerage sector, weintend to tackle non-point
source loadings, especiallyurban runoff. Urban drainage
purification facility to treat
storm water in Yamadera river
basin was constructed lastSeptember. Drainage area (80ha) is located in Kusatsu,
collecting first flush of rainfall(6mm). This facility consists ofstorage, sedimentation, contactoxidation,
vegetation
purification and soil purification.
The sludge generated instorage and sedimentation tankisdischarged
tothewastewater treatment plantFig.10 Yamadera Purification Facilty
through a sanitary sewer.
Neighboring citizens are involved in this project from planning stage. A council by the
citizens, scholars and civil servants was set up to investigate the design. Currently
vegetation purification facility is maintained by the citizens, and this facility will beutilized as public environment education.
Design Influent
Quality(Removal Ratio)
Facilities

Table 4
Overview of Yamadera Purification Facility
COD
12 mg/l (70%)
T-N
4 mg/l (70%, in Winter 40%)T-P
1.2 mg/l (80%)
Storage and Sedimentation 5tanks W12 m x L24 m x H 4.5 m
Volume: 7,200 m3
Contact Oxidation
3tanks W0.5 m x L144 m x H1.2 m
Vegetation purification
4ponds W7m x L20 m x H0.5 m( Hydroponics type,2ponds W9m x L20 m x H0.5 m
Filter media type )16channel
W1m x L25 m x H0.6 m
Plants: Watercress, Mint, etc
Soil purification
4tanks W10 m x L20 m x H1.6 m
Filter media: Akadama SoilFig.11

Flowchart of Facility

9‑ 210 ‑

Table 5

Descriptions and Design Removal Ratio of Each Facility

StorageandSedimentation

Hydroponics

4.0m

640m /day/tank

320m /day/pond

Retention time

12hours2hours40minutes

45

30

30

-

70

(45)

(-)

(-)

( 50 )( 70 )

DesignT-N

Ratio(%)
T-P
)

3

3

60minutes

24hours

3

40

20

30

-

70

(-)

(-)

(-)

( 40 )

55

20

35

-

80

(55)

(-)

(-)

( 50 )( 80 )

140

270

150

Influent W ater
25.0
Storage andSedim entation
Contact
O xidation
Vegetation(Hydroponics)
Vegetation(Filter m edia)
Soil purification

80
60
40

COD

20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0

20

0.0

0
O ct. 24, '03

Nov. 25, '03

Feb. 3, '04

T-N

0.8

4.0

O ct. 24, '03

Nov. 25, '03

Feb. 3, '04

Oct. 24, '03

Nov. 25, '03

F eb. 3, '04

T-P

0.6

3.0

T-P [m g/L]

T-N[m g/L]

1.0m
75m /day/tank3

winter season

SS

5.0

0.2m
120m /day/channel(40)

COD[m g/L]

(

0.05m

Total

10m /s3

1.0m

Soil purification

Filter media

Volume of flow

RemovalS S [m g/L]

Vegetation purification

Oxidation

Effective depth

COD

100

Contact

2.0

0.4

0.2

1.0
0.0

0.0
O ct. 24, '03

Nov. 25, '03

Fig.12

F eb. 3, '04

Results of Monitoring ( Removal Efficiency )Table 6Max.
Influent WaterMin.
(mg/l)Ave.
Max.
Treated WaterMin.
(mg/l)
Ave.
Removal Ratio (%)

Results of Monitoring
SS
COD
270
22.0
10
4.1
112
11.0
9.0
4.1
0.6
2.0
3.8
3.2
97
71

10
‑ 211 ‑

T-N
4.10
0.95
2.16
1.30
0.66
0.99
54

T-P
0.570
0.065
0.288
0.098
0.030
0.061
79

Monitoring was conducted from September to March, 2003 to clarify removal ratio.
Descriptions and design removal ratio of each facility are summarized in table 5.
Results of monitoring is Fig.12, Table 6. Compared to design, the ratio for COD issatisfied, but those for T-N and T-P are less than expected. In winter, soil purification is
utilized, considering the low purification ability of vegetation. Since this monitoring isbased on only six cases, further cases are necessary to be monitored on various
rainfall patterns and seasons.

5. Conclusion
Due to recent drastic change related to infrastructure development, such as severe
financial difficulties and globalization, the efficiency, cooperation among each sector,
accountability and public involvement in public works are required. Therefore it isessential to not only provide citizens with relevant information but also think most of
public opinions in the sewerage strategies including development plans and the cost
sharing. In March 2003, the third World Water Forum was held in Kyoto, Shiga andOsaka to clarify concrete actions for addressing global water problems. In the
Ministerial Declaration titled “Message from the Lake Biwa and Yodo River Basin”, thefive themes mentioned to be resolved begin with “Water Resources Management andBenefit Sharing”. In short, it clearly declares that all stakeholders should be participatedin the process of developing integrated water resources management and water
efficiency plans.
Measures to conserve Lake Biwa, the vital water source for the Kinki region, should
be considered in the context of the watershed management. In other words,
considerations should be taken not only for the surrounding area of the lake but also forits downstream areas. We think that it is necessary to decide how to develop
wastewater management, including advanced wastewater treatment and non-point
sources loads control, from the broad viewpoint of the Lake Biwa and the Yodo River
Basin, taking public opinions into account.
References
1) Organizing Committee of the 9th International Conference on the Conservation andManagement of Lakes (2001), Society and the Water Environment of Lake Biwa
and the Yodo River Basin
2) Shiga Prefecture (2000), Mother Lake 21 Plan
3) Shiga Prefecture (2003), Rivers in Shiga4) Shiga Prefecture (2001), Lake Biwa Sewerage System

11‑ 212 ‑

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Watershed Management
流域管理

James Hanlon, U.S.EPA
米国環境保護庁

ジェームズ・ハンロン‑ 217 ‑

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Investigations on Economic Efficiency and Cost Sharing for
Watershed Management in Japan
流域管理のための経済効率性と費用負担に関する検討

Toshiaki Yoshida, National Institute for Land and InfrastructureManagement, MLIT, Japan
国土技術政策総合研究所‑ 221 ‑

吉田敏章

INVESTIGATIONS ON ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY AND COST SHARINGFOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN JAPANToshiaki Yoshida* and Osamu Fujiki**
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Government of Japan

ABSTRACTThis paper describes the efforts to utilize economic instruments such as trading and taxation inwater quality management field in Japan. We discuss the issues and introduce them, mainly basedon Study Committee held by MLIT. Regulation has been common in environmental policy in Japan.
However, economic efficiency in administration take attention and several trials are going on.
Especially, trading among wastewater treatment plants seems relatively feasible in terms of steadyflow and similar players. The investigated and designed system is rather centralized, considering
financing on a watershed basis, covering only wastewater treatment plants. This seems to be adisadvantage of the system, but this has a chance to involve other point and nonpoint sources
through this adjustment system. A case study, targeting the watershed of Tokyo Bay, was conducted,
which revealed over 30% cost saving is attained. This result is certainly based on an ideal andsimple situation, but the system certainly saves the abatement cost and worth while considering
positively. Hot spots were not found in the case study. This system should be positively considered
because it is not only effective in a monetary way but also promote better management of sewerage
works, better information system and public involvement.
KEYWORDS
Economic incentive, Cost sharing, Watershed management, Wastewater management

INTRODUCTION
Command and control has been a popular method in environmental management. However, though
the compliance of the regulation prevailed, still there remains many water bodies incompliance of
the water quality standards. Recently, economic tools such as tradable permit systems are capturing
attention in the field of environment for efficiency. The United States is vigorous in adoption of
trading, while some European countries utilize taxation in environment issues. It may be time thatJapan initiates economical instruments in a positive fashion.
Under this turning point of social changes, administrative governments should take considerationsin economic tools in order to minimize the cost and seek for the better environment. Actually, the*Researcher, Wastewater System Division, Water Quality Control Department, National Institute for Land andInfrastructure Management, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Government of Japan
Address: Asahi 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0804, Japan
Phone: +81-29-864-3343, Fax: +81-29-864-2917, Email: yosida-t92e5@nilim.go.jp**

Director for Watershed Management, Sewerage and Wastewater Management Department, City and Regional
Development Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Government of Japan
Address: Kasumigaseki 2-1-3, Chiyoda, Tokyo 100-8918, Japan
Phone: +81-3-5253-8431, Fax: +81-3-5253-1596, Email: fujiki-o2iv@mlit.go.jp‑ 222 ‑

adoption of the introduction of the economic tools is provided in the law1. Recent recommendations
by relevant council or committees provide that wastewater management should adopt economic
tools in an aggressive manner. However, wastewater management system, which evolves over
several decades and the roles are shared by several government systems, is rather complex together
with many players and rules, whether the systems are prescribed by laws or not.
In this paper, based on the discussion and the simulations of Study Committee held by MLIT, thepossible effectiveness of the proposed system is shown. The traditional system is also commented
with the comparison.
CURRENT SITUATION OF WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
The basic of water quality management in Japan is to set environmental goals as WQSs2 of public
water areas3, and to limit effluent standards of direct dischargers. National effluent standards are
relatively lax, and prefectural standards are set on a local basis by prefectures, which are effective
for most cases. Unlike TMDL (Total Maximum Daily Loads), this does not strictly seek forattainment of WQSs (Water Quality Standards), but is set in consideration of the feasibility oftreatment technology. Effluent standards are still prevalent in Japan, and this does not entail permit
system.
Watershed management is a key word for holistically addressing water-related issues in general.
Particularly, this approach is needed in sewerage administration because local authorities
conducting sewage works are apt to focus on their own benefits alone, leaving public welfare
beyond their administrative boundaries. The concept is as follows; administrative systems are basedon human boundaries, but as natural phenomena occur on a watershed, so the issues should be dealt
with. SWMS (2003) gives the definition of "the Approach to Watershed Management" as follows
and pointed out the need; "bringing together sewerage managers in the basin, tying them up
extensively with other bodies including local citizens and businesses, and among those stakeholders,(i) sharing a common concept and purpose, (ii) sharing the risks and the burdens required to reduce
them, and (iii) while reducing overall risks and burdens to the minimum, promoting theachievement of common objectives via co-operation." In order to address water-related issues
including water pollution, this issue must be identified as a common problem for local governments
and citizens/businesses in the basin, and a variety of efforts such as wastewater treatment must be
mobilized effectively.
Two current watershed approaches in Japan are (a) Total Pollution Control, and (b) CBPSS(Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning for Sewerage Systems). Total Pollution Control is in the
charge of Ministry of the Environment, which is above the scope of this paper. As compared withother water administrations, a sewerage administration strongly suggests the necessity of "thewatershed management approach", because sewerage managers are all local authorities. One river
basin generally has plural municipalities, and the benefit of sewage works spreads over wider area
beyond administrative boundaries. The constituents in TPC are COD4, TN, and TP. The possible
constituents are BOD in rivers, and COD, TN (total nitrogen) and TP (total phosphorus) in lakes
and coastal waters.
In light of economics5, there are not any major economic instruments adopted in the management in
1

Article 22 of Basic Environmental Law
Environmental Quality Standards, inclusive of WQSs, are provided by Article 16 of Basic Environment Law.
3
In legal and administrative areas, the term "public water areas" is used in Japan as "navigable waters" in the UnitedStates.
4
In water quality management in Japan, CODMn is employed instead of CODCr.
5
Generally, the environmental standard has three types: technology-based, ambient-based, and benefit-based standards.
2‑ 223 ‑

Japan. Subsidy to wastewater management sector, industrial firms, and agricultural sectors play nota little part in the management. Also, many indirect measures have been taken such as water quality
fees on indirect large dischargers. However, it can be said that they are not major tools to make adirect contribution to ambience water quality. Financing and subsidy is related to cost sharing.
Almost no vigorous attempts are seen for watershed management. In response, it was determinedthat cost allocation should also be studied for sharing the total cost appropriately among
stakeholders in the basin including the application of economic instruments6, and it was proposedthat cost-sharing in the whole basin should be considered from the viewpoints of the responsibilities
of both dischargers and beneficiaries in order to efficiently achieve the WQSs in basin units7.
CBPSS typifies the watershed management approaches in Japanese administration. CBPSSs, upper
level plans of sewage works plans, were formulated to implement sewage works projects mosteffectively which are required to attain WQSs in target public water areas. Prefectures formulate
CBPSSs of public water areas which suffer water pollution by sanitary sewage from two or more
municipalities and whose WQSs need to be attained mainly through sewage works8. 126 CBPSSs
had been formulated as of the end of August, 2003 (MLIT (2003)). The CBPSSs' image and items
to be considered and specified are shown in Figure-1. In this plan, pollution loads are estimated ona watershed basis, and allowable loads are determined so that WQS of the target public water bodycan be attained in a target year. Load reductions, future loads minus allowable loads, are allocatednot only to POTWs but also to other pollution sources such as urban and agricultural areas, while
natural loads such as forests, plains and rain are in principle not taken into account for load
reductions. Load reduction is often allocated in such a manner that all point sources have the sameload reduction ratio. However, the focusing target is the sewage works section, and there are
actually no legal guarantees whatsoever for any point sources other than POTWs even though load
reductions are allocated to them in CBPSSs.
B 県より BOD 負荷

BOD loadfrom Pref. B●●ｔ／日Village
Ｃ町
C

Pref.
B
B 県

Pref.
A
A県
POTW
Ｔ

City
D

D市

City
E

E市

○○川

River X

POTW
Ｔ

Items to be specified-- Basic policy on sewerage projects-- Matters regarding treatment areas-- Matters regarding the location, structure andfunctions of the basic sewerage facilities-- Prioritization of undertaking sewerage projects

目標水質
WQS:
BOD -mg/l
BOD □□ｍｇ/ｌ

Land
陸域

目標水質
WQS:
COD -mg/l

Items to be considered-- Topography, precipitation, river flow, and othernatural conditions-- Prospect of land uses-- Prospect of uses in public water areas concerned-- Prospect of quantity and quality of sanitary sewage-- Situation of the locality where effluent isdischarged-- Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of sewerage projects

Water
水域

ＣOD ■■ｍｇ/ｌ

Figure 1. CBPSSs' Image and Items to Be Considered and Specified

In case a target watershed covers two or more prefectures, a conference is to be held for theco-ordination on the allocation of load reduction to prefectures concerned. A relevant prefectural
government is supposed to have this conference with MLIT as well as the other relating prefectural
governments. On the basis of reached consensus, draft CBPSS is submitted to MLIT, which thengives the approval to the prefecture's request after discussing the proposed plan with the Ministry of
6

Action Plan for Tokyo Bay Renaissance
the Council of Decentralization Reform (2002)
8
The requirement of CBPSSs is provided by Article 2-2 of Sewerage Law and Article 2 of Enforcement Ordinance ofSewerage Law.
7

‑ 224 ‑

the Environment. That is, agreement must be reached between the relevant prefectures regarding theload reduction before formulation of CBPSS in each prefecture. The agreement is basically made on"allowable loads" which enable the public water bodies to achieve WQS. Regional bureau of MLIT
plays an important role in co-ordination among prefectures, taking fairness and efficiency into
account, on the basis of the simulation of pollution load and water quality. After allocation of load
reductions regarding sewerage to prefectures concerned, each prefectural government allocates its
own portion to POTWs. These allocations are often made so that all POTWs can have the same
effluent quality. However, some prefectural governments allocate more load reductions tolarge-scale POTWs than to small-scale ones. Allowable load of each Prefecture is allocated inproportion to future loads on the assumption that sewered areas are 100% and that every POTW has
secondary treatment. It is that a sort of equity is put emphasis on and efficiency is not considered.
Table-1 shows various loads set in CBPSS of Tokyo Bay9, which covers four Prefectures: Saitama,
Chiba, Tokyo, and Kanagawa. Allowable loads are set to achieve WQSs of Tokyo Bay. Figure-2
shows the countermeasures and allocation of load reductions. Table-2 shows the result of theallocation among Prefectures.
Table 2. Allocation of Allowable Loads to
Prefectures in CBPSS of Tokyo Bay

Table 1. Loads Set in CBPSS of Tokyo Bay
COD

TN

TP

Future Load

326

405

26.0

Allowable Load

218

220

10.5

Load Reduction
Load Reduction
by Sewerage

108

185

15.5

66

174

14.1

Note. Unit is t/day.

Saitama Pref.
Chiba Pref.
Tokyo Pref.
Kanagawa Pref.
Other areas
Total

COD
41
68
56
27
26

TN
38
54
73
30
25

TP
1.7
3.3
3.5
1.3
0.7

218

220

10.5

Note. Unit is t/day. "Other areas" are three northern
prefectures above the four Prefectures, from which
pollution loads also come into Tokyo Bay via Tone River.

Total (108) Land-based (83)

Sewerage (66) Sanitary sewage (53)

Stormwater (13)Others than sewerage (17)the Bay (25)Note. Unit is t/day.

Enlarge sewered area (4)Advanced treatment (short-term) (7)Advanced treatment (long-term) (42)Control of CSOs and discharge fromstorm sewers (13)[Resident] on-site treatment (7)[Industry] wastewater treatment (3)[Stockbreeding] wastewater treatment (1)[Tourism] on-site treatment (0)[NPSs: forest, fields, etc.] (6)Figure 2. Allocation of COD Load Reductions in CBPSS of Tokyo Bay

CBPSS is a watershed management, ambience-based approach incorporating load allocation, but noeconomic instruments, also lack in consideration of cost-sharing. This lack of financing issues is an
impediment to a reliable implementation of the plan. Financial institutions should be considered toadequately implement the plan for a more effective watershed management. Under the current
system, cost for advanced treatment of each POTW is paid by each local government. Thus,
cost-sharing and financing, together with load allocation, should be discussed to seek for a more
effective watershed management. According to Fujiki (2003a), regarding financial resources, in
9

In 1997, the committee of CBPSS of Tokyo Bay reached the consensus of load settings and allocations among the four
prefectures concerned: Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo and Kanagawa Prefectures.

‑ 225 ‑

principle discharger is responsible for treating wastewater, that is, the users of sewage works must
pay the cost. After allocation of allowable loads in the formulating process of CBPSS, each POTW
is subject to command and control. Though national subsidy is still large financial source for a local
government, there are practically no considerations on watershed-based financing. The national
government and local public bodies pay a certain proportion of the necessary expenses, taking into
account the objectives of sewage works projects, the national policy that people should receive
equal sewerage services, the fact that the construction of sewerage system requires a large
investment which is a major burden on the local public body concerned, and the fact that thesewerage system has external economic impacts on other industrial and social fields. As foradvanced treatment, the expenses might be paid by the private firms or residents who areresponsible for the treatment at the ultimate stage based on PPP (Polluter Pays Principle) under thestrengthened water quality regulation10. In principle, if there is pollution right, beneficiaries should
pay for that. If there is a PPP, then polluters have to pay. In light of beneficiaries, the study was
conducted using CVM (Contingent Valuation Method) in the watershed of Tokyo Bay. Takaso andKatagiri (2002) shows that the willingness to pay does not decline relatively with the distance toTokyo Bay (Figure-3). This indicates the cost for the protection of Tokyo Bay should be allocatedamong all entities in the watershed. Furthermore, Matsui and Harada (2003) shows that costshould be shared among all in PI (Public Involvement) questionnaire (Figure-4). This result
reinforces the indication.
0

200

400

600

800

1,000

Choice A: People living downstream should pay
because they are beneficiaries.

0-5km
5-10ｋｍChoice B: People polluting waters should pay
because it is their responsibility.

11-30ｋｍ

Choice C: All the people living in the basin should
fairly pay, setting common fund for example.
A (6%)

31kmWTP (yen/month/household)

Mean
825

Figure 3. WTP for Tokyo Bay Water Quality
Categorized by Distance to Tokyo Bay

B (16%)

No answer (9%)
C (16%)

Figure 4. People's Opinions on "Who Should Pay
for Clean Ambient Water?"

EXAMINATIONS ON LOAD ADJUSTMENT SYSTEM
In fiscal 2002 and 2003, MLIT set up Study Committee on Water Quality Trading between Sewage
Treatment Plants (hereafter referred to as Committee), in order to investigate economic instruments
and cost sharing methods of water quality control on a watershed basis. Committee is composed ofacademics and experts on this issue, and national and local government officials in sewerageplanning or managing sections, to reflect each point of views11. Considering the Japanese current
administrative system, Committee investigated the above and designed one system that may beincorporated into CBPSS. Especially three elements were considered in the investigation anddesign: efficiency, equity, and incentives. It also covered a case study of the watershed of Tokyo
Bay to quantify the system's effectiveness and to identify hot spots12, which is described in the
10 On the other hand, the cost of draining stormwater is paid by the local governments similar to the cost of flood

control, in other words, is paid from taxes.
The authors were involved in Committee, though not committee members.
12
Emissions trading, or load adjustment in this case, could cause locally deteriorated sections even when dischargers
are brought under control. Such sections are called hot spots.
11‑ 226 ‑

following chapter.
The designed system, called the load adjustment system, is to seek for economic efficiency,
equitable cost sharing, and economic incentives, by adjusting pollution loads among POTWs on awatershed basis. In this system, an allowable load of each POTW in a watershed is determined sothat the cost for achieving WQS of a target public water area can be minimised. The difference
between the allowable load and the base line of pollution loads is reflected in receiving or paying
money, which is called adjustment. Incidentally, allowable loads have to meet a minimum
requirement such as secondary treatment, ensuring technology standards. This is designed to makesure the total cost of water quality control is shared among local governments, which areresponsible for POTWs, in a watershed, considering equities. Initial allocation is critical in cost
sharing and equity. Economic incentives are preserved in institution establishment. For adjustment,a foundation will be established to administer money from and to local governments or national
government, the national government can provide a financial assistance to adjust demand andsupply or other reasons. This can be incorporated into CBPSSs in a planning stage. Furthermore,environmental benefits are expected as discrete options are available instead of continuous. Also,
this sound and rational financing is expected to promote stable implementation of the plans(CBPSSs). In the early phase of the discussion by Committee, water quality trading was positively
considered as an economic instrument. However, Committee shifted its emphasis from adecentralised system to a centralised one. It is in part because transaction costs are too high as
general, and Japan has not experienced emissions trading in environmental management. The
experiences in European countries were consulted, where effluent tax/charge and subsidy are
utilized in water quality management on a watershed basis13.
In order to materialise the above system, the two types are designed in Committee (Figure 5). In
Type I, each local government is given its base line, which could be an initial allocation in water
quality trading. This is made in consideration into equity for example the same average cost as wellas to achieve WQSs on a watershed. Each POTW pays a share or receives a dividend proportionallyto the excess over or reduction under its base line. To balance the cash flow, a lack in Foundation
comes from the finance of national government. In Type II, local governments pay shareproportionally to pollutant loads, and local governments who reduce loads by advanced treatment
receive money from the Foundation proportionally to load reduction by advanced treatment. The
rate of dividend or share is determined to balance the cash flow. If dividend is partially given to
local governments, say some portion of collected share, there is no need of national government.
However, national government can provide assistance to promote or so. One advantage of Type II isthere is no need to establish a base line. The simplified mathematical model is shown in Appendix.

13

France is a typical example.

‑ 227 ‑

National Government

National Government

AssistanceDividend

AssistanceDividend

Share

Foundation

Reduction byadvanced treatment

ExcessBase line (=Initial allocation)

Share

Foundation

Reduction

Pollution load

Pollution load

Pollution load

Base line

Local Government A(With advanced treatment)

Local Government B(Without advanced treatment)

Local Governments
TYPE IITYPE I: Money flow

: Formulation of CBPSS

Figure 5. Structures of Two Types of Load Adjustment System

In light of equity, the base line setting is critical to cost sharing. In either type, the total cost is thesame, but cost distributions are different. Basically, the adjustment is just to seek for a cost
minimization. In most cases under the current administrative system, uniform reduction ratio is
imposed to each POTW, which is thought to be equitable in a sense. However, if net average costdefined by Equations 1 and 2, instead of reduction ratio, is employed as an index for equity, asystem with less dispersion of the index is more preferable. Appendix shows that net average costs
are less dispersed in Type II than in Type I.
Net cost = Cost for advanced treatment + share - dividend
Net cost
Net average cost =Effluent volume

(1)
(2)

Though this system limits its target dischargers to POTWs in order to ensure viability (Figure 6), it
can have a possibility to cover other pollution sources for better water quality management.
Exclusion of the other pollution sources from the system reduces the economic efficiency. It comesfrom the current situation both in difficulty in quantification of NPS loads and in the complex
administrations in governmental organizations, legal issues and other conventional things.
Considering these difficulties, feasibility could lie only in each section. Thus, the system was
proposed in a feasible fashion, by limiting the players to POTWs. However, this challenging system
could make a breakthrough for unification of comprehensive water management without
administrative boundaries. One way is to lower a base line of local government14, which undertakesome pollution abatement projects in co-ordination with other entities such as agricultural sectors.
The load reduction of the other projects can be set as equivalent to the gap of base line. This is tocreate economic incentives for a better water quality. Type II is more suitable than Type I when NPS
is covered by the system (Appendix).
PS

POTWs

Residents
Firms

Firms
NPS
Direct dischargers

Indirect dischargers

Figure 6. Target Sources of Load Adjustment System
14

The concept of CDM and JI in Kyoto Mechanism is consulted.

‑ 228 ‑

Local issues may affect this load adjustment system as each local government considers not only
the target public water area but also the local benefit. Load reductions contribute to local ambient
water quality as well as large-scale public water areas. Some local governments may promoteadvanced treatment for reclamation of wastewater, and this level of treatment is more stringent thanthe load adjustment system expects. As a result, the marginal cost for each POTW is not equal, andefficiency is lost to some extent. It is shown that local governments with a local benefit from its
load reduction promote more advanced treatment in Type II than in Type I (Appendix). At the sametime, economic efficiency is lost more in Type II than in Type I.
Other than cost saving and possible load reduction, this load adjustment system could have someadvantages. The first could be to provide impetus to better management system of POTWs. The
load adjustment system takes more attention than the conventional administrative system since it isdirectly related to cost sharing and the related information is critical. Thus, better management
system is required for POTWs' managers. Secondly, the system could promote public involvement
and better decision making because it may affect wastewater fees. Lastly, it could create researchneed for loads quantification such as NPS studies and simulation models. These advantages may beconsidered in a favourable way for the introduction.
CASE STUDY OF LOAD ADJUSTMENT SYSTEM
In order to estimate the effectiveness of the load adjustment system and to check whether hot spots
occur, a case study was conducted through Committee. The watershed of Tokyo Bay was targeted.
The adopted system is the same as Committee investigated, but types are not specified because
types do not largely affect the result. In a practical calculation, Type I is selected. The base lines are
the same as the current CBPSS designates. Local conditions are neglected, and each local
government makes a decision to get the efficiency by the target water quality. Adjustable loads aredifference between allocated loads and the loads of secondary treatment or the current effluent level,
so the minimum requirement is secondary treatment. Target dischargers are seventy-five POTWs in
the watershed. The map and the profile of Tokyo Bay are shown in Figure 7. Flow chart of thissimulation is demonstrated in Figure 8. Seawater simulation was conducted to identify hot spots.
Set rate
Calculate cost of each
option for each POTW
Select the least cost option
for each POTW

Watershed of Tokyo Bay
Watershed area: 8,000 km2
Population: 26 million people
POTWs: 75 (designated in CBPSS)
Profiles of Tokyo Bay
Surface area: 1,380 km2
Water volume: 18.3 km3Detention time: 1.6 months

Totalize selling and buying
loads

Tokyo
Bay

No

Selling is equal to or
larger than buying.
Yes
Calculate payment by
Foundation: POTWs

No
20km

Figure 7. Map and Profile of Tokyo Bay and Its Watershed‑ 229 ‑

Payment of Foundation
is minimized.

Yes
End

Figure 8. Flow chart of Simulation

Other assumptions are as follows; (i) Constituents to be adjusted: COD, TN, and TP, independently,(ii) five options are set as in Table 3. (iii) Cost is assessed on an annualized basis, which consists ofannualized construction cost plus maintenance cost. Annualized construction cost is calculated by
Equation 3, (iv) completion of secondary treatment is assumed for all the POTWs, (v) the base line
for adjustment is assumed to be the same as the allocation of allowable load targets to prefectures
regarding CBPSS of Tokyo Bay, and (vi) Target year: 2012. Data were collected from the report of
CBPSSs, supplemented by questionnaires to local governments concerned.
Table 3. Options for Advanced Treatment
Options

Treatment processes

Level 1

Activated sludge process
Anaerobic-anoxic-oxic process + Sand filtration
Step-feed biological nitrogen removal process + Coagulant
Entrapping immobilization nitrification-denitrification process + Coagulant
Advanced oxidation ditch process + Coagulant
Activated sludge process + Coagulant
Oxidation ditch process + Coagulant
Bardenpho process + Sand filtration
Bardenpho process
Bardenpho process + Sand filtration + Activated carbon

Level 2-1

Level 2-2
Level 3-1
Level 3-2

Annualized construction cost = Construction cost ×

Effluent (mg/l)
COD
TN
TP
20
22
2.5
9.6
9
0.4
10
7.5
0.5
10
10
0.5
10
10
0.5
12
22
0.5
12
22
0.5
8
3
0.2
8.2
4.5
0.4
4.4
2.6
0.2

i (1 + i ) n(1 + i ) n − 1(3)⎧15years (apparatus) 16
15
where Discount rate: i = 2.1% , and Useful life: n = ⎨⎩50 years (facilities)

The results of the simulation are shown in Table 4, 5, and 6. The load adjustment system isestimated to save 31% of the advanced treatment costs in total (Table 5), and also to reduce 19% of
COD, 2% of TN, and 2% of TP in total (Table 6). The equilibrium rates of water quality
constituents are 0, 959, and 5,335 yen/kg (Table 4). Zero of COD's rate indicates the adjustment of
only TN and TP enables enough COD's reduction. When costs of POTWs are added up in eachprefecture, only Saitama Prefecture incurred increased cost with the system. This meant the otherprefectures did not have to undertake as much advanced treatment in each prefecture as without thesystem. Saitama Prefecture paid 4,837 million yen/year to the foundation, and the others received
some amount from the foundation. The difference 1,519 million yen/year comes from the national
government. In the end, all the four prefectures enjoyed plus cost saving with the system.
Table 4. Equilibrium Rates in Simulation
COD

TN
0

TP
959

5,335

Note. Unit is yen/kg.

15

2.1% was selected as an interest rate of a national government loan in July 2002.
Useful life of sewerage facilities is specified in Memorandum No. 77 dated June 19, 2003 of Sewerage Works
Division, Sewerage and Wastewater Management Department, City and Regional Development Bureau, MLIT
"Regarding Reconstruction of Sewerage Facilities."16‑ 230 ‑

Table 5. Result of Costs in Case Study
Cost without
systemCost withsystemShare Dividend

Net cost

Saitama Pref.
Chiba Pref.
Tokyo Pref.
Kanagawa Pref.

14,114
13,06328,538
10,20015,618
7,680
15,921
6,573-4,837
315
1,531
1,473

10,781
7,995
17,452
8,046

Total

65,91645,792-1,51944,273

Cost saving ratio
Real
Net
-11%
24%
41%
39%
44%
39%
36%
21%
31%

33%

Note. Unit in cost is million yen/year.

Prefecture

Saitama Pref.
Chiba Pref.
Tokyo Pref.
Kanagawa Pref.

Subwatershed

Table 6. Result of Loads in Case Study

Ara RiverNaka River
Shingashi River
Tama River
Tsurumi River
Chiba coastal

Total

Loads without system
COD
TN
TP

Loads with system
COD
TN
TP

Load reduction ratio
COD
TN
TP

41,85826,043
71,99029,67018,67527,27759,151
16,74828,38519,325
169,561

32,74819,294
61,771
22,896
17,562
19,99947,383
16,116
21,401
14,248
136,709

22%
26%
14%
23%
6%
27%
20%
4%
25%
26%
19%

37,73321,642
63,312
24,727
19,381
23,07049,24916,01423,656
16,044147,41

2,236
1,101
3,165
1,238
1,247
1,225
2,464
799
1,184
821
7,741

26,65624,02465,541
27,857
19,564
16,95644,404
19,47325,21018,471
144,078

1,743
835
3,550
1,432
1,372
914
2,193
1,030
1,375
676
7,560

29%
-11%
-4%
-13%
-1%
27%
10%
-22%
-7%
-15%
2%

22%
24%
-12%
-16%
-10%
25%
11%
-29%
-16%
18%
2%

Note. Unit in load is kg/day.

Table 6 shows some subwatersheds were expected to have 22% increase of TN loads and 29%
increase of TP loads at maximum. However, seawater simulation demonstrated that no significant
adverse changes in seawater quality were found to occur. Some adjustment confinement such asprefectures or sub-watershed boundaries did not have to be established.
The dispersion of net average costs in two types is shown in Figure 9. Apparently from Figure 9,
net average costs are less dispersed in Type II than in Type I, and the case without the system has
the most dispersed distribution. The standard deviation of each type is 7.2, 4.7, 2.3 yen/m3.

‑ 231 ‑

50

Without
adjustment

Net処理水量あたり純費用
average cost (yen/m3)

40Type I30

Type II

20

現行方式
タイプⅠ

10
タイプⅡ

0

-10
0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

処理水量
m3/日
Effluent
volume(m3/day)

Net cost = Cost for advanced treatment + share - dividend
Net average cost = Net cost / Effluent volume

Figure 9. Dispersion of Net Average Cost in Two Types

CONCLUSIONSThe current administrative system should be improved in terms of efficiency, incentives, and equity
on a watershed basis.
“Load adjustment system” is examined and designed to reflect the above three elements in
Committee.
Case study, targeting Tokyo Bay, showed that the maximum cost saving was over 30%, and thatsome load reductions were also estimated with no hot spots.
The load adjustment system should be favourable considered also due to other advantages such as
better management of POTWs.

REFERNECE
Action Plan for Tokyo Bay Renaissance. (In Japanese)
The Council of Decentralization Reform (2002) "Opinions on Businesses and Enterprises - towards
an Autonomous, Self-governing Local Community". (in Japanese)
Fujiki, O. (2003a) 'Sewage Works Development in Japan', Proceedings of 2nd Japan-U.S.
Governmental Conference on Drinking Water Quality Management and Wastewater Control, 45-58.
Fujiki, O. (2003b) 'Watershed Management Approach in Sewage Works', Proceedings of 9th
Japanese-German Workshop on Waste Water and Sludge Treatment, 101-110.
Matsui, H. and Harada, I. (2003) 'Public Involvement in Sewage Works', Proceedings of the 40th
Annual Technical Conference of Sewage Works, Japan Sewage Works Association, 271-273. (inJapanese)
MLIT (2003) "Sewerage and Wastewater Management in Japan", Sewerage and Wastewater‑ 232 ‑

Management Department, City and Regional Development Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure
and Transport, Government of Japan. (in Japanese)
MLIT, Japan Sewage Works Association, and Association of Water and Sewage Works Consultants
Japan (2004) "Research Report of Water Quality Trading between Sewage Treatment Plants". (inJapanese)
SWMS (2003) "The Policy Concept of Sewerage Construction/Management and Watershed
Management", the Sewerage and Watershed Management Subcommittee, the Urban Planning andHistorical Landscape Section of the Social Infrastructure Council of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport. (in Japanese)
Takaso, T. and Katagiri, A. (2002) 'Measurement of Tokyo Bay's benefit by introducing advanced
treatment and others', Proceeding of the 39th Annual Technical Conference of Sewage Works, Japan
Sewage Works Association, 299-301. (in Japanese)

ACRONYMS
BOD: Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CBPSS: Comprehensive Basin-wide Plan(ning) of Sewerage Systems
COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand
CVM: Contingent Valuation Method
MLIT: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Government of Japan
NPS: Nonpoint Source
POTW: Publicly Owned Treatment Work
PI: Public Involvement
PPP: Polluter Pays Principle
TMDL: Total Maximum Daily Load
TN: Total Nitrogen
TP: Total Phosphorus
TPC: Total Pollution Control
WTP: Willingness To Pay
WQS: Water Quality Standard
APPENDIX: The Simplified Mathematical Model of Load Adjustment System
It is assumed that a target watershed has n POTWs, that m constituents loads of water quality are
adjusted, and that loads from POTWs are continuous though available options generally make them
discrete. Definitions of terms are as follows.
qi: Effluent volume of POTW i,xi,k: Constituent k load which POTW i discharges,
xi: Comprehensive load index of POTW i,
Li,k: Initial allocation of constituent k load to POTW i in Type I,
Li: Initial allocation of comprehensive load index to POTW i in Type I,
Xk: Allowable constituent k load in a watershed,
si: Cost which advanced treatment of POTW i locally yields (a function of xi),
ci: Cost of advanced treatment by POTW i,
yi: Net cost which POTW i incurs,
C: Cost of advanced treatment plant by all the POTWs in a watershed,
Y: Net cost which all the POTWs in a watershed incur,‑ 233 ‑

α k : Rate of share/dividend regarding constituent k in Type I (unit: yen/kg),

α : Rate of share/dividend regarding comprehensive load index in Type I (unit: yen/kg),
β k : Rate of share regarding constituent k in Type II (unit: yen/kg), andg: Ratio of all the dividends to all the cost for advanced treatment in Type II (from 0 to 1).
In case of Type Im∑α (x − L ) .

y i = ci +

k

i ,k

i ,k

k =1

When a net cost of each POTW is minimized,
∂c i
∂y i
+αk = 0 .
=∂x i ,k ∂x i ,k

Thus,
∂c i
= −α k ,∂x i ,kwhich means that marginal costs regarding each constituent which incurs all the POTWs are equal.
n

Y=

n

⎛

⎞

m

n

m

n

n

n

n

∑ y = ∑ ⎜⎜⎝ c + ∑ α ( x − L ) ⎟⎟⎠ = ∑ c + ∑ α ∑ ( x − L ) = ∑ c since ∑ x = ∑ L .
i

i

i =1

i ,k

k

i =1

i,k

i

k =1

i =1

i,k

k

k =1

i ,k

i ,k

i

i =1

i =1

i =1

i ,k

i =1

However, as options for each POTW are discrete,n∑n

xi ,k <

i =1

∑

n

n

i =1

i =1

instead of ∑ x i,k = ∑ Li ,k .

Li , ki =1

As a result,
n

Y<

∑c .
i

i =1

The following is paid by a foundation;
n

⎡ n

m

⎤

n

∑ c − Y = ∑ α ⎢⎢⎣∑ L − ∑ x ⎥⎥⎦ .
i

k

i =1

k =1

i,k

i ,k

i =1

i =1

In case of Type IImy i = ci +m

∑ β x − gc = (1 − g )c + ∑ β x
k i ,k

i

i

k i,k

k =1

k =1

When a net cost of each POTW is minimized,
∂y i
∂c i
= (1 − g )+ βk = 0 .
∂x i ,k∂x i , k

Thus,

∂c i
β
=− k .
∂x i ,k1− gwhich means that marginal costs regarding each constituent which incurs all the POTWs are equal.
n

Y=

∑
i =1

αk =

m
n
n m
n
⎞
⎛
⎜ (1 − g )c i +β k x i ,k ⎟ = (1 − g ) c i +β k xi ,k =ci⎟⎜
i =1 ⎝
k =1
i =1
i =1 k =1
i =1
⎠
n

yi =

βk
1− g

∑

∑

n

g

n

∑

∑∑

∑

n

n

i =1

i =1 k =1m∑ c = ∑∑ β xii =1

k i ,ki =1 k =1

When the solution in Type I is known, β k and g in Type II are determined as below.

‑ 234 ‑

msince g ∑ c i = ∑∑ β k x i ,k .

m

k

C

βk = αk

∑α X
k

C+

k

k

k =1
m

g=

m

C+

∑α X

k =1

∑α X
k

k

k =1

Impact of local conditions
In case local conditions are considered, a net cost of POTW i is expressed as follows;my i = ci +∑m

α k ( x i , k − Li , k ) + s i (Type I)

y i = (1 − g )c i +k =1∑ β x + s (Type II).
k i ,ki

k =1When a net cost of each POTW is minimized,
∂s i
∂c i
= −α k −∂x i ,k∂x i ,k(Type I)β∂c i
1 ∂s i=− k −∂x i ,k1 − g 1 − g ∂x i ,k(Type II).

In either case, marginal costs are not equal, and economic efficiency is lost in terms of the target
water quality management. The differential is lower than without the local conditions, and advanced
treatment is promoted.
∂c i
∂c i
g ∂s iinTypeII −inTypeI = −<0∂x i ,k∂x i ,k1 − g ∂x i , k

By comparison, Type II is more affected by local issues, and this means advanced treatment is more
promoted in Type II than in Type I, and at the same time the efficiency is lost more in Type II thanin Type I.
Dispersion of net average costmy i inTypeII = (1 − g )c i +∑β k x i ,k = (1 − g )c i +

k =1

m
⎛
⎞
(1 − g )α k x i ,k = (1 − g )⎜ c i + α k x i ,k ⎟
⎜
⎟
k =1
k =1
⎝
⎠
m

∑

∑

m
m
⎞ m
⎤ 1 ⎛
yi
1 ⎡
inTypeI =α k ( x i , k − Li ,k )⎥ = ⎜ c i + α k x i ,k ⎟ − α k rk
⎢c i +⎟⎜qi
q i ⎣⎢
k =1
k =1⎠ k =1⎦⎥ q i ⎝

∑

∑

∑

m
⎞
yi
1 − g ⎛⎜
inTypeII =ci +α k xi ,k ⎟⎟qi
q i ⎜⎝
k =1⎠∑

Thus, if ∆(•) means deviation, then
⎛y
⎞
⎛y
⎞
∆⎜⎜ i in Type II ⎟⎟ = (1 − g )∆⎜⎜ i in Type I ⎟⎟ for all i.
⎝ qi
⎠
⎝ qi
⎠
Thus, the following expression holds, where SD(•) means standard deviation.
⎛y
⎞
⎛y
⎞
SD⎜⎜ i in Type II ⎟⎟ = (1 − g ) SD⎜⎜ i in Type I ⎟⎟ .
q
q
⎝ i
⎠
⎝ i
⎠

‑ 235 ‑

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KWWSZZZHSDJRYRZRZZDWHUVKHGWUDGLQJWUDGHOLQNVKWPO‑ 242 ‑WRSUHSDUHWKHPIRUDFKDOOHQJLQJGHVLJQSURFHVVOverview of Measures Taken Against Accidental Water Resource
Pollutions in Japan
日本における水質汚染事故対策

Yasuo Yanagibashi, MHLW, Japan
厚生労働省‑ 243 ‑

柳橋泰生

Overview of measures taken against accidental water resource pollutionsin JapanYasuo YANAGIBASHI, Seiji TSUTSUI
Health Service Bureau, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
1. Water supply systems and risk management
An ensured supply of safe drinking water is essential for the daily lives of citizens andeconomic activities in any local communities. Once accidental water resource pollution
affects the water supply system, it threatens the health and lives of the residents, imposing asubstantial influence on the socioeconomic activities of the community.
In risk management for drinking water, possible causes of accidents can be attributed to (1)human error (e.g., accidents at a factory), (2) natural disasters, and (3) terrorism. In Japan, theleading causes of accidents have been (1) human errors, and (2) natural disasters. The only
case of (3) terrorism in the past is in 1978, where waste oil and poisonous substances werethrown into the Chiba Prefectural Waterworks Bureau’s Hokuso Water Purification Plant.
Later, however, alertness against terrorism was heightened among the water suppliers,
especially after the Aum Shinrikyo religious cult’s poison gas terrorist attack in the Tokyo
subway in 1994. More recently, due to 9/11, or simultaneous multiple terrorist attacks, against
the United States in 2001, people have raised their awareness about the importance of
precautionary measures to protect water supply systems against terrorist attacks.
This report describes measures taken against accidental water resource pollutions in Japan.
In this report, “accidental water resource pollutions” refers to an accident where a drinking
water supply system is adversely affected by a change of water quality at the water source thatis unpredictable in a usual situation. Unless noted otherwise, an “accident” or “accident atwater source” in this report refers to “accidental water resource pollutions.”
2. Japan’s geographical profile and characteristics of waterworks in Japan(1) Japan’s geographical profile
The land of Japan consists of islands that lie in a rather narrow strip that runs from north tosouth with “backbone” mountains that run down the middle of the strip. Japan is a
mountainous nation, 67% of which is covered with forests. Habitable areas are therefore
limited. The majority of large cities, including Tokyo and Osaka, as well as the majorindustrial areas, are located in lowlands in downstream regions of the rivers. The geographicalfeatures allow rainwater to flow into the ocean in a relatively short period after falling onland.
-1‑ 244 ‑(2) Characteristics of waterworks in Japan
The Water Works Law of Japan defines “public water supply” as a system that supplies
drinking water to a population larger than 100 in response to public demand. The Law
suggests that primary suppliers of drinking water be municipalities (governments of cities,
towns and villages), while it does not prevent private sectors from becoming involved in thebusiness. Currently, there are approximately 11,000 public water suppliers in Japan. Amongthem, the largest 74 suppliers, which have a customer size of 250,000 or larger, supply water
to more than half of the nation’s entire population (Table 1).
The majority of
Table 1 Scale, number, and total population served
drinking water (72% byof public water supply*
volume) in Japan has
Scale of water supply
Numberof Total population served
surface water as its source,(population served)
suppliers(unit:1,000)
followed by ground water
1,000,000 13
35,360(25%) and other water
500,000-1,000,000
96,213
sources (3%). The Rapid
250,000-500,000
52
18,023
Sand Filtration system is
100,000-250,000
132
19,733the dominant purification
50,000-100,000
193
13,102system in Japan (76% by
5,000-50,000
1,411
23,676
volume), while the Slow
- 5,000
8,734
6,702
Sand Filtration system is
Total
10,544
122,809
used for a small portion(4%) of the water supplied.
* Excludes private water supply
Twenty percent ofdrinking water in Japan is supplied after disinfection only without filtration (neither rapid nor
slow sand filtration).
3. Legal systems concerning risk management of water supply systems
The Water Works Law in Japan describes regulations regarding risk management as shownin Table 2. Article 23 of the Law specifically stipulates that the water suppliers are obliged tosuspend the water supply and to notify related authorities should the supplier learn that thewater being supplied is harmful to public health. Enforcement regulations of the Law andother ordinances on technical standards stipulate regulations in other areas, such as measurestaken for sanitary purposes and pollution prevention purposes (Table 3).
As regulated by the River Law, management of rivers in Japan is under the jurisdiction ofeither the Minister of Land, Infrastructure and Transport or the governor of a prefecture. The-2‑ 245 ‑Table 2 Water Works Law （Articles related to risk management）
Article 20 (Examination of Water Quality)
1. The water utility business operator shall be required to conduct the periodic & special examination of water quality as stipulated by
the order of the Ministry of Health and Welfare.
Article 22 (Sanitary Measures)
The water utility business operator shall be required to take such sanitary and sterilizing measures as stipulated by the order of the
Ministry of Health and Welfare, pertinent to the control and administration of the water facilities.
Article 23 (Emergency Suspension of Water Supply)
1. The water utility business operator shall upon learning that the water he supplies is suspected to be harmful to the health of people,
suspend the supply immediately, and notify the party concerned of the danger.
2. Any person who learns the water supplied is suspicious of rendering danger to the people's health, he shall notify the water utility
business operator of it.
Article 40 (Emergency Use of Water)
1. In case of natural calamity or other emergency, the prefectural governor shall have the power to order the water utility or watersupply business operator, whenever he may deem it to necessary and proper to provide water for protection of the public interest, to
supply water to other water utility or water supply business operator for a certain period of time and to a certain amount of water andby way of a certain method as shall be determined.
Article 43 (Request for Prevention of Pollution of Water Source)
The water utility or water supply business operator shall have the right to state his opinion and request the chief of the pertinentadministration office of the chief of the pertinent local public body to take appropriate measures for prevention of pollution of water
source, whenever he may deed it necessary to do so for the security of water quality of the source.

Table 3The Ministerial Ordinance on Technical Standards for Water Supply Facilities （Articles related torisk management）(General Provisions) Article 1 Water supply facilities must meet the following conditions.
4. They shall be arranged to minimize water failure and any other effects on feedwater in case of a disaster or any other emergencies,
and also to be able to be restored promptly in such occasions.
7. According to the importance of facilities, they shall have the structure which is secure from the earthquake load. And they also
shall be arranged out of regard for the effects of liquefaction, lateral flowage, etc. caused by earthquakes.
10. If required, underdrains shall be installed, or any other necessary measures including setting up of fences shall be taken, so that
there is no risk of water contamination.

-3‑ 246 ‑11. According to the size and attributes, any necessary equipment shall be installed to monitor and control the operational status
including flow, hydraulic pressure, water level, water quality, etc.
12. In order to prevent expansion of damages in case of a disaster or any other emergencies, cutoff valves or any other necessary
equipment shall be installed if required.

-4‑ 247 ‑Minister of Land, Infrastructure and Transport manages the major water systems.
Environmental standards for the public waters and regulations on effluents from factories
and business offices are overseen by the Ministry of the Environment, as well as by theenvironmental divisions of each prefectural office, based on the Basic Environment Law andWater Pollution Control Law. In accordance with the Water Pollution Control Law, thenational effluent standards are established. They are made up of two categories; for protecting
human health (27 items) and for protecting the living environment (15items).
The Water Pollution Control Law also regulates the measures to be taken in case of
accidents in public waters and ground water. When the installation party of a specific factory
accidentally discharges a hazardous substance or a type of oil into public waters or groundwater, the party is obliged to take emergency measures and to notify the concerned authority,
such as the prefectural government. Installation parties of oil storage facilities have the sameobligation when oil is accidentally discharged into public waters or ground water.
The conservation of source water for public water supply systems is in the scope of the
Law on Execution of Preservation Project of Water Resources Quality for Water Supply. This
Law regulates the promotion of well-planned projects and the supporting measures needed topromote these projects. The projects are carried out in order to improve the quality of water
resources for the water supply system in a specific area designated by the governor of theconcerned prefecture. It is based on the source water conservation plan made by the governor
in responding to a water supplier.
In general, many stakeholders are involved in river and watershed water management inJapan. In many watersheds, councils cooperate with various parties, including the riveradministrator, water consumers ((potable) water suppliers, industrial water suppliers,
irrigation associations etc.), environmental divisions of prefectures and municipal
governments, for the purpose of water pollution prevention. They are platforms to coordinate
and to clarify roles in monitoring river water, and in general issues concerning water quality
conservation. Many of them also organize emergency contact systems among the concerned
parties at the time of an accident. The council, however, does not have legal backgrounds,
except for those designated by the Law on Execution of Preservation Project of Water
Resources Quality for Water Supply.
4. Examples of accidents at water sources and countermeasures taken in Japan(1) Breakdown of accidents at water sources in Japan
According to data of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW), each year
around 90 water suppliers, or 0.5% of the total suppliers, are affected by water quality
accidents in Japan. As shown in Fig.1-1, oil spills account for 48% of the causes of water
quality accidents in the past, followed by ammonium nitrogen (11%), turbidity (8%), odor
-5‑ 248 ‑(6%) and others. The data shows that 79% of the accidents in the past were in surface water,while 8% were in river-bed water, and 13% were in groundwater. Factories are the mostfrequent source of pollution (17%), whereas civil engineering works (7%), vehicles (6%), andcrop and livestock farming (4%) are listed as other sources. For 48% of the cases in the past,
the source of the accident could not be identified. (Fig.1-2)

N itrate nitrogen1%
S urfactant
1%pH
2%
P esticide2%

O thers
13%

C olors3%

O rganic m atter4%
A m m onium
nitrogen11%

Inorganic m atter1%

O dors
6%

O ils
48%

Turbidity
8%

Fig.1-1 P ollutants of accidents at w ater sources

Factories
17%

U ncertain48%

C ivilengineeringw orks7%

V ehicles
6%
C rop andlivestockfarm ing 4%
O thers18%

Fig.1- 2 Source of pollution of accidents at water sources(2) Measures taken by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
The MHLW itself does not operate water supply services and therefore does not directly
carry out countermeasures against water quality accidents. The MHLW, however, is
responsible for the general public health of the nation and general issues concerning water
sanitation, and is in charge of approximately 500 major water suppliers. In addition, the
MHLW operates several national research institutions that are involved in water quality
research, the National Institute of Public Health, the National Institute of Health Sciences andthe National Institute of Infectious Diseases, for example.
-6‑ 249 ‑In 1997, the MHLW laid down the “Basic Guideline for Health Crisis and Consequence
Management” with the aim of preventing the occurrence and spread of damage from accidents
that are caused by pharmaceutical products, food poisoning, infectious diseases, or drinking
water. Following the above Guideline, the MHLW also laid down the “Guideline for Health
Crisis and Consequences Management for Drinking Water” in the same year. This guideline
for drinking water provides countermeasures the MHLW should take in case of accidents thatare caused by drinking water (specifically drinking water from water supply systems andwells, but excluding bottled water) and likely to threaten the lives and health of the citizens. It
particularly prescribes the processes the MHLW should take regarding such issues as (1)information collection schemes, (2) decision-making in the actions to be taken, (3)investigation by study groups and councils, and (4) provision of information to concerned
parties such as prefectural governments and water suppliers. On the occasion when the
Guideline was prepared and published, the MHLW instructed each water supplier andprefectural government to notify the MHLW immediately in cases when a water quality
accident occurred.
Each water supplier also has a crucial part to play in the case of an emergency. Prior to an
actual occurrence of an accident, they should implement preventive measures. They must planand prepare immediate actions to take in case of an emergency. To this end, the MHLW
prepared the “Manuals for Establishing the Operations Plan on Water Contamination
Emergencies” and distributed it to water suppliers and prefectural governments. This manual,
which was published with the aim of supporting each water supplier in preparing its own
crisis management guideline, covers various issues including examples of possible water
quality pollution accidents, measures to allow them to acquire early detection, methods toaccurately judge the situation and what immediate actions should be taken, collection andnotification of information, organizational schemes, notification to the local residents andeducation, and training of employees. For example, as measures for early detection of
possible accidents, the Manual recommends (1) enforcement of monitoring at upstream areasof the water source, (2) installation of automatic water quality monitoring systems and (3)enforcement of cooperation among concerned parties through the organization of a council.
As examples of automatic water quality monitoring equipment, the Manual suggests
equipment to monitor oil, turbidity, electrical conductivity, pH, ammonium ions, cyanide, andothers. In order to promote the installation of monitoring facilities at the water source areas,
the MHLW subsidizes the public water suppliers etc. for a quarter of their construction costfrom national funds.
The MHLW also makes efforts to raise awareness preparation for accidents. For example,
we introduce actual cases of accidents at the meetings of water suppliers or prefectural
personnel who are in charge of supervising water supplies. In addition, related information is-7‑ 250 ‑provided through the Internet.
(3) Measures taken by water suppliers
The MHLW conducted a survey in 2003 on the public water suppliers’ crises management
performance by water suppliers in Japan. In the following sections, measures taken by watersuppliers are explained based on the results of the survey.
The survey was conducted on public water suppliers with at least 5,000 customers. The
results showed that 30% of suppliers have prepared a manual concerning water quality
accidents, while 15% have issued a manual for terrorism. As shown in Fig.2, these numbers,
especially the rate regarding manuals prepared for terrorism, are much lower than thepercentage of suppliers that have issued a manual for earthquakes (approximately 47%) andheavy rain (approximately 39%). The majority of suppliers have already established aninternal contact network for emergencies and crises, including water quality accidents.
However, emergency contact and cooperation networks that include external parties have notbeen satisfactorily established, especially suppliers with 100,000 or fewer customers. This
trend is even more noticeable for suppliers with 50,000 or fewer customers (Table 4).

O thers

10%

D roughts

17%

Terrors15%

B lackouts

21%

A ccidents in w ater supply facilities

26%

W ater quality em ergencies

30%

Severe rainstorm s

39%

Earthquakes

47%

0%
25%
50%
Fig.2 P ercentages of w ater supplies w hich has em ergency
operation m anuals-8‑ 251 ‑75%

Table 4 Establishing emergency response system
Scale of water supply

Internal emergency response system

Emergency response system that
includes external parties(population served)
Establishedor Not-establishedestablishing(%)

or Establishedetc.(%)or Not-establishedestablishing(%)

oretc.(%)

1,000,000 -

100%

0%

100%

0%

500,000-1,000,000

90%

10%

90%

10%

250,000-500,000

100%

0%

94%

6%

100,000-250,000

100%

0%

95%

5%

50,000-100,000

99%

1%

79%

21%

5,000-50,000

90%

10%

72%

28%

- 5,000

92%

8%

73%

27%

Total

86%

14%

78%

22%

In Japan, continuous monitoring of source water is generally carried out at the site where
the water is taken from the river for a water supply system. Larger water suppliers are more
likely to conduct a continuous monitoring of source water quality. For example, 60 to 90
percent of public water suppliers that supply water to a population of 100,000 or larger, carryout continuous monitoring while the rate is merely 30 to 50% for the suppliers with acustomer size of less than 100,000. The items for monitoring include turbidity, pH andalkalinity (Fig. 3-1,3-2). In addition to chemical analysis, approximately 30% of suppliersmonitor for poisoning by keeping fish in tanks of the source water.
S cale of w ater
supply(population
1,000,000 served)

500,000-1,000,000
250,000-500,000
100,000-250,000
50,000-100,000
5,000-50,000- 5,000
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

Fig.3-1 P ercentage of w ater supplies w hich continuously
m onitor source w ater (C lassified by scale of w ater supply)-9‑ 252 ‑100%

O thers
C olors
chlorine dem andalkalinity
pH
Turbidity
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
Fig.3-2 P ercentage of w ater supplies w hich continuously m onitor
source w ater (C lassified by m onitoring item s)

50%

Upstream monitoring by patrolling or water quality analysis, however, is usually conducted
only on a regular basis and not continuously. To cope with this problem, suppliers have beenworking on building an enforced network throughout the region or watershed area. This way,
important information regarding water quality accidents can be collected in an immediatemanner from the river administrator, who often conducts automatic monitoring of water
quality for management purposes, environmental divisions of prefectural governments, water
consumers, and local residents.
More advanced measures against water quality pollution, such as drawing a map to indicate
upstream pollution sources of the river or monitoring of the intake point by industrial
televisions (ITVs), are taken by about 10% of the suppliers.

Secure financial resources
Shortage of staffs
Shortage of technical capabilities
Fare boost
OthersNothing special
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Fig.4 Main challenges for water supplies to improve risk
management- 10 ‑ 253 ‑Based on this data, we can conclude that about 87% of water suppliers in Japan need to
improve their facilities and/or schemes for crisis management. The largest challenge to makesuch improvement should be how to find a way to allocate financial and human resources(Fig.4).
(4) Examples of measures taken for water quality protection
Case 1. Department of Waterworks of Osaka Prefecture
The Osaka Prefectural Government Department of Waterworks is a bulk water supplier,which supplies purified water to many municipalities other than the City of Osaka and anothertwo towns in the prefecture. Its main source of water is the Yodo River, which flows fromJapan’s largest lake, Lake Biwa. The Lake Biwa-Yodo River System is the largest river
system in the Kinki Metropolitan Area, the second largest metropolis following the Tokyo
metropolis. The watershed includes two large cities, Osaka and Kyoto.
The Department of Waterworks carries out poisonous substance monitoring of source waterwith living organisms (fish-bioassay) and continuous source water VOC monitoring at water
intake facilities of water purification plants in order to detect signs of a water accident.
In the poisonous substance monitoring with living organisms, or the “carp sensor,”abnormal water quality is detected from the performance of carp fish that are kept in fiveseries of water tanks (Fig.5). It is installed in the intake facility of Murano water purification
plant. The Carps’ behaviors are monitored by ITVs and the video data are transmitted toimage processing equipment, and if there are abnormal behaviors, it will send an alert to thecontrol center of the purification plant.
Continuous source water quality monitoring systems consist of an automatic water
sampling system, gas chromatograph and other accessory equipments. They are installed in
the intake facilities of Murano W.P.P and Mishima W.P.P. They monitor VOC items ofdrinking water quality standards and other VOC (Table 5) on an hourly basis.
As for wide-area water resource quality monitoring, the Osaka Prefectural Government
Department of Waterworks and the nine other public water suppliers in Osaka prefecture,
which intake source water from the Yodo River, organize “The Yodo River Water Quality
Consultative Committee”, and monitor source water effectively. The committee also performs
other activities such as investigation, research, holding study meeting on water issues,
demanding pollution control measures to competent authorities and establishing the
emergency information network system etc. In addition, the Kinki Regional Development
Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (the legal administrator of theLake Biwa and Yodo River), the water suppliers, the environmental divisions of prefecturesand municipal governments which concern the Lake Biwa and Yodo River Water System- 11 ‑ 254 ‑Fig.5 “Carp sensor”

Table 5 List of items to be measured by continuous source water quality monitoring systemof the Waterworks department of Osaka prefecture
Component to be measured
Drinking water

Trichloroethylene

cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene

Bromodichlormethane

Dichloromethane

Dibromochlormethane

Carbon tetrachloride

BenzeneBromoform

1,1-Dichloroethylene

Chloroform

1,2-Dichloroethanetrans-1,2-Dichloroethylene

o-Xylene

1,1,1-Trichloroethanecis-1,3-Dichloropropene

m-Xylene

1,1,2-Trichloroethanetrans-1,3-Dichloropropene

p-Xylene

1,2-Dichloropropane

Toluenep-Dichlorobenzene

quality standard Tetrachloroethylene
items
Other items

organized Lake Biwa-Yodo River Water Pollution Control Liaison Council. It is a platform tocoordinate the installation of automatic river water monitoring equipment, to exchange
opinions on water pollution control and to organize emergency contact systems among themembers.
Case 2. Waterworks Bureau of Sapporo City
Sapporo is the largest city in Hokkaido Island, which is the northernmost of the four mainislands of Japan, and has a population of 1.8 million. Since 1998, the Waterworks Bureau of
Sapporo City has established the “Real Time Water Quality Monitoring System”. It will allow
the city to monitor the quality of the water throughout its course—from its source to the- 12 ‑ 255 ‑faucet at home—24 hours a day. This program is aimed to further ensure the safety ofdrinking water.
The Real Time Water Quality Monitoring System in Sapporo monitors water quality fromthe upstream of the Toyohira River, the key water source of Sapporo City, to the faucet at thehousehold for 24 hours a day (Fig.6).
Four monitoring stations in the water
source are located along the river,
between points 14 km upstream of thewater intake and a point 800 m awayfrom the water intake. Monitoring
items (ITV monitoring, conductivity,
turbidity, and oil content etc.) in water
source had been decided by the needs
and profiles of each monitoring
station. The actual monitoring items
are listed in Table 6. As for tap water,
automatic monitoring (residual
chlorine and temperature etc.) at 19
points are executed. In addition tothese, monitoring of the source waterat intake of purification plant is also
Fig.6 “Real Time Water Quality Monitoring System”1)
conducted.
The water quality of the Toyohira River at the water intake point is substantially influenced
by the amount of water discharged from the dams (two multi-purpose dams and two dams for
power generation) that are located upstream of the intake. The city therefore receives data in acontinuous manner from its administrator. The data includes the amount of water intake anddischarge as well as the water level at the dams, precipitation at the catchment area, and waterlevels and flows of the river and dams. And it is used for efficient maintenance andmanagement. It is reported that the system has enabled the plants to find accidents earlier, andto take proper actions promptly. And it has also decreased stress on the plant operators bygiving the information taken from upstream, because it is useful for the plant operation evenin the case of no accidents in water source.１）- 13 ‑ 256 ‑Table 6 Monitoring sites and items in water sources of Sapporo city
Name of site

Distance

Items

from theintake1. Shirataki Bridge

14.0km

2. Ichinosawa

10.4km

3. Toyama Dam

6.7km･Electric Conductivity ･Turbidity･Monitoring Camera･Electric Conductivity ・Monitoring Camera･Turbidity･Fish-bioassay･pH

4. Moiwa Dam

0.8km･Electric Conductivity ･Chloride ion･Turbidity･Oil

5. Conclusion

In Japan, therole of the public･pH･Monitoring Camera
water suppliers
has become･Ammonium nitrogen ･Fish-bioassay
increasingly
important as theservice diffuses to larger areas. Meanwhile, the frequency of water quality accidents has notdecreased, and the need for a higher-level security scheme has been increasing under recentsocial circumstances (e.g. alert for terrorisms). Against such a background, the importance ofsource water monitoring programs by suppliers and other concerned parties has been
increasingly recognized. Except for the cases with large-scale suppliers, the necessary
measures to protect the water quality against accidents and terrorism, nevertheless, have notbeen implemented at a satisfactory level, mainly due to financial reasons.
The majority of water supply systems in Japan have a river or surface water as their water
source. These rivers are generally subject to concerns for many stakeholders, with different
perspectives, who are located in a rather limited area. This fact makes it unfeasible for watersuppliers to monitor the water quality at the water source on its own. The monitoring systems,
instead, should be implemented in cooperation with various concerned parties or through theorganized workings of a council that includes various members of the entire watershed. Someof the existing systems can be effectively used in this manner. For example, the riveradministrator has already been operating automotive monitoring programs for their
management purposes, and data from such programs can be shared with other members at a
- 14 ‑ 257 ‑council. In addition, the residents who live in upstream areas of a water intake plant can
provide helpful information and cooperation. This is especially true in Japan, where theupstream regions are often developed as residential areas.
Some leading water suppliers have already started to install automatic monitoring systems,
or other measures, to protect the quality of their water. While some functional errors ofequipment have been reported, as expected for the new and uncompleted programs, these
automatic monitoring systems have reportedly reduced the level of stress on many workers inwater purification, who otherwise are exposed to a substantial level of stress because theymust be on continuous alert for possible accidents. In order to promote the diffusion of thesystems in the future, efforts must be made to reduce the construction and maintenance costs
and to facilitate the maintenance and management work of the systems.
The MHLW will continue to support public water suppliers and concerned parties for the
installation of water quality monitoring systems, to enforce their management measuresagainst crises, including terrorism. In addition, the Ministry will continue to support research
activities for the improvement and development of technologies that are needed for crisis
management in water supply systems.

Reference
1) SASAKI Takanori, MOTOI Naoyoshi, SADO Akira and TAGUCHI Hideyo (2003) RealTime Water Quality Monitoring System in Sapporo, Technical Report, 13th IWA-ASPAC
Regional Conference, 422-428- 15 ‑ 258 ‑5LVNPDQDJHPHQW
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Present State of the Treated Wastewater Reuse in Japan
日本における下水処理水再利用の現状

Mizuhiko Minamiyama, National Institute for Land andInfrastructure Management, MLIT, Japan
国土技術政策総合研究所‑ 275 ‑

南山瑞彦

PRESENT STATE OF THE TREATED WASTEWATER REUSE
IN JAPAN
Atsushi TAJIMA, Mizuhiko MINAMIYAMA, and Hideichiro NAKAJIMA
Wastewater and Sludge Management Division
Water Quality Control Department
National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
Asahi 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0804 JAPANBACKGROUND
Japan’s average annual rainfall is approximately 1,700mm that is twice the world
average, but because its national land is small and its population is large, the total
annual per capita rainfall is about 5,100m3 that is about 1/4 the world average and muchsmaller than in many foreign countries.
Japan reacted to the severe water shortage of 1978 by beginning to reuse treatedwastewater to conserve valuable water resources in cities. Since the first reuse of treatedwastewater as toilet flushing water in Fukuoka City in 1980, treated wastewater has
been used as toilet flushing water, snow melting water, environmental water, industrial
water, and spraying water. It is predicted that such uses will be more important in the
future, and that this will increase the importance of appropriately reusing treatedwastewater.
Some water quality criteria for reclaimed wastewater were proposed (Table 1). In orderto renew and authorize them, we are now studying technological standards for the reuseof treated wastewater from the viewpoints that its use not harms hygienic safety, scenic
environment, and functions of facilities.
Table 1. Proposed water quality criteria for reclaimed wastewater
Japan Sewage Works Association

Working group composed of Ministryof Construction and some big cities(proposed in 1981)
Spraying
LandscapeToiletuse
use
flushing use(proposed in 1990)
LandscapeRecreationaluse**
use***

Coliform group

10 or below(cfu/mL)Not detective

Not detective

1,000 or below(cfu/100mL)

50 or below(cfu/100mL)

Chlorine Residual(mg/L)*

Trace amount

0.4 or over

-

-

-

Appearance

Not
unpleasantNot
unpleasantNot
unpleasant--Color (color unit)

-

-

-

40 or below

10 or below

Turbidity (mg-kaolin
equivalent/L)--

10 or below

10 or below

5 or below

Odor

Not
unpleasantNot
unpleasantNot
unpleasantNot unpleasantNot unpleasantpH

5.8 - 8.6

5.8 - 8.6

5.8 - 8.6

5.8 - 8.6

5.8 - 8.6--

10 or below

10 or below

3 or below

BOD (mg/L)

Note : * combined residual chlorine, ** restricted human contact, *** limited human contact

1‑ 276 ‑

This report outlines the present state of the reuse of treated wastewater in Japan fromfiscal 2001 to fiscal 2002, and introduces the results of a questionnaire survey of treatedwastewater users’ awareness of the appearance of reused water that was necessary for astudy of standards to maintain scenic environment.
PRESENT STATE OF THE REUSE OF TREATED WASTEWATER(fiscal 2001)
In fiscal 2001, a total of approximately 200 million m3 of treated wastewater werereused outside of sewerage treatment plants. This volume represented about 1.5% of thetotal treated wastewater that is approximately 13.0 billion m3/year. Treated wastewaterfrom 216 treatment plants is reused at a total of 316 locations.
Figure 1 shows the numbers of locations outside of treatment plants where treatedwastewater is used by purpose of use. The commonest purpose of use, at approximately
33% of all the locations, is spraying zones of trees and road surfaces. This is followed
by environmental water (water for landscape use (water reused as amenity water notpremised on direct contact by people with the water), water for recreational use (waterreused as amenity water premised on direct contact by people with the water), and river
maintenance water), that accounts for 30% of all locations reusing treated wastewater.
Two thirds of all locations that reuse treated wastewater use it for one of these two
purposes.
Purpose of reuse
Melting snow

18

Spraying use

107

Environmental use

93

Agricultural use

18

Supplying tobusiness sites

45

Supplying toindustrial sites

3

32

Toilet flushing

0

20

40

60

80

100

Number of locations

Figure 1. Number of locations using treated wastewater outside treatment plants(fiscal 2001)

2‑ 277 ‑

120

Figure 2 shows the annual volume reused by purpose of use, and Figure 3 shows thepercentages of all reused treated water by purpose of use. Environmental water use isoverwhelmingly high at 63% of all reused treated wastewater. And from Figure 1 andFigure 2, it appears the volume used to spray zones of trees and road surfaces per
location is extremely low.
Figure 4 shows change over the years of the volume used by purpose of use until fiscal
2001, indicating that the volume used as environmental water has continued to be far
higher than that used for other purposes. The volume used to melt snow has also
continued to rise, making snow melting the second most important use. But the volumes
supplied for industrial use and for agricultural use are both declining.

Purpose of reuse
29.28

Melting snow

0.61

Spraying use

124.96

Environmental use

12.93

Agricultural use

Supplying tobusiness sites

19.67

Supplying toindustrial sites

3.66

Toilet flushing

5.77

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Volume of reuse (1,000,000 m3/year)

Figure 2. Volume of reused treated wastewater that were used outside treatment plants(fiscal 2001)

3‑ 278 ‑

Toilet flushing
2.9%

Supplying toindustrial sites
1.9%
Supplying tobusiness sites
10.0%

Melting snow
14.9%
Spraying use
0.3%

Agricultural use
6.6%

Environmental use
63.5%

Figure 3. Percentage of volume of reused treated wastewater that were used outsidetreatment plants by purpose of use (fiscal 2001)
200

180

160

FY1995120

FY1996
FY1997
FY1998100

FY1999FY200080

FY200160

40

20

Purpose of reuse

Figure 4. Volume of reused treated wastewater4‑ 279 ‑

Total volume

Others

Melting snow

Spraying use

Agricultural use

Supplying tobusiness sites

Supplying toindustrial sites

Toilet flushing0
Environmental use

Volume (1,000,000 m3/year

140

PRESENT STATE OF TREATED WASTEWATER REUSE (fiscal 2002)
Objective of the survey
Of the various ways that treated wastewater is reused, those surveyed by thefact-finding survey of fiscal 2002 were limited to toilet flushing use, spraying use, andenvironmental use: uses that could cause people to directly contact the reclaimed
wastewater. Among environmental water uses, landscape use and recreational use weresurveyed.
Number of locations
Treated wastewater from a total of 141 treatment plants was reused as toilet flushingwater, spraying water, water for landscape use, and water for recreational use at 206
locations. Figure 5 shows the number of locations reusing reclaimed wastewater bypurpose of use, revealing that more locations use it as spraying water and water forlandscape use than for other purposes.

Toilet flushing use

39

Spraying use

73

77

Landscape use

Recreational use

17
0

20

40

60

80

100

Number of Treatment Plants

Figure 5. Number of locations of wastewater reuse by purpose of use (fiscal 2002)

Categories of users
Table 2 shows the users of toilet flushing water, revealing that most of it is used bypublic facilities. It appears that this difference is a result of the greater willingness ofmanagers of public facilities to agree to the reuse of treated wastewater than managers
of private facilities.
Table 2. Users of toilet flushing use (fiscal 2002)
User type

Number of treatment plants

Home
Business building
Public facilities

4
10
35

5
‑ 280 ‑

As shown by Table 3, the most numerous users of spraying water spray it on trees,
followed by those who spray it on road surfaces and lawns. The specific spraying
methods they use are spraying trucks, sprinklers, nozzle equipped hydrants, and hoses
etc. and include both manned spraying and unmanned spraying.
Table 3. Users of spraying use water (fiscal 2002)
User type

Number of treatment plants

Sports field
Tree zones
Lawns
Road surfaces

2
44
17
20

As shown by Table 4, the users of landscape use water and recreational use water use it
to fill ponds and streams, create waterfalls, and supply fountains. There is a growing
demand among the Japanese public for the creation of good quality waterside spaces incities, and according to Figure 4, reuse for both landscape use and recreational use are
expected to continue to grow.
Table 4. Users of landscape use water and recreational use water (fiscal 2002)
Number of treatment plants
User type
Typological
Characteristics
Landscape use Recreational use
Ponds
Streams
Waterfalls
Fountains

Storage
Flow
Falling from above
Spraying upwards

37
47
36*
14*

7
13
16**
5**

*: Total number within ponds and streams that reclamed water for landscape use are supplied.
**: Total number within ponds and streams that reclamed water for recreational use are supplied.

Treatment and disinfection methods
Figure 6 shows the rate of application of each unit process in the reuse treatment as apercentage of the total reuse treatment flow by purpose of use. Overall trends it reveals
include the application of sand filtering as a reuse treatment method and the use ofchlorination as a disinfection method at many locations.

6‑ 281 ‑

Rate of application per total treatment flow
（%）

100
90
Toilet flushing use
80

Spraying use
Landscape use

70

Recreational use
60
50
40
30
20
10

Sodium hydroxide

UV disinfection

Ozone disinfection

Chlorinization

Reverse osmosis

Ultrafiltration

Microfiltration

Biological activatedcarbonActivated carbon
adsorption

Ozonation

In-line coagulationfiltration

Chemical precipitaion

Fiber filtration

Rapid filtration

Strainer

ScreenBiological filtration

Contact aeration

0

Figure 6. Categorization of treatment methods by purpose of use (fiscal 2002)

Characteristics by purpose of use show that water to be reused as spraying water istreated by simpler processes than that reused for other purposes, and that in many cases,
only chlorination or a combination of chlorination and sand filtering is applied.
Water for landscape use is disinfected by ozone disinfection and ultraviolet disinfection
more frequently than treated wastewater reused for other purposes. This indicates that at
many locations, users replace chlorination with another disinfection method to prevent
harm to the ecosystem.
Complaints and problems about reuse
Table 5 shows the state of complaints or environmental damage caused by the reuse oftreated wastewater up to fiscal 2002 by numbers of treatment plants. It shows that a
particularly large number of cases of environmental damage and complaints werecaused by its use as toilet flushing water. But it may be that this high frequency ofcomplaints and environmental damage is linked to the fact that more locations use
treated waster as toilet flushing water than for other purposes, so that complaints andenvironmental damage are more conspicuous.
Characteristically, toilet flushing water results in more complaints about or
environmental damage by chironomid or corrosion than other uses. It is assumed thatchironomid are a problem also caused by other uses, but these rarely cause complaints
or reports of environmental damage because the water is reused in open spaces where it
does not bother the users. And corrosion is more likely to occur because both the
distribution and supply channels that bring the water to its users are longer and include
more supply devices than in the case of other uses. Frequent environmental damage also
occurs because the many supply devices equipped with strainers increases the danger
that corrosion will plug the devices.

7‑ 282 ‑

Reuse as spraying water does not cause any particular serious complaints orenvironmental damage, mainly because there is little possibility of the users seeing thesprayed water. A characteristic of its use as scenic conservation water and human accesswater is that these uses cause many more complaints about the propagation of algaethan other uses.
Table 5. State of complaints and environmental damage caused by use of treatedwastewater (unit: treatment plants)
Type and Description
Aetheteic elements
Color
Turbidity
Odor
Dirt
Adhering material
Algae
Chironomid
Harm to facility functions
Corrosion
Plugging
Corrosion
Living materials
Total occurrence

Toiletflushing

Spraying
use

4
3
2

Landscape Recreational
use
use

1

3

3
1

5
2

1

2
2

1

23

2

1
1

5

Total
5
4
3
3
8
6

1

4

1

3
3

7

7

39

In cases where different kinds of environmental damage occurs or water is used for different
purposes at one plant, totals are categorized accordingly.

State of measures to prevent accidental contact between reused treated wastewater
pipes and water supply pipes
Figure 7 shows the rate of implementation of measures to prevent accidental contact
between reclaimed wastewater pipes and water supply pipes (percentage of treatment
plants that reuse treated wastewater whose operators responded that they had
implemented countermeasures) by purpose of use. It reveals that as an overall trend,measures that are widely implemented include labeling water tanks, pipes, and otherdevices as parts of a treated wastewater system, and at locations were the treatedwastewater is reused, clearly indicating that it is treated wastewater. The rate of
implementation of all measures tended to be higher where it is used as toilet flushingwater than where it is used for other purposes.
Notification of managers of underground structures when installing reclaimed
wastewater pipes underneath public roads is done most frequently at locations where it
is used as toilet flushing water. This is done because when used as spraying water, watersupply methods not using pipes (spraying by a spraying truck for example) are often
applied, and when it is reused as landscape and recreation water, the users are usually
directly linked to the wastewater treatment plant supplying the water.
State of measures to prevent accidental drinking of treated wastewater
Figure 8 shows the rate of implementation of measures to prevent accidental drinking ofreclaimed wastewater by purpose of use. As an overall trend, the most frequent measure8‑ 283 ‑

is indicating that it is reused water, and in particular, it is done at nearly 80% of
locations where it is used as toilet flushing water. And at nearly 40% of locations where
it is reused as toilet flushing water, low flush toilet tanks equipped with a hand washing
function are prohibited.
Labeling water tanks, pipes,
and other devices
Indicating the use of treated wastewater
Prohibiting the use of reused water in toilets
equipped with washing devices

Toilet flushing use
Spraying use

Notification and guidance
concerning reused water system equipment

Landscape use
Recreational use

Guidance to contractors executing
designated water works
Regulating the assignmentof management personnel
Stipulating measures taken
when incorrect use is discovered
Others
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Implementation of preventive measures (%)

Figure 7. Rate of implementation of measures to prevent accidental contact between
reclaimed wastewater pipes and water supply pipes by purpose of use (fiscal 2002)

Indicating the useof treated wastewater
Prohibition of equipment equippedwith hand-washing function
as reuse systems

Toilet flushing use
Spraying use
Landscape use

Stipulation of constructions
to prevent scattering of water(spraying and scenic reservation use)

Recreational use

Measures to prevent people
from entering streams

Regulating the assignmentof management personnel

Stipulating measures taken
when incorrect use is discovered

Others

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Implementation of preventive measures (%)

Figure 8. Rate of application of measures to prevent environmental damage such as
the illness caused by accidentally drinking reclaimed wastewater9‑ 284 ‑

Landscape use is an amenity reuse of water premised on no direct contact with the waterby people, but only about 17% of treatment facilities prohibit people from entering
streams, and less than 50% of treatment facilities post signs indicating that it is reusedwater, suggesting that people may directly contact water for landscape use.
USER AWARENESS OF THE EXTERNAL APPEARANCE OF REUSEDWATER
It is important to clarify users’ preferences concerning external appearance when setting
standards for the appearance of reused water. To assess how the color, turbidity, andstrength of the odor of reused water will effect the tastes of users, a questionnaire surveyof users’ consciousness of the color, turbidity, and odor of reused water was performedin the survey range shown in Table 5 at facilities reusing treated wastewater in theprefectures of Saitama, Tokyo, and Osaka, and in the cities of Kobe, and Fukuoka.
Table 5. Background of this users’ awareness survey
Toilet flushing
Number of locations surveyed
Period of survey
Questionnaire method
Number of respondents

5 locations
Dec. 2003 to Feb. 2004
Interviewing and by mail949 (41 to 341 per location)

Landscape use/Recreational use
5 locations
Dec. 2003 to Jan. 2004
Interviewing and by mail954 (115 to 239 per location)

Figures 9 to 11 shows the relationships between color unit, turbidity, and odor of reusedwater obtained from the results of the questionnaire survey with the acceptance of users
for color, turbidity, and odor (percentage of people who replied that it did not botherthem).
Although at all surveyed locations, the color unit was less than 10 and was only slightly
scattered, there was a little correlation between the color unit and acceptance inlandscape and recreational uses. Because acceptance tends to be higher in toilet flushingwater cases than in water for landscape and recreational uses cases, no differences
between acceptances appeared within the range of color unit at surveyed locations.
At all surveyed locations, turbidity was 1 or less and displayed extremely small variance,
failing to reveal any relationship of turbidity with acceptance.
The odor is scattered between survey locations, but no particular relationship withacceptance can be observed. Reasons for this result are presumed to be the fact that
according to the location, there may be variations in the distance between the users andthe reused water, and that the water temperature was low when the survey was
performed, restricting the production of volatile substances that are the primary cause ofodors, so a similar survey must be performed to confirm that there is no relationshipwhen a survey is performed in the summer.

10‑ 285 ‑

100
90

Acceptance (%)

80
70
60
50

Landscape use

40

Recreational use

30

Toilet flushing

20
10
0
0

5

10

15

20

Color
(degree)Colorunit(colorunit)
Figure 9. Relationship of color unit with users’ acceptance
100
90

Acceptance (%)

80
70
60
50

Landscape use
Recreational use

40
30

Toilet flushing

20
10
0
0

0.5

1

1.5

2

Turbidity (degree)
Turbidity (mg-kaolin
equivalent/L)
Figure 10. Relationship of turbidity with users’ acceptance

100
90

Acceptance (%)

80
70
60
50
Landscape use
Recreational use
Toilet flushing

40
30
20
10
0
0

20

40

60

80

Odor (-)

Figure 11. Relationship of odor with users’ acceptance11‑ 286 ‑

100

CONCLUSION
A study of technological standards for reused treated wastewater will be conductedbased on the present state of the reuse of treated wastewater and the results of theawareness of users of the external appearance of reused water that are described above.

12‑ 287 ‑

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Behavior of Chemicals Suspected of EDCs andOther Related Chemicals in Drinking Water Supply
水道における内分泌かく乱化学物質とその他関連化学物質の挙動

Shoichi Kunikane, National Institute of Public Health, MHLW,
Japan
国立保健医療科学院‑ 311 ‑

国包章一

BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICALS SUSPECTED OF EDCs AND OTHER
RELATED CHEMICALS IN DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
Shoichi Kunikane*, Koji Kosaka* and Tatsuo Yonezawa**
ABSTRACT
A study on the behavior of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate(DEHP) and di-n-butyl
phthalate(DNBP) at eleven water treatment plants showed that both DEHP and
DNBP could be removed to some extent by water treatment with a rapid sandfiltration system. DEHP in raw water tended to be concentrated in sludge and scum
more than DNBP in raw water. Another study on their mass balance at three water
treatment plants showed that a considerable part of DEHP and DNBP contained in
raw water was accumulated in sludge at a water treatment plant, and that only alimited part of them was concentrated in scum. In addition, it was found as the resultof repeated chemical release tests using water pipes coated with tar-epoxy resin
paint, which had widely been used, that phthalates, phenols and polyaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs) were released at the beginning of their use, but that the releaseof those chemicals would not last for many months.
KEYWORDS
Endocrine disrupting chemicals(EDCs), drinking water treatment, water pipes,
di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate(DEHP), di-n-butyl phthalate(DNBP), polyaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs)
INTRODUCTION
Endocrine disrupting chemicals(EDCs) are of concern among researchers since
several years ago. We have been conducting a series of researches on chemicals
suspected of EDCs in drinking water. The scope of such researches mainly includes
their occurrence in raw and treated waters, their removal and behavior in water
treatment processes, their release from water supply materials, and estrogenic
activities of their chlorination by-products. At present, we are conducting studies on
the behavior of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate(DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate(DNBP) in
drinking water treatment, and the release of phthalates, phenols and polyaromatic___________________________________________________________________________* Department of Water Supply Engineering, National Institute of Public Heath,
Shirokanedai 4-6-1, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8638, Japan** Department of Engineering, Japan Water Works Association, Kudan-minami 4-8-9,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-0074, Japan1‑ 312 ‑

hydrocarbons(PAHs) from tar-based resin paints.
In this paper, the result of such studies on the behavior of EDCs in drinking watersupply is reported and discussed.
BEHAVIOR OF PHTHALATES IN DRINKING WATER TREATMENT

Background and objective
Since phthalates, such as DEHP and DNBP, are widely used as the plasticizer ofplastics, they often occur in raw water for drinking water supply. They are also
released from the materials used for water supply, e.g. water pipes, in contact withwater. In our previous study1), we found that DEHP existed at a very highconcentration of more than 10µg/l in treated water at the top layer of a treated water
reservoir of a certain treatment plant. Then, the DEHP and DMBP contents insludge and scum as well as their concentrations in raw and treated waters at elevenwater treatment plants in Japan were investigated for the purpose to know their
behavior in water treatment processes. In addition, a more detailed study was
conducted at three out of those ten water treatment plants for the purpose to know
their mass balance in water treatment processes.

Methods
Samples of water, sludge and scum were taken once at each of eleven water
treatment plants in January through February, 2003, and analyzed on DEHP, DNBP
and other parameters. Ten treatment plants adopt a rapid sand filtration system,
whereas the other one treatment plant adopts a slow sand filtration system. After
that, samples of water, sludge and scum were taken again at each of three out of
those ten water treatment plants, with a rapid sand filtration system, once a monthin January through March, 2004, and analyzed on the same parameters as theprevious study. Other data necessary for mass balance analysis such as water flowrate and sludge generation were obtained from each water supply.

Result and discussions
Figure 1 shows the result of analysis on DEHP and DNBP concentrations in raw andtreated waters of eleven water treatment plants. Both DEHP and DNBP
concentrations in raw water at all treatment plants were less than 1µg/l, and DEHP
concentrations in raw water were almost the same as or higher than DNBP
concentrations in raw water. Both of the distribution of DEHP and DNBP
2
‑ 313 ‑

concentrations in water shifted to lower ranges after treatment, which means that
DEHP and DNBP were removed to some extent.
11

12

Number of plants(-)

8
6

DEHP in raw water
DEHP in treated water
DNBP in raw water
DNBP in treated water

9

10

5

6

4

2

2

3
1

3
1

0

2

1

0

0 0 0

0
<0.05

0.05-0.1

0.1-0.5

Range of concentration(µg/l)

0.5-1.0

Figure 1 DEHP and DNBP concentrations in raw and treated waters
Figure 2 and 3 show the contents of DEHP and DNBP, respectively, in sludge andscum. Sludge samples were taken only at ten treatment plants with a rapid sandfiltration system. Scum samples were taken at the inlet of a sedimentation basin inmost plants, but scum was not formed at three of those ten treatment plants. It isclear from these results that both DEHP and DNBP were concentrated not only insludge but also in scum, and that they tended to be concentrated more in scum thanin sludge. The maximum contents of DEHP in sludge and scum were 14 and 52mg/kg
dry weight, respectively. The maximum contents of DNBP in sludge and scum were
2.2 and 2.3mg/kg dry weight, respectively. It was also found that DEHP tended to beconcentrated in sludge and scum more than DNBP. This might be due to thedifference in Kow between DEHP and DNBP.
Figure 4 to 6 show the result of a detailed study on the mass balance of DEHP atthree water treatment plants with a rapid sand filtration system. It was found fromthe result that a considerable part of DEHP contained in raw water was accumulated

Number of plants(-)

6
5
4

5 5

S ludge
S cum

3

3
2

2

2
1

0 0

0

0
< 0.1

0.1～1

1～10

10～100Range of content(mg/kg)

Figure 2 DEHP contents in sludge and scum3
‑ 314 ‑

Number of plants(-)

7

6

6
5

S ludge
S cum

5

4
3

2

2
1

2

1

1
0 0

0
< 0.1

0.1～1

1～10

10～100Range of content(mg/kg)

Figure 3 DNBP contents in sludge and scumin sludge at each treatment plant, and only a limited part of it was concentrated inscum. The result of DNBP mass balance also showed a similar result. One of thetreatment plants was typical because the water at a top layer of its treated water
reservoir exhibited a very high DEHP concentration at every sampling occasion as
was in a previous study1). Such a phenomenon could not be found in other treatment
plants.
RELEASE OF PAHs AND OTHER CHEMICALS FROM WATER PIPES

Background and objective
Tar-based resin paints such as tar-epoxy and coal tar enamel resin paints had widely
been used for painting the inner wall of water pipes and basins in Japan. Although
they are not used since more than ten years ago, it is of concern that they may have apotential of releasing hazardous chemicals, like EDCs, to drinking water2). It is also amatter of concern that the by-product of a reaction of chemicals, which are released
2.9(2.0-3.7)

26,000(11,000-44,000)
Raw
water

Receivingwell160(90-230)
Cooling water

37,000(10,000-69,000)

Coag./Sed.
basin

Rapid sandfilter

9,300(7,600-12,000)

2,300(0-6,900)
TreatedTreatedwater
wat. res.

890(350-1,700)

Sludgebasin

Thickener

Sewer

Figure 4 Mass balance of DEHP at “R” water treatment plant(unit: mg/d)
4‑ 315 ‑

0.14
(0-0.41)

4,100(0-7,100)
Raw
water

Receiving
well

1,400
(0-4,100)

Coag./Sed.
basin

4,300
(0-4,000)

Rapid sandfilter

2,300(900-4,100)

Treatedwater

Treatedwat. res.

5(0-15)
Sewer

Sludgebasin

Thickener

Dehydrator

3.7(2.1-4.6)
2,300
2,100
(1,600-3,500)(1,200-2,800)
Sludge cake

3,500
(3,300-3,600)

Figure 5 Mass balance of DEHP at “Q” water treatment plant(unit: mg/d)
8,200(0-15,000)
Raw
water

<3.3

2,600
(0-7,700)
Receiving
well

Coag./Sed.
basin

Rapid sandfilter

13,000(9,100-16,000)

1,300(1,200-1,500)

Treatedwat. res.

25(0.02-58)

Treated
water

5,500
(3,900-7,000)
11,000(5,700-17,000)

Sludgebasin

0Thickener

Dehydrator

9,700(1,800-17,000)
Sludgecake

3.7(2.3-4.9)

Figure 6 Mass balance of DEHP at “T” water treatment plant(unit: mg/d)
to water, with residual chlorine in water may have a health risk potential as EDCs.
Then, a study on the release of chemicals was conducted using samples of water
pipes, coated with tar-epoxy resin paint, which were newly produced for the study.

Methods
Two types of new steel water pipes, with an inner diameter of 32mm and 40mm,
coated with tar-epoxy resin paint on their inner wall were used for the study. The
grade of the paint was same as that used for water pipes in old days. Ten pipes of5‑ 316 ‑

each type were installed on a rack, connecting them with each other in line, in awater treatment plant, and continuously supplied with treated water containing
residual chlorine at a flow rate of one cubic meter per day in order to simulate a daily
use of drinking water. The pipes were removed from the rack and transported to alaboratory for a chemical release test at selected time intervals.
The conditions of chemical release test were as follows: temperature at 23±1ºC andcontact time for 16 hours. A bland of commercially available mineral watercontaining minimum concentrations of target chemicals was used for the test without
adding chlorine or any other chemicals. A blank test with a similar procedure, but
without contact with the pipes, was also done in parallel. Chemicals analyzed on an
extract obtained after contact with the pipes and a blank water sample were DEHP,
DNBP, nonylphenol, bisphenol A, and PAHs. If the difference in the concentrations ofeach chemical between an extract and a blank water sample after a similar
procedure was not less than the lower limit of release detection for each chemical, it
was considered that its release had occurred. The lower limit of release detection foreach chemical was determined through a statistical analysis of the result of blanktests separately done. After finishing the test, the pipes were transported back to thewater treatment plant, reinstalled on a rack, and continuously supplied with treatedwater.

Result and discussions
Table 1 shows the result of chemical release tests during six months from the start ofthis study. The release of many kinds of chemicals from both types of water pipes wasobserved at the beginning. The concentrations of DNBP and fluoranthene in a water
sample after contact with 32mm pipes were more than 1µg/l, whereas those of others
chemicals were less than 1µg/l. The concentrations of all chemicals in a water sample
after contact with 40mm pipes were also less than 1µg/l. The concentrations of all
selected chemicals in the extract obtained after contact with both types of pipes
uniformly decreased until six months after the start of this study. It is consideredfrom such a result that water pipes coated with tar-epoxy resin paint may releasechemicals, including phthalates, phenols and PAHs, but the release of thosechemicals will not last for many months. It is planned to continue the study until
about two years after its start even though significant release of selected chemicals
may not occur.
CONCLUSIONS
The main findings of this research on the behavior and mass balance of chemicals
6‑ 317 ‑

Table 1 Release of phthalates, phenols and PAHs from water pipes coatedwith tar-epoxy resin paintChemicalLowerlimit*(µg/l)

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate

0.4

Di-n-butyl phthalate

Released concentration**(µg/l)
At the beginning

After 1 month

After 6 months

32mm

40mm

32mm

40mm

32mm

40mm

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

0.4

1.4

ND

0.7

ND

ND

ND

Nonylphenol

0.08

0.09

0.10

ND

ND

ND

ND

Bisphenol A

0.01

0.39

0.12

0.04

ND

ND

ND

Benzo(a)pyrene

0.01

ND

0.01

ND

ND

ND

ND

Benzo(a)fluoranthene

0.01

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

ND

ND

Fluoranthene

0.01

1.2

0.58

0.60

0.18

0.08

0.04

Benzo(a)antracene

0.01

0.04

0.03

0.02

ND

ND

ND

Pyrene

0.01

0.67

0.38

0.20

0.05

0.01

ND

Chrysene
0.01
0.11
0.12
0.07
0.04
0.02
ND
*) The lower limit of release diction. If the difference in the concentrations of each chemical
between an extract and a blank water sample was not less than this value, it was consideredthat the release of a chemical had occurred.
**) The difference in the concentrations of each chemical between an extract and a blank water
sample.

suspected of EDCs are as follows:
1) Both DEHP and DNBP can be removed to some extent by water treatment with arapid sand filtration system.
2) DEHP in raw water tends to be concentrated in sludge and scum more than DNBP
in raw water.
3) A considerable part of DEHP and DNBP contained in raw water is accumulated insludge at a water treatment plant, and only a limited part of them is concentrated
in scum.
4) Water pipes coated with tar-epoxy resin paint, which were widely used, releasephthalates, phenols and PAHs, but the release of those chemicals will not last for
many months.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study is supported by a Health and Labor Sciences Research Grant in
FY2002-2004. The authors express sincere gratitude to local water supplies forcontributing to the sampling of water, sludge and scum, and to steel water pipe
manufacturers for providing water pipe samples.
REFERENCES
7‑ 318 ‑

1) S. Kunikane, et al.(2002) A report on the behavior of EDCs in drinking water andthe measures against drinking water contamination with them(in Japanese).
2) World Health Organization(1996) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 2ndedition, Vol.2: Health criteria and other supporting information.

8‑ 319 ‑

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Occurrence of Estrogen-Like Substances in Wastewater in Japan
下水処理場における内分泌かく乱化学物質の実態

Yuji Okayasu, , Public Works Research Institute, Japan
土木研究所 岡安祐司

‑ 323 ‑

OCCURRENCE OF ESTROGEN-LIKE SUBSTANCESIN WASTEWATER IN JAPANYuji Okayasu1, Yutaka Suzuki1, Koya Komori1, Makoto Yasojima1
1

Water Environmental Research Group, Public Works Research Institute,
1
1-6, Minamihara, Tsukuba-City, Ibaraki, 305-8516
1
okayasu@pwri.go.jp, htanaka@pwri.go.jp, komori@pwri.go.jp, yasoji44@pwri.go.jp

ABSTRACTThe field study was conducted at twenty WWTPs in Japan about following estrogens:
estrone(E1); 17β-estradiol(E2); 17α-ethynylestradiol(EE2); estriol(E3); estrone-3-sulfate(E1-S); β-estradiol 3-sulfate (E2-S); estriol 3-sulfate(E3-S); estrone β-D-glucuronide(E1-G);
β-estradiol 17-(β-D)-glucuronide(E2-G); estriol 3- (β-D)-glucuronide(E3-G); β-estradiol
3-sulfate 17-glucuronide(E2-S&G); and estradiol 3,17-disulfate(E2-diS). The medianconcentrations of the estrogens ranged from ND to as high as >100 ng/L. In the influent
samples, the concentration of E1, E2 and E3 are the same levels as those were previously
reported. The conjugated estrogens are higher than those of the free estrogens. The
reduction of the free estrogens in WWTPs was good. The concentrations of a few conjugatedestrogens (E1-S and E2-S) were declined in the WWTPs, while the levels of otherconjugated estrogens (E3-S, E1-G, E2-G, E3-G, E2-S&G and E2-diS) were unchanged orincreased in the WWTPs. Moreover, the other field study was conducted at twelve WWTPs in
Japan about following substances: nonylphenol(NP); nonylphenol ethoxylates(NPEOs); andnonylphenoxy acetic acids(NPECs). The concentrations of NP and Long-EO-chain NPEOs
were declined in WWTPs while the levels of short –EO-chain NPECs were increased in the
WWTPs.

KEYWORDS
Endocrine disruptors, 17β-estradiol, estrone, estrogen, estrogen conjugates, nonylphenol,
nonylpehol ethoxylate, nonylphenoxy acetic acid.

INTRODUCTION
In recent years a new problem has emerged in our water environment, namely, endocrine
disruptors (EDs) that may adversely affect the reproductive functions of human beings andwildlife. In Japan the EDs issue has arisen since the book “OUR STOLEN FUTURE (Colborn
et al., 1996)” was introduced in 1997. Contamination of water with EDs poses new andpotential environmental (and social) problems. The Japan Environmental Agency (JEA)
published strategic programs on environmental endocrine disruptors (SPEED ’98), in whichbasic policies and specific approaches to the problem are documented (JEA, 1998). In thisdocument, the JEA listed more than 70 chemicals that are suspected to cause abnormalities
in animals at extremely low levels. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT)
of Japan has decided to grasp EDs conditions in the water environment conducting extensive
studies with major rivers and WWTPs (MLIT, 2001a). Among over 70 suspected substances,
the MLIT selected 27 compounds for the river studies and 25 substances for the WWTPs
studies, based on the annual production of the chemicals and the levels detected in the‑ 324 ‑

environment. The MLIT particularly concerned female hormones originating from humans
and animals. The study by the MLIT, thus far, found that estrogen represented by
17β-estradiol (E2) exists in river water and wastewater (including treated wastewater) at
significant levels (MLIT, 2001a; Tanaka et al., 2001b, 2003).
Analytical methods currently available for EDs are limited their applications to certain
chemicals. The method for the analysis of E2 in the early stage of the MLIT survey had been
based on enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which can detect E2 as low as 0.2
ng/L. However, due to the potential “cross-reaction” problem, ELISA is limited in its
applications to certain conditions when it is applied to domestic wastewaters. Recently,
estrone (E1) has emerged as concerned EDs in water environment (MLIT, 2001b; Goda et al.,2001), and many other estrogen-like chemicals appear to have estrogenic effects on fish.
Furthermore, naturally occurring estrogens (e.g., E1 and E2) and nonylphenol (NP) tend tohave higher estrogenic potentials than other synthetic, industrial chemicals (Yakou et al.,
1999; Tanaka et al., 2001b). Although E2 and 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) can be analyzed
simultaneously using the GC/MS method (Huang et al., 2001), this method is rather
cumbersome requiring a derivatization process. PWRI refined the analytical method
developed by Komori et al. (2001) for the analysis of specific estrogens (i.e., E2, E1, andEE2) present in wastewater. This method uses a LC/MS/MS, but the derivatization process is
not required. Estrogens are excreted by male as well as female animals. Prior to excretion,
most estrogens are hydroxylated and conjugated to glucuronides, sulfates, and acetates.
Because very few analytical methods (Ternes et al., 1999a; Belfroid et al., 1999) are capableof analyzing estrogenic compounds, relatively little work has been directed toward
investigating impacts and occurrence of estrogens in water environment. PWRI refined ananalytical procedure (Komori et al. 2003) that allows routine analysis of estrogens and theirconjugates (i.e., glucuronides and sulfates conjugates) in wastewater based on the method
by Komori et al. (2002),
On the other hand, nonylphenol (NP) is known to be byproduct of nonylphenol ethoxylates(NPEOs) which are used as detergent for industrial use (Ahel et al., 1994). It is important that
not only NP but also NPEOs and their related substances are analyzed when behavior of NP
in wastewater treatment process is surveyed. NPEOs are biodegraded to shorter-EO-chain
NPEOs or NPECs under aerobic condition, and then biodegraded to NP under anaerobic
condition. NP is a suspected endocrine disrupting chemical. Moreover, shorter-EO-chain
NPEO has higher toxicity than longer EO chain NPEO (Comber et al., 1993). PWRI
developed analytical methods (Yasojima et al., 2002a, 2002b) which can analyze NP, NPEO
(EO chain length 1-15) and NPEC (EO chain length 1-10) in wastewater.
O (CH2CH2O)n CH2CH2OH

C9H19

NP (10)EO n=9

NP (3 9)EO
n=2 8

C9H19

O (CH2CH2O)n CH2COOH
NP(3 9)EC
n=2 8

NPE(1 2)EO
n=0 1

NP(1 2)EC
n=0 1

C9H19

Figure 1

OH

Degradation pathway of NP and its related substances‑ 325 ‑

As mentioned above, result of YES (Yeast Estrogen Screening Test) shows that estrogens(E1, E2), EE2 and NP has high estrogenicity. This paper describes results of field study on
estrogen, conjugated estrogens, NP and its related substances in wastewater treatment
process.

METHOD
Field survey of estrogens and their conjugatesIn this study, the analytical method by Komori et al. (2002) was refined for the
analysis of estrogens and their conjugates in wastewater. Sample preparation of thismethod consists of solid-phase extraction with an Oasis HLB cartridge (for the filtrate),
supersonic liquid extraction by methanol (for suspended matter), and cleaning with
Sep-Pak Plus Florisil and Sep-Pak Plus NH2. The pretreated (cleaned-up) sample
was analyzed using a LC/MS/MS. A summary of the overall analytical scheme for
WWTP influent and effluent are illustrated in Fig.2. First, a 500 ml wastewater sample
was filtered through a 1-µm pore size glass fiber filter. Residue on the filter was
extracted by supersonic extraction with 5 ml of methanol. The methanol extract wasthen added to the filtrate. A volume of 0.5 ml of 20% acetic acid, 2 ml of 0.5 mol/l ion
pair coupling (IPC) solution and 40 ng of each internal standard [i.e., estrone-2,4-d2(E1-d2), 17β-estradiol-16,16,17-d3 (E2-d3), 17α-ethynylestradiol-2,4,16,16-d4(EE2-d4), estriol-2,4-d2 (E3-d2), and sodium 17β-estradiol-2,4,16,16-d4 3-sulphate(E2-S-d4)] were added. After the mixing, the solution was passed through an Oasis
HLB cartridge. Flow rate was maintained at 15 ml/min. The Oasis HLB cartridge wasconditioned with methanol and purified water prior to extraction. The Oasis HLB
cartridge was centrifuged with a gentle stream of nitrogen gas until it was driedcompletely. Then estrogen was eluted from the Oasis HLB cartridge with 6 ml ofWastewater

500ml
Glass fiber filter (1 m)

Filtration

Filtrate

Sample on filter

Supersonic extraction with methanol

Add 20% acetic acid, 0.5 M IPC solution and internal standard
Solid-phase extraction ; Oasis HLB

Clean up 1 ; Sep-pak Plus Florisil

Clean up 2 ; Sep-pak Plus NH2
1st elute (Methanol)

2nd elute (0.5% NH 4OH/methanol)

Dry upN2 gasDry upN2 gas

Dissolve

CH3CN/H2O (6:4)

Dissolve

CH3CN/H2O (6:4)

LC/MS/MS

LC/MS/MS

Figure 2

Flow diagram of analytical method‑ 326 ‑

methanol. The eluent was blown down to dryness with a gentle stream of nitrogengas. The dry residue was dissolved in 1 ml of hexane/dichloromethane (1:1, v/v) withsupersonic extraction, and cleaned-up with Sep-Pak Plus Florisil. The cartridge waswashed with 10 ml of hexane/dichloromethane (1:1, v/v). Estrogens were eluted froma Sep-Pak Plus Florisil cartridge with 6 ml of acetone and 6 ml of 0.5%
NH4OH/acetone (v/v). The eluent was collected and concentrated to just dryness
under a gentle stream of nitrogen gas. The dry residue was dissolved in 1 ml ofmethanol with supersonic extraction, and cleaned-up with Sep-Pak Plus NH2. Free
(unconjugated) estrogen was eluted with 5 ml of methanol, and conjugate estrogens
were eluted with 6 ml of 0.5% NH4OH/methanol (v/v). The collected eluent was blown
down to dryness with a gentle stream of nitrogen. The dry residue was dissolved in 1
ml of acetonitrile/H2O (6:4, v/v), which were then analyzed by LC/MS/MS. Operating
conditions of the LC/MS/MS are presented in Table 1.
Table 1.
HPLC

MS/MS

Analytical Conditions of LC/MS/MS

Type of HPLC
ColumnEluentSample size
Type of MS/MS
Ionaization
Collision gas

Agilent 1100
Agilent Zorbax Extend-C18 , 2.1φ × 150mm , 40oC
Acetonitrile 1mM NH4OH = 6 4 , 0.14ml/min
10µl
TSQ API-2
AP-ESI , Negative
Argon
E1269, 145 (50eV)
E1-d2
271, 147 (50eV)
E2271, 145 (45eV)
E2-d3
274, 145 (45eV)
EE2295, 145 (45eV)
EE2-d4299, 147 (45eV)
E3287, 171 (45eV)
E3-d2
289, 173 (45eV)
Measurment ion
E1-3S
349, 269 (35eV)(collision energy)
E2-S351, 271 (35eV)
E2-S-d4
355, 275 (35eV)
E3-S
367, 287 (35eV)
E1-3G
445, 269 (35eV)
E2-G
447, 271 (35eV)
E3-G
463, 287 (35eV)
E2-S&G
527, 351 (35eV)
E2-diS
431, 351 (35eV)

The field surveys were conducted at twenty WWTPs where influent and secondary effluent
were collected for the analysis of estrogens and their conjugates (i.e., E1, E2, EE2, estriol(E3), estrone-3-sulfate (E1-S); β-estradiol 3-sulfate (E2-S); estriol 3-sulfate (E3-S); estrone
β-D-glucuronide (E1-G); β-estradiol 17-( β-D)-glucuronide (E2-G); estriol 3-(β-D)-glucuronide(E3-G); β-estradiol 3-sulfate 17-glucuronide (E2-S&G); and estradiol 3,17-disulfate (E2-diS) .
The capacities of these WWTPs range from 12,000 to 680,000 m3/day. Thirteen of them
apply a conventional activated sludge process. Three WWTPs employ an anaerobic-oxic
activated sludge proceee (A/O process). Other WWTPs adapted various combined process:i.e., a conventional activated sludge process with rapid filtration; a conventional activatedsludge process with rapid filtration and carbon adsorption; or an anaerobic-anoxic-oxic
process (A2/O process) with rapid filtration and step aeration process. Grab samples werecollected at WWTP sites. One gram of L-ascorbic acid was added to 1 litter of sample toprevent oxidation. All samples were collected in one-litter glass bottles, refrigerated, andtransported to the laboratory within one day. Concentrations of estrogens and estrogenconjugates were measured by the method of Komori et al.,(2003).

‑ 327 ‑

Field survey of nonylphenol (NP) and its related substances

12 WWTPs were selected for the survey of nonylphenol and its related substances (i.e., NP,
NPnEO (n=1-15), NPnEC (n=1-10)). All the WWTPs applied a conventional activated sludge
process. The capacities of these WWTPs range from 17,300 to 168,000 m3/day. Grab
samples were taken from the influent and the secondary effluent. One gram of L-ascorbic
acid was added to 1 litter of sample to prevent oxidation. All samples were collected in
one-litter glass bottles, refrigerated, and transported to the laboratory within one day.
Concentrations of NP and NPEOs were measured by HPLC. HPLC was performed by themethod of Komori et al., (2002). Concentrations of NPnECs were measured by LC/MS/MS.
LC/MS/MS was performed by the method of Yasojima et al (2002b).

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Analytical Conditions for the LC/MS/MS Method
We examined the HPLC and MS/MS conditions for the optimal analysis of the estrogens andtheir conjugates. The LC column used was an Agilent Zorbax Extend-C18. In operating the
MS/MS with electrospray ionization, better sensitivity was obtained for the estrogens andtheir conjugates as they were analyzed in a negative mode than in a positive mode. Table 1
lists MS/MS collision energies optimized for each compound. Fig. 3 shows thechromatograms of the standard solutions containing 100 µg/l of each target compound and40 µg/l of its internal standard. Calibration curves were constructed for the quantification of
the estrogens and their conjugates. A linear regression analysis was performed on thestandard solution using the ratio of standard area to internal standard area as follows; E1-d2
for E1, E2-d3 for E2, EE2-d4 for EE2, E3-d2 for E3, and E2-S-d4 for E1-S, E2-S, E3-S, E1-G,
E2-G, E3-G, E2-S&G and E2-diS. Linearity of the calibration curve obtained from the analysis
of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 5.0 and 10 µg/l of each analyte was high (r2 >0.99) for all the standard
curves.

Figure 3

Chromatograms of E1, E2, EE2, E3, E1-S, E2-S, E3-S, E2-S&G, E2-diS,
E1-G, E2-G, E3-G, E1-d2, E2-d3, EE2-d4, E3-d2 and E2-S-d4.

‑ 328 ‑

Detection Limits and Recovery Efficiencies of the LC/MS/MS Method
Detection Limit and Recovery Efficiency of the developed analytical method were examinedusing the standard solutions. The concentrations of the standard solutions, measured
concentration (mean), standard deviation (σ), and detection limit for each compound arepresented in Table 2. The detection limit was defined as three standard deviation (3σ) of themeasurements divided by the concentration of the standard solution. When a wastewater
sample required concentration more than 500 times, the detection limit for each estrogen andits conjugates was estimated (Table 2). The recovery efficiency of the analytical method wasevaluated by spiking 20 ng of each compound to 500 ml of test samples; i.e., purified water,
secondary settling tank effluent, and WWTP influent.

Table 2. Concentrations, Standard Deviations, and Detection limits (ng/l) for Selected Estrogens
E1
E2
EE2
E3
E1-S
E2-S
E3-S
E1-G
E2-G
E3-G
E2-S&GE2-diS

Concentration ofstandard solution
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500

Measurement(Average)
340
410
770
580
490
480
510
820
570
51
400
540

σ

3σ

140
80
190
240
10
40
40
220
70
90
30
50

420
250
580
710
40
120
110
670
200
260
100
150

Detection limit
for sample
0.8
0.5
1.2
1.4
0.1
0.2
0.2
1.3
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.3

The recovery efficiencies of the estrogens with this method are presented in Table 3. The
calculated recovery efficiencies for all the target compounds from purified water were higher
than 75%. The recoveries from the secondary effluent and WWTP influent were higher than
94% for the free (unconjugated) estrogens (i.e., E1, E2, EE2, and E3), while they were lessthan 50% for the conjugated estrogens (i.e., E1-S, E2-S, E3-S, E1-G, E2-G, E3-G, E2-S&G,
and E2-diS). Especially, the recoveries from the WWTP influent were calculated to be lessthan 15%.
Table 3.

Recoveries (%) of estrogens from Purified water Samples
through the Analytical Procedure
Secondray settling tankeffluent
103

Purified water
E1
E2

100

WWTP influent
110

EE2

106
94

100
95

94

E3

100

97

101

E1-S

98

49

10

E2-S

95

51

9.5

42

12

104

E3-S

93

E1-G

78

32

15

E2-G

80

22

8.5

E3-G

75

18

11

E2-S&G

104

23

7.5

E2-diS

102

81

6.5

‑ 329 ‑

Field survey of estrogens and their conjugates

The measured concentrations of the target compounds in wastewater are presented in Table
4. In the WWTP influent, we found: 10 - 57 ng/l (median, 24 ng/l) of E1; ND - 21 ng/l (median,
5.7 ng/l ) of E2; 27 – 220 ng/l (median, 110 ng/l) of E3; 12 - 170 ng/l (median, 42 ng/l) of
E1-S; 26 - 410 ng/l (median, 110 ng/l) of E2-S; 6.5 - 79 ng/l (median, 22 ng/l) of E3-S; ND 88 ng/l (median, 11 ng/l) of E1-G; 5.3 - 100 ng/l (median, 18 ng/l) of E2-G; 4.1 - 73 ng/l
(median, 22 ng/l) of E3-G; 0.8 - 38 ng/l (median, 5.5 ng/l) of E2-S&G; and 21 - 670 ng/l
(median, 77 ng/l) of E2-diS. In the secondary effluent, we observed: ND - 180 ng/l (median,
12 ng/l) of E1; ND - 11 ng/l (median, ND) of E2; ND - 5.8 ng/l (median, 1.5 ng/l) of E3; 7.5 34 ng/l (median, 13 ng/l) of E1-S; 27 - 94 ng/l (median, 52 ng/l) of E2-S; 37 - 160 ng/l
(median, 69 ng/l) of E3-S; 34 - 140 ng/l (median, 74 ng/l) of E1-G; 47 - 210 ng/l (median, 91ng/l) of E2-G; 37 - 150 ng/l (median, 72 ng/l) of E3-G; 3.7 - 17 ng/l (median, 8.9 ng/l) of
E2-S&G; and 160 - 1500 ng/l (median, 360 ng/l) of E2-diS. EE2 was not detected in any of
the samples analyzed (including WWTP influent and secondary effluent). The concentrationsof E1, E2, and E3 were the same levels as those reported in the literature (Tanaka et al.,
2003; MLIT, 2001b; Huang et al., 2001; Komori et al., 2001; Ternes et al., 1999a and Belfroid
et al., 1999). Reductions of E2 and E3 (free, unconjugated estrogens) in the WWTPs werevery good having nearly 100% and 98% reductions (calculated using median value),respectively. Reduction of E1 is 47%, which was considerably smaller than those of E2 andE3. This observation is consistent with Ternes et al. (1999b) who reported that thedegradation rate of E1 is smaller than that of E2. Belfroid et al. (1999) reported that
hormone-glucuronides exist generally below their detection limits in the effluent of WWTPs.
However, the concentrations of the conjugated estrogens that we measured were higher thanthose of the unconjugated (free) estrogens in spite of the lower recovery ratios. The average
concentrations of E1-S and E2-S (conjugated estrogens) were reduced in the WWTPs, butother conjugated estrogens (i.e., E3-S, E1-G, E2-G, E3-G, E2-S&G and E2-diS) were
unchanged or increased. The removal efficiencies of E1-S and E2-S (conjugated estrogens)were approximately 68% and 51%, respectively.
Table 4. Concentrations of Selected Estrogens Detected in Wastewater
ewater Samples
from Twenty WWTPs (ng/l)
mininfluent

effluent

25%

E1
10
17
E2
ND (<0.5)
1.9
EE2
ND (<1.2)
ND
E3
27
52
E1-S
12
21
E2-S
26
52
E3-S
6.5
12
E1-G
ND (<1.3)
5.2
E2-G
5.3
12
E3-G
4.1
11
E2-S&G
0.8
2.2
E2-diS
21
41
E1
ND (<0.8)
3.1
E2
ND (<0.5)
ND
EE2
ND (<1.2)
ND
E3
ND (<1.4)
0.9
E1-S
7.5
8.8
E2-S
27
44
E3-S
37
56
E1-G
34
58
E2-G
47
76
E3-G
37
55
E2-S&G
3.7
6.1
E2-diS
160
240
ND : Not detected (less than detection limit)‑ 330 ‑

median

75%

max

24
5.7
ND
110
42
110
22
11
18
22
5.5
77
12
ND
ND
1.5
13
52
69
74
91
72
8.9
360

29
8.6
ND
130
78
220
41
24
31
38
12
120
46
ND
ND
2
17
56
77
82
110
90
9.6
510

57
21
ND
220
170
410
79
88
100
73
38
670
180
11
ND
5.8
34
94
160
140
210
150
17
1500

Field survey of nonylphenol (NP) and its related substances

The measured concentrations of the target compounds in wastewater are presented in. In
the secondary effluent, we observed: 0.10-1.0µg/L (median, 0.20µg/L) of NP. Table 5 andFigure 3. In the WWTP influent, we found: 0.50-20µg/L (median, 1.7µg/L) of NP.
Regarding NP related substances, in the WWTP influent, NPEOs from NP1EO to NP15EO(mainly NP6EO-NP8EO) were detected but there were hardly any NPECs. In the secondary
effluent, there were hardly any NPEO whose EO chain length is more than 5 and NPECs
from NP1EC to NP4EC were detected. These results indicate that reduction of
long-chain-NPEOs (EO chain length is more than 5) in STPs were very good but reduction ofshort-chain- NPEOs were small. Moreover, it was indicated that NPECs were produced inaerobic wastewater treatment process and degradation rate of long-chain-NPEC (EO chain
length is more than 5) is large but degradation rate of short-chain NPEC is smaller.
In order to understand behavior of target compounds in wastewater treatment process, we
focus on A STP of the 12 STPs as an example. The observed concentrations of target
compounds in A STP are presented in Figure 5, Figure 6.
Regarding NPEOs, in the WWTP influent, NPEOs from NP1EO to NP14EO were detected
and it is indicated that NPEOs were degraded easily in wastewater treatment because
concentrations of NPEOs decreased drastically in the secondary effluent. It is unknown why
values of NP4EO in both the influent and the secondary effluent were relatively large.
Regarding NPECs, in the WWTP influent, concentrations were below 0.1µg/L, butconcentrations of NPECs increased during wastewater treatment. Concentration of NP2EC
was largest and NPEC from NP1EC to NP5EC were observed in the secondary effluent. One
possible explanation about accumulation of NPECs in wastewater treatment process isdifference between degradation rate of NPEO and NPEC. On the other hand, it is indicated
Table 5Results of NP and its relates substances in WWTPs
Detection
limit

Nonylphenol

NP
0.10
NP1EO
0.04
NP2EO
0.04
NP3EO
0.06
NP4EO
0.04
NP5EO
0.05
NP6EO
0.07
NP7EO
0.05
NP8EO
0.08
Nonylphenol
Ethoxylate
NP9EO
0.07
NP10EO
0.15
NP11EO
0.07
NP12EO
0.14
NP13EO
0.18
NP14EO
0.16
NP15EO
0.23
NP1EC
0.002
NP2EC
0.002
NP3EC
0.002
NP4EC
0.002
Nonylphenoxy
NP5EC
0.002
NP6EC
0.002
Acetic Acid
NP7EC
0.002
NP8EC
0.002
NP9EC
0.002
NP10EC
0.002
Unit g/l
N.D. non-detection

Influentminmedian max

0.50
0.82
0.54
1.2
3.5
2.0
2.4
2.4
2.8
2.6
2.0
1.1
0.73
0.23
0.35
0.34
0.085
0.11
0.098
0.086
0.088
0.11
0.054
0.052
0.055
0.057

1.7
2.1
2.9
4.5
9.8
7.3
7.8
7.9
7.5
6.2
5.2
3.9
2.7
1.7
1.2
1.5
0.15
0.36
0.20
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.11

‑ 331 ‑

20
17
11
14
21
23
24
23
24
20
18
15
12
11
6.7
3.4
0.78
4.7
2.5
0.99
0.88
0.48
0.50
0.53
0.46
0.45

Secondary Effluent
Detection min
median max
limit
0.10
0.04
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.05
0.08
0.07
0.15
0.07
0.14
0.18
0.16
0.23
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002

0.10
0.04
0.16
0.07
0.60
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.35
1.1
0.51
0.13
0.065
0.009
0.006
0.005
N.D.
N.D.

0.20
0.26
0.30
0.14
0.98
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
1.2
3.5
1.2
0.52
0.24
0.049
0.019
0.028
0.028
0.023

1.0
0.49
1.5
0.81
1.7
0.08
0.14
0.14
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
3.4
10
4.4
2.5
1.2
0.62
0.31
0.27
0.13
0.069

Conc. ( g/L)

Influent

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Secondary Effluent
max
median
min

NP
NP1EO
NP2EO
NP3EO
NP4EO
NP5EO
NP6EO
NP7EO
NP8EO
NP9EO
NP10EONP11EONP12EONP13EONP14EO
NP15EO
NP1EC
NP2EC
NP3EC
NP4EC
NP5EC
NP6EC
NP7EC
NP8EC
NP9EC
NP10EC

Conc. ( g/L)

NP
NP1EO
NP2EO
NP3EO
NP4EO
NP5EO
NP6EO
NP7EO
NP8EO
NP9EO
NP10EONP11EONP12EONP13EONP14EO
NP15EO
NP1EC
NP2EC
NP3EC
NP4EC
NP5EC
NP6EC
NP7EC
NP8EC
NP9EC
NP10ECmax
medianmin

Figure 4. Change of NP and its related substances in WWTPs

Influent
Secondary Effluent

3
2

NP15EONP14EONP12EONP13EONP11EO

NP9EO

NP10EO

NP8EO

NP7EO

NP6EO

NP5EO

NP4EO

NP3EO

NP

0

NP2EO

1
NP1EO

Conc. ( g/L)

4

Figure 5
3 Change of NPEOs in A WWTP
Influent

1.5

Secondary Effluent

1

NP10EC

NP9EC

NP8EC

NP7EC

NP6EC

NP5EC

NP4EC

NP3EC

0

NP2EC

0.5
NP1EC

Conc. ( g/L)

2

Figure 6
4 Change of NPECs in A WWTP

that long-EO-chain NPEO changed to short-EO-chain NPEO and further to NPEC because
long-EO-chain NPEC were not produced. Concentrations of NP in the secondary effluent
were smaller than those in the influent. It was not unclear whether NP was biodegraded or
removed by adsorption to sludge because concentrations on/in sludge were not measured.

‑ 332 ‑

CONCLUSIONS

1) LC/MS/MS method by Komori et al.,(2003) was applied to the wastewater samples
collected from twenty WWTPs. The concentrations (median) of estrogens and theirconjugates in the WWTP influent range from non-detection (ND) to as high as >100 ng/L. In
the influent samples, the concentrations of E1, E2 and E3 were the same levels as thosewere previous reported. Belfroid et al. (1999) reported that hormone-glucuronides exist
generally below their detection limits in effluent of WWTPs. However, the concentrations ofconjugated estrogens that we measured were higher than those of free estrogens.
2) The reduction of the free estrogens in the WWTPs was very good with approximately
100% and 98% for E2 and E3, respectively, while removal efficiency for E1 (47%) was lesssignificant than E2 and E3, suggesting that the degradation rate of E1 was smaller than thatof E2 in the wastewater treatment processes. The concentrations of the conjugatedestrogens (E1-S and E2-S) were declined in the WWTPs, while the levels of otherconjugated estrogens (E3-S, E1-G, E2-G, E3-G, E2-S&G and E2-diS) were increased in the
WWTPs.
3) HPLC method and LC/MS/MS method by Yasojima et al., (2002a, 2002b) were applied to
the wastewater samoles from twelve WWTPs. The concentrations (median) of nonylpheol
and its related substances in the WWTP influent range from non-detection (ND) to as high as>20 g/L. In the influent samples, the concentrations of NP were the same levels as thosewere previous reported.
4) The reduction of the long-EO-chain NPEOs in the WWTPs was very good withapproximately 100%, respectively, while removal efficiency for short-EO-chain NPEOs wasless significant than long-EO-chain NPEO, suggesting that the degradation rate ofshort-EO-chain NPEOs were smaller than those of long-EO-chain NPEO in the wastewater
treatment processes. The concentrations of the NP were declined in the WWTPs, while thelevels of short-EO-chain NPECs were increased in the WWTPs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank the local governments for kindly providing wastewater samples. We also
thank the laboratory staff who prepared the samples for the HPLC and the LC/MS/MS
analyses.

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Water of the Sewage Treatment Plant, Proceedings of 36th Congress of Japan Society on
Water Environment, 526 (in Japanese)‑ 334 ‑

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Evaluation of Drinking Water Treatment Technologies for
Removal of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
上水道における内分泌かく乱化学物質の除去技術

Kathleen Schenck, U.S. EPA
米国環境保護庁 キャサリン・シェンク‑ 339 ‑

Evaluation of Drinking Water
Treatment Technologies
for Removal of Endocrine
Disrupting Chemicals

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) areexogenous agents that interfere with thesynthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action,or elimination of natural hormones in the bodythat are responsible for the maintenance of
homeostasis, reproduction, development,
and/or behavior.

Kathleen Schenck, Thomas Speth andChristopher Parrett, U.S. EPA
Laura Rosenblum, Steve Wendelken, Barry Pepich,and Radha Krishnan, Shaw, Inc.
Thomas Wiese, Xavier University of Louisiana

Many of the compounds identified as potential
endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may bepresent in surface or ground waters used as
drinking water sources due to their introduction
from:Legislation Associated with
Endocrine Disrupting
Chemicals
Food Quality Protection Act of 1996

Domestic and industrial sewage treatment
systems.

Safe Drinking Water Act Amendmentsof 1996

Wet-weather runoff.

Occurrence of EDCs in U.S. streams
CompoundNumberofsamples

Reporting
limit
μg/L

Freq. ofdetection%

Maximum
conc.
μg/LMediandetectableconc. μg/L

estradiol

70

0.005

10.0

0.093

0.009

ethynylestradiol

70

0.005

5.7

0.273

0.094

testosterone

70

0.005

2.8

0.214

0.116

nonylphenol

85

0.50

50.6

40

a

0.8

Basic strategies to decrease the potential risk ofadverse health effects associated with thepresence of EDCs in drinking water:
Protect drinking water sources fromcontamination by EDCs.
Remove EDCs, that may be present in source
waters, during drinking water treatment.

aa: concentration estimated – reference standard from technical mixture
From: Environ. Sci. Technol. 36,1202 – 1211, 2002,
Environ. Sci. Technol. 36,4007 – 4008, 2002

Compounds to be evaluatedCompounds to be evaluatedCH3
Estradiol

CH3

OH

Estriol

CH3

OH

Progesterone
OH

CH3

C

O

Testosterone
CH3

CH3

O

HO

HO

Ethynylestradiol

CH3O
Dihydrotestosterone OH
CH3

OH
C

CH

CH3

O
HO

‑ 340 ‑

H

CH3

OH

Analytical method for steroid compounds

Technical approach

Solid phase extraction:
Baker C18 XF speed disks eluted withmethanolDevelop analytical methods to identify
and quantify the target compounds.
The approach includes concentration bysolid-phase extraction, followed by
LC/MS.

Quantitation:
Waters ZQ LC/MS, electrosprayXterra C18 column
Single step gradient, 50 – 65% methanol inammonium hydroxide in waterSingle ion mode

Technical approach (cont.)Evaluate the use of a reporter geneassay, the MVLN assay, to detect thepresence/removal of estrogenic activity.
This assay uses a human breast cellline (MCF-7) which has been stablytransfected with the firefly luciferase
gene.

MVLN Cells

MVLN AssayMVLN cells, previously withdrawn from
estrogens, are seeded into 96 well plates(day 1).
Media is removed from wells and replaced withmedia containing treatments (samples, andpositive and negative controls) in ethanol carrier
solvent. All treatments are done in quadruplicate(day 2).
Treatment media is removed and replaced withfresh treatments (day 3).

MVLN Assay (cont.)

140
130
120

MVLN Reporter Gene Assay ofControl Compounds

110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40

Treatment media is removed, the cells are
washed, and lysed. The luciferase activity (light
production) is then determined using aluminometer. (day 4)
Estrogenic activity is determined by comparing
the average luciferase activity for each treatmentgroup to the activity of estradiol or the doseresponse curve of the analyte used.

30
20
10
0
-10
-20
10-14 10-13 10 -12 10 -11 10-10 10-9 10 -8 10 -7 10 -6 10-5
Log Con M
Estradiol
EthE2
E3 -5
Progesterone
Testosterone
DHT
Bisphenol A‑ 341 ‑EtOH
ICI -7
ICI -7 + E2 -9

Technical approach (cont.)

Modeling Requirements

Conduct bench-scale evaluations ofvarious drinking water treatment
technologies, including granular activatedcarbon (GAC), conventional treatment,
softening and nanofiltration.
Pilot-scale evaluations may be conductedon the treatment technologies that appear
promising at bench-scale.

Carbon Information
Isotherms
Film Transfer CoefficientInternal Diffusion Coefficient

Carbon Information
Norit
1240

Hydrodarco
4000

Superdarco

Bulk Density(g/ml)

0.48

0.40

0.33

Apparent
Density (g/ml)

0.66

0.59

0.41

Bed Void
Fraction

0.26

0.32

0.21

Particle
Diameter (mm)

1.04

1.14

1.00

Granular activated carbon (GAC) isotherm
studiesOrganic–free filter sterilized water buffered to
pH 7 with phosphate buffer (0.005 M)
Target compound (100 μg/L) added to buffer
and mixed for approximately 24 hours
Solution added to isotherm bottles containing
various amounts of GAC
After various treatment times, solution is
pumped out through a 0.22 μm filter
Initial and final concentration data used todetermine adsorption capacity of GAC

Adsorption of Ethynylestradiol (EE2)
on Hydrodarco 4000 GAC

Adsorption of Ethynylestradiol (EE2)
on Norit GAC 1240
Liquid-Phase Concentration μg/L

Capacity μg/gb

Week 10.57 ± 0.039a

13400 ± 43

Week 20.14 ± 0.014

13500 ± 40

Week 30.060 ± 0.011

13500 ± 33

Week 10.076 ± 0.0042

13500 ± 72

Week 20.034 ± 0.0066

13500 ± 46

Week 30.011 ± 0.0015

13500 ± 50

Liquid-Phase Concentration μg/L

Capacity μg/gb

100-200 Mesh

100-200 Mesh

Week 1

0.12 ± 0.013a

15700 ± 480

Week 20.022 ± 0.0052

16000 ± 13

Week 30.011 ± 0.0054

16000 ± 58

Week 1

0.091 ± 0.066

16000 ± 46

Week 20.019 ± 0.0074

16000 ± 14

Week 30.0076 ± 0.0029

16000 ± 0200-400 Mesh

200-400 Mesha Meana Mean ± standard deviation of four replicate treatment samples (N=4)

b C

b C was determined by averaging the untreated samples (N=44)0± standard deviation of four replicate treatment samples (N=4)

o was determined by averaging the untreated samples (N=44)

10 4
0.001

1000

1/n

Superdarco, K=378,000 Pg/g(L/Pg)
1/n
Norit-1240, K=198,000 Pg/g(L/Pg)
1/n
HD-4000 K=45,300 Pg/g(L/Pg)

relative EE2 conc. by MVLN assay (ug/LSolid-Phase Concentration (Pg/g)

Comparison of analytical and estrogenic activity results
10 5

Ethynylestradiol Isotherms
200x400-mesh carbon
3 week equilibration
0.01

0.1

1

Liquid-Phase Concentration (Pg/L)

10

0.1

0.001
0.001

0.1

10

EE2 conc. by LC/MS (ug/L)‑ 342 ‑

1000

Short-Bed Adsorber Studies

Effluent Concentration (ug/L)

Influent: 100 μg/L ethynylestradiol inorganic free water buffered to
pH 7 with phosphate buffer(0.005 M)
Column: 44g or 88g of granular activatedcarbonFlow rate: 350 ml/min
Length of run: 10 hrs (210 L)
Sampling: Influent samples were collected
at 0 min, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 hrs.
Effluent samples were collected
at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 min; 1,2, 4, 6, 8, and10 hrs.

30

Average Film Transfer
Determination

Ethynylestradiol Short-Bed Adsorber
44 g of 12x40-mesh HD-4000 carbon
10 m/hr, EBCT=19 sec

25

Carbonkfilm (cm/sec)Datakfilm (cm/sec)
Gnielinski
Correlation

Superdarco

3.4x10-3

2.6x10-3

Hydrodarco
4000

2.1x10-3

1.8x10-3

Norit
1240

2.4x10-3

2.2x10-32015Prediction, kf=2.4E-3 cm/s, Ds=0, Dp=3.3E-6 cm2/s

105Effluent Data

0
0

200

400

600

800

Time (minutes)

Future Study Options

This study will provide information on:
Currently available drinking water
treatment technologies that can remove
EDCs, specifically the steroid
hormones.

Run batch-recirculating study todetermine internal diffusion
Run RSSCTApproaches to optimize these treatment
technologies for EDC removal.

Run pilot columns‑ 343 ‑

Role of Research in Infrastructure Rehabilitation/Renewal
Decision Process and Financing Options – Seismic Design
水道施設の更新に関する意志決定及び資金代替案に関する研究の役割―耐震計画について

Yasumoto MAGARA, Research Initiative “Sousei”,
Hokkaido University, Japan
北海道大学創成科学研究機構‑ 345 ‑

眞柄泰基

Role of research in infrastructure rehabilitation/Renewal decision process and financing
options – seismic designMAGARA,Yasumoto
Professor, Creative Research Initiative “SOUSEI”
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japanmagara@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
Abstract
The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare has published the Vision of Water
Services in June 2004 in order to renovate the Japanese water services system for thesustainable development in the 21st century. This vision is composed many aspects as
an attached document, however this paper deals the standpoint relating with disastermanagement in the Vision, and the lesson learn from Great Hansin earthquake in 1995
and the cost/ benefit analysis of renovation of water distribution system of a model city.
The background of the water vision describes the current situation and future
prospect of Japanese water supply sector. The disaster management in the vision
describes the needs and action program so as to enforce anti earthquake potential ofwater services.
The lesson learned from Great Hansin earthquake describes of the importanceof water quality management. The cost benefit analysis concludes that the cost to
renovate water distribution system brings large enough benefits to water services.
1. Water Vision
1.1 Objectives
On water services in Japan, about 110 years have passed since the modern
water system started in Yokohama, and half a century has almost passed since thecurrent Water Works Law was established. During this period, the water services
expanded in service area as well as water quantity on the high economic growth period
from 1960s to 1980s. And now, it spreads and most of the citizen can use it. In thestability of water quality, water quantity and business management, Japan is one of thecountries where world-leading water services are realized.
On the other hand, in the early part of the 21st century, many water facilities inJapan which were developed in the 20th century become too old, and the renovation is
the most concern. The 21st will be the century when we will, for the first time,
experience the large-scale reconstruction of the water facilities which will be conducted
repeatedly in the future. Furthermore, the ever-increasing trend of the population willend and we are about to go into the decreasing population era. In addition, theenvironment surrounding the water services in Japan is changing significantly: Review
of allocation of roles between the public sector and the private sector, and between the
citizen and the local government, globalization, move regarding the framework of local
autonomy such as merging of municipalities, reduction of young engineers in water
entity.
In this way, on the field of water services, it is time for us to deal with thoseissues and sustainable development with improving water supply service to citizne
further based on the previous development.
The problems which the water services and the water administration face andthe direction of argument are shown in Living Environment Council Report, "Measures‑ 346 ‑

"Measures to improve the water quality of tap water in the future"(November in 1990)"Long-term objective of the improvement of water system toward the
21st century (Fresh Water Supply)" (June in 1991)"The role of water supply and water supply administration in the
21st century"(Water Supply Fundamentals Study Meeting, July of 1999)
Change of the environment
surrounding the watersupply in Japan

Revision of parts ofWater Works Law
2001

Escalation of the issues
which the water supply
business faces

Analysis and estimate of the actual situation and the vision of the future

The future of the watersupplyEstablishment of the common goal of the staffs
Clarification of the future policy issues
Demonstration of the concrete measures and schemes

Figure 1 Objectives of the vision of water services
to improve the quality of water services in the future" (November in 1990) and"Long-term objective of the improvement of water system toward the 21st century(New Benchmark for Better Water services)" (June in 1991) in Heisei era. The details ofthem are concretely shown in "The role of water services and water administration in
the 21st century" which was compiled by Water Fundamental Problem Study Meeting inJuly of 1999. And institutional response is conducted to some of them according to therevision of Water Works Law in 2001. However, the environment surrounding the water
services in Japan is changing fast. The problems about the water services including new
problems, such as water quality in private wells and the role of water business in themerger of municipalities are increasing.
The characteristic of the vision is to analyze and estimate the actual situationand the prospects of the future as quantitatively as possible based on the results of Water
Fundamental Problem Study Meeting, to argue the future of the water services as a

‑ 347 ‑

result of them, and to aim at establishing the common perceptions about the future of
the water services among all persons involved in the water services.
The objective of the vision is to show the process so that the stakeholders canhave the common goal, can divide their responsibilities each other and can work
together in the early part of the 21st century. Therefore, in this vision, we decide toshow the important policy issues concerning the water services in the future, anddemonstrate the concrete measures, the schemes, and the process to deal with the issues
clearly and comprehensively.
Foreseeing the middle of the 21st century, we decided that the target period of
this vision was approximately ten years.
1.2 Disaster management – Need In water business, securing of water for life and livelihood is required even incases of natural disaster such as earthquake, accident of water quality, and emergency
such as terrorism. Therefore, it is necessary to secure the safety of principal water
facility, and the water supply to main facilities, and the system in which renovation is
implemented immediately even when it is damaged.
However, among principal facilities such as purification plants and distribution
reservoirs, the facilities which are now reinforced against earthquakes account for 23%
around the country, the main pipe lines (conduits, main water pipes and etc.) which arereinforced against earthquakes account for almost 13%, and the water suppliers which
create the temporary water supply plan account for approximately 34%. In this way, we
cannot say that we are well prepared in both software side and hardware side on anationwide scale. In addition, facilities become too old, so the vulnerability against
earthquakes is increasing.
Now water is indispensable for national life and industrial activity. We will
implement systematic and efficient facility renewal so that the facilities can fulfill thefunctions enough and the fairness of the burden between the current users and the futureusers can be kept.
We will resolve the problem relating to the people who cannot obtain sufficientwater even at normal time as early as possible and will implement stable water supply inthe regions which are weak to drought.
In emergency situations such as natural disaster including earthquakes,
electricity failure and accident of water quality, the improvement of facilities will be
implemented to minimize the damage to facilities, and in case of the damage offacilities caused by the disaster and accidents such as burst of water pipes, the system inwhich appropriate temporary measures and quick restoration can be implemented will
be developed to minimize the influence by water failure and low water on users.
In the implementation of these measures, we will achieve accountability about
the effect and cost to users, will gain social consensus, and will advance them based on
the characteristics of the region.
1.3 Disaster management – Enhancement measures On the anti earthquake measures, the manual of anti earthquake measures forwater services which was revised in 1996 on the base of the experience of Great
Hanshin Earthquake is available. Also, the enhancement of the cooperation with thebureau in charge of disaster prevention administration, and the steady implementation of
the measures against emergency situation such as accidents of water quality are required‑ 348 ‑

Situation

・Lifestyle whichcannot be formed
without watersupply, Social
economy activity
・Antiearthquakeof facility, Lack ofimprovement ofemergency watersupply base・Intake from theriver system inwhich drought
frequently occurs
・Enhancement ofantiterrorism
measureProblems
・Enhancement ofdisastercountermeasures andpromotion ofantiearthquake ofwater facility
centering on corefacility
・Promotion of
measures against
drought based on thecharacteristics of theregion・Mutualcooperation, securingof safety in area by
widening, cooperation
with relevantorganization toward
optimization of
investment

Main Measures

・Enhancement ofantiearthquake
measures
Absolute response

・ Promotion of
measures against
drought based on
the characteristics ofthe district

Solution・ Securing ofsafety in area by
mutual cooperation
and widening
・Enhancement of
postmortem dealing
at disasterFigure 2 Disaster management of water supply
for water suppliers. Then, we should take it into consideration that we are not onlypressed by postmortem dealing but also take measures to prevent them in cooperation
with relevant persons. We will promote the measures for securing water to importantfacilities such as evacuation centers and medical facilities at disaster , and we will
absolutely and immediately promote the anti earthquake measures mainly in the districts
which are expected to suffer great damage from large-scale earthquakes such as Tokai
earthquake and Tonankai・Nankai earthquake.
The water system is the network structure centering on principal facilities suchas filtration plants. These operate as an individual system, or multiple systems are
established in conjunction with each other according to the situation of cities. To secure
the safety of water system against the risk at disaster, from the view of risk dispersion
and avoidance of redundant investment, it is effective in risk management and economy
to secure the safety in area by mutual cooperation and broad-based measures.
So, as disaster countermeasures, we will promote the measures systematicallyso that the safety in area can be secured by the review of the program on facility
improvement toward securing the safety not in individual facility but in the wholesystem, the mutual cooperation or widening in neighboring water supliers or in watersupliers in a certain sphere, and establishment of the cooperation system with local
residents. Then, we will take important measures so that the water supply route toespecially important facilities such as evacuation centers at disaster and hospitals can be‑ 349 ‑

secured.
On securing the safety in area, we should respond to not only hardware side,
improvement of facilities, but also software side, the emergency water supply and therapid emergency repair which contribute to shortening of influential period after thedisaster. On emergency water supply, and improvement of emergency repair, individual
water supplier develops the plans on those issues. And in addition, we will improve thesystem so that small-scale water suppliers can be supported by the neighboring watersuppliers. Because the organization of smaller-scale water suppliers is more vulnerable
in general.
Toward the expression of comprehensive measures effect with the measuresrelating to securing of drinking water at the disaster which will be conducted by thebureau in charge of disaster prevention administration, and the improvement ofefficiency, under the close cooperation with local residents and appropriate allocation ofroles, we will conduct the adjustment at the plan level in the local disaster prevention
planning and the systematic budget securing.
To respond to the problems, we will promote the following measures.
・Enhancement of Anti earthquake Measures, Absolute Response
・Securing of The Safety in Area by Mutual Cooperation and Widening
・Enhancement of Postmortem Dealing at Disaster
1.4 Disaster management – Action programTo enhance the stability of water supply at disaster, in hardware, we will
intensively tackle securing of the lifeline under the concept in which the principal
facilities of water services, and the important bases in securing of water supply at
disaster such as bases of temporary water supply and medical facilities are unified. We
will improve the system in which required water is supplied at disaster, and which
includes the improvement of the connecting lines that enable broad-based mutualtransfer across the sphere as well as in the neighboring water supplier. We will improveand enhance the system to implement prompt restoration in case of suffering of a
facility.
Also, in software, we will promote the development of the local disasterprevention program and the conclusion of the mutual support agreement in cooperation
with the bureau in charge of disaster prevention administration.
Further, we will establish an audit system which is composed of several watersuppliers, investigate and coordinate the general measures in both software side andhardware side in the broad-based disaster countermeasures, secure the safety in area,and mainly develop a scheme to minimize the damage caused by water failure and low
water. In addition, we will enhance and strengthen the support measures in technology
and finance to support the measures which water suppliers implement.
From the experiences that the last earthquake disaster gave, many problems
have found to remain to be solved by our Bureau against natural disasters, such as
earthquakes, floods or water shortage, and against incidents, such as contamination of
toxicants or pathogenic microorganisms to the source of water supply, any of which
may occur in the future.
To prevent or reduce the influence of water failure and low water on thenational life and socioeconomic activity at disaster such as earthquake and drought, andin the situation of terrorism and others, by estimation of the water facility function inwhich the improvement can be instructed, improvement of the stability of water supply‑ 350 ‑

Appearance of efect ofcomprehensive measures bycooperation with the bureau incharge of disaster prevention
adiministration

Securing of safty in area

Mtual cooperation/ Widening
Soft ware

HardwareAppropriate temorary measures

Securing pondage

backupconnecting lines

Earthquake proofing

Enhancement of backup function

Coordination and coopration withlocal prevention program

Temporary water supply

Quik restoration

Quick restoration system

Role of entity

Establishment of broad-based cooperation

Financial and technical support by the government

Figure 3Action program of disaster management

against the drought, intensive and strategic improvement of facilities in cooperation
with the bureau in charge of disaster prevention administration, we will improve thesafety and stability of the whole water system, and further promote the enhancement of
temporary water supply system and quick restoration system at disaster.
The typical objectives of measures to achieve are as follows.
・To increase the percentage of earthquake proofing of core facilities such as
water treatment plants and distribution reservoirs to 100%, and achieve it as
quickly as possible especially in the strengthening areas of measures against
Tokai earthquake (hereinafter referred to as Tokai area), and the promoting
areas of measures against Tonankai・Nankai earthquake (hereinafter referred‑ 351 ‑

Establishment of audit

Prevention of damage

to as Tonankai・Nankai area).
・To advance the earthquake proofing in pipe networks mainly in principal
lines. To increase the percentage of earthquake proofing principal lines to100%, and achieve it as quickly as possible especially in Tokai area andTonankai・Nankai area.
・To develop the temporary water supply program in the whole business andsecure the target volumes of temporary water supply which is set in the
program. To achieve it as quickly as possible especially in Tokai area andTonankai・Nankai area.
・To improve the quick restoration system such as the support agreement at
disaster with other supliers in the whole companies. To achieve it as quickly
as possible especially in Tokai area and Tonankai・Nankai area.
2. Lesson learned from Great Hansin Earthquake
2.1 Damage of water supply
The Great Hanshin Earthquake occurred at 5:46 am. January 17, 1995 in thesouthern part of Hyogo Prefecture. The earthquake caused a lot of terrible damage to thecitizens in southern Hyogo Prefecture area. The number of fatalities in the earthquake
was more than 6300 and the number of destroyed houses, completely or partially, wasmore than 237 000. The earthquake had significant impact on lifelines, as well as
damage of residential and commercial buildings, railroad, and highway. The watersupply was cut off in ten cities and seven towns. The countermeasures of water supply
in that occasion are an appropriate reference, as shown in followings, for emergency
situation.
The outline of the damage of the water supply by the earthquake is shown in
Table-1. Because the so many water supply pipes were damaged simultaneously, waterin the pipes ran out rapidly and the water pressure flattened. The water leakage at too
many damaged points made it difficult to detect the exact location. The damage rates of
the water supply pipes were 2.22 location km-1 in Ashiya, 1.00 location km-1 in
Nishinomiya, 0.44 location km-1 in Kobe. The extraction of mechanical joint was themain cause of the damage. Supply pipes were damaged at 180 000 households, whichwere equivalent to 13 percents of total households. But in Ashiya and in Akashi, where
polyethylene pipes were used under the road, little damage was reported for thoseportions. Besides the damage of water distribution pipe systems, water treatment
facilities and water supply reservoirs were also damaged. The Niteko dam in
Nishinomiya collapsed severely, and the surface of the Kitayama dam also partly
collapsed. In the Hanshin Water Supply Authority, the first period aqueduct from the
Yodo River was damaged, and the restoration took for about one month. At the
sedimentation tank of the Inagawa water filtering plant in the Hanshin Water Supply
Authority, the expansion joints extended and water leaked out. Since the damaged joints
were restored successively, the plant resumed its operation in someway.
The damage was comparatively small except the Egeyama distribution tank inKobe. Immediately after the earthquake occurs, the water supply were cut off at 1 265
730 households in ten cities and seven towns in Hyogo Prefecture which was equivalent
to 90 percents of total households of these area where water was supplied to 3 495 000
residents. Since the damage of water supply of a city and two towns in southern part of‑ 352 ‑

Awaji Island was comparatively small and restored within short period. The watersupply in nine cities and five towns was cut off for longer time. Especially in Kobe,
Nishinomiya, Ashiya, Amagasaki, Itami, Tsuna, Awaji, Hokutan Higashiura, the watersupply was cut off entirely. The damages of the water utilities in the Hyogo Prefectureamounted more than 55 800 million yen.
2.2 Water quality management in the disasterIn the last case, the target of enhanced disinfection was set at 1.5 ppm ofresidual chlorine at the outlet of the water purification plant. As no infectious disease
outbreak was reported, the system is assumed to work properly. However, it isconsidered that further enhancement would be necessary as a countermeasure against
pathogenic microorganisms in summer.
On the other hand, on a disaster, the sodium hypochlorite which will haveintense demand may not available because of extremely bad traffic jam; therefore,
emergency logistics including the rearrangement of the system, i.e. the method ofdelivery, water storage tanks, etc. should be well considered. In addition, the emergency
manuals must be prepared for the stock, and water utility agencies and related
departments should provide disinfectant by themselves, and whenever needed, pour itby themselves into water truck tanks and water storage tanks.
Just after the last earthquake, considering the water safety for drinking, theemergency operation center discussed to issue the 'boil water' notice as public
information through mass media, as well as the enhanced disinfection. The discussion
was focused on the USA's case of the Great Northridge Earthquake in 1994. However,the discussion reached to the conclusion that it was very difficult to publish the 'boilwater' notice under the circumstances which heat sources such as the electricity or gas
were completely cut off throughout the city, and fire had broken out everywhere andspreading owing to shortage of water for fire fighting. If the earthquake disasteroccurred in summer, it could have been assumed that 'boil water' notice would havebeen published whenever or wherever necessary. For future, a nationwide consensus
must be established on this problem.
At emergency such as a disaster, it is very important and also useful to executemonitoring on every field spot, with water quality inspection expedited rapidly andsimplified, and with handy measuring instruments for water quality. Besides, since theautomatic monitoring system for water quality was very effective for monitoring in realtime after the last earthquake, new monitoring stations were installed at the outlet of theemergency water tanks, which were newly set up underground at four spots of parks in
the Bureau. Thus, the system includes 15 monitoring stations at the terminals of pipelines now and more stations will be set up successively in future.
As to the mutual assistance system for monitoring and management on water
quality on last earthquake, no request for assistance was made for staffs outside of theutility agencies or the like. In future, however, in case of a great earthquake or the likein summer, it will be necessary to make requests for outside staffs' assistance. Therefore,
it is required for each of waterworks utilities to set up immediately the system for theacceptance of assistance from the outside and for the dispatch of staffs for assistance.
And also, it is desirable that the procedures in such system will be established in amanual-form program standardized on the nationwide scale.
3. Cost benefit analysis of renovation of water distribution net-work‑ 353 ‑

3.1 Risk management
Earthquakes are considered the biggest risk to water supply. So most water
utilities undertake measures against the earthquake. The authors consider the financial
benefit is the most important factor in the selection of anti-risk measures. It is noted,
however, that the priority of risks to be considered by experts or risk managers may notalways conform to that of laypersons. (Slovic, 1995) Here discusses a conceptual
procedure of selecting priority risks, which comprise a multirisk to water supply.
The risks such as earthquake, flood and draught are now called the primaryrisks; and the ensuing risk such as damage in water mains and the cost of emergency
water service are termed the sub risks.
Anti-risk measures are classified into (1) mitigation, (2) imputation, and (3)retention of the risk. (Kusano, 2000) “Mitigation” means measures to reduce theprobability of risk occurrence, or mitigate the risk damage by structural strengthening,
moving, etc. In “risk imputation”, although the occurrence of a risk is allowed, thecaused financial loss is hedged by such measures as insurance schemes, bond issues, etc.
A risk with low probability but vary high cost(damage)is often valued higher than a risk
with high probability and low cost.(Japan Standards Association, 2000) “Retention of
the risk” denotes the option to leave the system in question as it is without doing
anything.” Mitigation of the risk” is not necessarily superior to “Retention of the risk.”
If the benefits of the anti-risk measure do not exceed the cost thereof,” Retention of therisk.” may be opted. The two elements will persist unless 100 percent of the risk isremoved.
The cost of a risk is generally defined as the holistic sum of the damage andcost of its sub risks, e.g., in the case of earthquake risk, the restoration cost of damaged
facilities, the lost water sales due to the suspension of operation, the cost of emergency
water service and so forth. To be also included are: the higher value of water toconsumers at the time of severe dearth of tap water than at normal times, or consumer's
surplus, the value of industrial, commercial and service production of the community,etc.
which are forgone because of interruption of service,orlargely reduced supply.(Tomono
and Magara,1996b)
In general there may be more than two measures against a risk. What’s more,
there will be more than two scenarios about the extant of implementing the measure.
One example is an anti-seismic measure against the earthquake risk to water mains. The
measure can be (1) the replacement of entire fragile pipes, or (2) the replacement of
only a part of it. The condition will be similar in the case of other risks.
2.2 Benefits of Anti-Risk Measures
Benefits of anti-risk measures depend on various factors. As to the earthquake
risk, for example, the size of the benefits of anti-seismic measures will depend on thesize of real damage, which is related to the assumed intensity of the tremor, the return
period of the quake, etc. In case the assumed seismic intensity is high, the potential
damage by the risk will be heavy, so the benefits of the anti-risk measure will also begreat. Likewise, the benefits will be large if the assumed return period is short; and viceversa.
The benefits of an anti-risk measure are the balance of the cost of the risk lessthat of the risk after the measure has been undertaken. Now let’s assume the cost of risk
i to be MiO, the cost after the measure is made to be MiR and BiR as the benefit of themeasure against the risk i,‑ 354 ‑

BiR = M iO − M iR････････････(7.1)

Denominating ij as the sub risk j of the risk i, MiR (i=l to 〔l el〕are expressed as
ΣMiOj and ΣMiRj (j＝ｌto m), respectively. Therefore, the benefits BiR of Risk i isexpressed as follows:
l ,m

l ,m

i , j =1

i , j =1

BiR = ∑ M iOj − ∑ M iRj････････････(7.2)

Due to the probabilistic nature of the risk, the values of MiO and MiR are rather
nominal. Denoting the probability of the occurrence for each year as e, the real value ofthe benefits BiR is e(Mio-MiR ). The present worth PpT of an annuity Pa for n years at a
discount rate of r is expressed as follows: (Grant and Ireson 1970) It is proposed touse the discount rate of 5 percent, which is devised as the of return on working assets ofwater utilities in general. (American Water Works Association, 1999)
PpT = Pa ⋅(1 + r ) n − 1
r (1 + r ) n ....................... (7.3)

Therefore, the total real risk MiOT and the total real residual risk MiRT for the
economic life n years of the anti-risk measure are the following:l ,m(1 + r ) n − 1
M iOT = e ∑ M iOj ⋅r (1 + r ) n ............... (7.4)
i , j =1l ,m

M iRT = e ∑ M iRj ⋅i , j =1

(1 + r ) n − 1
r (1 + r ) n ............. (7.5)

Therefore, BiR is rewritten as follows:(1 + r ) n − 1
BiR = e ∑ ( M iOj − M iRj ) ⋅r (1 + r ) n ............. (7.6)
i , j =1
l ,mFurther denominating CiR the cost of the measure against risk i, the following
equation examines whether or not the benefits of the anti-risk measure would exceed thecost of the anti-risk measure.
BiR ≥ CiR ......... (7.7)
Since the benefits do not always exceed the cost of the risk, the following
benefit cost ratio, should also be considered:B
Ei = iC i ......... (7.8)
2.3 Case study
The following is a case study on the earthquake for a mode city in Japan.
According to a consumer survey conducted by the author et al indicates that these risks,‑ 355 ‑

inter alias, are perceived by consumers as the most major risks related to watersupply.(Tomono and Shirozu,1996) The model city has the following features:! Total population: 100,000 persons! Age group structure of the population: In accordance with the age group structureof Saitama Prefecture as the outcome of the 2000 census! Water demand: 34,600m3/day! Total length of water mains in the distribution network:287km, of which pipematerial is composed of: ductile iron pipe(DIP)29.7%; cast iron pipe (CIP)9.5%; steel pipe(SP)3.6%; asbestos cement pipe(ACP)18.2%;polyvinyl chloride
pipe (PVCP)32.4%. (Tomono and Magara 1999a)! Soil condition in the city area: A flood plain of medium consistencya) The Seismic Risk on Water Mains
Applying the above model city, the earthquake risk against water mains wasanalyzed, and the benefits of the measures against it were evaluated. (Tomono andMagara, 1999b) The hypothetical earthquake is assumed to have a seismic intensity ofLevel 2 (Tremor scale: 7).
The cost of risk:(Sub risk 1) Damage to water mains (a total for all pipe materials):¥1,222×106(Sub risk 2) Loss in water sales due to the reduction in distributed water:¥57×106(Sub risk3)Cost of emergency water service (for water wagon, etc.):¥440×106(Sub risk 4) Loss of consumer's surplus due to the curtailed water service:¥347×106(Sub risk 5) Loss of general production:¥2,900×106
Total¥4,966×106
Considering the probabilistic nature of the risk, as its assumed return period is
70 years, the true value of the cost is ¥70.9×106. Then applying the uniform series
present worth factor of 18.26 at the discount rate of 5% p.a. for the life of the anti-riskmeasure of 50 years, the total seismic risk is computed as follows:¥70.9×106×18.26＝¥1,295×106b) Cost of Anti-Risk Measures:
Three alternative measures against the earthquake risk to water distribution
mains ware designed as follows:(1)Alternative A: to replace 20% of DIP,40% of CIP,80% of ACP and 80% of PVCP
pipes with DIP fitted with non-slip type joints:
Cost:¥5,551 x 106(2)Alternative B: to replace, in the same manner, 10%, 20%, 40% and 40% of DIP, CIP,
ACP and PVCP:
Cost: ¥5,551 x 106(3)Alternative C: to replace, in the same manner, 5%, 10%, 20%, and 20% respectively:
Cost: ¥1,388 x 106c) The implementation of the respective anti-risk measure will realize the true residual
risk costs as follows (total for 50 years):(1)Alternative A:¥157 x 106(2)Alternative B:¥586 x 106(3)Alternative C: ¥899×106‑ 356 ‑

d) Benefits of the anti-risk measure
The benefits of the respective anti-risk measures are estimated as the difference
between the cost of risk with and without the anti-risk measure as follows:(1) Alternative A: (¥1,295-¥157)×l06=¥l, 138×l06(2) Alternative B: (¥1,295-¥586)×l06=¥709×l06(3) Alternative C: (¥1,295-¥899)×l06=¥396×l06e) Economic Benefits of the Anti-risk Measure and their SignificanceEconomic benefits of the anti-risk measures are the following:(1) Alternative A: (¥1,138-¥5,551)×l06=-¥4,413×l06(2) Alternative B: (¥709-¥2,776)×l06=-¥2,067×l06(3) Alternative C: (¥396-¥1,388)×l06=-¥992×l06
This shows that none of the alternatives will bring large enough benefits torecover their costs.
4. Conclusions
It is unavoidable of serious disaster that disturb water supply of potable water.
In case of a strong earthquake, physical forces damage water supply. Then public watersupply system can not afford necessary water for daily community activities such as not
only domestic but also social and business activities, even in a hospital services. In
order to reduce the risk of the interruption of continuous water supply it is necessary torenovate the existing water supply system from the both of hardware and softwaresystems. The example of the cost and benefit analysis of the renovation of water
distribution system in a model city shows that the cost of it brings large enough benefits
to recover it after the disaster.
Therefore, as shown in the water vision, water services supplier should
implement further efforts to reduce the risks of damage of their system by theearthquake especially in the areas of high risk large earthquake warned by thegovernment.
References
American Water Works Association (1999) AWWA manual M1:Water rates
Japan Standards Association (2000) Risk management Guide
Kusano,N. The need for risk management in civil engineering(2000). Journal of Japan
Society of Civil Engineers. 84:07
Slovi, P. et.al: Intuitive Toxicology,II Expert and Lay judgment of chemical risks in
Canada, Risk anlysis. 15,661-675
Tomono,K and Shirozu,T (1996) consumers perceptions of risks related water supply.
Journal of JWWA. 65:10 ,15-25
Tomono,K and Magara.Y.( 1999a) An analysis of costs and benefits of anti-riskmeasures in water supply((1) Definition of subrisks). Journal of JWWA. 779 , 2-12
Tomono,K and Magara.Y.( 1999a) An analysis of costs and benefits of anti-riskmeasures in water supply((2) Consumers surplus equation). Journal of JWWA. 780 ,26-36‑ 357 ‑

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Role of Research in Infrastructure Rehabilitation/Renewal Decision
Processes and Financing Option
社会基盤の改築更新についての意思決定過程および財源負担方法に関する調査の果たす役割

Yuichi Suga, Japan Sewage Works Agency, Japan
日本下水道事業団 須賀雄一

‑ 363 ‑

Role of research in infrastructure rehabilitation/renewal
decision processes and financing option
Yuichi SUGA
Research and Technology Development Division
Japan Sewage Works Agency
5141 Shimosasame, Toda, Saitama 335-0037 Japan

ABSTRACTIn Japan, the needs for the rehabilitation/renewal of wastewater treatment plants are
increasing. When carrying out the rehabilitation/renewal, not the simple renewal but thefunctional improvement is called for in many cases.
In order to support municipal corporations which undertake sewage works, Japan Sewage
Works Agency has prepared a manual for advancing the rehabilitation/renewal smoothly.
Moreover, technology development required for the functional improvement is positively
promoted.
KEYWORD
Rehabilitation/renewal manual, advanced treatment and high functional treatment,
improved durability of facilities
INTRODUCTION
The percent of sewered population in Japan reached to about 65% in 2002, and 1,700 or
more wastewater treatment plants are under operation. Among these, the percentage of aging
treatment plants which have been operated for 15 years or more is over 35%. This number isincreasing every year and the demand for facilities and the rehabilitation/renewal of apparatus
is increasing. Furthermore, with the rise of the concern about environmental problems, water
quality regulation is strengthened and the needs for the advanced treatment andmultifunctionality are increasing. Consequently, also in the rehabilitation/renewal, renewal
accompanied with functional improvement rather than simple renewal.
To cope with this problem, municipal corporations which undertake sewage works are
asked for heavy financial burdens, and this causes the aggravation of their financial situation.
Japan Sewage Works Agency is an organization founded in order to support sewage worksof municipal corporations which have less personnel with the special knowledge about sewer,
and has so far participated in the plan, design, and construction of many sewage treatment‑ 364 ‑

plants. With the rise of needs, the substantial support menu is also planned for the
rehabilitation /renewal.
THE CONTENTS OF SUPPORT REQUIRED FOR THE REHABILITATION/RENEWAL

When municipal corporations undertake the rehabilitation/renewal of sewerage system, thecontents of support expected to the Japan Sewage Works Agency are as follows.
- Support for the enforcement of the efficient rehabilitation/renewal- Technical support for the advanced and efficient treatment function
In order to respond to these needs, the tasks which Japan Sewage Works Agency should
carry out can be considered as follows.
- Accumulation of know-how and skills about the rehabilitation/renewal- Preparation of full-scale estimation for design and construction- Cooperation with municipal corporations for supporting work management and operation- Technical proposals for the increase in efficiency and advancement of wastewater/sewage
treatment, and the improvement in durability of facilities
In order to advance these works smoothly in response to the rise of needs for the
rehabilitation/renewal by the municipal corporations, the new manual which systematized therehabilitation/renewal was created in 2004. Moreover, various new technologies aiming at atreatment functions and the improvement in durability of facilities have been developed.
ACTIVITIES BY JAPAN SEWAGE WORKS AGENCY
Preparation of new manual about rehabilitation/renewal
Main works which municipal corporations need to do when undertaking therehabilitation/renewal are as follows.
- Preparation of a financial plan
- Functional diagnosis of degradation, seismic capacity evaluation, treatment functional
inspection, etc.
- Preparation of a rehabilitation master plan
- Rehabilitation design and construction
In order to perform such a series of works smoothly in response to municipal corporations’needs, Japan Sewage Works Agency revised the rehabilitation work manual. This manual
covers the construction management of rehabilitation works from the formation of a
medium-to-long term plan including the above-described financial plan, the various
investigations and diagnostic works, the planning, design, and to construction management.
As of these works, close cooperation should be established between the works led by the‑ 365 ‑

municipal corporations, such as the preparation of a financial plan, the proper asset
management of the facilities, and the daily operation and management of the facilities, and theworks executed by Japan Sewage Works Agency based on the request of municipal
corporations.

The manual defines these works as a successive work steps.

The flow

diagram of the works is shown in Fig. 1.
Operation support menu
-Providing information necessary for preparing an efficientrehabilitation/renewal plan
Supporting function inspection, seismic capacity evaluation,
degradation diagnosis, and financial planning

Japan Sewage Works Agency
SupportMunicipal Corporations
Financial plan of municipal corporations
estimate, organization, function of treatment, scale offacilities, formulation of a medium-to-long term plan
Consignment

Reconstruction master plan
-Confirmation of the basic terms
population, pollutant load per unit activity of source, capacity oftreatment, treatment method, related plan
Review of maintenance conditions, function inspection, seismic
capacity, and degradation diagnosis- Establishing basic plan
Review of treatment capacity and treatment method; and adjustment
with the financial plan
- Establishing the project execution plan
- Preparation of required documents for acquiring the project approval
Delivery
Change of project approval
Consignment

Detail design of rehabilitation

Construction
DeliveryOperation

Fig.1 Rehabilitation/renewal project flow diagram‑ 366 ‑

Development of New Technology
Technologies relating to the rehabilitation/renewal include the technology to increase inefficiency and to advance the water treatment and sludge treatment, and the technology to
improve the durability of wastewater treatment facilities.
Water treatment, sludge treatment technology
The conventional wastewater treatment has been carried out focusing on the removal oforganic materials and SS. However, the needs to nitrogen and phosphorus removal are also
increasing by the strengthening of water quality regulation. Although it is necessary to add a
new function to the present treatment system in order to raise the treatment functions with therehabilitation/renewal, sewage treatment plants, especially in city areas of Japan, do not haveenough space, and in many cases, they will need to raise the treatment function, maintaining
present plant areas. For this reason, it is necessary to attain miniaturization of treatment
facilities. The following measures have been carried out for the purpose.
- Development of the membrane bioreactor (MBR)- Development of the step-feed multistage denitrification-nitrification process- Development of the proper design method responding to discharge water quality

Fig.2 MBR experiment equipment
Moreover, responding to the rise of needs for recycling of sewer sludge, the following
measures have been carried out as the new sludge treatment technology.
- Development of sludge volume reduction technology- Development of an energy recovery type sludge treatment system- Development of a sewage sludge carbonizing system

Technology for improving the durability of structures
On the other hand, since improving the durability of structures leads to prolonging the lifeof a treatment facility, and has the effect to lessen the frequency of rehabilitation/renewal, in‑ 367 ‑

Japan Sewage Works Agency is tackle to improve the durability of concrete structures now.
This is because concrete structures deteriorate at an early stage by sulfuric acid corrosion andpose a problem. At present, the surface covering method of construction by resin is adopted
for concrete structures exposed under sulfuric acid corrosion environment. However, thismethod costs a lot and durability life is as short as ten years. In Japan the standard effective
working life of a concrete structure is determined as 50 years, and it is necessary to repair
repeatedly. The following measures are carried out in order to solve this problem.
- Development of concrete which is resistant to sulfuric acid corrosion and of repairing
materials- Development of a degradation prediction system for concrete material- Development of a simple diagnostic technology for structures
Among these, concerning the development of sulfuric acid-proof concrete and mortar, wedeveloped a concrete material which usually has about 5 times that of concrete. Developmentof the concrete which usually has 10 times as high sulfuric acid-proof nature as an ordinary
concrete material has is due to be started from now on.

Before

After

Fig.3

Example of repair by sulfuric acid-proof mortar

CONCLUSION
1) For the smooth municipal corporations enforcement of the rehabilitation/renewal of asewerage facility, the systematization of a project flow and the fulfillment of a support
menu were conducted.
2) The new treatment technology and the durability improvement technology which lead tothe successful rehabilitation/renewal have been developed, and the substantial technicalsupport menu for municipal corporations is carried forward.

‑ 368 ‑

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Role of Research in Infrastructure Rehabilitation/Renewal
Decision Process
水道施設の更新決定プロセスにおける研究の重要性

Jian Zhang, Awwa Research Foundation, US
米国水道協会研究財団 ジャン・チェン‑ 373 ‑

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‑ 378 ‑

Infrastructure Rehabilitation/Renewal Decision Processes
AwwaRF Projects
Information Collectiona) Condition Assessment
1. Water Utility Experience with Plastic Service Lines (#414). Published in 1992 – Order No.
90593.
2. Nondestructive Testing of Water Mains (#507). Published in 1992 – Order No. 90601.
3. Electromagnetic Inspection of Prestressed Concrete Pressure Pipe (#2564). Published in2001 – Order No. 90854.
4. Nondestructive, Noninvasive Assessment of Underground Pipelines (#355). Published in
2002 – Order No. 90873.
5. Workshop on Non-Interruptive Condition Assessment Inspection Devices for Water
Transmission Mains (#2871). Ongoing.
6. Testing and Condition Assessment of Joints in Water Distribution Pipelines (#2689).
Ongoing.
7. Techniques for Monitoring Structural Behavior of Piping Systems (#2612). Ongoing.
8. Installation, Condition Assessment, and Reliability of Service Lines, Connections andFittings (#2927). Ongoing.
b) Long-term Performance Prediction
1. Performance of Prestressed Concrete Pipe (#724). Published in 1994 by the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation
2. Investigation of Grey Cast Iron Water Mains to Develop a Methodology for Estimating
Service Life (#280). Published in 2000 – Order No. 90787.
3. Long-Term Performance Prediction for Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe (#2879). Ongoing.
4. Performance and Life Expectancy of Elastomeric Components in Contact With Potable Water(#2932). Ongoing.
5. Life Cycle Analysis of Epoxy Lining (#2941). Ongoing.
6. Long-Term Performance Prediction of PE Pipe (#2975). Ongoing.
7. Impact of Petroleum-Based Hydrocarbons on PE/PVC Pipes and Pipe Gaskets (#2946).
Ongoing.
8. Long-Term Performance of Ductile-Iron Pipe (#3036). Ongoing.
c) Location
1. Innovative Techniques for Lead Service Line Location (#813). Published in 1995 – Order No.
90601.
2. New Techniques for Precisely Locating Buried Infrastructure (#2524). Published in 2001 –Order No. 90859.
3. Multi-Utility Buried Pipes and Appurtenances Location Workshop (#2882). Completed in
2002. Published by UKWIR.
4. Development of Advanced Buried Infrastructure Tracer Wire (#3050). Ongoing.

1‑ 379 ‑

Rehabilitation/Renewal Technologies
1. Assessment of Existing and Developing Water Main Rehabilitation Practices (#314).
Published in 1990- Order No. 90572.
2. Demonstration of an Innovative Water Main Rehabilitation Technique: In Situ Epoxy Lining(#808). Published in 1995 - Order No. 90667.
3. Demonstration of Innovative Water Main Renewal Techniques (#255). Published in 1999 Order No. 90768.
4. Lead Pipe Rehabilitation and Replacement Techniques (#465). Published in 2000- Order No.
90789.
5. Investigation of Pipe Cleaning Methods (#2688). Published in 2003 - Order No. 90938.
6. Non-Disruptive Tools for Remaking Connections After Pipe Rehabilitation (#2872).
Ongoing.
7. Guidelines to Minimizing Downtime During Pipe Lining Operations (#2956). Ongoing.
8. Technology for Horizontal Directional Drilling (#2967). Ongoing.
Decision-making and Planning
1. Water Main Evaluation for Rehabilitation/Replacement (#54). Published in 1985 –Order No.
90509.
2. Criteria for Renovation or Replacement of Water Treatment Facilities (#323). Published in1991 – Order No. 90563.
3. Quantifying Future Rehabilitation and Replacement Needs of Water Mains (#265).
Completed in 1998
4. Financial and Economic Optimization of Water Main Replacement Programs (#462).
Published in 2001 – Order No. 90821
5. Capital Planning Strategy Manual (#2520). Published in 2001 – Order No. 90838
6. Water Treatment Plant Infrastructure Assessment Manager (#460/2921). Published in 2001 –Order No. 90843.
7. Synthesis Document on Distribution System Infrastructure (#2629). Published in 2001 –Order No. 90846
8. Prioritizing Water Main Replacement and Rehabilitation (#459). Published in 2002 – OrderNo. 90898.
9. Decision Support System for Distribution System Piping Renewal (#2519). Published in
2002 – Order No. 90892.
10. Costs of Infrastructure Failure (#2607). Published in 2002 – Order No. 90918.
11. Main Break Prediction, Prevention, and Control (#461). Closed.
12. Synthesis Documents on Infrastructure Integrity (#2772). Ongoing.
13. Risk Management of Large Water Transmission Mains (#2883). Ongoing.
14. Dynamic Influences on the Deterioration Rates of Individual Water Mains (#3052). Ongoing.
15. Development of Consensus Performance and Cost Targets for Water Pipeline Inspection
Technologies: A Workshop (#3065). Ongoing.

2‑ 380 ‑

Bromate Formation and its Control in Advanced Water Treatment
System
高度浄水処理における臭素酸の生成と制御

Tohru Miyagaki, Bureau of Waterworks,
Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Japan
東京都水道局‑ 381 ‑

宮垣融Bromate formation and its control in advanced water treatment system
Tohru MIYAGAKI
Kinuta purification plant, Bureau of waterworks, Tokyo Metropolitan Government

１ Introduction
We have many experiences of musty odor in tap water caused by microbes of lakes
and rivers in Japan. As a measure for these cases, some waterworks have introduced
advanced water treatment systems composed of ozone and granular activated carbon. The
Tokyo waterworks has also installed an advanced treatment system of ozonation andbiological activated carbon treatment in the plants of Tone River system one after
another, whose water is often affected by musty odor.
But during the ozonation, bromate, which is detected a little in raw water, isformed from bromide ion by way of hypobromite. In April of 2004, bromate was includedin Japanese drinking water quality standard. The value is 0.01 mg/L. Bromate needs tobe reduced in case of high concentration of bromide ion in raw water.
This report shows the effectiveness of advanced oxidation process (AOP) for
reducing bromate formed by ozonation in case of high bromide concentration of raw waterand the result of a bromate formation control study in Misato purification plant, which
has ozonation treatment system.

２ Occurrence of musty odor and countermeasures in Japan
In recent years, while the number of waterworks, which had experiences of musty
odor in raw water, has stopped increasing, the number of supplied people suffering fromthe musty odor and taste has been decreasing dramatically (Fig. 1).
The decrease is considered to be attributed to installation of advanced water
treatment systems such as ozonation-BAC filtration in the Metropolitan purification
plant that has much supplied population. And nine million m3/day of ozonation facility isin operation from 2000.
In Tokyo, musty odor and taste has occurred in waters of the Tone River System.
The Edo River, the branch of the Tone, has some inflowing small rivers. Since 1970’s,
these rivers have been seriously contaminated by domestic wastewater and bred many
musty odor-producing microbes. The Kanamachi purification plant, which takes from the
Edo River, tried to remove it by powdered activated carbon, but couldn’t enough.

1‑ 382 ‑

25000

200

20000

150

15000

100

10000

50

5000

0

N um ber ofcustom ers(X1000)

N um ber of w aterw orks

250

0
83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02
F.YearN um ber of w aterw orks

N um ber of custom ers(X1000)

Fig.1 Trend of the number of waterworks and customers suffering from odor of tap
water

1000
900

Number of complaint

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

Year

Fig. 2 Trend of the number of complaints in Kanamachi plant
The Tokyo waterworks requested the government and relevant jurisdiction to
improve water sources such as promotion of constructing sewerage system. But as it
would have taken much time, we installed the advanced treatment system with ozonation
and biological activated carbon expecting more effective and stable treatment in 1992.
Table 1 shows the effect of treatment on each subject.
Since installing the advanced treatment system, no complaint about odor and taste
has been received (Fig. 2).

2‑ 383 ‑

In order to remove trihalomethane precursors as well as musty odor, the Tokyo
waterworks will sequentially install the advanced water treatment system in purification
plants taken from The Tone River.

Table 1

Removal efficiency at each stage of treatment(%)

Coagulation
sedimentation

Ozone

BAC

Total

2-MIB

20

70

10

100

MBAS

10

35

35

80

NH3-N

10

0

90

100

THM-FP

30

10

20

60

３ Bromate formation by ozonation and its control
In Japan, bromide concentrations in raw waters are usually less than 0.05 mg/L
and if the residual ozone concentration is controlled appropriately, bromate formation
probably makes no matter. But under the influence of soil, seawater, and industrial
wastewater, bromide level in raw waters become high. It is necessary to take somemeasures in these area. If using sodium hypochlorite for disinfection, addition from thedisinfectant is also considered.
In Tokyo, we can usually satisfy a bromate standard of 0.01 mg/L by controllingthe dissolved ozone concentration. But we studied the effect of reduction in bromate
formation by advanced oxidation processes, preparing for high level of bromide in raw
water in the future.

4 The study on reduction of bromate formation by advanced oxidation processes
1) Objective and Background
The Tamagawa water treatment plant has been halted treating for drinking
water because the raw water got deteriorated. Toward resumption of treatment for
drinking water, a large scale of ozonation experimental plant was equipped and various
water treatment experiments have been conducted.
We have studied utility of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) by combination ofozone and another oxidizing agent. This process generates higher reactive OH radicals,
which directly oxidize organic substances in water, than ozonation only.
3‑ 384 ‑

Compared the effects on oxidizing dissolved organic substances using various
oxidizing agent, hydrogen peroxide or EDTA or ultraviolet radiation, titanium oxide,hydrogen peroxide was adopted as the oxidizing agent.
Next, we compared process performances of simultaneous treatment method withthat of sequential treatment method. The simultaneous treatment method was injectinghydrogen peroxide and ozone simultaneously and sequential treatment method was
injecting hydrogen peroxide after ozonation. In reduction of organic substances, there waslittle difference between the two methods. In contrast, bromate formation was much lower
in the simultaneous treatment method. In sequential treatment method, bromate ion wasformed before the injection of oxidizing agent because ozone was fed previously. On theother hand in the simultaneous method bromate was formed just a little. It was estimatedthat the simultaneous method was able to reduce bromate formation by disappearance ofdissolved ozone before the formation.
In the raw water taken from lower reaches of the Tama River, bromide ion
concentration is very high, as well as organic matter. That is why ozonation for removing
organic matter produces much bromate.
On this report, we show results of bromate formation depending on the method ofozone injection adopting hydroxyl peroxide as the oxidizing agent.
２）Experimental plants outline
The water used in this study was sampled after coagulation and sand filtration
applied to raw water from downstream of the Tama River. Fig. 3 shows the ozone
contacting system outline.

①counter-current

flow②down-flow
Sand filtrate

Sand filtrate
H2 O 2H2 O 2ozone

ReactorTo BACozone

To BAC

Fig. 3 Ozone contacting system

4‑ 385 ‑

Table 2

Experimental condition

Ozonation

AOP

Injection

C.C

D.F

C.C

D.F

Depth of contactor

6,8,106,10

6,8,106,1060,80,100

60,80,100

60,80,100

60,80,100

4×3

5

4×3

5

injection=3

injection=3

Water volume(m3/d)
Retention time
(min)
Ozone
concentration

disol.O3=0.2 disol.O3=0.2(mg/L)
H2O2/O3 ratio--

disol.O3=0.2
0.2 0.5 2

disol.O3=0.2
5C.C: counter current flow injection method
D.F: down-flow injection method

One was a three-stage countercurrent flow system. Ozone gas was continuously
diffused at the bottom of each column in countercurrent flow with the water. Hydrogen
peroxide was injected at an influent point in the first reactor. The other was a Down-flow
injection system. Both of ozone and hydrogen peroxide were simultaneously injected at
the top of a water column. Ozonation water, effluent from ozone reactor, was filtered with
BAC and sand filter to appreciate the effect of this system totally. Table 2 shows thecondition of the experiments and Table 3 shows the water quality of studied water.

Table 3. studied water quality
Water
temp.

Max

Min

Average

28.6

8.0

18.0

7.7

7.0

7.4

mg/L

2.0

0.6

1.4

μg/L

260

24

150

℃

PH
DOC
Bromideion

5‑ 386 ‑

3) Result and discussion
Fig. 4 shows the seasonal change of bromate concentration in ozonationcomparing down-flow injection with counter-current flow injection. During ozonation,competition occurs between organic substances decomposition and bromate formation for
dissolved ozone. Previous works reported that the ozone consumption by decomposition oforganic substances preceded bromate formation and the ozone consumption for bromate
occurred after the decrease of decomposable organic substances. 1)

counter-current
dow n-flow

20-

B rO 3 (μg/L)

30

10

0
A pr-03 M ay-03 Jun-03

Jul-03A ug-03 Sep-03 O ct-03 N ov-03 D ec-03 Jan-04 Feb-04 M ar-04

Fig. 4 Seasonal change of bromate concentration in the counter current flow injection anddown-flow injection methods
From the result of our experiment, it was estimated that bromate formation was
inhibited in the counter-current flow injection method because ozone consumption byorganic substances decomposition preceded until the latter half of ozonation times. In
contrast, in the down flow injection method, it was estimated that bromate formation byhigh concentration of ozone occurred from the initial period of reaction because
decomposition of organic substances ended in very short time.
Bromate amount produced by ozone consumption on the down-flow injection

method is more than by the other method. The organic substances decomposition abilitiesof the two injection methods were nearly same. As the down-flow injection treats
substances in short time, the self-decomposition rate of ozone is relatively small in it.
This leads to much consumption of ozone for bromate formation.
Multi-linear regression was performed in order to select some parameters
controlling the bromate formation. The bromate formation is considered to depend on
water temperature, pH, ammonium-nitrogen, bromide level, organic substances, and Ct
value. From the characteristic of studied water (the Tama River), parameters were
6
‑ 387 ‑

limited to water temperature, bromide ion, and Ct value. The result showed that thestrongest parameter was raw water temperature, bromide concentration in raw water andCt value were followed (Table 4).
Table 4 multi-linear regression analysis on bromate formation

Contact

counter current injection down-flow injection

methodO3 control

Dissolved O3 injection

Dissolved

methodO3 conc.

O3 conc.

Multiple correlation

rate

O3
injection
rate

0.89

0.74

0.95

0.72

0.74

0.88

1.1

0.92

Bromide

0.49

0.63

0.67

0.91

Ct

0.23

0.55

0.44

0.33

coefficient
Regression

Water

coefficienttemp.

On the other hand, in the advanced oxidation process adding hydrogen
peroxide, bromate production was suppressed remarkably, as the H2O2/O3 ratio wasraised. In the down flow method, bromate concentration was less than water quality
standard (10μg/L) at the injected H2O2/O3 ratio over 2 (Fig. 5). The reduction rate oftrihalomethane forming potential value with AOP was smaller than that with ozonation
only.
And DOC reduction rate did not change. We estimated that strong oxidation by
AOP proceeded decomposition of persistent organic substances and produced
trihalomethane precursor which was smaller molecule and highly reactive to chlorine. We
plan to research dynamics of organic substances with molecular weight fractionation etc(Fig. 6).

7
‑ 388 ‑

15

BrO3 (µg/L)

counter current
down-flow

10

5

0
0

1

2
3
H2O2/O3ratio

4

5

Fig.5 H2O2/O3 ratio and amount of BrO3（controlled O3 concentration）

Reduction rate (%)

100
DOC
THMFP

80
60
40
20
0
0

2
4
H2O2/O3 ratio

6

Fig. 6 Relation between H2O2/O3
ratio and DOC, THMFP reduction rate
5 Survey on bromate concentration and measures to reduce at the Misato purification
plant
The Misato purification plant has introduced advanced water treatment systemand on-site producing facility of sodium hypochlorite. As bromate concentration of treatedwater sometimes rises to a higher level in summer, many researches on the reduction
8‑ 389 ‑

have been conducted. This section is a report on the survey of bromate concentration in
the water of each purification process and a method of controlling bromate formation.
The Misato purification plant is at Misato city in Saitama Prefecture, which is 20
km away from Tokyo. The plant is the newest plant in the Tokyo waterworks. The
operation started in 1985. The total capacity of water purification facility is
1,100,000m 3/day. It takes raw water from the Edo River and supplies treated water about
1.8 million in Tokyo. Since 1999, advanced water treatment facilities, combined withozonation and biological activated carbon, have been operated. At present half volume of
the capacity, 550,000 m 3/day is treated in the system. Ozone injection method is threestep counter-flow type.
The result of the survey shows bromate was higher in summer than in winter. In the
raw water bromate was rarely detected and the concentration was about 0.5 μg／L.
Lower bromate concentration in a conventional treatment process in 2003 than 2002 wasobserved. The reason was considered to be the change of raw material to the salt that hadbromide fewer.

9‑ 390 ‑

During the ozonation process bromate concentration gradually increased as flowing
through each reactor (Table 5).

Bromate formation reaction was estimated to come toequilibrium before reaching the third reactor. Bromate concentration in the ozonatedwater and BAC filtered water were the same levels. This meant BAC treatment couldn’t
remove bromate formed by ozonation.
Next, bromate concentrations were measured in water at the output of contacting
reactor as the target value of dissolved ozone changed. Table 6 presents the results.
The results confirmed bromate formation by ozonation was proportional to the dissolved
ozone concentration in water at the output of ozone reactor. And it was considered todepend on pH, water temperature, organic matters, ammonium-nitrogen. And thenprevious various bromate formation models were considered.

Magara's equation30

Asami's equation
Ito's equation

25

Galey's equation

20
15
10
5

11
/26

11
/6

9/1
0

8/2
0

7/1
6

12
/16

11
/19

9/1
7

8/2
7

7/2
3

11
/12

10
/29

9/3

-5

8/1
3

0
7/9

Bromate (forecasted－ measured) （
µg/L)

35

-10
Fig. 7 Difference between the forecasted and the measured values of bromate-15
Figure 710‑ 391 ‑

Figure 7 shows the difference between the measured values and the forecasted
values of bromate formation. This shows that bromate formation on the Misato
purification plant was satisfied the forecast by Magara et al. 2) But at the period of highwater temperature, the model was sometimes unsatisfied.
Therefore we are now developing bromate formation prediction model taking watertemperature into account as an essential parameter. On the Misato purification plant, bycontrolling pH and the target value of dissolved ozone concentration at the output ofozone reactor, bromate formation can be controlled under 50％ of bromate standard
10μｇ/L .
Table 5 shows that in a conventional treatment process, bromate increases in the sandfiltrate added from on-site producing sodium hypochlorite as a disinfectant. And lower
bromate concentration in 2003 than in2002 was observed. The reason is considered to be
the change of raw material to the salt that has bromide fewer.

６ conclusion
In the purification plant that has advanced water treatment facilities, severe
control of injection rate of ozone and pH control are needed to reduce the bromate
concentration formed by ozonation. In certain circumstances, advanced oxidation process
should be taken into consideration. On the other hand for the reduction of bromate insodium hypochlorite, the bureau changed the material salt of the disinfectant to that oflow bromide concentration.
Moreover, the Tokyo waterworks requests the government to reduce bromide ion
in river water because bromate formation depends on bromide concentrations in raw
water. And data of bromide concentration in river water are necessary to appreciate theactual circumstances. With these measures the Tokyo waterworks aims to meet thedrinking water standard.
In these days the run of sales on water purifiers for homes and bottled waters
seems to show the tendency of customers that they would not want to drink tap water.
But according to a survey of customers, they hope improvement of the quality of tap
water.
To fulfill the expectation of the customers the Tokyo waterworks is trying to improve thewater quality of all parts that is from sources to taps. We consider that sense of security
and confidence of customers on water quality is the most important matter. We are going
to improve the water quality and publicize now.

11
‑ 392 ‑

References
1) Asami M, Aizawa T, Magara Y., J.Japan Society on Water Environment 19(11), 930-936,(1996)
2) Asami M, Aizawa T. J.Health Science, 45, 344-355, (1996)

12‑ 393 ‑

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国土技術政策総合研究所資料
Technical Note of NILIM
No. 264
July 2005
土 木 研 究 所 資 料Technical Note of PWRI
No. 3977
July 2005
編集・発行© 国土技術政策総合研究所© 独立行政法人土木研究所

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本資料の転載・複写の問い合わせは
国土技術政策総合研究所 企画部 研究評価・推進課〒305-0804 茨城県つくば市旭１ 電話 029-864-2675
独立行政法人土木研究所 企画部 業務課〒305-8516 茨城県つくば市南原 1‐6 電話 029-879-6754