A Satellite Forum ofInternational Forum 2002
The University - Architect of the New Century
20 - 25 June 2002, Nagoya University, Japan

Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia
Strengthening Human Resource Development Program in Universities

Edited by
Hiroyuki Takeya
Tetsuko Takabe
Akira Yamauchi
Kei-ichiro Maeda
Editha C. Cedicol

Proceedings
Published by
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences
International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education
Bioscience and Biotechnology Center
Nagoya University, Chikusa 464 - 8601
Nagoya, Japan

The Nagoya University Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences offers a five-year curriculum, divided
into two periods: a two-year master's program (first period) and a three-year Ph.D. program (second
period). Incoming graduate students can join one of four graduate programs: Biosphere Resources Science,
Biological Mechanisms and Functions, Applied Molecular Biosciences and Biosignal Regulation.
The Nagoya University International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE) is one of thefive centers for international cooperation established in Japan, but is the only one dedicated to agriculture.
Its vision is to be a leading center for international cooperation in agricultural education. Its missions are1) to contribute to human resource development for solving agricultural issues in developing countries as
the national center; 2) to coordinate international cooperation projects with institutions as an international
center; 3) to establish human resource databases and manage methods for effective international
cooperation; and 4) to conduct research in agricultural cooperation projects for the well-being of people indeveloping countries.
The Nagoya University Bioscience Biotechnology Center (NUBBC) is mandated to study at biochemical
and molecular biological levels the biological function in higher plants and animals. Bioresource of ricemutant lines and freshwater fish stocks are another important subjects. Further, biotechnological approachis used for the application of fundamental research of bioscience. NUBBC cooperates with the Graduate
School of Bioagricultural Sciences and the Graduate School of Sciences in research and educational
activities, especially in Division of Development Signaling Biology and Division of Bioscience under ajoint program.

PROCEEDINGS

These proceedings contain refereed papers presented during the Satellite Forum 2002 held at Nagoya
University, Japan.
Copyright 2004 by the Organizing Committee for the Satellite Forum 2002, Nagoya University,
Chikusa-ku 464-8601, Nagoya, Japan
Takeya Hiroyuki, Tetsuko Takabe, Akira Yamauchi, Kei-ichiro Maeda, and Editha C. Cedicol(eds). 2004. Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia: Strengthening Human Resource Development
Program in Universities. Proceedings of the Satellite Forum, Nagoya, Japan, 20-21 June 2002.
ISBN: 4-9902182-0-5
Published by:・Nagoya University Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences
・Nagoya University International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE)・Nagoya University Bioscience Biotechnology Center

Cover Design by: NIKKOIM

Printed in Japan by: NIKKOIM

1

Foreword

Foreword
The development of a sustainable society is one of the major concerns in the 21st century. With this is
the fact that current concerns on food production and its support systems have to be addressed so that
agriculture would continually be capable of supporting the food requirements of the ever-increasing global
population. Agricultural science, which is the pivotal gear of food production, has to be re-examined as
to its strength and weaknesses in light of the present demand for more food and sources of human energy.
Furthermore, it is essential to review the role of universities in the development and strengthening of
human resources towards the achievement of the goals for sustainable agriculture development, as well asin promoting international cooperation to face the challenges of globalization.
It is on the aforementioned premise that the Nagoya University system Graduate School of
Bioagricultural Sciences held a Satellite Forum on Sustainable Agriculture Systems in Asia: Strengtheningof Human Development Program in Universities on 20-21 June 2002 at Nagoya University, Japan. The
forum is the first in a series of forums organized under the general focal theme of “The UniversityArchitect of the 21st Century.” It focused on the present state of agricultural development that should serveas basis for activating, strengthening and expanding existing academic programs.
These proceedings include papers presented, highlights of discussions and recommendations put forward
by the forum participants and resource persons. It is hoped that these proceedings will stimulate further
discussions and result to more collaborative activities among institutions and individuals concerned withsustainable agriculture development in Asia.

Shin-ichi Yamamoto

Dean
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences
Nagoya University, Japan

Hiroyuki Takeya

Director
Nagoya University International Cooperation
Center for Agricultural Education

Shohei Yamaki

Director
Nagoya University Bioscience andBiotechnology Center

Toshihiko Osawa

Chairperson, Organizing Committee
Satellite Forum 2002

2

Message from the Editors

Message from the Editors
The Satellite Forum on Sustainable Agriculture System in Asia: Strengthening of Human Development
Program in Universities was held to discuss sustainable agricultural production systems and biotechnology
in Asia with special emphases on research and resource development; and to document the contributionof the university in general, and the Nagoya University Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences inparticular.
Approximately 180 participants from nine countries attended the Forum. Twenty resource personspresented papers on topics focusing on sustainable bioproduction systems, biotechnology for sustainablebioproduction, and international collaboration for sustainable bioproduction. The general discussion at theend of the presentations provided a venue for exchange of ideas and experiences among experts, as wellas elicited suggestions and recommendations from the participants and the resource persons. It also gavethe students the opportunity to express their opinions especially focusing on student development towards
global standard. Poster presentations and exhibits by students also highlighted the Forum.
Aside from the papers that were critically reviewed by us, these proceedings include a summary of thehighlights of discussion and recommendations of the Forum. It is with much optimism that the resultsof the Forum as recorded in these proceedings will serve as bases for follow-up activities that would
encourage the implementation of more international collaborative activities in support of sustainableagriculture and human resource development in Asia.

Hiroyuki Takeya
Nagoya University
Tetsuko Takabe
Nagoya University
Akira Yamauchi
Nagoya University
Kei-ichiro Maeda
Nagoya University
Editha C. Cedicol
Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate
Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA)

3

Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia: Strengthening Human Resource Development Program in Universities

Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia: Strengthening Human Resource
Development Program in Universities
Contents
Foreword..................................................................................................................................

2

Message from the Editors......................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems
Cultivar Requirement for Sustainable Production of Rainfed Lowland Rice in
SE Asia..................................................................................................................................... 9
Shu Fukai
Rootcrops as Food, Feed and Industrial Materials: The Challenge to Address
Their Production and Post-harvest Needs................................................................................ 17
Jose R. Pardales Jr., Akira Yamauchi, M. A. Quevedo, and Mutsuyo Kadohira
Status and Prospects of Asian Forests and Forest Products………………….........................
29
Sri Nugroho Marsoem
Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact in the Sustainable
Animal Production................................................................................................................... 31
InKee Paik
Case Study on Development of the Sustainable Agricultural System for Various
Agro-ecosystems Through Assessment of Nitrogen Flow……………………....................... 47
Osamu Ito, Kazuyuki Yagi, Yasukazu Hosen, Naruo Matsumoto and Takeshi
Watanabe
Toward Sustainable Agricultural Production System: Major Issues and Needs in
Research .................................................................................................................................. 53
Akira Yamauchi

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction
Regulation of Carbon Metabolism in Relation to Plant Productivity…………...................... 57
Steven C. Huber
Control of Nitrate Uptake/Assimilation and Plant Productivity............................................... 59
Tatsuo Omata
Enzyme Engineering for Lipids............................................................................................... 61
Tsuneo Yamane
Protective Role of Dietary Antioxidants in Oxidative Stress................................................... 69
Jeng-De Su
Biotechnology for Insect Pest Control..................................................................................... 73
Tipvadee Attathom

4

Contents

Biotechnology of Crop Production and International Consortium.......................................... 85
Tetsuko Takabe

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

Perspectives for Development of Research and Education by International
Collaboration in Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University................
Norihiro Tsukagoshi

91

Tasks in Research, Education, and International Collaboration in Agriculture
Biotechnology at Kasetsart University With Special Emphasis on the Role ofFormer Students Who Studied Abroad................................................................................... 95
Supat Attathom
The Role of SEAMEO SEARCA in Human Development in Southeast Asia....................... 99
Ruben L. Villareal, Gil C. Saguiguit Jr., and Editha C. Cedicol
Experiences and Prospects of AICAD About International Cooperation
Including South-South for Agricultural and Human Development........................................ 107
Theodosy Msogoya and Katsuhiro Kitagawa
Human Development and Collaboration With Universities in Japan International
Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)............................................................ 113
Tomohide Sugino
Evaluation of ODA to Build and Strengthen International Cooperation :Towards Constructing an International Framework of Evaluation
for International Cooperation.................................................................................................. 123
Koichi Miyoshi
Role of International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE)
in Capacity Building for Sustainable Agriculture................................................................... 129
Tetsuo Matsumoto

Summary, Highlights of Discussion and Closing Statement
Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia: Student Development Towards Global Standard.... 137
Hiroyuki Takeya

5Chapter 1
Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Cultivar Requirement for Sustainable Productionof Rainfed Lowland Rice in SE Asia
Shu Fukai(School of Land and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia)

Abstract
Rice is the main staple crop in many Asian countries and contributes greatly to the national economy. In
some SE Asian countries, including Thailand, Cambodia and Laos, rainfed lowland rice occupies morethan 60 % of the total rice growing areas, but grain yield is low due to drought and low inputs in general.
An ACIAR (the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research) project in 1992-2005 has
examined cultivar requirement for rainfed lowland rice under different conditions. The project contributed
to the development of plant breeding strategies such as, identification of plant characteristics associatedwith drought resistance, cultivar requirement for direct seeding, development of a new breeding program in
Thailand, characterization of rice growing environments and the development of low temperature tolerant
cultivars. This paper describes achievements of the ACIAR project, with particular emphasis on cultivar
characteristics contributing to drought resistance and cultivar requirement for direct seeding in relation tosustainable agricultural development in SE Asia.
There has been a change in the socio-economic condition of rice cultivation in the region. A general
shortage of labour has resulted in a recent shift in some regions from traditional transplanting to direct
seeding. Major problems of direct seeded rice are poor crop establishment and presence of weeds.
Cultivars required for direct seeding have high seedling vigour, competitive ability against weeds, lodging
resistance and photoperiod insensitivity.
Drought is a major problem in rainfed lowland rice. Our recent work indicates that genotypes that canmaintain higher leaf water potential produce higher yield than other genotypes under late season drought
conditions, which are common in the region. In order to screen large numbers, the delay in flowering in
response to water stress may be used. However, grain yield of a genotype under rainfed lowland rice isstrongly affected by the potential yield of the genotype and the phenology, particularly flowering time inrelation to drought timing. Therefore, cultivars widely adapted to the rainfed lowland environments shouldhave high potential yield and the appropriate flowering time as well as drought resistance.
The importance of rice in SE Asia is such that improvement in rice production through developmentof adapted cultivars will have a large effect on the national economy. Another important area associatedwith sustainable agricultural production in SE Asia is human capacity development. Agricultural scientists
in the region need to be well trained to ensure that the technologies they will develop are a componentof sustainable agricultural production. The ACIAR project contributed to the training, particularly the
postgraduate training of national scientists in Australia.
Corresponding author: s.fukai@mailbox.uq.edu.au

1. Rice production in SE Asia
In many SE Asian countries agriculture contributes
greatly to the national economy. For example
in 1998, agriculture’s share of the total labour
force was around 60-80 % in Thailand, Laos andCambodia (the three countries in the Mekong
region considered most in this paper), while that ofgross domestic product (GDP) was around 10 % in
Thailand and 50 % in Laos and Cambodia.
Rice is the main staple crop and is the backboneof the agriculture industry in many Asian countries.
Rice consumption is still high in most SE Asian

countries; per-capita consumption in 1999 exceeded
150 kg in Laos and Cambodia and 100 kg in
Thailand. Rice is mostly consumed in the area of
production and the proportion that enters into themarket is rather small.
In some SE Asian countries, including Thailand,
Cambodia and Laos, rainfed lowland rice ecosystemis the most common among the different rice
ecosystems, occupying more than 60 % of total rice
growing areas. In this ecosystem, irrigation water is
not available for rice production. However, farmers
grow rice in bunded lowland fields so that standing
water can be maintained during crop growth in9Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

seasons of good rainfall. Most rainfed lowland
areas practice subsistence agriculture with rather
low input and low productivity. The farmers have
limited resources and hence, the use of fertilisersand other chemicals are generally low, limiting
rice production particularly in Laos and Cambodia.
Therefore, grain yield is often limited by the lackof availability of water and soil nutrients. Drought
is a common problem particularly in seasons of
low rainfall. More than 50 % of the total rainfed
lowlands in Asia are considered to be drought-prone
according to Garrity et al. (1986). In some countries
such as Laos, farmers consider drought as themost important constraint for high yield in rainfed
lowland rice. Currently, yield is low in rainfed
lowland rice; for example, 1.3 t/ha in Cambodia,
but this can be increased with development andadoption of suitable technologies, including new
cultivars that are widely adapted to the rainfed
lowland area.
Human population density in the rainfed lowland
areas in these countries is low compared with mostother countries in Asia. This general lack of labourin the Mekong region for rice production meansthat labour saving technology is required for rainfed
lowland rice (Pandey 1997). Thus for example,
direct seeding technology, which requires muchless labour inputs than transplanted rice, may be
more appropriate in the Mekong region than otherhighly populated areas in Asia. However, current
cultivars are developed for transplanted rice andthe development of cultivars adapted to direct
seeding will help increase the yield and stabilize riceproduction.
The development of cultivars adapted to rainfed
lowlands, particularly drought resistant cultivars
and those suitable for direct seeding, is required forsustainable agricultural development in the region.

2. The ACIAR rice improvement project
The Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR) provides funds forinternational agricultural research partnerships forthe benefit of developing countries and Australia.
There are more than 25 partner countries and morethan 40 Australian R&D providers involved in
ACIAR operations. Most projects are conducted in
Asia, particularly in SE Asian countries. A larger
proportion of ACIAR funds are spent on bilateralprojects such as the rice improvement projectdescribed below, but there is also a multilateralprogram, which contributes to individual

10international agricultural research centres.
In a bilateral project, the common mode ofoperation is that Australian scientists visit thepartner country often, and inspect research anddiscuss strategies with national scientists. Afterthe research program is set up, national scientists
conduct most experiments in their own countries.
The national scientists may visit Australia toattend a short-term training course. For long-term
training, postgraduate scholarships are available toparticipating scientists in most countries.
An ACIAR project in 1992-2005 (Plant breeding
strategies for rainfed lowland rice in Thailand,
Laos and Cambodia) has predominantly examinedcultivar requirement for rainfed lowland rice under
different conditions. The project aims to develop
plant- breeding strategies for rainfed lowland ricein the Mekong region. This may be achieved by
identifying plant characteristics associated withdrought resistance and cultivar requirement for
direct seeding, examining different genotype
selection methods suitable for rainfed lowlands andcharacterizing rice-growing environment.
Major achievements of the project are as follows:
1) Identification of environmental constraints; 2)
Identification of large genotype by environment
interaction for grain yield; 3) Modification of theThai rice breeding program; 4) Identification ofdrought resistant characteristics; 5) Identificationof characters of cultivars widely adapted to rainfed
lowlands; 6) Development of direct seeding
technology; and 7) Identification of mechanisms of
low temperature tolerance in rice.
Early work is described in Fukai et al. (1998)
whereas some of the more recent achievements
are described in our recent ACIAR proceedings(Fukai and Basnayake 2001). The issues of drought
resistance characteristics and cultivars adapted todirect seeding (part of 6. Development of direct
seeding technology) are detailed later in thepaper under separate headings while the topic ofidentification of mechanisms of low temperature
tolerance is done in Australia, and will not be
discussed. Here the remaining issues are describedbriefly, particularly in relation to drought problems
in the Mekong region.

1) Identification of environmental constraints
The major limitation for rainfed lowland rice isdrought, and we have identified two major drought
patterns, i.e. early season drought and late season

Cultivar Requirement for Sustainable Production of Rainfed Lowland Rice in SE Asia

drought. The early season drought is common in all
three countries examined. Frequent problems aretransplanting failure and the use of old seedlings fortransplanting and subsequent reduction in yield, as aresult of no standing water at the appropriate time oftransplanting. Late season drought is also common
particularly in Northeast Thailand, which, on
average, causes yield loss of around 10-35 % eachyear (Jongdee et al 1997, Khunthasuvon et al 1998).
Soil fertility is also low in the rainfed lowland
areas and the use of fertilizer is rather limited.
Without severe drought, rice growth and yield can
respond strongly to N and sometimes P fertilizer(Khunthasuvon et al 1998, Suriya-arunroj et al2000). Drought reduces nutrient availability torice, and this causes further yield reduction when
standing water disappears before flowering.
Detailed characterization of growing environments,
particularly water environments, which are variablein space and time (Wade et al. 1999), is essential forthe development of efficient rice breeding programs.
To assist in the characterization of rice growing
environments in Laos, we have developed GIS
temperature and rainfall maps.

2) Large genotype by environment interaction
for yield
A large genotype by environment (G x E)
interaction component of variance for yield has
been found consistently in our rainfed lowland rice
experiments in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. Theinteraction variance component could be as muchas six times greater than the genotype variance. The
G x E interaction for yield is often associated withgenotypic variation in flowering, as drought affects
genotypes differently when they are in different
phenological development stages. The large G
x E interaction for yield was due mostly to large
genotype by location (L) by year (Y) interaction.
This is partly associated with the irregular patternof drought development in rainfed lowlands. The
involvement of large G x L x Y interaction is also
associated with variation in times of seeding andtransplanting and occurrence of flash flood as wellas drought and biotic stresses. Commencement of
the wet season varies greatly from year to year,
resulting in variation in time of sowing. Cultivars
differ in their photoperiod sensitivity, and hence
their flowering times vary greatly, depending on thetime of sowing. This also contributes to the large G
x E interaction for yield.

3) Modification of rice breeding program in
ThailandThe current breeding program conducts mostly
intra-station trials with early generation materials,
and inter-station yield trials are conducted only laterwith advanced generation materials. This approachis not effective in the rainfed lowland conditions
where G x E interaction for yield is large. Here alarge number of yield trials across locations andyears are required for identifying widely adapted
lines that produce high yield in the region.
The emphasis in the suggested new breeding
program is on increased early yield testing at a large
number of sites in the selection program, use of adrought resistance screening technique, use of a
rapid generation advance technique, and increased
on-farm testing. Some of these points have alreadybeen incorporated into the breeding program, and it
is gradually evolving into a new system in Thailand.
The outcome would be the development of newcultivars in a shorter period of time and hence,
the breeding program is more efficient in terms offinancial return (Pandey and Rajatasereekul 1999).

4) Characterization of cultivars widely
adapted to rainfed lowlands
Using the drought tolerance screening methodthat we have developed recently in Thailand,
we hope to produce cultivars that are drought
resistant. Grain yield of a genotype under rainfed
lowland rice is, however, also affected strongly
by the potential yield of the genotype and thephenology, particularly flowering time in relation
to drought timing.
Our experience indicates the importance of highpotential yield (that is obtained under well fertilized
and irrigated conditions) in determining yield undermany conditions in rainfed lowlands, particularly
under conditions where yield reduction is notlarge. Where yield reduction was less than about
50 % of the potential yield, genotypes with highpotential yield produced higher yield. Examinationof performances of cultivars in Thailand indicatesincrease in potential yield by about 1 t/ha fromtraditional cultivar to advanced elite line (Fukai
and Basnayake 2002). The genotypes suitable fordrought conditions in rainfed lowland rice dependon drought severity, and also whether the timing ofdrought is predictable. In cases where the timing ofdrought is predictable, phenology is important inescaping the drought, whereas for unpredictable and11Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

severe drought conditions, genotypes that possess
appropriate drought resistant traits would produce
higher yield than genotypes without them.

5) Cultivars for direct seeding
Direct seeded area increased rapidly with shortageof labour for transplanting in the late 1980s in
Northeast Thailand. By 1992, rice areas establishedfrom transplanted and dry-seed broadcast were
73.6 % and 25.5 %, respectively (Naklang 1997).
Direct seeding is a common practice in Northwest
Cambodia; however, it is rarely practiced in Laos.
This situation may change with the decline in labour
availability for transplanting.
For the whole area of Northeast Thailand, mean
yield in 1989-92 was 1.80 and 1.37 t/ha respectively,
for transplanted and dry-seeded, broadcast rice
(Naklang 1997). Thus, one of the reasons forthe lack of yield improvement in recent years inNortheast Thailand was the expansion of areas
under direct seeding, which produced lower yields
compared with transplanting. Existing cultivars
were developed under transplanted conditions andmay not be most suitable for direct seeding.
The effects of the change from transplanting todirect seeding on agronomy of rice are as follows:
・Early seeding. With direct seeding, wetland
cultivation operation is reduced compared withtransplanting, and this makes early seeding
possible. Early seeding will allow the direct
seeded crop to often escape from late season
drought, if photoperiod insensitive or mildly
sensitive cultivars are used.
・Crop establishment difficulty. Compared withthe growing environment of a seedling nursery,
which is generally located at a favourable andprotected position within the farm, direct seedingof a crop in the main fields takes place undermore difficult crop establishment conditions.
Direct seeding in rainfed lowlands often requires
more precise soil moisture conditions for good
crop establishment. Thus, there is a higher risk ofpoor establishment under direct seeding.
・High plant density. Compared with transplanting,direct seeding particularly broadcasting, will
result in a higher established plant density underfavourable growing conditions. This is related to
the larger amount of seeds used for direct seeding,and the high plant density may result in a larger
number of panicles and hence higher grain yield.

12・Weed problems. The problem of weeds in direct
seeded rice paddies is greater than in transplanted
paddies. This is associated with poor land
preparation often due to seeding early in the wet
season. Poor rice establishment due to direct
seeding results in poor competition against
weeds. Lack of standing water during early stagesof growth causes difficulty in controlling weeds.
A review of the cultivar requirement for direct
seeding in rainfed lowland rice by Fukai (2002) issummarized here. Characters required for direct
seeded rice are associated with the agronomy ofdirect seeding mentioned above, and they include
photoperiod insensitivity, good competitive
ability against weeds, seedling vigour including
submergence tolerance and lodging resistance.
・Photoperiod insensitivity
The requirement for photoperiod sensitive cultivars
for drought-prone areas may not be strong under the
direct seeding system, because with early seeding,photoperiod insensitive cultivars would mature
early and escape the late season drought. Comparedwith photoperiod sensitive genotypes, the use ofphotoperiod insensitive genotypes would provide a
better opportunity to develop high yielding cultivars(Mackill et al. 1996).
・Competitive ability against weeds
With rather limited resources available forhand weeding or purchase of herbicides, rainfed
lowland rice farmers in the Mekong region needcompetitive cultivars to suppress weed growth.
Several plant characters have been identified forstrong competitiveness. They are tall plants withgood tillering ability and canopy development.
Since tall plants are often low yielding and tend tolodge, shorter intermediate height (eg, between talltraditional plants and semi dwarf plants) would bedesirable. Rapid tillering in the seedling stage willcontribute to rapid canopy development. The ideal
plant type for strong competition against weeds will
have shoots that spread and cover the ground rapidly
during the vegetative stage but with the onsetof panicle initiation they will not dominate over
reproductive organ development. Another character
associated with competitiveness is the long growthduration of rice genotypes. Long duration genotypes
have more time to recover from weed competition
that may have taken place during early growthstages.
・ Seedling vigour
Seedling vigour is required for direct seededCultivar Requirement for Sustainable Production of Rainfed Lowland Rice in SE Asia

rice, particularly for rainfed lowlands where water
control is limited and crop establishment conditions
are not favourable. Semi dwarf cultivars haveshorter mesocotyl and total seedling length, andthis is disadvantageous for good crop establishment
particularly when seeded deep in the soil or instanding water. Submergence of young seedlings
is a common problem with direct seeded rice, andhence submergence tolerance is required.
・Lodging resistanceLodging is another common problem in rainfed
lowland rice, particularly under direct seeding inhigh soil fertility areas. This is associated with theuse of high plant density and resultant tall plants
with thin stems, and shallow planting in direct
seeding. Tall traditional cultivars tend to lodge, and Fig 1. Schematic diagram illustrating the effects of drought
stress on grain yield when drought develops at aroundintermediate height cultivars are generally more
flowering time.
suitable to direct seeding. Large stem diameter, thickstem walls and higher lignin content would also
The plant breeding process for drought adaptation
reduce lodging (Mackill et al. 1996).
can be made more efficient when traits other thanyield are added to the selection process. In rice,
various workers have identified putative traits for6) Drought resistant cultivars
drought resistance. Our recent work (Jongdee, 1998;
Environment characterization has been madePantuwan et al. 2002b) indicates that genotypes
to identify drought types. While early season
that can maintain higher leaf water potential (LWP)
drought is a common problem in Thailand, Laos
produce higher yield than other genotypes under lateand Cambodia, development of cultivars adapted
season drought conditions, which are common into this type of drought is considered more difficult
the region. Leaf water potential integrates a number
than for cultivars resistant to late season drought.
of mechanisms that contribute to the water statusThus, we have concentrated on identifying plantof the plant, but it appears stable under different
characteristics that convey resistance to late season
environmental conditions. The mechanisms ofdrought, which is often severe particularly inmaintaining high LWP under water stress appear to
Northeast Thailand.
be related to water transport systems within the plant,
and large xylem size was found to be associated
Our research results have shown that rainfed
with high LWP among six genotypes examined
lowland rice may be considered as conservative(Sibournheung et al. 2001). In order to screen adrought avoider. Rice is very sensitive to water
large number of genotypes, the delay in flowering
stress, and leaf elongation stops, stomata close andin response to water stress may be used. One of theleaves roll under mild soil water deficit. The root
consequences of the loss of plant water potential issystem is always shallow, and extraction of watera delay in flowering of the stressed plants relative tofrom deep soils is limited. Late season drought
those that are well watered (Pantuwan et al. 2002b).
develops earlier if plant size is large and hence, soil
Other characters that have been examined as putative
water extraction is fast and water demand is high.
drought resistant traits include deep root system andThus, ideal rice plants will use the limited amount ofosmotic adjustment, but they were not found to beavailable water slowly so that soil water will last tilleffective in minimizing the adverse effect of latewell beyond flowering stage. Once standing waterseason drought.
disappears from the field before flowering, and no
substantial rain falls during the flowering to grain
A new project has just commenced with funding
filling stage, yield is reduced severely. The patternfrom the Rockefeller Foundation. The objective of theof water use and subsequent development of waterproject is to select drought resistant lines in rainfed
stress is schematically shown in Figure 1 (fromlowland rice for the Mekong region. Table 1 lists
Pantuwan et al. 2002a).
selection criteria for development of adapted cultivars
for rainfed lowland rice in the Mekong region.

13

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

required, farmers can use new cultivars without any
modification in their cultural practices. However,it should be stated that the advantage of new
improved cultivars is often increased with addition
Rainfed conditions with
Irrigated conditions
drained water prior to anthesis of appropriate inputs, such as fertiliser application.
Another point to note is that adapted cultivars such・High potential yield with ・High potential grain yieldas
those with drought resistance should reduce yield・High harvest index
・Minimal delay in flowering
losses, and this contributes to reduced fluctuation
・Intermediate height ・Maintenance of favourableof rice production; reduced crop failure and yield
plant water status
・Small dry matter atloss contribute directly to sustainable agricultural
anthesisproduction.
Introduction of cultivars may contribute to thedevelopment of a new cropping system. This may
For this project we will be utilising the screening
be the case with the introduction of IR66 to rainfed
method we developed in Thailand, whereby welowlands in Cambodia. This cultivar is quick
select a site with low rainfall and where drainage
maturing and photoperiod insensitive, and couldof standing water is possible. We screen genotypes
be planted early in the wet season, followed bymostly in the wet season, as rice growth in the dry
traditional photoperiod sensitive cultivars late inseason is quite different from that in the wet season.
the season. This has contributed to increased rice
In these screens, the planting will be 2-3 weeks later
production in the country.
than the commercial crops to increase the chance of
The improvement in rice production throughlate season drought, particularly with photoperiod
developmentof adapted cultivars that willinsensitive materials. In addition, standing water
eventuallyhavea large effect on the nationalfrom 10 days before flowering onward will beeconomyhighlights
the importance of rice indrained from the field, to increase the likelihood
agricultural production in SE Asian countries. Withof drought stress. There will be a well-watered
the higher yield of rice, as a result of adoption ofcontrol trial. Grain yield under the drought trial will
new cultivars, the area required for rice production
be adjusted for flowering date and yield potentials
may be reduced particularly in areas where
using the concept of drought response index (DRI)
marketing of rice is limited. This allows other crops(Bidinger et al., 1987). The DRI will be used forto be grown, and this contributes to diversification
identification of drought resistant genotypes.
of cropping, and may result in reduced fluctuation offood production. The area, which is not suitable forrice production but may be suitable for other crops,
3. Sustainable agricultural production
such as that of sandy soils with high percolation
Sustainable agricultural production is discussed
rate, may be converted to production of other crops,
here in relation to increased rice production as acontributing to the development of sustainable
result of development of improved rice cultivars,
production systems. Alternatively if a rice market isinternational research projects and human resource
available, then excess rice can be sold, contributing
development.
to the development of a cash economy. Once
1. Increased rice production
self-sufficiency in rice is achieved, rice production
Once improved cultivars are found to be well
may be aimed at quality.
adapted to a rainfed lowland region, they are
Rice cultivar development research is required forgenerally well adopted by farmers. An example
changingsocio-economic environments to maintainof this is shown in Laos, where recently released
andfurtherdevelop sustainable agricultural systems.
improved cultivars such as TDK1 have been widely
Table 1. Suggested selection criteria within a maturity group fordevelopmentof adapted cultivars for rainfed lowland rice
(Irrigated and rainfed conditions with drained water) in
the Mekong region.

adopted in different parts of the Mekong riverplains. The improved cultivars are high yielding,and often are photoperiod insensitive with shorter
growth duration than traditional cultivars. Thus, they
can be more flexible in terms of planting windows.
Unlike most other technologies where cultural
practices are altered or additional resources are

14

2. International research projects

International projects in rainfed lowland rice
are an important component of the rainfed
lowland research in these countries. In most casesinternational projects work together with national
scientists to improve rice production and/or develop
sustainable agricultural production system. It is thus,Cultivar Requirement for Sustainable Production of Rainfed Lowland Rice in SE Asia

important to understand the current problems of riceproduction and develop research projects addressing
such problems together with national scientists. In
the case of our ACIAR rice improvement project,
we have worked on development of strategies for
improvement of rainfed lowland rice. This has
required the continual modification of objectives
within the project framework as identification oflimitations evolved. International projects need to be
dynamic, and as the results are produced, researchemphasis needs to be redirected to maximise thebenefit to the project and more importantly, theregion. Often, it is not until the project is well under
way that the true limitations (to production) can be
identified. This identification of the problem andmodification of project activities cannot be achievedby conducting isolated short-term experiments.
Results and their interpretation rely heavily on
the establishment of good communication andunderstanding between national and international
scientists and the development of this report alone
requires a long-term project approach. New ideas
and areas of research can then be incorporated
relatively easily into existing projects. An example
of a shift in emphasis in our ACIAR project was theidentification of the need for characterization of theenvironment from a minor component to a major
sub-project of Agro-ecological characterization in
Laos.
International cooperation may be further promoted
by conducting research in more than one country in
SE Asia. For example, in our ACIAR project, there
were always two neighbouring countries working
together. Often the problem is similar; for example,
drought and flood problems in rainfed lowland
rice in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. Technology
transfer may be possible among areas of similar
growth and social environments. For example, rice
genotypes found to be high yielding in Thailand didwell in Laos and Cambodia. Thus, adapted cultivars
can be readily transferred from one country toanother.

3. Human resource development

Another important area associated with sustainableagricultural production in SE Asia is humancapacity development. The ACIAR project, likemany other overseas projects from Australia
contributed to the training of national scientists inAustralia. This appears particularly successful inpostgraduate training. A large number of scientists
have successfully completed higher degrees at
the University of Queensland in association with

our ACIAR rice improvement project. The staff
members who are associated with the ACIAR riceimprovement project have supervised (including
those currently enrolled) seven PhD students(including 3 from Thailand, 1 from Cambodia)
and ten Masters degree students (including 2 from
Laos and 1 each from Thailand and Cambodia).
Four of these postgraduate students have conducted
their research in the Mekong region. These former
students have strong impact on research anddevelopment in the national breeding program of
their home countries. For example, postgraduate
students from Thailand contributed greatly to thedevelopment of the new rice-breeding program in
the country.
In the medium to long term this improved researchand human resource capability would flow on to
the development of new rice cultivars and cropping
systems in the region, again contributing tosustainable agricultural production.
Universities in Australia, as in Japan, have taken
in a number of undergraduate and postgraduate
students from SE Asia. One possibility for thefurther development of international cooperation
would be to enable postgraduate research to be
conducted in the student’s home country. The
advantages of this are that the 1) research topic is
more relevant to the student; 2) research findings
are often directly applicable to the country ofconcern; 3) the supervising University staff will
have the opportunity to gain greater awareness andunderstanding of research needs in the student’s
home country; and; 4) the exposure of University
staff to the country where the research is conductedwould help in identifying future overseas research
projects.

Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank the Australian Centre
for International Agricultural Research for financial
support to the project.

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Bidinger, F.R., Mahalakshmi, and V. Rao, G.D.P.
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millet [Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke]. II
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Fukai, S. 2002. Rice cultivar requirements for direct
seeding in rainfed lowlands cultivar for direct

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seeding. Proceedings of International workshop
on direct seeding. Bangkok, January 2000.
Fukai, S. and J. Basnayake. 2001. (eds). Increasing
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Fukai, S. and J. Basnayake. 2002. Development ofdrought resistant cultivars for rainfed lowland
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Fukai, S., P. Sittisuang, and M. Chanphengsay.
1998. Increasing production of rainfed lowland
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1(1):75-82.
Fukai, S. and M. Cooper. 1999. Plant breeding
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deficit conditions. PhD thesis. The University of
Queensland.
K h u n t h a s u v o n , S . , S . R a j a t a s e r e e k u l , P.
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Basnayake, and E. Skulkhu. 1998. Lowland riceimprovement in northern and northeast Thailand.
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International Rice Research Institute, P.O. Box933, Manila, Philippines, 242p.
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rainfed rice in Thailand. In Fukai, S., Cooper,
M. and Salisbury, J., (eds). Breeding strategies
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Pandey, S.and S. Rajatasereekul. 1999. Economicsof plant breeding: The value of shorter breeding
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P a n t u w a n , G . , S . F u k a i , M . C o o p e r, S .
Rajatasereekul, and JC. O’Toole. 2002a. Yield
response of rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes todrought under rainfed lowlands. 1. Grain yieldand yield components. Field Crops Res. 73:
153-168.
P a n t u w a n , G . , S . F u k a i , M . C o o p e r, S .
Rajatasereekul, and JC. O’Toole. 2002b. Yield
response of rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes todrought under rainfed lowlands. 3. Plant factors
contributing to drought resistance. Field Crops
Res. 73:181-200.
Sibournheung, V., J. Basnayake, S. Fukai, and M.
Cooper. 2001. Leaf water potential as a drought
resistance character in rice. In: Fukai, S. andBasnayake J (editors). Increased lowland riceproduction in the Mekong region. Proceedings ofInternational Workshop. Vientiane, 30 October-1
November 2000. ACIAR Proceedings 101, 86-95.
Suriya-arunroj, D., P. Chaiyawat, S. Fukai, and P.
Blamey. 2000. Identification of nutrients limiting
rice growth in soils of Northeast Thailand underwater-limiting and non-limiting conditions. Plant
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Mazid. 1999. Rainfed lowland rice – physicalenvironment and cultivar requirements. Field
Crops Res. 64:3-12.

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Rootcrops as Food, Feed and Industrial Materials: The Challenge toAddress Their Production and Post-harvest Needs
Jose R. Pardales Jr.1, Akira Yamauchi2, M. A. Quevedo1 and Mutsuyo Kadohira3(1PhilRootcrops, Leyte State University, Baybay, Leyte, 6521-A, Philippines; 2Graduate School of
Bioagricultural Sciences; and 3International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education, Nagoya

Abstract
The objective of this paper is twofold: first, to introduce the group of starchy underground storage
organ-producing crops known as root and tuber crops or simply rootcrops, whose importance andprospects are not yet fully understood; and second, to pose a challenge to all concerned in the global
agricultural science community, particularly those from the Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciencesof Nagoya University, to give attention to research on these crops in order to contribute fully in securing
food supply for scores of millions of people the world over. Suggestions are, likewise presented on how
the concerned scientists and experts could respond to the call for action, as well as, the essential changes
that need to be in place in order for them to have relevant contributions in increasing regional and global
food supply. Generally, the world food situation is abating and the picture for Asia is not different.
Agricultural science education failed to bolster sustainable agriculture and food security measures
because it could not respond well to the needs and expectations of the farmers since it either lagged
behind in the developing countries or it advanced too much in the developed ones. A number of physicalfactors, however, contribute to this food supply shortfall. One of these is the continuing reduction in the
supply of water in many areas of the world. Rootcrops grow and produce economic yield where othercrops may fail; hence these crops are expected to play a key role in reducing hunger and poverty. The
task to increase and sustain rootcrop production is rather a tall order. There are simply a lot of things to
consider and many main and sub research avenues to be attended to. Involvement of as many players
as possible is therefore required, and participatory research or collaborative undertaking is seen as thebest possible approach at the moment. Scientists and researchers in the developed countries like Japanare looked up to engage in this concerted activity. However, certain adjustments have to be instituted sothat relevant interventions could be extended from their end. Foremost of this is a paradigm shift to befollowed by changes in outlook and approaches in the way research is conceptualized and undertaken,
giving way for some freedom and flexibility.
Corresponding author: ayama@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Introduction
The significance of rootcrops
Rootcrops, in layman’s terms, mean the group ofcrops, otherwise known as root and tuber crops,
which produce underground tubers or corms.
Common among these crops are cassava (Manihot
esculenta); sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas); potato(Solanum tuberusum); and yams (Dioscorea
esculenta), which constitute the so-called major
rootcrops. Others, which are classified as minor
rootcrops are the edible aroids (taro, Colocasia
esculenta; yautia, Xanthosoma sagittifolium; giant
taro, Alocasia macrorrhiza; swamp taro, Cyrtosperma
chamissonis; elephant foot yam, Amophophallus
campanulatus) and the lesser yams (Dioscorea alata,
D. bulbifera, D. hispida).
While the major rootcrops are cultivated in alarge extent globally, occupying around 50 million
hectares (Scott et al., 2000), the edible aroids and thelesser yams are considered minor rootcrops chiefly
because they are of lesser importance in terms of total
production and commercial demand. However, someof these crops may have a special function in the foodsystem in certain countries or regions so that they
are produced in greater extent than those identified
as major rootcrops. A good example of this is taro,
which is planted in large scale in many South Pacificcountries, being a staple food and an export item
(Iosefa and Rogers, 1999).
In 1995-97 farmers produce 639 million tons of
cassava, potato, sweet potato and yams annuallywhich was valued more than US$41 billion or about
one-fourth that of the value of the major cereals (Scottet al., 2000). The production of these crops is mostly
in Asia, Africa and Latin America where the greater

17Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

demand is for food. It is a fact that where poverty
is prevalent, rootcrops are widely planted thoughproduction efficiency in these areas may be low. In
the Philippines alone, rootcrops, which are grown ina broad range of agro-ecological condition, have asignificant function in providing food security andlivelihood among the resource poor people living infragile upland environment, which comprise about
65% of the total agricultural land in the country(Pardales and Roa, 2001). In the global scene, thepicture is not different at all, in that rootcrops are
typically a small farmer crops and are the basic
sources of their food and cash resource (Alexandratos,
1995); the crops being tolerant to adverse growing
condition and low input-farming practice compared toother food crops. In relation to this, Scott et al. (2000)
had this to say…
“Root and tubers deserve particular attention
because many of the developing world’s poorest andmost food insecure households look to these crops
as a contributing, if not the principal, source of food,nutrition and cash income. Among other things, farmhouseholds see the value of roots and tubers in theirability to produce more edible energy per hectare per
day than other commodities and in their capacity togenerate yields under conditions where other crops
may fail.”

The prospects of rootcrops
The paper containing the above-quoted statements
and other information cited earlier, entitled“ Roots and tubers in the global food system: A
vision statement to the year 2020,” provide a very
comprehensive picture of the present and the future ofroot and tuber crops. Ordinarily, however, these crops
are grown for household or village-level use where
they are utilized as food, feed or processed into starchfor domestic needs (Wheatley et al., 1995; Horton,
1988). However, current trends show that what has
been a traditional use of root crops, particularly
cassava and sweet potato, in the household such as
feed for backyard-raised livestock, is expanding andbeing practiced in a wider scale at present. In China
and Vietnam and other parts of the world sweet potato
is becoming a popular crop that is used as pig andother livestock feed, which provides high returns(CIP, 2000; Scott, 1992). In a developed country
like Japan sweet potato has been identified to offer
an array of utilization possibilities such as source ofstarch, flour, food colorants, and protein and enzyme
which have high potential as ingredient for medicine(Yamakawa, 1998) while research on processing the18

crop into novel products is ongoing in some research
centers (Tamaru, 1998).
Cassava, on the other hand, had become a vital
export commodity of Thailand to the European Union(EU) as animal feed besides being processed into theglobal market, the starch in many other parts of theworld. In demand for cassava chips (tapioca) in 1999
was about 6 million tons (ASEAN, 2000).
However, with food shortages common in many
parts of the world, the future of cassava lies on thefact that it is identified by the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) and the International Fund for
Agricultural Development (IFAD) as a crop that canhelp reduce hunger and poverty in many parts of thedeveloping world. The crop is a basic staple to 500
million people in the tropics and sub-tropics besides
being a source of livelihood to millions of farmers,
processors and traders around the world (FAO,
2000a).
Of the potential of root and tubers in the years tocome, Scott et al. (2000) said the following:“Root and tuber crops have myriad and complex
roles to play in feeding the world in the coming
decades. Far from being one sort of crop that serves
one specific purpose, they will be many things
to many – very many people. By 2020, roots andtubers will be integrated into emerging markets
through the efficient and environmentally soundproduction of a diversified range of high-quality,competitive products for food, feed and industry.
These crops’ adaptation to marginal environments,
their contribution to household food security, andtheir great flexibility in mixed farming systems makethem an important component of a targeted strategy
that seeks to improve the welfare of the rural poorand to link smallholder farmers with these emerging
growth markets. We estimate that by 2020 well overtwo billion people in Asia, Africa and Latin America
will use root and tubers for food, feed and income.
Many of these people will be among the poorest of thepoor.”

Rootcrops Production System
Being generally associated with poverty, rootcrops
are therefore customarily planted as subsistent crops
in many parts of the world. The subsistent rootcrops
growers are smallholder and resource-poor farmers
who grow the crops principally for food. They utilize
degraded upland areas that are usually not their own,
and normally of less than 0.25 hectare. Subsistentrootcrop production system is devoid of technologicalRootcrops as Food, Feed and Industrial Materials: The Challenge to Address Their Production and Post-harvest Needs

applications utilizing only traditional varieties ofrootcrops and simple crop care and management
practices (Pardales et al. 2001). On one hand, this is
primarily because they do not have the resources tocomply with what is required for intensive rootcrop
cultivation. On the other hand, to some extent,
they are being taken for granted, including theirindigenous knowledge system, by scientists andextension workers (Pardales et al., 2001). For many
years, institutional scientists thought that the small,economically deprived farmers readily embracewhatever production technology is introduced tothem. This high-minded attitude had resulted in
the introduction of crop production technologies
that were not suitable to the environmental andbiophysical condition of a certain area, as well as
to the socio-cultural mind set of the local people(Pardales and Yamauchi, 1999; Pardales et al., 2001).
In one way or another, this also solidified the farmers’
hesitation against subsequent external intervention.
The other production systems in which rootcrops
are grown are semi-commercial and commercial.
In the former, rootcrops are planted in larger tractsof land, usually ranging from 0.25-0.50 hectare,which are commonly situated in sloping to hilly
areas (Pardales and Roa, 2001). Semi-commercial
rootcrop production is established principally with
two intentions, that is, for food and income. Much
importance is given to the food requirement of
the household while the desire for income is only
subsidiary and realized only if crop yield is morethan what the household could consume. The farmers
engaged in semi-commercial rootcrop farming
are normally a bit sophisticated than the subsistentones, in that, they experiment on the use of sometechnological innovations like growing recommended
varieties and using certain crop care and management
practices but almost always in comparison with
their customary varieties and cultivation procedures(Pardales and de Guzman, 2001). In relation with thesubsistent farmers, the semi-commercial rootcrop
growers have likewise a system of knowledge, which
may not differ at all from that of their subsistent
counterparts. Their production systems have a lot ofthings in common like the location and characteristicsof their farms (terrain and ecological condition),
cropping system involving the use of other crops,
use of their proceeds, etc. Their social interaction isfrequent considering the fact that they both go to thesame local market where they sell their products andderive their household needs.
The commercial rootcrop production, on the other

hand, is almost 100% for the industry although in
the Philippines this may also be 100% for the freshmarket in metropolitan areas (Data et al., 1997).
The farmers attending to this production system
are usually resource-rich and are profit oriented.
They are highly dependent on technologicalinnovations and interventions for increased field
output (Pardales et al., 2001), hence, their need fortechnical backstopping from research institutions.
Pardales and Roa (2001) mentioned that commercial
rootcrop production system is high on applicationof new technological innovations and interventions
where the complete package of recommended cultural
management practices for the crops are keenly
followed.

World Food Situation and the Role ofRootcrops in Meeting Food Demand
The current condition
Pinstrup-Andersen and co-workers (1997) in theirfood policy report presented their assessment of theprospects for global food security in the next quarter
century. Among the important things they emphasized
was the following…
“Between 1993 and 2020, global demand for cereals
is projected to increase by 41% and for meat by 63%.
Most of the increase in demand is expected to occur inthe developing countries. In many of these countries,
however, food production is unlikely to keep the pacewith the jumps in demand. The “food gap” – thedifference between production and demand for food– could more than double in the developing world in
the next 25 years. This food gap will have to be filled
through increased imports. This should not be casefor alarm for the higher-income developing countries,
but the poorer countries might not be able to importfood in needed quantities. Likewise, even when the
low-priced food is available in the marketplace, manypoor people might not be able to afford the food theyneed.”FAO (2000b) estimated that 826 million people
around the world still do not have enough food toeat even at the present time when there is said to be
an abundance. This FAO report also cites that 792
million in developing nations and another 34 million
in industrialized countries were undernourishedduring the period 1996-98. Singh (2000) reported that
the Asia-Pacific region alone is home to two-thirdsof the world’s undernourished people and in termsof real number this is a staggering 515.2 million. In a
separate communiqué, FAO (FAO, 2002a) reported

19

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

that the food production in Asia is indeed declining. In
January 2002 the estimated drop in cereal production(rice, wheat and coarse grains) was 989.3 million tons
based on what had been realized during the preceding
year. This shortfall in food production was attributed
to adverse weather conditions and economic decline
in many developing countries.
Drought is probably the most serious factor affecting
crop production among the stresses related to weather
condition. FAO (2000b) had in fact launched several
initiatives to help the Near East countries (e.g. Iran,Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Pakistan, etc.) fight drought anddesertification. FAO (2000c) had therefore cautioned
all concerned that the great global challenge for the
coming years will be on how to produce more foodwith less water. In recent years many parts of theworld have experienced long-term dry spells, themost popular of which is the one being brought about
by the El Niño phenomenon, which takes place inalmost regular occurrence. Probably because of thecrops’ known ability to tolerate adverse growing
condition (Cock, 1985) IFAD and FAO (FAO,
2000a) organized a forum on tropical rootcrops,
which approved a global action plan and a cassava
development strategy, basically to position the crop
as a key commodity in reducing hunger and poverty.
Kim et al., (2002) pointed out that cassava has many
advantages over cereal crops in that it is tolerant
to drought, pests and degraded soils. On a broader
context, however, Scott et al (2000b) had these to say:
“Future prospects for the role of roots and tubers
in the global food system will be greatly influenced
by various demographic, economic, political andenvironmental trends.” “Our analysis suggests thatmany of these trends will stimulate growers andconsumers to produce and consume more root andtubers in new ways, for new uses, and using newtechnology.”“The largest absolute increase in root and tuber
production will take place in Sub-Saharan Africa(cassava and yam, primarily) under both scenarios.
China will account for the bulk of additional sweet
potato output, and both China and India are projected
to harvest two-thirds or more of the additional
potatoes produced. Furthermore, increases in root
and tuber production will be driven by demand forfood in the case of potato (both fresh and processed)
and yam. Processed food products such as noodles
made from starch and non-food uses such as feed
will be much more important for cassava and sweet
potato.”20

Food security and sustainable agriculture:
What now?
The decade of the 1980s ushered hopes to themillions of food hungry people in the world throughunprecedented initiatives of many institutions,which were indications then that great things were
forthcoming. One of the ideas that surfaced and waswell received by people of different walks of life,i.e., farmers, policy makers, experts, consumers,
and others was sustainable agriculture. This concept
rested on the principle that the needs of the present
generation must be met without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs (Feenstra et al., 1997). Hence, the matter ofcooperation of all people concerned including thosein the academe is a prime imperative. Simply put,sustainable agriculture is the responsibility of allparticipants in the whole agriculture system. While
this concept or practice may have brought dividends
in economically commercial crops, in rootcrops andother crops of less economic value for that matter, thisconcept until now is still a much talked about issue
but seemed unrealizable. More often than not, eachplayer is to his own and the focus is diffused. In thedeveloping world sustainable agriculture is far fromreach. In the developed one it rests in the theoreticalminds.
In the middle of the 1980s, the food security idea
sprung up and lots of definition were coined. The
implication was that all people should have accessto food at all times not just for survival but also forcontinued active participation in the society. In acommissioned paper, Hall (non-dated) mentionedthat:“A country and people are food secure when theirfood system operates in such a way as to remove thefear that there will not be enough to eat. In particular,
food security will be achieved when the poor andvulnerable, particularly the women and children andthose living in marginal areas, have access to the foodthey want.”
What happened? FAO (2000b) clearly stated thatthe food insecurity in the world shows no progress
towards world food summit target. Taking awayphysical reasons aside like changing climatic patterns,
it is believed that one of the reasons for the failure ofsustainable agriculture and food security measuresin much of the developing world is that agriculturalscience education could not fully respond to thecurrent needs and expectations of the agricultural
producers. Either it lagged behind in the developing
countries or it advanced rigidly too far in theRootcrops as Food, Feed and Industrial Materials: The Challenge to Address Their Production and Post-harvest Needs

developed ones that researchers became inconsiderateof anything less challenging and non-popular. In
addition, Atchoarena and Gasperini (2002) had theopinion that the contents and delivery process ofagricultural education have been generally isolated
from other ongoing processes of education andtraining within the rural environment.

Elements and Process of Mitigation On the
Food Production and Utilization Problems
Pardales and Yamauchi (1999) presented a socalled “domain interaction approach” in developing
technologies or finding solution to nagging
agricultural production problems in the field.
Basically, this idea came about as experiences oftechnology failures of PhilRootcrops, a government
research institution in the Philippines, came one
after another with the farmers, the so-called “endusers of technology,” passively complaining of
the non-practicability and non-usefulness of thetechnologies introduced to them. Pardales et al.
(2001) pointed out that the basic reason why
recommended technologies did not work out wellwith the farmers was that they were not involvedin the development of the technologies. In the caseof the sweet potato varieties developed throughconventional breeding by PhilRootcrops scientists
and introduced into a certain locality, these varieties
did not last long in the farmers field because they
were too sweet and watery, bushy in growth statureso that they were prone to weed competition, andnot tolerant to limited water supply, pest infestationand degraded soil condition. Pardales et al. (2001)
had this observation:“Experiences with rootcrop production technology
failures across practically all classes of rootcrop
farmers brought up the following points which
necessarily call for alternative ways of developing
technologies and introducing them to end users:
・Researchers/scientists have no monopoly ontechnological ideas and innovative practices.
They cannot impose something on farmers
because in the end it is the farmers themselvesthat determine what is best for them.
・Merely letting the farmers view and makejudgment on introduced technologies orinnovations is not sufficient and does notguarantee adoption of technologies.
・Unless the farmers clearly understand theprinciples behind a certain technologyt h e y c a n n o t a p p re c i a t e t h e n e e d f o r i t s

methodological application.”
Having the ways and means of producing crops as
the focus of attention in increasing food availability,
it becomes imperative that all involved playersof the agricultural activity (i.e., the scientists,
extension workers farmers) have to consider
the element of participation or collaboration as
pivotal point in the technology development –technology transfer – technology adoption cycle.
Nevertheless, it should be taken into accountthat the whole process has to be viewed by all
players from the same vantage point to cultivate asense of sensibility towards interdependence andcooperation.
Participatory research is one area where thetraditional players in the technology continuum
could come together for a more meaningful andshared undertakings in looking for a solutionof a certain field crop production problem. As
a research approach, participatory research is amethodological strategy, which recognizes thecritical contributions (i.e., practices, attitudes,
skills, knowledge, motivations) of the different
stakeholders of an undertaking (Pardales et al.,2001). Furthermore, it is a process that is highly
dependent on skills of facilitation and an openmind-set of those involved. Out of their experiencesin piloting a farmer field school on sweet potato
integrated crop management, the same workers(Pardales et al., 2000) presented the beneficial
outcomes of participatory research with farmers as
follows:
・Saving on resources. Whether participationis among technical researchers or between
researchers and farmers or processors, financial,material or physical resources can be shared.
・Enriched knowledge system. The blend or
integration of indigenous or local knowledge
and the technical or scientific knowledge brings
about sustainability in the application of acertain technology. This is because the farmers
develop a sense of co-ownership of the ideas ortechnology.
・Immediate application of developed or improved
technology. Because the farmers are partners
in technology development or improvement
they need no further convincing as to theappropriateness, practicality or efficiency of acertain agricultural practice. Being key players
in the innovation process, others in the locality
look up to them as authoritative example of21

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

development, thus, adopting any agriculturalintervention easily.
・Capacity building. In participatory research thefarmers gain skill and knowledge in comparing
and evaluating different ideas or practices
themselves. This process of judging out ideas
or practices which include seeing, discoveringand reasoning develops the farmers capacity
to analyze, thereby making them capacitatedto solve field problems effectively. On the partof the researchers, working in partnership with
farmers introduces them to action research,which give them broader perspective of the realcondition in the field and the need to consider
various issues in working out technologicalinterventions and innovative systems.
Furthermore, participatory research or extension
enriches the technical or academic preparationsof a researcher for formal instruction andtraining.
・Scaling up. That participatory research is one
good approach to solve local field problems withlocal people being part of the problem-solving
process has the potential of becoming aparticipatory community development.
The practice could be adopted through anexperienced and capacitated local farmer who
can lead others to be engaged in participatory
diagnosis and analysis of certain problems.
While scientist-farmer participatory activity
may be considered a vital relationship to bringa change in the way agriculture related fieldproblems are studied, scientist-scientist technicalcollaboration also brings positive dividends. The

Concernpaper of Pardales and Yamauchi (1999) also cites
the fact that collaborative undertaking on certain
area of research, no matter how small the fund or
short the duration is, could lead to the discovery ofmany things – simple scientific explanations they
may be. These facts could then pave the way forbroader scientific understanding and technology
development. Basic research information could
lead to the formulation of recommended practices
or development of novel technologies. To alleviate
the abating food production elsewhere in the world,
it is suggested that an elemental framework ofintervention by all concerned be followed, taking
into account the domain interaction approach oftechnology development brought up by Pardales
and Yamauchi (1999) (Fig. 1).
In other words, the critical strategic element in
attempting to alleviate an alarming declining world
food situation is establishing an atmosphere ofparticipative or collaborative undertakings among
the concerned. For rootcrops whose versatility,
significance and potential in many aspects is wellrecognized (Scott et al. 2000a; Scott et al., 2000b),
there is a need for greater interest and attention
from various sectors in the scientific and agriculturecommunity to critically study their production,
storage, processing, utilization, status and problem(Wheatley et al., 1995). Rice is one crop whose
production capacity had been pushed up because ofscientific breakthroughs as a result of heightened
collaborative interest of many international,
national and local institutions and researchers(Pardales and Yamauchi, 1999).

Process & OffshootBenefits

Sustainablefood
production
Food Security

Problem

Concerned Involvement

Satisfying

Identification(domain interaction)

Outcomes

Fig 1. Elemental framework of intervention in mitigating the problem of declining regional and global foodproduction adopting the domain interaction approach of technology development as the process.
22

Rootcrops as Food, Feed and Industrial Materials: The Challenge to Address Their Production and Post-harvest Needs

Academic Adjustments to Meet
Challenges in Securing Regional
and Global Food Supply
The case of Nagoya University: Previous
observation
Observation and experience had it that many,
if not all, academic laboratories in the former
School of Agriculture in Nagoya University(presently the School of Agricultural Sciences)
undertake research on certain crops or animals
based on either of the two considerations: interestof the professors-scientists, or interest of theagency giving funds for the research. The cropof interest by the professors-scientists is studied
in the laboratory by the scientists themselves
and their students if the source of research fundgives freedom to the researchers in terms ofthe crop that they could work on. On the other
hand, the latter is pursued if the agency giving
research funds has the say on the crop that thelaboratory has to particularly deal with. At present
the way the object (plant or animal) of the study
is selected in the different laboratories of the
School of Agricultural Sciences may not actuallydeviate much from the old custom since the longestablished system of research funding remains
practically the same.
Basically, there is nothing wrong with the system,
which has been the tradition for scores of years
now, but the practice portrays a strictly limited or
restricted view of looking at underlying problems
or issues having to do with food supply problem
mitigation. This is duly because the conduct of
research by academic laboratories hinges solely
on either the personal academic interest ofscientists or the corporate concern of the funding
institutions rather than giving some degree ofattention to the interest of farmers and otheragricultural players. More often than not, research
results and concomitant information are especially
packaged to fill pages of technical journals tosatisfy high-end consumers who themselves
are scientists and academicians who may havevery limited contact likewise with farmers, foodprocessors, etc. The present situation of declining
food production right in Asia (FAO, 2000a) should
be a cause for alarm so that research attention andefforts should be directed towards the prevailingfactors that constrain sufficient and sustainable
food production (Pardales and Yamauchi, 1999).

The need for a paradigm shift: A suggestion
Significant contribution to improve the world
food situation warrants that resources, interest andoutlook be shared among agricultural stakeholders
wherever they may come from. This could meanthat the well-funded, laboratory-entrenchedagricultural scientists in developed countries like
Japan have to reconsider their way (objective
and method) of pursuing research - from being
personally motivated, academically driven,passive and single-minded into problem-based,broadminded, proactive and forward looking
kind of researcher. The paradigm shift that is
advocated in this paper is the change from the longestablished tradition of carrying out experiments
based on one’s personal desire for enlightenment
on certain scientific riddles to engaging incollaborative or participative research with partners
from outside his normal domain, be they from othercountries or regions. This could only be done if
scientists reach out to others (scientists, extension
workers, farmers, etc) to engage in discussion
and exchange of ideas on certain pervading issues
affecting regional or global agriculture, if only
to alleviate the economic condition, improve theproduction system, and secure the food supply baseof the greater majority of the people in the longrun, who are resource poor, vulnerable, and foodinsecure. Furthermore, the paradigm shift here
could also mean adjustments in ones interest, sayfrom rice to rootcrops, from soil fertility to natural
resources, etc. The whole thing calls for flexibility
and openness of everyone involved.
A paper by Nabangchang (2001) classified
agricultural research into supply-driven anddemand-driven. The former kind of research, whichis the conventional approach, identifies the research
agenda based on pre-conceived notions of scientists
as to what is needed by farmers or technology
users. Pardales and Yamauchi (1999) considered
this as a “know it all” attitude of scientists. In
contrast, the latter kind of research, necessitates that
research agenda be identified by the end users of
the technology themselves (the farmers commonly)
since they are the ones who know what they needto understand or have. In his attempt to present themerits of the demand-driven research, Nabangchang(2001) stated the following in furtherance:“The desirability of the shift from supply-driven
to demand-driven research is based on observed
shortcomings of the former in four main aspects,
namely: (i) the tendency to extract the research

23Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

activities from social, physical and environmental
context into a more laboratory-controlledenvironment, (ii) the monopoly of research byscientists, specialists, academics at the expenseof the exclusion of the farmers who, in many
respects, are the most experienced field experts
and are therefore prime resource persons, (iii)the probability of the incompatibility of research
results and the physical environment, (iv) the
tendency of treat of adoption of technology as
given through failure to recognize the farmers’
economic perspectives as he weighs and balances
the costs and benefits and all risk factors involvedin adoption of new technology.”

Other adjustments to be done: A view fromoutsideThe intrinsic system in typical Japanese academic
laboratories is the seeming lack of flexibility ofthe students to work something out on their own.
It is a common practice that professors decide on
what research problem their students would pursue.
By and large, this kind of arrangement is not a
problem with the students. Besides the fact that
this is customary, students enjoy the privilege of
having their laboratory and related needs coveredby the research fund of their professors. Thissystem may be ideal in developed countries where
the applied technological needs of its agricultural
producers are taken care of by the governmental
research institutions and the academe covers thebasic aspects of scientific investigations. In a way,
however, this is being centrist and without regard
for what is happening around, and what the needsof the people are in the region or other parts of the
globe. This may be viewed as self preservation or
academic survivalist on the part of the resource-richscientist by their counterparts in the developing
countries who are vulnerable to food insecurities
simply because they cannot do so much for reasonof lack of necessary resources and technicalcapabilities to some extent (Pardales and Yamauchi,1999).
The staggering situation of the world food supply(FAO, 2000b; 2002a) and the opportunities andprospects that other crops like rootcrops could offer(FAO, 2000a; Scott et al, 2000a; 2000b) therefore
calls for the agricultural scientists and students indeveloped countries to be sensitive to explicitly
consider the problems of food production especiallyin countries having poor and erratic food production
performance. Academics and students must be

24

keen of what is happening in the global or regional
agriculture arena. They must both be observant of
the issues and concerns of agriculture for the restof the world. They must be flexible and bold toventure into different realms of research. They must
be ready to leave their laboratories occasionally towork with partners (not as subordinates, not as mere
recipient of technical aids, but as equals) in foreign
lands where the greater food production problems
are usually realized.
Academics must also be more vocal inrationalizing the necessity that research-funding
agencies give funds for studies on crops otherthan what are considered economic priority cropsof Japan. It is a great relief though that the wayof thinking of some funding agencies is slowly
changing towards the positive side of this.
For instance, the Japanese Ministry of Education,
Science and Culture (Monbusho), has started a
few years ago in approving research grants to the
Laboratory of Crops Science, and presently the
Bioresources Cycling Laboratory (BCL) of the
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences forstudies centered on rootcrops. These grants paved
the way for certain Japanese scientists to engage incollaborative work with some foreign researchers.
The case in focus could be the latter laboratory’s (BCL) collaboration with the Philippine Root
Crop Research and Training Center (PhilRootcrops)in studying the drought resistant mechanisms of
rootcrops, which is in accordance with FAO’s
challenge to combat drought and produce more foodwith less water (FAO, 2002b; 2002c).

Research Avenues on Rootcrops to Bolster its
Role as Food, Feed and Industrial Materials
While limiting their viewpoint on participatory
research with farmers in developing agricultural
technology, Pardales et al., (2001) included some
activities where participatory research may havegreater application. Considering the greater
challenge of the present in the light of food security
apprehensions, the same activities could beconsidered as the avenues over which participatory
research or collaborative works on rootcrops could
be made to strengthen their position in meeting thedemand for food, feed and industrial raw materials.
These research avenues are as follows:・Development of new rootcrop varieties.
While the farmers as producers and consumers
at the same time have their specific requirements

Rootcrops as Food, Feed and Industrial Materials: The Challenge to Address Their Production and Post-harvest Needs

in a variety of certain rootcrops, the needs of thegreater majority of the people and the industry on a
global context may be entirely different. In view ofthis, breeding strategies may need to be an issue forparticipative discussion by as many stakeholders as
possible especially if the breeding process requires
techniques beyond conventional methods or support
activities that are not within the means of one
laboratory or institution. An example of this could be
the breeding for high anthocyanin content in sweet
potato for the food coloring industry (Odake, 1998)
or for the emerging health food business (Kays andKays, 1998), or simply to improve the nourishmentof the greater majority of the people who are resource
poor and depend on sweetpotato as primary food
item for their households (Scott et al., 2000a).
The fact that rootcrops is eaten by scores of
millions of people around the world and the greaternumber of this are from Asia, the bigger challenge
in tailoring new rootcrop varieties is in improving
their nutritive content since rootcrops are normally
low in basic nutritional composition (Bradbury,
1988; Wheatley et al., 1995). Basically, this is a
research area that necessitates the use of advancetools in biotechnology so as to shorten the breeding
process and to win the race against time to avert
undernourishment of some 515.2 million people in
Asia-Pacific alone (Singh, 2000).
The other areas whereby specific participatory or
collaborative research may be done along this main
research avenue are as follows:o Genetic resources evaluation.
o High starch content.
o Resistance to pests and disease organisms.
o Resistance to environmental stress factors.
o Early maturation.
o Resistance to post-harvest deterioration.
o Non-conventional breeding approaches.
・Improvement and/or development of production
and post-harvest practices.
Rootcrops are generally known as hardy cropsthat grow in adverse condition, yet they are foundto be sensitive in many extents to unfavorable
environmental factors (Pardales et al., 1999; Pardales
et al., 2000; Pardales, et al., 2001; Pardales andEsquibel, 1996; Agili and Pardales, 1997, etc)
which ultimately reduce their economic yield.
The underlying reasons for environmental stresssensitivity and yield reduction in rootcrops is not
thoroughly understood yet, so that, there is a greatneed for in depth studies on the eco-physiologyof these crops right in the place where they arecommonly grown so as to increase, stabilize, andsustain if possible, their production levels on a unit
area basis. Traits that confer resistance or tolerance
to certain adverse factors are still to be clearly
identified so as to feedback plant breeders with theappropriate characters for inclusion in their design for
an improved variety.
Furthermore, rootcrops tubers or corms are highly
perishable (Scott et al., 2000a; Scott et al., 2000b;
NAS, 1978) so that losses are great if they are nothandled well after harvest. Hirose and Data (1983)
and Uritani and Data (1983) have elucidated thephysiology and biochemistry of deterioration in
cassava, but there could be more new insights that
could be discovered in the light of today’s novel
technological tools, which may help prevent rapid
deterioration of fresh rootcrops produce.
Along this line, the following are some examples of
the areas that need focused research attention:o New production practices and techniques.
o Non-chemical based weed control.
o Non-chemical based production and postharvest
pest control.
o Physiological response to various environmental
stress factors such as limited water supply,high soil temperature, soil acidity, shade, etc. todevelop mitigating interventions.
o Novel handling and storage techniques tocheck physical, physiological and biochemical
deteriorations.
・Improvement and/or development of production
and processing tools and equipment.
Rootcrops production may be the least automatedventure among the economic crops grown forwhatever purpose. This is because most of its
production areas are in marginal locations and thecommon systems of production are mostly subsistentand semi-commercial. To some extent even thoseconsidered commercial farms in developing countries
mostly resort to draft animals for land preparationand other cultivation activities. Because of this, theefficiency of rootcrop production is very low. In
terms of processing, starch mills, for example, inmany countries employ the antiquated machinesthat are inefficient and cost ineffective. Village levelprocessing are mostly manual. The following shouldbe the subjects of attention by concerned researcheswith advanced know-how and fundamentals:

25

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

o Low cost draft animal-drawn tillage andcultivation implements.
o Functionally designed lightweight and low costproduction and processing tools and simple
machines for women and children.
o Novel commercial production, postharvest and processing machines.
・Development of new products.
Wheatley et al. (1995) mentioned that thesizable potential of rootcrops for contributing
to socioeconomic development in rural areas
requires a combination of efficient, sustainablecrop production with new or improved products
and markets. Because the products have to becompetitive, product development has to consider
identification of product ideas, research, piloting andcommercialization. This line of activities seemingly
appears simple but is actually intricate for ordinary
players since a number of considerations like local
market situation, constraints and opportunities haveto be viewed with clear focus. Again, concerted
efforts from various players have to take center
stage if rootcrop production is to be boosted bystrong value adding up through processed productdevelopment. Basically, the studies that may need tobe conducted in this area should be as follows:o Market survey techniques to identify new
products with high market potential.
o Product developmento Piloting techniqueso Market sensitivity
o Commercializationo Management techniques.

Critical evaluations of the potential of root andtuber crops have been published. World bodies
like CGIAR and FAO have acknowledged thesecrops to provide food security in the light of anincreasing world population, getting adverse
climatic condition, depleting natural resources andworsening livelihoods among the disadvantaged
sectors of society. The scientific community istherefore challenged to respond, and the act of
doing so is not that difficult. This is because thenature and background of the crops are known,
the system of their production is understood, theiruses are made clear, the element of mitigation issuggested and the necessary adjustments to react
to the challenge is given, and so as the main andtributary avenues of research. If there is a needfor more understanding to affect a more thoroughintervention along these areas, it is just a matterof reaching out to the farmers, researchers andother players in the agricultural arena of the lessdeveloped world. Sensitivity is key.

Acknowledgment
One of the authors (JRPJr) sincerely thanks theOrganizing Committee of the Satellite Forum that
discussed the sustainable agriculture system in
Asia for inviting him to attend and present a paper.
JRPJr finds his speaking opportunity in the said
forum as an avenue by which he could advance thecause of rootcrops whose great and real potentials
in the present and the years ahead have been taken
for granted.

References
Conclusion
Rootcrops are an acknowledged bunch of crops
the world over with great potentials, foremost ofwhich is its promise to offer food security to scoresof millions of vulnerable resource limited people.
Although these crops are generally associatedwith poverty, their prospects do not end withthe poor. The developed world receive benefits
from these crops, unknowingly probably to mostpolicy experts, and scientific people because of thedifferent forms by which they may be traded, e.g.,
starch, chips, frozen items, etc. Yet, in spite ofthis, rootcrops are not being given much researchattention to fully exploit their uses, which havebeen proven to some extent to even go beyond the
traditional like as source of medical remedies, etc.

26

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Proc. Sat. Forum,"Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Status and Prospects of Asian Forests and Forest Products
Sri Nugroho Marsoem(Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.)

Abstract
Forest is a very important natural resource not only because of its various functions, but also becauseof the great challenge and opportunity it offers to mankind. Although it is a renewable resource, itssustainability and functions require wise and sound management. Forest goods in Asia range fromwood to non-wood forest products (NWFPs). Forest services and utilization range from soil and water
conservation, to employment, tourism and recreation, mitigation of climate change, conservation of
biological diversity, and expression of cultural and spiritual values. The different living standards of thepeople in a particular country, make various stakeholders place different values on the forest. Universities
have a role to play in the conservation and management of the forests, as well as in helping find solutions
to problems concerning the sustainability of the forests.
Corresponding author: nugroho@idola .net.id

The role of forests is becoming more and more
important while their existence is subjected toincreasing pressure brought about by the increasein population, which cause the conversion of forest
lands into residential areas and food crop lands, aswell as the increased demand for forest products,
among others. In the Asian region, forests (naturaland plantation) occupy a vast 548 million ha ofland out of the total land area of 3,085 million ha.
It is not the smallest one as compared with theforestland in Oceania region, which only occupied
an area of 198 million ha, and more or less equal
to the forest area in North and Central America
region, but it only occupied 18% of its area, ascompared with 23% for Oceania, 26% for North
and Central America, or 22% for Africa.
Asia, with a population density of 117.8 per km2
in 1999, is much denser than the world average of
45.8 per km2 and is the densest region compared to
Oceania of 3.5 per km2, South America of 19.4 per
km2, North and Central America of 22.3 per km2,
Africa of 25.7 per km2, or even Europe of 32.2 per
km2.
To reduce the pressure on natural forest as asource of raw material (wood) for the industry,
plantation forests have been established in large
areas in some Asian countries. Trees in suchplantation have been mainly utilized recently
for pulp and paper industries. There have been
objections on the monoculture system of theplantation forest as having negative environmental
and social impacts, but so far there have been no
solution. Harvesting in forest plantation also leftmany residues such as leaves, branches and barks
that can still be utilized instead of being burned.
The barks of some trees contain substances such as
tannin that can be used for wood-based industry.
Among the available products that can beobtained from the forest, the share of wood isonly five percent of the total economic value, as
in the case of Indonesia’s natural forest despite
the fact that people in the country rely mostly onsuch commodity for a living. Leaves of many
trees actually contain an essential oil; however,promotion on the utilization, and the added value
from such products are still being neglected.
Various alternative food crops can be obtained
from the forest especially during times when the
country faces shortage of staple foods. The problem
is that there is a lack of knowledge and ability toutilize such alternative economically including theprocessing and storage of crops for longer periodsof time. A better use of NWFPs will assure theexistence of tree plantation and hopefully leads tosustainable forest management.
Deforestation in the Asian forests has recently
increased dramatically. The causes of forest
degradation are varied. In order to avoid
overexploitation of forest products a sound forest
planning and management should be implemented.

29

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

Attention should also be focused on the
deforestation caused by forest fire. Establishmentof monoculture forest plantations has been
identified as one of the main causes of forest
fire. To cope with the limited available space,
the people in some parts of this region have toimplement a more efficient and intensive use of
the land. Agroforestry is one of the alternatives
to address such limitation. Efforts to introduce
agroforestry has increased recently, but related
information and studies on the implementation ofagroforestry are still limited.
A timber-oriented exploitation in the managementof the forest has to be shifted to sound forest
ecosystem management--a condition that could
conserve our rich biological diversity. Efforts
in reducing CO 2 emission need a deeper andcomprehensive study on their effects to theexisting natural and plantation forests. The
potential social, economic and biological diversity
benefits arising from investment in high-quality
conservation, agroforestry and sustainable forest
management initiatives, however, should beclarified.
Almost all countries in Asia still encounter many
problems in implementing and assuring sound30

sustainable forest management. Universities,
as one of the key players in human resources
development, have to come up with ideas andsolutions to challenge the problem related tosustainable forest management. Unfortunately,
most of the universities in Asia only put little
attention to it. The introduction of a university
networking among the countries in Asia, and astronger cooperation among them will probably
lessen the problems.

References
FAO 2001. State of the World’s Forests 2001.
Rome.
Balanchez, J. L. 1997. Forest Resources andR o u n d Wo o d S u p p l y i n t h e A s i a P a c i f i c
Countries: Situation and Outlook to the Year
2000. Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook
Study Working Paper No. APFSOS/WP/17.
FAO, Rome.
Kim, Y. C. 2002. A Tropical Forest Management
Model Based on Concept of Total Economic
Value. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Universitas
Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta.

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact
in the Sustainable Animal Production
InKee Paik
(Department of Animal Science, Chung-Ang University, Ansung-Si, Kyonggi-Do, 456-756, Korea.)

Abstract
The animal industry must be environmentally sound to insure its long-term sustainable growth. In orderto prevent pollution from animal waste, P, N, and pharmacological level minerals should be properly
managed. Microbial phytase has been used successfully to control P excretion. Activity of natural phytase
in certain plant feedstuffs is high enough to be considered in feed formulation. Nitrogen control can beachieved through amino acid supplementation and protein restriction in the diet. Supplementation withcarbohydrases reduces output of excreta as well as N. Ammonia release from the manure can be reduced
by using a low crude protein diet along with the supplementation of probiotics products. Excretion ofminerals, which are used at pharmacological level can be reduced by using chelated forms. Cu and Zn in
the form of methionine chelate have been successfully used in the diets of broilers, layers and/or pigs.
Corresponding author: ikpaik@cau.ac.kr

Introduction
The animal industry must be environmentallysound to ensure its long-term sustainable growth.
Livestock wastes, mostly manure, can be avaluable resource as a fertilizer or soil conditioner.
But it can be a potential hazard to environment
as well. Environmental concerns relate to water
quality, soil degradation, air pollution andrural-urban interface issues. Land applicationof excessive quantities of nutrients is subject tosurface run-off and leaching that may contaminate
ground or surface waters. Phosphorus (P) entering
surface waters can stimulate growth of algae
and water plants. Decomposition of these plants
results in an increased oxygen demand, which may
interfere with the well-being of fish and wildlife.
Nitrate leaching has been considered a major
nitrogen (N) pollution concern with livestock
farms. Ammonia toxicity to fish and alteredeffectiveness of chlorination are other concerns.
Manure can be a major source of methane andnitrogen oxides that contribute to the accumulationof greenhouse gas. Volatilization of ammonia isthe cause of the acid rain that resulted in forest
dieback in western Europe (ApSimon et al,1987). Emissions of nitrous oxide (N 2O) duringnitrification and denitrification cause depletion of
the stratospheric ozone layer (Christensen, 1983).
Manure can be a source of odors that contributeto friction between urban and rural residents.
Excessive contributions of some minerals fromanimal manure can create high salt concentrationin the soil. High concentration of copper andzinc in the pig diets (Paik, 2001) can cause
accumulation of these minerals in the soil. Major
efforts are required to adopt all the best available
technologies capable of reducing excretion ofpollutants from animal industry before further
restrictive legislation is enacted to control the
problem. There are a number of possible solutions
to this problem. The first option of manure
management is developing ‘an environmentallysound’ nutritional management, that is, feeding
program and feeds to result in less excreted
nutrients that need to be managed. The present
paper reports the results of experiments conductedat the author's laboratory regarding the nutritional
management to control environment pollution
from animal production.

Experiment
1.Phosphorus Control
1) Microbial Phytase
Layer experiments
It has been reported that hens consuming the
low nonphytate P (NPP) diet with supplementary
phytase performed as well as the hens fed with
diets containing higher levels of NPP without
supplementary phytase ( Gordon and Roland,
1997;Van der Klis and Versteegh, 1996). In a

31

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

feeding trial with laying hens the effectiveness of
microbial phytase in diets based on corn-soya andwheat-soya was tested (Peter and Jeroch, 1993).
The supplement of phytase (500 U/kg diet) or
inorganic P (0.1% of diet) had a positive effecton the performance of the corn-soya group but noeffect on that of the wheat-soya group. The highest
breaking strength of the eggshell was recordedwith hens that received the phytase supplement in
the corn-soya group. Mineralization of the tibia
bone was also improved with phytase addition.
The response to the level of supplementary
phytase was quadratic. Supplementation of 250 Uof phytase/kg diet in laying hens was equivalent
to 0.8g of P from monocalcium phosphate (MCP)(Van der Klis et al, 1994) while supplementationof 500 U to a corn-soybean meal diet was
equivalent to 1g of P (Peter and Jeroch, 1993).
Simons et al. (1992) reported that supplementationof diets with 250 U of phytase/kg resulted in the
degradation of 62% and 56% of the phytate-P at
low and high Ca levels, respectively. Increasing
phytase from 250 to 500 U/kg of diet had afurther effect on degradation, increasing it by
16% and 11% at respective Ca level. Three layer
experiments were conducted to determine if
microbial phytase supplementation can reduce
non-phytate phosphorus (NPP) level in a practicallaying diet and result in concomitant reductionsin P excretion. Following in Table 1 are abstractsof layer feeding trials conducted at the author’slaboratory.
In Layer Experiment 1, supplementation of
the microbial phytase to normal corn-soybean

diet improved egg production and can reduce
TCP level in the diet without affecting egg
production and egg quality. Significant reductionof P excretion can also be achieved. (Um and Paik,
1999)
In layer Experiment 2, the NPP concentration in
the diet of Brown layers consuming about 130g/dof feed can be safely lowered from 0.27% (0.55%
total P) to 0.16% (0.45% total P) and excretionof P was also reduced by the inclusion of 250 U
phytase/kg of diet. (Um et al, 1999)
In Layer Experiment 3, supplementation of
microbial phytase at a level of 300U per kg dietof laying hens can improve egg production,
decrease broken and soft egg production rate andP excretion. The level of Ca and NPP significantly
modifies the effects of phytase supplementation.
(Lim et al, 2002)
Provided phytate P content and plant phytase
activity are taken into account, it should bepossible to mix layer diets which require minimum
amount of supplementary inorganic P with 250
U phytase supplemented (Um et al., 1999) or do
not require supplementary inorganic P sources
with 500 U phytase supplemented (Um and Paik,
1999). In layers, the degradation of phytate and theabsorption of P was slightly decreased by higher
amounts of Ca in the diets (4.0% vs. 3.0% Ca infeed), nevertheless at both levels the efficacy ofphytase addition was satisfactory. Addition of up
to 300 units phytase per kg feed for laying hens
resulted in a minimal equivalency of 0.3 g MCP P
per 100 units phytase.

Table 1. Effects of supplemental phytases on the productivity and P excretion of laying birds.
Experiment

Level of NPP1, %Supplemental
phytase, unit

Egg production

Feed/egg mass

P excretion

Layer-1

0.37
0.37
0.24
0.12
0.27
0.22
0.16
0.11
0.25(Ca 4%)0.25(Ca 4%)0.25(Ca 3%)0.25(Ca 3%)0.15(Ca 4%)
0.15(Ca 4%)
0.15(Ca 3%)

0
500
500
500
0
250
250
250
0
300
0
300
0
300
0

100
102.2
100.4
100.4
100
100.3
101.4
99.1
100
103.1
102.1
104.5
97.6
97.2
100.6

100
99.6
100.4
100.4
100
100.5
98.6
100.3
100
99.8
96.1
91.6
130.4
101.6
89.9

100
88.5
70.5
59.0
100
88.5
67.3
57.7
100
94.4
102.8
86.1
86.1
72.2
83.3

Layer-2

Layer-3Nonphytate phosphorus.

1

32

Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact in the Sustainable Animal Production

Broiler experiments
In broiler chickens, phytase supplementation
at a level of 1,000 U/kg diet increased thebioavailability of P and Ca by 60% and 26%,
respectively (Simons et al, 1990). The beneficial
effects of phytase supplementation were illustrated
by Zyla and Korelski (1993). The performanceof birds fed with available P deficient diets was
improved by the addition of phytase to the diets.
The in vitro activity (i.e. ability to dephosphorylate
phytate) was also demonstrated, confirming the
proposed mode of action of this enzyme. The
direct benefits of dietary phytase supplementation
on bone mineralization have been shown by
Farrel and Martin (Annison and Choct, 1993) who
reported that tibial ash deposition was enhanced inbirds fed with phytase supplemented diets. Simons
and Versteegh (1993) summarized the results ofseveral experiments conducted in Netherlands. A
microbial phytase product from Aspergillus niger
was added to broiler feed with a low inorganic P
level. The availability of total P could be increased
up to 70%. In comparison with feed with increased
levels of inorganic feed phosphates, a significantly
larger amount of the P consumed was absorbed.
Improved utilization of P decreased its excretionby 40% or more. Growth and feed conversion
ratios were comparable with feed to which
inorganic feed phosphate was added. In broilers

up to 500 units of phytase per kg feed, 250 units
phytase was equivalent for P absorption with
0.5 g of P from MCP per kg feed. The following
Table 2 presents abstracts of broiler feeding trials
conducted at author’s laboratory.
In Broiler Experiment 1, NPP level ofcorn-soy broiler diets can be safely lowered byapproximately 0.2% by supplementing 600 U of
microbial phytase/kg diet. With the adjusted levelof NPP and phytase supplementation, P excretion
could be reduced by 50%. (Um et al, 2000).
In Broiler Experiment 2, lowering NPP levelin the broiler diet significantly depressed theperformance. Supplementation of crude phytase
preparation produced from Aspergillus ficuum
could partially recover the depression. (Paik et al.,2000)
In Broiler Experiment 3, dietary phytase could
reduce P excretion and alleviate adverse affects
caused by feeding low dietary NPP. Effects ofphytase supplementation were greater in the lower
NPP diets. (Lim et al, 2001)
In broiler Experiment 4, supplementation of
the crude phytase, produced from the brothof Aspergillus ficuum culture, to broiler diets
containing low NPP level improved growth
performance and mineral availability and reduced
fecal P excretion. (Lee et al, 2000a).

Table 2. Effects of supplemental phytase on the productivity and P excretion of broiler
Experiment

Level of NPP1, %Supplemental

Performance index

Starter

Finisherphytase, unit

Gain

Feed/gain

P excretion

Broiler Exp.1

0.45
0.34
0.23
0.12

0.40
0.31
0.22
0.13

0
600
600
600

100
101.0
99.3
96.7

100
98.7
101.3
103.3

100
76.2
54.8
40.5

Broiler Exp.2

0.45
0.35
0.25
0.25
0.25

0.35
0.25
0.15
0.15
0.15

0
0
0
600, Phyt-A2
600, Phyt-B3

100
89.4
60.5
82.2
78.9

100
100.6
108.7
109.3
109.3

100
84.8
51.5
39.4
45.5

Broiler Exp. 3

0.45
0.45
0.35
0.35
0.25
0.25

0.35
0.35
0.25
0.25
0.15
0.15

0
500
0
500
0
500

100
99.9
87.3
97.0
57.3
65.1

100
100
102.5
100.6
101.2
108.1

100
107.4
85.2
70.4
81.5
55.6

Broiler Exp.4

0.45
0.35
0
100
100
100
0.45
0.35
600, Phyt-B3
100.6
100
92.7
0.35
0.25
0
92.5
103.0
78.6
100.5
101.2
72.9
0.35
0.25
600, Phyt-B3
1Nonphytate phosphorus, 2Crude phytase A(soup + cell) from Aspergillus ficuum, 3Crude phytase B(soup), from Aspergillus ficuum.

33

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

2) Plant Phytase
It is generally accepted that approximately one
third of phosphorus in the plant origin feedstuffs
are available to monogastric animals. However,proportion of phytate P of total P varies widelyfrom 12% in tapioca to 83% in wheat bran.
Natural phytase content in the feedstuffs also
varies widely from almost none in corn to 2395U
in wheat bran (Lee et al, 1999). Such differences
should be considered in calculating available P
content of diets. Three experiments have been
conducted in the author’s laboratory to study thecharacteristics of plant phytase and its application
to feeding of broilers. The following are abstractsof experiments.

Plant Phytase Experiment 1
An experiment was conducted to measure thecontents of phytate-P, total-P and phytase activityof cereals and cereal by-products. The effects ofpH and temperature on the activity of wheat andmicrobial phytase were compared. Phytate-P
content was higher in most cereal by-products
than in cereal. Rice bran had the highest phytate-P(1,201mg/100g) followed by defatted rice bran
(1,077mg/100g), corn gluten feed (896 mg/100g),
wheat bran (742mg/100g) and rapeseed meal
(535 mg/100g). The phytate-P contents of otheringredients were lower than 500 mg/100g.
Total-P content was high in defatted rice bran
(1,899 mg/100g), rice bran (1,889 mg/100g), andrapeseed meal (1,016 mg/100g) compared to otheringredients. Wheat and wheat bran had the highest
phytase activity (1,121.9 and 2,935.1U/kg) among
ingredients tested (Table 3).
Characteristics of wheat phytase and microbial
phytase were compared. Both of them showedsimilar characteristics at varying pH andtemperature. Maximum activities were achieved
around pH5.5 and 50∞C (Figure 1 and 2).
Considering these characteristics, plant phytase
may be as effective as microbial phytase to theanimals.

Table 3. Total P, phytate P content and phytase activity of plant origin feedstuffs
Ingredients

Phytate-P/100g

Total-P/100g

Phytate-P% of total P

Phytaseactivity, U/

Corn

60

182

32.7

0.2

Lupin

55

307

17.8

3.2

Tapioca

7

59

11.9

18.8

Wheat

199

295

67.5

1120

Sesame meal

542

816

66.4

3.0

Soybean meal

286

577

49.6

7.5

Cottonseed meal

303

678

44.7

2.4

Cocunut meal

204

539

37.8

350

Corn germ meal

32

130

24.4

12.6

Corn gluten meal

287

536

53.5

170

Corn gluten feed

896

1099

81.5

14.8

Rapseed meal

535

1016

52.7

103

Wheat bran

742

893

83.1

2935

Rice bran

1201

1886

63.7

-

Rice bran

1077

1899

56.7

114

(fat-free)(Lee et al., 1999)

34

Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact in the Sustainable Animal Production

Relative activity, %Micribial phytase
Natural phytasephFig 1. Activity of microbial and plant origin natural phytase at different pH
Micribial phytase

Relative activity, %Natural phytase

TEmp, CFig 2. Activity of microbial and plant origin natural phytase at different temperature

Plant Phytase Experiment 2
This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacyof wheat and wheat bran as the source of phytase
in a 5-week broiler feeding trial. One thousand
day-old broiler chickens (Ross®) were divided into
20 pens of 50 broilers(25 male and 25 female)each. Four pens were randomly arranged to oneof the five dietary treatments: T1, control dietcontaining normal NPP level ; T2, T1- 0.1% NPP;
T3, T2£´600IU microbial phytase(NOVO ®) per
kg diet; T4, T2 £´600IU plant phytase from wheat
and wheat bran; and T5, T2£´600IU plant phytase
from wheat and hydrothermally treated wheat
bran. Table 4 shows details of the feed formulaof starter diets. Reduction of NPP level by 0.1%
(T2) reduced weight gain and feed intake but
plant phytase treatments (T4 and T5) recovered
the lost performance. Plant phytase treatments
showed better performance than the microbial
phytase treatment (T3). There was no difference
between regular wheat bran treatment (T4) andhydrothermally treated wheat bran treatment(T5).

Mortality was highest in low NPP diet (T2) (Table
4). Availability of ether extract and crude ash of
grower diet was highest in normal wheat bran diet(T4). Availability of Ca and P of grower diet was
highest in T4 followed by T3 and T5. Availabilityof Mg, Fe and Zn was more drastically improvedby phytase treatments (T3, T4 and T5) (Table 5).
Excretion of Ca, P, Mg, Fe and Zn was lowest in
microbial phytase treatment (T3). Serum level ofCa and Mg was highest in the low NPP treatment(T2). Tibial ash content of T2 and T3 was lower
than that of T1, T4 and T5. However, tibial Ca
content was higher in T1 and T2 than othertreatments. Tibial P and Mg contents were highest
in T1. It was concluded that plant phytase from
wheat and wheat bran can be effectively used to
improve P utilization of the broilers fed low NPP
diets. Plant phytase improved the availability ofcrude ash and minerals such as Ca, P, Mg, Zn and
Fe of the diets. Hydrothermal treatment of wheatbran prior to inclusion in the diet had no beneficial
effects (Kim et al, 2002).

35

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

Table 4. Body weight gain, feed intake, feed/gain and mortality of broiler chickens fed experimental diets from 1 to 35 days

T4

Item

Age (day)T1

Weight gain, g/bird

1-21

703.8a577.1c654.5b

683.6a688.0a

8.89

22-35

906.9

712.3

797.0

880.7

904.1

18.06

1-35

1610.7a1289.5c1451.5b1564.3a1592.1a23.44

Feed intake, g/bird

Feed/gain (g/g)

Mortality, %T2Treatments1
T3

a

c

b

T5
a

SEM
a

1-21

973.6

814.8

919.5

951.7

965.6

9.42

22-35

1674.6a13545.0c

1487.0b1642.2a1707.2a

35.69

1-35

2648.2a2160.6c2407.4b2594.9a2672.8a

44.01

1-21

973.6a814.8c919.5b951.7a965.6a

9.42

a

c

22-35

1674.6a1-35

2648.2abaa13545.0b1487.0a1642.2a1707.235.69

2160.6c2407.4b2594.9a2672.8a

44.01

c

1-21

2.00

3.50

3.00

1.50

3.50

0.97

22-35

0.00

3.62

2.06

0.00

1.04

0.92

1-35

2.00b

7.00a

5.00ab1.50b4.50ab

1.27

T1 = control diet containing normal NPP level, T2 = control diet - 0.1% NPP, T3 = control diet – 0.1% NPP + 600IU microbial
phytase, T4 = control diet - 0.1% NPP + 600IU natural phytase(wheat +wheat bran), T5 = control diet - 0.1% NPP + 600IU
natural phytase(wheat + soaked wheat bran)a-cValues with different superscripts in the same row are significantly different (p<0.05).
1

Table 5. Availability of Ca, P, Mg, Fe and Zn of broiler grower diets

T2

Treatments1
T3

T4

Item(%)

T1

Calcium

26.0d

26.7d

46.1b

57.2a

38.9c

1.93

Phosphorus

33.5

b

35.1

47.5

a

49.9

a

37.0

2.08

Magnesium

8.2b

13.9b

31.1a

30.7a

26.3a

Iron

3.36

d

3.69

15.98

Zinc

17.6c

8.0d

29.0b

b

d

c

T5

37.64
42.7a

a

SEM
b

23.04
21.3b

2.10
b

1.80
1.92

1
T1 = control diet containing normal NPP level, T2 = control diet - 0.1% NPP, T3 = control diet – 0.1% NPP + 600IU microbial
phytase, T4 = control diet - 0.1% NPP + 600IU natural phytase(wheat +wheat bran), T5 = control diet - 0.1% NPP + 600IU naturalphytase(wheat + soaked wheat bran)a-dValues with different superscripts in the same row are significantly different (p<0.05).

36

Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact in the Sustainable Animal Production

Plant Phytase Experiment 3
An in vitro test and a broiler feeding trial havebeen conducted to test the effect of hydrothermal
treatment of wheat bran on phytate-P degradationand its feeding effect in broiler. Hydrothermal
treatment of wheat bran was carried out at 55° with pH 5.5 buffer. Phytate-P content of wheatbran showed quadric decrease as the rate ofwheat bran : buffer ratio increased from 1:0.5 to
1:5. Phytate-P degradation was not significantly
affected by incubation time above 10 min., drying
temperature (55°, 65° and 75°) or pH of buffer(5.5 and 7.0). Feeding trial was conducted with
240 sex separated day-old broiler chickens (Ross®). Broilers were randomly housed to 24 cagesof 10 birds each. Six cages (3 in each sex) wereassigned to 4 treatments control; normal level of
non-phytate-P (NPP), LP; low NPP treatment
which has 0.1% lower NPP than the control,
LPWB; LP with wheat bran, which provides
500IU of plant phytase per kg diet, LPHWB; LPwith hydrothermally treated wheat bran. Results offeeding trial showed that broilers of LP treatment
gained significantly lower than other treatments
in starter period (1~21d) but only male broilersof LP gained significantly lower than the control
in grower (22~35d) and overall period (Table
6). There were no significant differences among

the birds of LPWB, LPHWB and control. Feedintake of overall period was not significantly
different between LPWB and control but that of
LP was lower than LPHWB and that of LPHWB
was lower than control. Feed conversion ratio
was significantly lower in LPHWB and LP thanin control and LPWP. Mortality was highest in
LPHWB. Utilizability of crude fat, crude ash
and Ca was significantly lower but that of Fe wassignificantly higher in LP than other treatments.
Utilizability of P, Mg and Zn was higher in LPWB
and LPHWB than in control and LP. Excretion of
P was significantly lower in low NPP treatments
than in control (Table 7). Serum Ca level was
highest but serum P level was lowest in LP.
Tibial crude ash content was high in wheat brantreatments but tibial Ca content was high in control
and LP. Tibial P content of LP and LPWB was
lower than control. However, Tibial content of Fe
was highest in LP. It was concluded that wheat
bran, a source of plant phytase, can be used in
low NPP broiler diet to prevent the depression of
performance. Reduction of P excretion can beachieved concomitantly. Hydrothermal treatmento f w h e a t b r a n w a s e ff e c t i v e i n i m p r o v i n gutilizability of some minerals but was not effectivein improving performance of broilers (Kim andPaik, 2002).

Table 6. Body weight gain of broiler chickens fed experimental diets from 1 to 35 days. (g/bird)

Male
Female
All

T1
773.3
719.6
746.5a

T2
704.0
678.4
691.2bTreatments1
T3
772.6
709.7
741.2a

T4
766.9
729.7
748.3a

23.36
17.27
16.73

22-35

Male
FemaleAll874.8a782.7
828.8

811.9b764.9
788.3

863.8ab
773.7
818.8

866.8ab
790.2
828.5

18.04
19.64
21.24

1-35

Male
FemaleAll

1648.2a1502.31575.21515.9b1443.61496.6

1636.5ab1483.41559.91633.7ab
1502.31576.8

36.69
23.57
34.15

Age (day)

Sex

1-21

SEM

1
T1 = control diet containing normal nonphytate P(NPP) level, T2 = control diet - 0.1% NPP, T3 = control diet - 0.1% NPP +500IU plant phytase(wheat bran), T4 = control diet - 0.1% NPP + 500IU plant phytase(hydrothermally treated wheat bran)a,bValues with different superscripts in the same row are different (p<0.05).

Table 7. Excretion of Ca, P, Mg, Fe and Zn of broilers fed grower diets
Item

T1

Calcium
Phosphorus
Magnesium

0.396
0.234a
0.108

Iron
Zinc

93.71
48.67

T2

Treatments1
T3-------------- g/bird/d ---------------0.363
0.346
0.174b0.168b0.115
0.105-------------- /bird/d ---------------91.94
99.16
46.52
48.24

T4

SEM

0.348
0.172b
0.102

0.018
0.008
0.005

101.02
48.42

4.74
2.12

1
T1 = control diet containing normal nonphytate P(NPP) level, T2 = control diet - 0.1% NPP, T3 = control diet - 0.1% NPP + 500IU
plant phytase(wheat bran), T4 = control diet - 0.1% NPP + 500IU plant phytase(hydrothermally treated wheat bran)a,bValues with different superscripts in the same row are different (p<0.05).

37

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

2. Nitrogen Control
1) Amino Acids Supplementation and Protein
Restriction
The effects of protein levels and enzyme
supplementation to corn-soy diets on daily N
output in broiler are shown in Table 8.. Broilers
fed with reduced protein diets supplemented withamino acids performed as well as, if not better,
than the broilers on the control (normal) protein
diets and showed a significant reduction in daily N
output (24% at 2 wk and 17% at 5 wk).

A similar experiment with laying hens indicatedthat reducing crude protein levels of corn-soy
diets from 17% to 13.5% with supplementationof synthetic amino acids significantly reduced thedaily N output (24.8% and 35.6% in collection 1
and 2, respectively) with no significant effect on
egg production except one treatment with phytase(Table 9).

Table 8. The effect of dietary protein and enzymes on the growth performance and daily N output of broilers
Feed conversion

Daily N output (g/bird)

PhytasePentosanase

2 wk

5 wk

2 wk

5 wk

2 wk

5 wk

2 wk

5 wk

no

no

643

2272

ab

758

2942

1.27

b

1.81

abc

0.67

2.12a

Control

yes

no

626

2277

794a

2907

1.37a

1.76

0.73ab

1.66bcControl

yes

yes

641

2326

a

793

2959

1.33

ab

1.76

0.80

1.80bcControl

no

yes

642

2325

761ab

2961

1.28b

1.77

0.63bcd

1.92ab

638

2300

777

2942

1.31

ab

Diet description
ProteinControl

1

Weight gain

Average

Feed intake

1.78

0.71

1.88

2882

1.27

b

1.82

bcd

0.58

1.91ab735b

2765

1.31ab

1.81

0.53cd

1.74bc

2106

b

754

2747

1.36

a

1.82

d

0.48

1.39cd

646

2250

758ab

2894

1.26b

1.80

0.56cd

1.56bcd

622

2181

749

2822

1.30

1.81

0.54

1.65

2

Reduced

no

no

635

2230

747

Reduced

yes

no

608

2138

Reduced

yes

yes

598

Reducednoyes

Averagea

The protein levels of control protein diet were 23% CP in starter and 21% CP in grower.
The potein levels of reduced protein diet were 21% CP in starter and 17.5% CP in grower. Reduced protein diets were
supplemented with synthetic amino acids to meet their requirements.
a-dValues with different superscripts in the same column are different (p<0.05).
(Jacob, et al. 2000a)
1
2

Table 9. The effect of dietary protein and enzymes on the egg production and daily outputs of dry matter and nitrogen of laying hensDiet descriptionDM

Egg production

ProteinPhytaseβ -glucanase

17

no

17

%

Daily output (g/layer)

N

Collection 1 Collection 2 Collection 1 Collection 2

no

a

85.8

28.99a31.40a1.21a

1.38ab

yes

no

86.9a

26.47ab26.17ab

1.13abc

1.21b

17

yes

yes

a

89.1

a

30.24

30.92

a

1.36

1.45a

17

no

yes

86.6a

28.74a29.25a1.30ab

1.38ab

87.1

28.61

29.44

1.25

1.36

ab

ab

ab

bc

1.06

0.98c

Average

a

no

no

85.0

26.79

26.17

13.5

yes

no

78.4b

21.34c18.67c

0.91c

0.78c

13.5

yes

yes

82.6

21.92

22.53

bc

c

0.86

0.94c

13.5

no

yes

84.9ab

23.78bc

22.51bc

0.92c

0.79c

82.73

23.46

22.47

0.94

0.87

13.5

1

Averageabc13.5% CP diets were supplemented with synthetic amino acids to meet their requirements.
Values with different superscripts in the same column are different (p<0.05).
(Jacob, et al. 2000b)

1

a-c

38

Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact in the Sustainable Animal Production

2) Carbohydrase Supplementation
Non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) in somefeed grains (e.g. pentosans or arabinoxylans inwheat and rye, and b-glucans in barley and oat)are soluble fibers. Their presence can either
block digestion of other nutrients (e.g., protein
and starch), or can seriously inhibit absorptive
capacity. Therefore, the digestibility of NSP is
low in monogastric animals. It was found that theresults of using enzymes (xylanase or b-glucanase)
did not stem from complete hydrolysis of thenon-starch polysaccharides but that relatively
minor hydrolysis altered the ability of the medium
to form a viscous solution and act as a barrier
to endogenous enzyme activity. In the past
few years a number of different feed enzymes
have been developed. The use of multi-enzyme
preparations in traditional wheat-based poultry
diets was examined (Graham, 1992). The results
demonstrated that with a diet based on 60%
wheat, a mixed enzyme preparation was capableof increasing the rate of live-weight gain (+17%)
and at the same time reducing feed conversion
ratio (1.46 to 1.29). There was also an increase in
the N utilization percentage (37.4 to 45.3%). Such
improvements were attainable even after pelleting,which in itself was capable of solubilizing
starch (Pettersson et al., 1991). A commercial
multi-enzyme preparation from Trichoderma
viride contained 11,150 U/g cellulase, 27,600
U/g glucanase and 37,150 U/g xylanase. This
multi-enzyme product was tested with layers fed
with a barley-based diet (Brufau et al., 1994) anda wheat-based diet (Um et al., 1998). The results
showed that barley and wheat could replace corn
as an energy source in layer diets if the enzyme isproperly supplemented. For the better utilizationof enzymes in feed industry, commercial enzyme
preparations should be customized depending on
the animal species, age of animals and major feed
ingredients. Enzyme products that contained β-glucanase and xylanase in different proportion
were produced from Trichoderma longibrachiatum
and Bacillus subtilis. They were used withdifferent diets (wheat-based or barley-based)in different animal species of different ages
(poultry, starting pigs or growing-finishing pigs).
Enzyme products supplemented to the respective
diets reduced the viscosity caused by non-starchpolysaccharides and increased amino acidavailability as well as energy and P availability(Creswell, 1994). Low and Longland (1990)
reported that N retention of pigs was slightly

increased by enzyme supplementation. Contents
of moisture and N were lower in the litter of birds
given diets supplemented with β -glucanase.
Measurement of ammonia release from the litter
indicated that when a second flock of birds
was raised on the same litter, the presence of a
glucanase in the diet reduced the level of ammonia
release by 80% (Williams and Kelly, 1994). An
experiment was conducted to test the possible
interaction of an enzyme complex and feed
antibiotics on growth and metabolic parameters ofbroilers. The basal diet contained barley at a levelof 40%. Both supplements, when added together
in the diet, had almost an additive effect on growthparameters, and energy, fat and N utilization( Vu k i c Vr a n j e s a n d We n k , 1 9 9 3 ) . O v e r a l lnutritional management can result in the reductionof manure output. A proven and more direct
method is enzyme supplementation. Reducing the
DM content of the digesta in the intestinal tract
with supplemental feed enzymes has a marked
impact on excreta volume and composition. In atrial offering wheat or wheat/barley-based diets tobroilers, excreta weight was reduced by 17 - 28%
in fresh or 12 - 15% in DM by supplementationof a multi-carbohydrases enzyme product. The
direct production benefits of lower excreta output
and reduced fecal DM are seen in some broiler
trials where observations on the frequency of hocklesions and breast blisters are recorded. Reductions
in manure output and water content will improve
litter quality, and possibly decrease carcass
downgrade.
A layer experiment was conducted to evaluate
the effect of a microbial enzyme (Roxazyme-G), a
multi-carbohydrases preparation, supplementation
to the wheat-based layer diets. Diets weref o r m u l a t e d t o i n c l u d e d i ff e r e n t l e v e l s o fwheat replacing yellow corn on isocaloric andisonitrogenous basis. The energy value of wheatin the enzyme supplemented diets was adjusted(spec-modified) to have 5% more ME than thewheat in diets without enzyme. A total of 864
Hy-Line brown layers were assigned to 4 dietary
treatments: 10% wheat (T1), 25% wheat (T2),
25% wheat (spec-modified)£´0.01% Roxazyme-G(T3), and all wheat (spec-modified)£´0.01%
Roxazyme-G (T4). Overall performances areshown in Table 10.

39

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

Table 10. Overall performance of laying hens fed experimental diets during 20 to 40 wk of age
Parameters

T1

Treatments1
T3

T2

SEM

T4

Egg production (%, hen-day)

74.65a73.60b74.03ab74.78a0.33

Egg production (%, hen-housed)

67.10

BC

67.67

AB

C

66.23

68.72A

0.33

Egg weight, g

58.73

A

58.65

A

58.51

AB

58.14

0.119

Feed consumption (g/hen/day)

128.83A

129.23A

0.339

126.35B

129.05A

B

Feed conversion (feed/egg mass)

2.93

2.92

2.97

2.95

0.039

Mortality (%)

7.84

6.05

7.84

6.38

1.143

1
T1: 10% wheat, T2: 25% wheat £´ 5 ppm Carophyll Red, T3: 25% spec-modified wheat £´ 0.01% Roxazyme-G £´ 5 ppm Carophyll
Red, T4: spec-modified wheat(no-restriction) £´ 0.01% Roxazyme-G £´ 5 ppm Carophyll Red £´ 25 ppm Carophyll Yellow.
a,b, A-C
Means with different superscript in the same row are significantly different at p < 0.05 (a,b) and p < 0.01(A-C).

Hen-day egg productions of T1 and T4 weresignificantly (P < 0.05) greater than that of T2 but
not different from T3. Hen-housed egg productionof T4 was significantly (P < 0.01) greater thanthose of T1 and T3 but not different from T2.
Egg weights of T1 and T2 were significantly (P <0.01) greater than that of T4. Feed consumption of
T2 was significantly (P < 0.01) lower than othertreatments. Feed conversion ratio (feed/egg mass)
was not significantly different among treatments.
Eggshell thickness of T1 was significantly (P <0.01) greater than other treatments but ratio of
broken eggs was not significantly different among
treatments. Haugh unit of T4 was significantly
greater (P < 0.05) than that of T2. Egg yolkcolor was significantly (P < 0.01) influenced bytreatments in which enzyme treatment potentiatedthe yolk pigmentation. It was concluded that a
multi-carbohydrases supplementation enables
complete replacement of yellow corn with wheat
without loss of productivity and major egg quality
parameters (Um et al., 1998).

3) Ammonia control
Ammonia release from animal manure should becontrolled to avoid air pollution and conserve N in
the manure for use as fertilizer. The smell of pig
slurry has four times the intensity of cattle, broiler
and poultry manure (Pain, 1990). In terms ofodour control, ammonia reduction may only play acontributory role since Schaefer (1977) correlatedodour intensity with the concentrations of volatile
fatty acids (C2 -C5 ), phenol, p-cresol, indole,
skatole and ammonia, the highest correlations
were obtained with p-cresol. Conservation of N
in manure is important because P or K usually40

limit use of poultry manure for crop production
and other sources of N are needed when the
manure application is limited to needs for fertilizer
elements. Ammonia release from manure can belimited by using additives, by drying and by acidic
conditions. Research into minimizing air pollution
from animal wastes is continuing and taking manydifferent paths. In the Netherlands, for example,
they have identified a microorganism (aerobic
denitrifier) which, under aerobic conditions,converts the nitrogen of ammonia and othernitrogen containing compounds into nitrogen gas.
Nitrogen gas can be released into the atmospherewithout causing pollution problems. Adding suchbacteria to manure would reduce the emissionof ammonia and reduce the nitrogen content of
the manure. They are looking at the possibilityof adding these bacteria to the feed (Holthuijzen,
1993). The ammonia-binding properties of the
Yucca extract have been widely studied. The
earlier reports on the action of a Yucca extract toprevent the accumulation of ammonia erroneously
attributed its action to an inhibition of ureaseby its component three steroid saponins, i.e.
sarsapogenin, smilagenin and hecogenin. But
Headon et al. (1991) reported that the Yucca
extract does not inhibit urease activity and thatsaponin-free De-Odorase had an ammonia-binding
capacity similar to that of the unfractionated
De-Odorase. Recent work by Headon and Power(unpublished, cited by Leek, 1993) demonstrated
that the binding agents in the Yucca extract are
glycocomponents. Because the ammonia-binding
action starts to decline slowly from fourth day
onwards, levels of atmospheric ammonia within
the houses can be significantly reduced byincluding this product in the diet. Zeolite products

Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact in the Sustainable Animal Production

have been used at a level of 1 to 2% of the dietto improve pelleting quality. It is also believedthat zeolite may improve the litter conditionand environment of the barn. Due to a highion-exchange capacity, it is expected that zeolite
may bind ammonium ion in the litter (Moon etal., 1991). However, dietary supplementation ofzeolite or top dressing of zeolite on the broiler
litter did not significantly influence the level ofammonia produced from the broiler litter (Blairand Jacob, unpublished).
Table 11 and Figure 3 are summaries of anexperiment conducted to reduce ammonia levelin the broiler barn. Diets were formulated tohave different protein level with or without
supplementary amino acids (arginine, threonine
and tryptophan) and a probiotic product (Bacillus
subtilis and Lactobacillus) (Lee at al., 2000b).

Table 11. Feed intake, weight gain, feed/gain and mortality in broiler chickens fed different protein level diets for 35 d
Diets

Feed intake

T1 (21.5% CP)

2869.8Weight gain(g)1636.0aFeed/gain

Mortality

(g:g)

%

1.76b

3.60

T2 (21.5% CP+BIO-21 )2879.91626.8a

1.77b

2.00

T3 (18.5% CP+AA2)

2794.51518.6b

1.85a

0.40

T4 (18.5% CP+AA+BIO-21)2859.31511.6b

1.88a

2.00

SEM

32.74

12.09

0.02

1.31

1

Main effects
CP21.5 %

2874.91631.4a

1.76b

2.80

18.5 %

2826.91515.1b

1.87a

1.20

0%

2832.11573.8

1.80

2.00

0.1 %

2869.6

1572.7

1.83

2.00

BIO-21(SP)BIO-21 is a commercial probiotics containing B. subtilis, Lactobacillus and yeast.
AA: amino acids supplement of arginine, threonine and tryptophan.
a,b Values with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different( P<0.05 ).
1
2

Footnotes : T1; 21.5% CP, T2; 21.5% CP+BIO-21, T3; 18.5% CP+AA T4; 18.5% CP+AA+BIO-21

Fig 3. Ammonia level at the litter of broiler barn, determined in the air collected for 60 sec using trapping box of 36
L × 27 W × 18H.

41

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

3. Mineral Control
Some micromineral supplements are producedin the form of protected forms. Metal aminoacid chelate (Ashmead, 1992), metal proteinate
and metal polysaccharide complex are protectedminerals. The protected minerals may be moreavailable and not react with digesta due to boththeir chemical (electrically neutral, ligand andmetal make up) and physical structures (size andligand source). If this is the case, we could use lessto achieve the same result. This would be excellent
as potentially it would save world resources andreduce pollution (Lowe, 1993).

1) Cu-Chelates
Growth performance- broilers and pigs
Summary of effects of copper sources on thegrowth performance of broilers and pigs is shownin Table 12. The effects of copper sources werecompared with the results of non-supplemented
control groups. In broiler experiments,
supplemental copper sulfate at the level of
200ppm was effective for increasing weight gainin Cu-Exp 1 and 3 but not in Cu-Exp 2, 4 and 6.
Supplementation of chelated copper products,
especially SQM-Cu and Met-Cu, improved weightgain and feed conversion efficiency in broilers.
In Cu-Exp 1, supplementation of 127ppm of Cufrom SQM was as good as higher level of Cu(191ppm from SQM and 200ppm from CuSO4) inbroiler performance. In Cu-Exp 3, chelate mineral
combination of Cu, Zn and Fe (Met-Cu-Zn-Fe),
which are known to have strong interactions, did
not perform any better than Met-Cu alone. In
Cu-Exp 4, 125ppm of Cu in the form of Met-Cu
performed as good as 200ppm of Cu of the same
source. In Cu-Exp 5, the growth-promoting
effect of 100ppm Cu from Met-Cu was better
than those from chitosan chelate or yeast chelate.
The effect of Met-Cu on the performance ofbroilers was high compared to those of sodium
alginate-Cu (Cu-Exp.2) or fish meal-Cu(Cu-Exp.3). Supplementation of copper sources
had a detrimental effect on rats (Cu-Exp.6),
however. In Cu-Exp 8, weanling pigs fed dietsupplemented with 100ppm of Cu in the form of
Met-Cu performed as good as, if not better, thosefed 200ppm of Cu from either Met–Cu or CuSO4.
In general, feed conversion efficiency wasconsistently improved by Cu supplementation
regardless of the sources of Cu. However,42

growth-promoting effect was variable dependingon the sources of Cu, animal species andunidentified variables of experimental conditions.
Met-Cu, SQM-Cu, and copper sulfate had a better
growth promoting effect in pigs than in broilers
Considering the results of Cu-Exp 7 and 8(pig), and 1,4 and 5 (broiler chickens), it appears
that dietary level of 100~125ppm copper inthe chelated form is enough to improve theperformance of chickens and pigs. This will
result in a reduction of fecal Cu excretion The
growth-stimulating action of dietary Cu has been
attributed to its antimicrobial actions (Fuller
et al., 1960; Vogt et al., 1981). However, theantimicrobial hypothesis alone can not fully
explain the effects of Cu. It has been demonstrated
that intravenous injection of Cu stimulates thegrowth of weanling pigs (Zhou et al, 1994).
The results of this experiment indicated thatCu acts systemically to influence the growth
regulatory system in many ways. It is also known
that copper regulates cholesterol biosynthesis by
reducing hepatic glutathione concentration (Kimet al, 1992). Therefore, copper deficiency induces
hypercholesterolemia in rats (Klevay, 1973). In
Cu-Exp 4 and 5, copper supplementation tended
to reduce serum and muscle total cholesterol
and increase serum HDL cholesterol level inbroilers (Paik et al, 1999). Kratzer and Vohra(1986) reported that metal ion chelated with low
molecule weight peptides are more stable, neutralelectronically and therefore, chelated minerals are
better able to pass through intestinal wall than areionic minerals.
Laying performance
Pharmacological level of copper is not commonlyused in layer diets because it can cause gizzard
erosion. However, supplementation of copperin the form of Met-Cu improved performanceof laying birds. In Cu-Exp 11, 75ppm Cu in theform of Met-Cu showed best performance in egg
production, egg weight, feed conversion efficiency
and eggshell strength. In Cu-Exp 12, 100ppm
treatment showed slightly better performance than
50ppm treatment. Supplementation of Met-Cu tolayer diet is a subject of further study (Lim andPaik, 2001).

Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact in the Sustainable Animal Production
Table 12. Effects of supplementary copper chelates on the performance of broilers and pigs
CopperExperiments

Animals

Source and level ofCu, ppm

1

Broiler2

Broiler

3

Broiler

4

Broiler

5

Broiler

6

Broiler

Rat

7

Pig

8

Pig

9

Pig

10

Pig

Difference from the control, %GainFeed intake

Feed/gain

CuSO , 200
SQM-Cu, 63.5
SQM-Cu, 127
SQM-Cu, 191

3.8
2.6
3.5
3.8

-0.2
0.6
-0.2
1.7

-4.0
-3.5
-4.0
-2.0

CuSO4, 200
Met-Cu, 200
SA-Cu, 200
CuSO4, 200
Met-Cu, 200
Met-Cu-Zn-Fe, 200
FM-Cu, 200
CuSO4, 250
Met-Cu, 125
Met-Cu, 250
Met-Cu, 100
Chitosan-Cu, 100
Yeast-Cu, 100
CuSO4, 200
Met-Cu, 200
FM-Cu, 200
CuSO4, 200
Met-Cu, 200
FM-Cu, 200
CuSO4, 200
SQM-Cu, 63.5
SQM-Cu, 127
CuSO4, 200
Met-Cu, 100
Met-Cu, 200
CuSO4, 200
Met-Cu, 200
FM-Cu, 200
Met-Cu, 100
Chitosan-Cu, 100

-0.9
2.5
1.1
4.3
6.3
2.2
2.0
-1.5
4.6
4.0
5.3
2.3
1.8
0.3
2.1
0.2
-7.0
-7.5
-6.3
6.4
4.1
7.5
7.5
10.1
8.2
5.5
17.8
0.0
0.3
1.7

-0.6
-0.5
-0.3
-1.4
3.1
0.0
1.2
-2.2
2.3
2.4
2.8
4.4
4.9
-2.0
-0.5
-1.4
-5.3
-3.7
-3.0
4.0
0.9
3.1
-5.9
0.4
9.6
2.6
-7.2
-16.4
-2.1
-3.7

0.0
-3.3
-1.6
-5.7
-3.2
-1.9
-0.6
-0.6
-2.5
-1.8
-2.3
2.3
3.4
-2.2
-2.2
-1.7
1.9
3.8
3.4
-3.1
-3.5
-4.8
-3.8
-1.9
0.0
-4.6
-9.8
-4.6
-2.4
-1.0

4

Footnotes: CuSO 4; CuSO 4 ∑5H 2O, SQM-Cu; sequestered mineral copper; Met-Cu; methionine-copper chelate, SA-Cu;
sodium alginate-Cu complex, FM-Cu; fish meal digest-Cu complex, Met-Cu-Zn-Fe; methionine-copper, zinc and iron complex,
Chitosan-Cu; chitosan-copper complex, Yeast-Cu; yeast-copper complex.

Table 13. Effects of supplementary methionine-copper chelate on the performance of laying birds
Difference from the control, %CopperExperiment

Level of Cu,
ppm

Egg production

Egg weight

Feed intake

Feed conversion Eggshellstrength

11

25

2.11

0.21

0.99

-1.30

1.63

50

1.46

1.50

2.60

3.03

1.33

75

3.84

2.16

3.74

-1.73

3.26

100

3.66

1.85

4.01

-1.30

0.15

50

1.75

0.67

2.82

0.00

4.31

100

2.33

0.98

1.13

-1.65

3.10

12

Conducted for 12 wks with 740 ISA Brown layers of 56wk old.
Conducted for 8 wks with 396 ISA Brown layers of 72wk old.
43

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

2) Zn-Chelates

References

The effects of supplemental zinc in weanlingpigs are shown in Table 14. In the first experiment,
100 and 200ppm of Zn in the form of Met-Zn
and 200ppm in the form of ZnO increased weightgain and feed intake compared to the control (100ppm of Zn from ZnO). In the second experiment,
1,000 or 2,000ppm of Zn in the form of ZnO
increased weight gain and feed intake. At thelevel of 100ppm in the form of Met-Zn improved
weight gain and feed intake but high dietary levelof Zn (1,000 and 2,000ppm) in this form hadadverse effects on the performance. Zinc is an
essential element being the prosthetic of many
metalloenzymes, such as carbonic anhydrase,
alcohol dehydrogenase, carboxy peptidase,
alkaline phosphatase, thimidine kinase, RNA andDNA polymerase and so on. Zinc also plays arole in immune system (Miller et al, 1979; Beachet al., 1980; Dardenne and Bach, 1992) andreproduction system (Kirchgessner and Rothe,1992). Kasahara and Anraku (1972; 1974) reported
that Zn ion might be related to the inhibition ofactive transport system and respiratory chain of
E. coli. Holm (1988) and Poulsen (1989) reported
that supplementing high level of ZnO could
control baby pig diarrhea caused by E. coli. In ZnExp 1 and 2, the activity of alkaline phophataseactivity increased as the dietary level of Zn
increased regardless of the source of Zn. SerumIgG concentration tended to be higher in Met-Zn
treatments as compared to ZnO treatments at 100
and 200ppm Zn level. However, the opposite wastrue at 1,000 – 2,000ppm level of Zn. The resultsof the present experiments indicate the 100 200ppm of Zn in the form of methionine chelate
may be adequate for the improvement of weanling
pig performance (Ahn et al, 1998 a,b).

Ahn, S.H., J.S. Um, D.H. Kim and I.K. Paik. 1998a.
Effects of the sources and levels of supplemental zincon the performance of weanling pigs. Korean J. Anim.
Sci. 40(1): 9-20.
Ahn, S.H., J.S. Um and I.K. Paik. 1998b. Effects of
dietary sources and levels of zinc on the performanceand characteristics of serum and feces in weanlingpigs. Korean J. Anim. Sci. 40(6): 607-616.
Annison, G. and M. Choct, 1993. Enzymes in poultry
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Wenk and M. Boessinger, Proceedings of the 1st
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ApSimon, H.M., M. Kruse and J.N.B. Bell, 1987.
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Ashmead, H.D. 1992. The Roles of Amino Acid
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Beach, R.S., M.E. Gershwin, R.K. Makishima and L.S.
Hurly. 1980. Impaired immunologic ontogeny inpostnatal zinc deprivation. J. Nutr. 110:805.
Brufau, J. R. Cos, A. Pérez-Vendrell and E.
Esteve-Garcia, 1994. Performance of laying hens asaffected by the supplementation of a barley-based dietwith a crude enzyme preparation from Trichoderma
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Christensen, S. 1983. Nitrous oxide emission fromsoil under permanent grass: seasonal and diurnal
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Creswell, D. 1994. Use of enzymes with wheat orbarley in broiler, layer and swine feeds. Proceedingsof Seminar, Finnfeeds International Ltd. And Jeil Vet.
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Dardenne, M. and J. Bach. 1992. Rationale for themechanism of zinc interaction in the immunesystem.
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by S. Cunningham-Rundles. Marcel Dekker Inc. New
York, NY. Pp.501-509.

Table 14. Effects of supplementary zinc oxide and methionine zinc chelate in weanling pigs
Zinc Experiment

Source and level ofZn, ppm

12

Difference from the control (ZnO, 100 ppm), %Gain

Feed intake

Feed/gain

ZnO, 200

8.3

9.6

0.5

Met-Zn, 100

3.0

3.0

0.5

Met-Zn, 200

18.8

15.1

-3.8

ZnO, 1000

10.0

9.2

-1.4

ZnO, 2000

11.0

12.8

1.4

Met-Zn, 100

15.6

15.9

0.0

Met-Zn, 1000

6.5

12.2

7.6

Met-Zn, 2000
Footnotes: Met-Zn; methionine-Zinc chelate

-2.0

9.4

11.7

44

Nutritional Management to Control Environmental Impact in the Sustainable Animal Production

Fuller, R., L. M. G. Newland, C. A. E. Briggs, R.
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Kim, B. H., H. Namkung, I. K. Paik, 2002. Utilizationof plant phytase to improve phosphorus availability.
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Kirchgessner, M. and H. Roth. 1992. Nutritional

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Klevay, L.M. 1973. Hypercholesterolemia in rats
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Kratzer, F. H., and P. Vohra. 1986. Chelates in
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Lee, S.J., J.S. Um, I.K. Paik and J. G. Lee, 2000a.
Effect of Crude Phytase Supplementation on
Performance of Broilers Fed Different Levels of
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Lee,S.J., S.W. Choi, H. Namkung and I.K.Paik,
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on ammonia gas emission in broiler house. Kor. J.
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Leek, B.F. 1993. The problem of nitrogen waste
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Lim, H.S., H. Namkung and I.K. Paik, 2002. Effectsof phytase supplementation on the performance, egg
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Lim, H.S., H. Namkung, J.S. Um, K.R. Kang, B. S.
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Supplementation on the Performance of Broiler
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Lim, H.S. and I.K.Paik, 2001 Effects of Cu-methionine
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and dietary fiber digestion in the pig and the possible
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Lowe, J. 1993. Protected minerals, an expensive luxury
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Miller, E.R., D. Stowe, P.K. Ku and G.M. Hill. 1979.
Copper and zinc in swine nutrition. In National Feed
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Paik, I.K., J.S. Um, S.J. Lee and J. G. Lee, 2000.
Evaluation of the Efficacy of Crude Phytase
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Pettersson, D., H. Graham and P. Aman, 1991. The
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Simons, P. C. M., A. W. Jongbloed, H. A. J.
Versteegh and P. A. Kemme, 1992. Improvementof phosphorus availability by microbial phytase inbroilers and pigs. Br. J. Nutr. 66:100-109
Simons, P. C. M., H. A. J. Versteegh, A. W. Jongbloed,
P. a. Kemme, P. Slump, K. D. Bos, M. G. E.
Wolters, R. F. Buedeker and G. J. Verchoor. 1990.
Improvement of phosphorus availability by
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Um, J. S., S. H. Ahn and I. K. Paik. 1998. Effects
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Um, J.S., I.K. Paik., M.B. Chang and B.H. Lee. 1999.
Effects of microbial phytase supplementation todiets with low non-phytate phosphorus levels on
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Phytase Supplementation on Egg Production,
Eggshell Quality, and Mineral Retention of Laying
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Um, J.S., H.S. Lim, S.H. Ahn and I.K Paik, 2000.
Effects of Microbial Phytase Supplementation
to Low Phosphorus Diets on the Performanceand Utilization of Nutrients in Broiler Chickens.
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Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)Case Study on Development of the Sustainable Agricultural System for Various
Agro-ecosystems Through Assessment of Nitrogen Flow
Osamu Ito, Kazuyuki Yagi*, Yasukazu Hosen, Naruo Matsumoto and Takeshi Watanabe(Crop Production and Environment Division, Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences,
Tsukuba, 305-8686 Japan.)(* Department of Global Resources, National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, Tsukuba, 305-8604 Japan.)

Abstract

Importance in the sustainability of agricultural systems has long been recognized in relation tomaintaining and improving agricultural productivity in harmony with the surrounding environment. In
many cases, however, the sustainability is discussed rather qualitatively, not quantitatively. This is mainly
because of lack of measurable indicators to express the degree of the sustainability in the system. The
nutrient is an essential element for the agricultural systems and the appropriate management of such
nutrient should be one of the key points for sustainable development of the system. Moreover, the nutrient
flow within the system can be quantified at a certain degree and the nutrient budget that is a consequenceof balance between input and output may be closely related to sustainability. Optimization of nitrogen
cycling in the farm community is considered to be an important aspect as nitrogen is a major nutrient
to increase agricultural production. In this paper, a whole picture of the nitrogen cycle for agricultural
production that was constructed based on data collected from agricultural statistics, research reports, study
reports, field observation, interview with farmers and information from experts, will be presented withparticular focus on three areas in the East and Southeast Asian countries such as Shandong province in
China, Northeast Thailand, and Mekong Delta. The obtained nitrogen budget is also discussed in order toimprove sustainability of the system.
Corresponding author: osamuito@jircas.affrc.go.jp

Introduction
The nutrient flow, especially for nitrogen, hasbeen studied to obtain accurate budget in the fieldeven before issues on the sustainability became
hot spot in the agricultural research. A nitrogenbalance sheet makes it possible to (1) assess theflows of nitrogen through society in order to decideon the most efficient measures to reduce surpluses(in setting up such an overview, a number of
uncertainties or knowledge gaps are invariably
identified), and (2) to quantify complex variables
that cannot be measured directly, for example,)excretion of nitrogen by farm animals and lossof nitrogen to air, soil, ground and surface water.
Various models are now available to estimate thenutrient budget in the system. In order to assess
inputs, redistribution and losses relative to soil
fertility, Brown et al (1999) developed a nutrient
budget model that can accept yield, input andmanagement data obtained from farm interviews.
The nitrogen turnover model developed by
Rothamsted uses readily available input parameters
to simulate N turnover in the soil-crop system.
Nitrogen turnover is described in the model by aset of zero and first-order equations for (i) uptakeof mineral N by the crop, (ii) mineralization-immo
bilization turnover of organic matter, and (iii) gains
and losses of N from the soil-crop system (Smith etal, 1996).
The nitrogen flow can be drawn not only for theparticular farmland but also for regional and evensub-national or national level (Mishima et al. 1999,
De Koning et al. 1997). As the spatial coverage is
expanded, more parts of the flow should dependon speculation or extrapolation from the statistical
data or other scientific information. Even though
the accuracy may be reduced by the spatial
expansion, it should be very important to haveoverall view on the nutrient flow in the target area
as problems related to inflow and outflow in the
farmland can be identified and the way to optimize
the nitrogen flow can be proposed. Recent research
reveals considerable potential to combine nitrogenbalance and information from soil and other maps
with statistical, mathematical and geographicalinformation system (GIS) techniques for spatial
expansion. The nutrient balances establish a link
between agricultural nutrient use, and changes inenvironmental quality and the sustainable use ofsoil nutrient resources (Parris, 1998).

47

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

Although various types of farming systems canbe seen in East and Southeast Asian countries, thedominant systems in the region largely depend on
local biophysical conditions, especially climatic
factors that most affect agricultural production andcan not be modified by the effort of the individual
farmer. The agro-ecosystem in the region can bebroadly classified into six categories according
to the FAO definition as can be seen in Fig. 1.
The FAO agro-ecological zoning system is basedon simple parameters such as length of growing
period, mean monthly temperature and daily mean
temperature (Pingali et al, 1997). In this paper,an example of typical farming operation will bepicked up from three agro-ecosystems (warmsemiarid subtropics with summer rainfall, warm
sub-humid tropics and warm humid tropics) anddirection of sustainable development of farming
systems will be briefly discussed based on
research outcomes that have been produced by
the projects that the Japan International ResearchCenter for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)
conducted in the region. Special attention will beplaced to analyze agricultural production fromthe viewpoint of nitrogen flow for its sustainable
development.

Warm serniarid tropics
Warm subkarmid tropics
Warm karmid tropics
Warm semiarid subtropics with summer rainfall
Warm subkarmid subtropics with summer rainfall
Warm/cool karmid subtropics with summer rainfall
Cool subtropics with summer rainfall

Fig 1 Agroecological zones in south, south east and east Asia
(modified from Pingali et al. 1997)

Estimation of Nitrogen Flow
A whole picture of the nitrogen cycle for
agricultural production in three target regions
was developed based on data collected fromagricultural statistics, research reports, study
reports, field observation, interview with farmers
and information from experts (Matsumoto et al,
2000, Matsumoto et al, 2003).

Nitrogen Flow in Shandong Province in China
The first example is from Lingxian County,
Shandong Province, China that belongs to warm
semiarid subtropics with summer rainfall (Yagiand Hosen, 2000). The intensive upland cropping
is dominant with wheat, maize, vegetables andcotton as major crops. The regional analysis of
the nitrogen flow indicated an excessive load48

of nitrogen to arable land and the environment(Fig. 2). The load is mainly due to increasing
consumption of chemical fertilizer in addition toincreasing manure application. The analysis ofnitrogen budget based on statistics suggested thatthe balance between input and output of nitrogenin arable land was 288 kg N/ha/year in 1997.
There was an increasing trend in the nitrogenload; for example, the balance in 1981 was 159 kg
N/ha/year that accounted for 55% of that in 1997.
Nitrate pollution to groundwater due to excessive
application of nitrogen fertilizer should be a major
concern in near future, but the present level ofnitrate in the groundwater collected from wells is
still within the acceptable range, indicating thatthe nitrate pollution has not been widely spread in
the region despite increasing amount of nitrogen
application.

Case Study on Development of the Sustainable Agricultural System for Various Agro-ecosystems Through Assessment of Nitrogen FlowFig 2 Nitrogen flow in agro-ecosystem of Lingxian province in China (1997) modified from Yagi and Hosen 2000

Nitrogen Flow in Northeast Thailand
The second example is from Northeast Thailandthat belongs to the warm sub-humid tropics.
Northeast Thailand receives annual rainfall
ranging from 700 to 1600 mm, depending on
location and year. More than 90% of the annual
rainfall occurs between May and October. Major
agricultural activities are carried out during therainy season (Lindsay, 2000). Soils are often
sandy or skeletal, and problems of salinity areextensive in this region. Nearly 55% of the total
land area in Northeast Thailand has been already
exploited for agricultural production. Within
the area in agriculture, however, less than 10%
is supplied with irrigation. Thus agriculture in
Northeast Thailand depends primarily on thequantity and pattern of rainfall received (Pattanee,2000). Rainfed lowland paddy, cassava and kenaf
have been major crops since the 1960’s, butlately sugarcane has become a major cash crop.
Deforestation has led to changes in the hydrologic
environment and has caused widespread salinity
problems in this region. Soil erosion and soil
fertility deterioration are also becoming serious
problems in cassava growing areas. Because of
these problems, the agricultural productivity ison the decline. One possible way to improvesoil fertility may be more efficient use of locallyavailable nutrient resources such as crop residues
and animal feces. In order to identify the available
resources, it is necessary to quantify nutrient cycle
through agricultural activities such as crop andlivestock production in the region, and clarify
limiting factor for effective utilization of thenutrient resources.

Developing technologies to assure sustainablecrop production requires a better understandingof the material cycling (especially nitrogen) of
this region, together with efficient management
and utilization of water resources, reforestation,
minimization of soil erosion, arresting further
decline in soil fertility, and crop diversification.
Also, development of improved production
systems that can utilize local resources and create
employment opportunities for the local population
should be promoted in this region. Livestockindustry including dairy farming should be further
promoted in Northeast Thailand as rapid economic
growth in other parts of this country is expected
to create a substantial demand for milk and meatin the near future. Thus, integrated agriculturaldevelopment that can functionally link agricultural
crop production and livestock industry together
with vegetable and horticultural production
should be the goal for improvement in the overall
productivity of this region, which may reduce thenegativity in the nitrogen balance owing to moreavailability of animal wastes as organic manure,and which should then lead to improvement of thesoil fertility decline.
Although nitrogen in crop residues amounts tomore than 50 kg N/ha/year, more than half ofthem is removed from the field or burned (Fig.
3). Most of animal feces are returned to thefield, but its production is still limited becauseof underdevelopment of livestock industry. The
return of human excrements and fresh garbage isinsignificant. The local farmers do not actively
practice yet the application of nitrogen fertilizer.
Thus the nitrogen balance in the farmland

49

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

results in negative value. Nitrogen that has beenreturned to the farmland is less than nitrogen thathas not been returned to the farmland such as
the one burned after harvest. It is important for
optimization of nitrogen balance to establish theefficient use of those returnable organic resources.
Many workers have identified soil organic matteras a key factor in maintaining soil fertility andcrop production. Its maintenance is an essential
requirement for increasing and maintaining
productivity. Long-term straw incorporation has
improved soil fertility and productivity of the soils
at the Surin Rice Experiment Station in Northeast
Thailand (Withbread et al, 1999). However,
the incorporation of rice straw can only return
part of the nutrients to the soil as nutrients are
removed in grain. The estimated nutrient removalfrom paddy fields in Northeast Thailand, withaverage rice grain yields of 1.7t/ha, is about 28
kgN, 6.2 kg P, 3.4 kg S, and 24 kg K ha/year. In
the extremely sandy soils of Northeast Thailand
with inherently low cation exchange capacity,
organic matter amendments are essential if
mineral N fertilizers are to be used without riskof acidification causing crop damage (McDonagh
et al, 1995). Although nutrient balance analyses
are seen as a powerful tool for the assessment ofcritical components of the sustainability of theseland-use systems as shown here, such tools arechallenged by the complexity of these systems.
This complexity arises from spatio-temporalbiophysical, socio-economic and institutionalvariability at different spatial scales and withdifferent stakeholders being involved (Konboon etal, 2002).

Fig 3 Nitrogen flow in Khon Kaen province, Thailand (Matsumoto et al. 2003)
50

Case Study on Development of the Sustainable Agricultural System for Various Agro-ecosystems Through Assessment of Nitrogen Flow

Nitrogen Flow in Mekong Delta
The last example is from Mekong Delta thatbelongs to the humid tropics according to the FAO
definition. The Mekong Delta is situated from
8 °35 ´N to 11 °N with average temperature
27 °C in Can Tho City. The annual rainfall isaround 1,600mm, most of which occurs during
rainy season with almost no rain in February
and March, which are the middle of dry season.
The Mekong Delta is rich in water resources
with the dense network of canals that function as
irrigation, drainage and transportation for various
types of boats. Moreover, major road systems
are constructed along the canals, indicating
multifunctional importance of the canal network.
In the area with less developed canal network,
flooding is the most serious problem because of
insufficient drainage. Currently, some 17 million
people live in this area, but the number is expected
to increase up to 21 million by the year 2010.
Although intensive rice production is the major
agricultural activity in the region, integrated
farming operation has been widely adopted by
the local farmers. The system is specifically
named VAC that stands for garden (Vuon), pond(Ao) and pen (Chuong) in Vietnamese language.
The system has been very effective to sustain
agricultural production of the region in the past. In
the Mekong Delta, approximately 400,000 ha aresuitable for freshwater aquaculture, but today lessthan 10% of the area is used for this purpose. Afterthe Mekong Delta was turned to be major area
for rice exportation, many problems that threaten
the sustainable development of local agriculture
become visible. One of the problems is theimbalance of inflow and outflow of nitrogen. The
detailed study to normalize the balance throughmore efficient use of local resources was initiatedas one of the international projects conducted by
JIRCAS.
The application of nitrogen fertilizer is becoming
excessive. Nearly half of the rice straw is burned
after the harvest, resulting in loss of nitrogen
into the atmosphere. It should be important toestablish a more efficient way of usage for the ricestraw. The Can Tho province belongs to a major
rice-exporting region in the country, and export ofnitrogen in milled grain is equivalent to one thirdof nitrogen applied as chemical fertilizer. The ricebran left after milling is effectively utilized as hog
feed. Comparatively a large amount of nitrogenis put to the fishponds. Major nitrogen source tothe ponds is animal excreta. In order to reduce
the river pollution due to excessive dumpingof animal excreta, it is important to introduce
such processes as the use of a bio-digester andcomposting. Currently, nitrogen pollution in theriver has not been quantitatively detected. This ismainly because of dilution by tremendous amountof water in the Mekong River. With increased
dumping, the pollution may become serious in thenear future. The nitrogen balance in the farmlandof Can Tho province is showing already positive
value and has tendency to be more positive. The
rice-fish farming provides a sustainable alternative
to rice monoculture, if the farmer takes fulladvantage of the natural productivity of the rice
field ecosystem. The aim should be to reduce theresource use, avoid overuse of agrochemicals andimprove production efficiency through increased
recycling of nutrients and matter. The introductionof fish into the paddy fields has been shown to
reduce the need for pesticides, increase the farmhousehold income and diversify agriculture
production. Thus, it is believed that integrated
farming systems can help farmers increase theirfarm incomes and enhance sustainable agriculture
and rural development (Berg et al, 2000).

Concluding Remarks
It is demonstrated by this study that approachto make a quantitative analysis of nitrogenflow in an administrative unit should be a very
useful tool to identify constraints for sustainable
development of farming systems in the region.
As a result of analysis, the way to promote local
resource utilization will be suggested, which
provides decision makers with realistic options forsustainable development of agricultural productionthat best fits to the region.

References
Berg, H. (2002). Rice monoculture and integrated
rice-fish farming in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam– economic and ecological considerations.
Ecological Economics 41:95-107.
Brown, S., H. Schreier, P.B. Shah, and L.M.
Lavkulich (1999). Modeling of soil nutrient
budgets: an assessment of agricultural
sustainability in Nepal. Soil Use andManagement 15:101-108.
van Eerdt, M.M. and P.K.N Fong. (1998).

51

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

The monitoring of nitrogen surpluses fromagriculture. Environ Pollu. 102 S1:227-233.
Konboon, Y., J.D. Wijnhoud, and R.D.B Lefroy.
(2002). Nutrient budgets: sustainability
assessment of rainfed rice systems in Northeast
Thailand and variability along microtopographic
catenae. Proceedings of 17th World Congress ofSoil Science. P648.
de Koning, G.H.J., P. J. van de Kop, and L. O.
Fresco. (1997). Estimates of sub-national
nutrient balances as sustainability indicators
for agro-ecosystems in Ecuador. Agriculture
Ecosystems & Environment 65:127-139.
Lindsay, F. (2000). Thai Agriculture: Golden
Cradle of Millennia. Kasetsart University Press.
459p.
Matsumoto N, S. Mishima, K. Oda, and T.
Hakamata. (2000). Evaluation of nitrogen
flows from a manure supply system in Satomi
Village, Ibaraki, Japan. Journal of the Japanese
Agricultural Systems Society 16(1), 62-73. (inJapanese).
Matsumoto, N., K. Paisancharoen, C.
Wongwiwatchai, and P. Chairoj. (2003).
Nitrogen cycles and nutrient balance inagro-ecosystems in Northeast Thailand. In“Development of Sustainable Agricultural
System in Northeast Thailand throughLocal Resource Utilization and Technology
Improvement” by O. Ito and N. Matsumoto.
(eds). JIRCAS Working Report No.30 P49-53.
McDonagh, J.F., B. Toomsan, V. Limpinuntana,and K. E. Giller. (1995). Grain legumes andgreen manures as pre-rice crops in Northeast

52

Thailand 1.Legume N 2 –fixation, production
and residual nitrogen benefits to rice. Plant Soil
177:111-126.
Mishima, S., N. Matsumoto, and K. Oda. (1999).
Nitrogen flow associated with agricultural
practices and environmental risk in Japan. Soil
Sci. Plant Nutr., 45:881-889.
Parris, K. (1998). Agriculture nutrient balances
as agri-environmental indicators: an OECD
perspective. Environ, Pollu. 102 S1:219-225.
Pattanee S. (2000). Keynote Address inProceedings of the 12 th Asian Agricultural
Symposium on Agriculture and Water held at
Khon Kaen 24-25 November, 2000 organized
by Khon Kaen University and Kyusyu Tokai
University, pp iv-xii.
Pingali P.L., M. Hossain, and R.V. Gerpacio.
(1995). Asian rice bowls: the returning crisis?
CAB International. 341pp.
Smith, J.U., N.J. Bradbury, and T.M. Addiscott.
(1996). SUNDIAL: A PC-based system forsimulating nitrogen dynamics in arable land.
Agron. J. 88:38-43.
Withbread, A. Blair, G. Naklang, K. Lefroy,
R . Wo n p r a s a i d , S . K o n b o o n Y. a n d D .
Suriya-arnroj. (1999).The management of ricestraw, fertilizers and leaf litters in rice cropping
systems in Northeast Thailand. Plant and Soil
209:29-36.
Yagi, K. and Y. Hosen. (2000). Nitrogen Cyclingin Agro-Ecosystems of Lingxian County,
Shandong Province, China. In JIRCAS Annual
Report (1999).

Proc. Sat. Forum,"Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Toward Sustainable Agricultural Production System:
Major Issues and Needs in Research
Akira Yamauchi(Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan)

Abstract
Current agricultural sciences are expected to contribute to find new values and functions of agriculture
by taking environmental issues into account in addition to increased productivity. Modern agriculture has
started harming environments, which include not only those surrounding the human life but also thosethat ensure sustainability of agricultural production. Development and progress in one aspect impose loadon resources and threaten sustainability. Thus, we need to continue to find ways for sound coexistence
between nature, environment and human activities. Long-term research is needed to understand thetrade-off relationship between sustainability and productivity, which incorporates not only different
disciplines of science but also includes social, cultural and economical components.
Corresponding author : ayama@ agr nagoya-u. ac.jp

1. Agricultural production andenvironmental issues
The expectations of society from agricultural sectors
and the consequent roles of agricultural sciences
have been changing with time. In Japan, agricultural
productivity has remarkably increased especiallyafter World War II, in which agricultural activities aresupported by the progress of production technology.
The target of agricultural sciences then was focused onincreased productivity that is quite simple and clear.
On the other hand, the current agricultural sciences are
expected to contribute to the proposal of new values
and functions of agriculture by taking environmental
issues into account in addition to increased productivity,
which is extremely difficult and challenging. That is the
subject that will be examined in this paper.
The trend of the dependency on chemical materials
for crop production that often leads to increased
productivity had been intensified in the latter half ofthe 1960’s in developed countries and later spreadto developing countries. In many of the developing
countries, the production of cash crop, especially thoseintended for export was more encouraged than the
production of subsistent crop, which often reflects instatistics as increased agricultural production. On theother hand, the ecological implication of increased
export of agricultural products is the removal ofresources from the land, which has been causing
various environmental degradations. In turn, it causes
excess deposition of the resources in importing
countries. In Japan, for example, importing large

amount of bioproducts has been causing serious
pollution in ground water, river and sea (Kawashima,2002).

2. Establishment of agricultural production
based on cycling and coexistence
Agriculture is, in principle, an industry thatmakes solar energy available to human utilizationin sustainable ways by fully utilizing the cycling
function of nature. In such sustainability, one of themost important issues has been the conservation ofsoil fertility. Such sustainability has been historically
proven by examples in shifting cultivation systemwith a relatively long uncultivated period; farmlands along the Nile, which have been continuously
supplied with nutrients; lowland rice fields in Asia,
utilizing rotation cropping system with legumes.
Prevention from soil erosion is also an importantcomponent for the sustainability. Thus various
mulching systems and minimum tillage technology
have been developed for that purpose (Evans, 1998).
On the other hand, examples of causes for landdegradation include overgrazing, deforestration,salination due to inappropriate irrigation and
ill drainage. Furthermore, in its long history,‘modern’ agriculture has started harming
environment rapidly. Such environments include
not only those surrounding the human life but
also those for agricultural production itself, whichmeans agricultural activities tend to degrade theproduction environment and threaten sustainability.

53

Chapter 1. Sustainable Bioproduction Systems

Desertification, which is mainly caused by adverse
human activities, is the typical example.
It is essential to understand that the issue ofsustainability is not for agriculture only but it has now
become a biosphere and global issue. The influencesof the use of resources and energy by human activities
have reached the global level. We have not yet foundeffective measures to combat poverty that is the major
cause of environmental degradation. Development
and progress in one aspect impose a load on resources
and threaten the sustainability. This is the very reason
why we need to continue to find ways for soundcoexistence between nature, environment and humanactivities.
Degradation of global as well as agricultural
production environments seriously affects food safety.
It is important, however, to take into consideration thefood safety not only for consumers but also producers.
Especially in Japan that is a huge food import country
where the food self-sufficiency rate is now as low as
40 % on calorie base, we are seriously challenged as
to how to construct a sound coexistence relationshipbetween producers and consumers beyond border, andbetween cities and rural areas (agricultural sectors).
This issue is directly related to our policy for future
agriculture as well as our own daily lives.
It is estimated that a total of approximately 12
million ha of farm land overseas is now being used to
produce foods to feed the Japanese people, which isabout double that cultivated in Japan (The Japanese
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1996).
Including others resources such as woods and fiberthat are essential to our daily lives, a huge amountof lands are used for Japanese people. It is, therefore
important to understand the fact that our lives in Japanare made possible only in relation with many people
who are engaged in the production and processing of
those foods. That must be the first step towards theestablishment of a real society of coexistence.

3. Trade-off relationship between
productivity and sustainability
Intensification of agricultural production that has
been supported by the use of chemical materials
and mechanization is often counter posed againstsustainability. However, as discussed earlier,the increase in food production for the last few
decades has been largely dependent on that incrop productivity per unit area. The environmental
problems that were discussed above must haveaggravated and the sustainability more adversely54

affected if the increased population for the period
were fed only by the increased food production due
to the increase in farm land area. The intensification
itself only accelerates the rate of use of resources
like nutrients and water but is neither directly relatedwith the sustainability nor the cause of environmental
degradation.

4. Direction for future research
The world population exceeded 6 billion in 1999,
and is continuing to increase. Because it is notpossible anymore to return to sustainable agricultural
production with low input, emphases must be placedon long-term research that are intended to establish
sustainable crop production technology while
maintaining high productivity.
One of the key issues in such research is locality.
For example, in the research during the Green
Revolution, it was believed that a crop existsthat guarantees high productivity in any partsof the world. The research indeed substantially
increased crop productivity, while at the same time
segmented cycling chains and had weakened thecoexistence society. Afterwards, the International
Rice Research Institute that was heavily involvedin the Green Revolution, had shifted the research.
The target region is first ecologically characterized.
The rice plants that are grown under different
ecological conditions are treated as if they are totallydifferent crops. Then the scientists from various
disciplines work together on the identified problems(IRRI, 2004). To further develop and establish
the sustainable production technology, further
integration of social, cultural and economical factors
will be needed in the long-term research project.

References
Evans, L. T. 1998. Feeding the Ten Billion: plants
and population growth. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
IRRI. 2004. Science online. http://www.irri.org/science.aspKawashima, H. 2002. Water Environmental
Problems and Nitrogen in the 21st Century.
Environmental Science 15:299-303.
The Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries. 1996. Annual Report on Food ,Agriculture and Rural Areas in Japan. FY 1996.

Chapter 2
Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Regulation of Carbon Metabolism in Relation to Plant Productivity
Steven C. Huber(U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, and Departments of Crop Science and Botany,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7631, USA)

Abstract
Sustainable agriculture will be required to maintain the environment and to feed the growing world
population. In addition to improved cultural practices (e.g., crop rotation, use of crop residues to build
the soil, biological pest control), improved crops will certainly be part of the answer and geneticallyengineered plants will be an approach of choice. Early goals of genetic engineering were to transfer
single genes that could influence pest resistance or herbicide resistance. Future goals will need to focus
on multiple genes or global factors that impact pathways, and will also shift from gene identification toconsider the impact of proteomics on phenotype. In addition, in order to impact on agriculture it will benecessary to involve teams of scientists that span traditional disciplinary boundaries. The University cantruly function as an ‘Architect of the New Century’ by assembling such teams and providing the “seed”
money needed to initiate programs that conduct fundamental research of applied problems that impact on
agriculture. How might primary plant metabolism be manipulated to improve productivity or crop value?
In general, we are trying to identify biological mechanisms controlling important plant processes that may
provide opportunities for manipulation to produce ‘improved’ plants for agriculture. This paper briefly
mentions a few examples from literature and focuses on some possible avenues for control of metabolismthat are related to current research activities in the author’s laboratory.
Corresponding author: steve_huber@ncsu.edu

Control of enzyme intracellular localization

Control of enzyme degradation

Sucrose synthase (SuSy) is known to be
an important enzyme involved in the initial
metabolism of sucrose in many sink tissues.
Recent results from several laboratories indicatethat SuSy may be localized in several cellularcompartments: 1) soluble in the cytosol (astraditionally assumed); 2) associated withmembranes; and 3) associated with the actin
cytoskeleton (Winter and Huber, 2000). The
physiological significance of the enzyme in thesedifferent subcellular locations is not known,
but may be important for directing the productsof sucrose cleavage into specific biosynthetic
pathways. Consequently, we are attempting to
identify the lipid- and actin-binding domains
on SuSy. As well, we are interested in whatmechanisms control the distribution of enzyme
among the three locations. In particular, efforts
are focused on a possible role for phosphorylationof SuSy at the Ser-15 site. Controlling theintracellular localization of an enzyme may be
one approach whereby manipulation of a single
gene product can influence flux through metabolic
pathways.

The steady state level of an enzyme will reflect
the balance between its synthesis and degradation.
However, little is known about the mechanisms
involved in degradation of plant metabolic enzymes.
Recent studies of protein phosphorylation in ourlaboratory suggest that phosphorylation of certain
sites may be a trigger for protein degradation via
the 20S/26S proteasome. Phosphorylation ofthese ‘cryptic sites’ is somehow blocked in thenative protein. Once they become accessible toprotein kinases (perhaps in response to release of abinding protein or proteolytic nicking of the N- or
C-terminus), the site(s) is phosphorylated and theprotein is targeted for degradation. This appears tobe the case for two different enzymes—maize SuSyand soybean cytosolic pyruvate kinase (PyrKinC).
In the case of SuSy, phosphorylation of Ser-170
was predicted by sequence analysis. Sequence-andphosphorylation-state specific antibodies
demonstrated that phosphorylation of Ser-170 occurs
in vivo, but was primarily contained on fragments of
SuSy that were associated with the 20S proteasome(Hardin et al. 2002). Similarly, phosphorylation of
two sites on soybean PyrKinC occurred, but again

57

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

was contained on fragments associated with the
26S proteasome (Tang et al. 2002). Understanding
the mechanisms that target metabolic enzymes for
degradation may provide new strategies to control
the steady state level of important enzymes andthereby influence flux through metabolic pathways.

14-3-3 proteins: factors that interact broadly.
The ’14-3-3 proteins’ are highly conserved
eukaryotic proteins that function as binding
p r o t e i n s , u s u a l l y t a rg e t i n g t h e s e q u e n c e :R-x-x-phosphoS-x-P. They are involved in many
important plant processes; including the regulationof nitrate reductase activity in leaves in response tolight/dark transitions (Kaiser and Huber, 2001) andsubsequently have been shown to interact with abroad array of metabolic enzymes and trans factors.
Because of their broad interactions, manipulationof 14-3-3s may offer the possibility to up- or
down-regulate an entire pathway. We have been
studying the regulation of 14-3-3 binding to target
proteins, using phosphorylated nitrate reductase(pNR) as a model system. Binding of 14-3-3s
to pNR requires a divalent cation or polyamine,
which first bind to the 14-3-3 protein in the regionof loop 8 (located near the C-terminus between
helix 8 and 9; Athwal and Huber, 2002). The
resulting conformational change partially involves
displacement of the C-terminal tail, which functions
as an autoinhibitor (Shen et al. 2002). Activation
mutants are currently being expressed in transgenic
plants to investigate the significance of cation
regulation in vivo. Recent evidence also indicatesthat binding of 14-3-3s to pNR can influence its
degradation. We are speculating that uncomplexedpNR may be selectively degraded, which would
provide a mechanism to insure balance between thelevel of 14-3-3s and their target proteins. This isespecially critical for NR, but if generally applicable,suggests that manipulation of 14-3-3 expression may
impact the level of target proteins by affecting theirdegradation.
How these, and other, biological mechanisms can be
exploited to increase plant performance in sustainablesystems is a continuing challenge for the future.

58

References
Athwal, G.S. and S. C. Huber. 2002. Divalentcations and polyamines bind to loop 8 of 14-3-3
proteins,modulating their interaction withphosphorylated nitrate reductase. Plant J. 29:
119-129.
Hardin, S.C., H. Winter, and S. C. Huber, 2002.
Sucrose synthase is phosphorylated on a novel
secondary site (serine-170) that may promote
proteasome- dependent degradation. Abstract752. In Proceedings of Plant Biology 2002, 3-7
August, Denver, Colorado. American Society ofPlant Physiologists, Rockville, MD. [http://www.
aspb.org/pb2002/public/P67/0537.html]
K a i s e r , W. M . a n d S . C . H u b e r . 2 0 0 1 .
Post-translational regulation of nitrate
reductase: mechanism, physiological relevanceand environmental triggers. J. Exp. Bot. 52:
1981-1989.
Tang, G.Q., R. Dewey, and S. C. Huber, 2002.
A novel degradation pathway mediates theturnover of cytosolic pyruvate kinase in thedeveloping soybean seed. Abstract 423. In:
Proceedings of Plant Biology 2002, 3-7 August,Denver, Colorado. American Society of Plant
Physiologists, Rockville, MD [http://www.aspb.
org/pb2002/public/P53/0636. html]
Wei, S., C. A. Clark and S. C. Huber. 2002.
The C-terminal tail of Arabidopsis 14-3-3
ω functions as an ‘autoinhibitor’ and may
contain a tenth -helix. Abstract 144. In:
Proceedings of Plant Biology 2002, 3-7 August,Denver, Colorado. American Society of Plant
Physiologists, Rockville,MD[http://www.aspb.
org/pb2002/public/P31/0619. html]
Winter, H. and S. C. Huber. 2000. Regulationof sucrose metabolism in higher plants:
localization and regulation of activity of key
enzymes. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 19: 31-67.

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Control of Nitrate Uptake/Assimilation and Plant Productivity
Tatsuo Omata(Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, 464-8601 Japan)

Abstract
Nitrogen is one of the major elements that limit plant growth and productivity in both natural environments
and plowed fields. To increase the harvest yield, nitrogen fertilizers are widely used in agriculture. The formof nitrogen commonly used as fertilizer is ammonium (NH4+), but in temperate aerobic soils, ammonium is
rapidly oxidized to nitrate (NO3-) by nitrification. The resulting nitrate hence serves as the major source ofnitrogen for most cultivated plants. Nitrate is, however, known to cause environmental and health problems.
This paper summarizes current knowledge about the critical steps that determine the nitrate flow in plants anddiscusses possible strategies for improving the nitrate use efficiency.
Corresponding author: omata@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Problems caused by nitrate in theenvironment and in the plant body

Regulation of expression of the nitratetransporter genes

Although plants have active transporters fornitrate uptake, large amounts of nitrate are lostfrom the soil by leaching, resulting in increased
nitrate concentrations in both the surface andunderground water. Accumulation of nitrate inlakes and ponds leads to bloom of cyanobacteria(known as “aoko” in Japan). Nitrate in drinking
water would cause health problems such as “bluebaby syndrome,” and carcinogenesis when it isconverted to nitrite (NO 2-) in the human body.
When taken up by plants, on the other hand,
nitrate is reduced to ammonium via nitrite, andthe ammonium is fixed as the amide nitrogenof glutamine. The amide nitrogen of glutamine
is subsequently transferred to various organic
compounds to form a variety of nitrogenous
compounds essential for plant growth. It should
be noted, however, that the plants accumulate highconcentrations of nitrate (i.e., >150 mM) in thevacuole and do not assimilate all the nitrate they
have absorbed from the soil. When used as food,nitrate in the plant body can cause health problems
as described above. It is therefore desirable toprevent nitrate accumulation in the plant body. It
is also important to improve the overall efficiencyof nitrate assimilation so that the use of nitrogen
fertilizer can be minimized.

One of the possible strategies for reducing theintracellular nitrate is to modify the regulationof expression of the nitrate transporter genes inroots. Similar to other organisms capable of nitrateassimilation (i.e., certain bacteria, cyanobacteria,
green algae, and fungi), higher plants seem tohave two distinct mechanisms for regulation of
the genes involved in nitrate assimilation. One ofthese is the “global nitrogen regulation”, which
represses or downregulates expression of the genes
involved in nitrogen acquisition when cells havesufficient amounts of fixed nitrogen. The otheris the “substrate induction”, which involves thesubstrate of nitrate assimilation, i.e., nitrate (ornitrite), as the activator of expression of the relevant
genes. Unlike in the other organisms capable ofnitrate assimilation, the “substrate induction” seems
to override the negative feedback by the “global
nitrogen regulation” in higher plants. As a result,plant cells express the nitrate assimilation genes
even when the plant is in nitrogen-replete conditions,
if nitrate is present in the soil. This seems to cause
continued uptake of nitrate into the cell, resulting
in accumulation of excess nitrate in the plant body.
Modification of the cis-acting regulatory elements
involved in the substrate induction of the nitratetransporter genes may lead to specific decline in theexpression level of the nitrate transporter genes andthereby reduce the intracellular nitrate level in theplant cell.

59

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

Control of relative contribution of roots andshoots in nitrate assimilation

Importance of basic research for genetic
modification of nitrate assimilation in plants

Another possible means to lower the nitrate levels,
specifically in leaves, is to modify the relative
contribution of the roots and shoot in nitrateassimilation. The relative contribution of roots
and shoots is variable among different species ofplants; in some plants, the contribution of roots innitrate assimilation is small and most of the nitrate
is transported to the shoot. In certain plant species,
on the other hand, nitrate is assimilated mostly
in the root, and the fixed nitrogen is transported
to the shoot as amino acids. It is therefore,
theoretically possible to genetically engineer aplant that assimilates nitrate entirely in the root.
To achieve this type of metabolic engineering, weneed to control the expression levels of the enzymes
involved in nitrate assimilation and also of the
enzymes involved in supply of carbon skeletons andmetabolic energy for nitrogen assimilation. Since
the root cells are dependent on the supply of carbon
and energy from the leaf cells, understanding of themetabolic interactions between the shoot and root isalso necessary.

As has been discussed above, currently
available information about nitrate assimilationin plants allows us to design some strategies
for improvement of the nitrate use efficiency inplants. However, to actually construct a geneticallymodified plant, more detailed information about
the regulation of the relevant genes is necessary;the molecular mechanism(s) regulating the nitratetransporter genes needs to be fully understood.
The molecular basis for the different contributionof roots in nitrate assimilation in different plant
species also needs to be elucidated. Thus, theimportance of basic research on the nitrateassimilation pathway cannot be overemphasized.

60

Proc. Sat. Forum,"Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Enzyme Engineering for Lipids
Tsuneo Yamane(Graduate School of Bio-Agricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan)

Abstract
Lipids (edible fats and oils, phospholipids and glycolipids, etc) are one of major important food resources,in addition to carbohydrate (starch, sugar, etc.) and protein resources. Edible fats and oils are produced
mostly from agricultural products such as plant seeds and animals. Animal-derived fats and oils are alsoutilized as energy sources in human nutrition. Fish oils have some functional fatty acids categorized asn-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) with 5 and 6 unconjugated methene double bonds. Phospholipids
are utilized as food and cosmetic emulsifier (pure grade), and animal feed (crude). Enzymes, which are
involved as catalysts (biocatalysts) in all metabolisms and biochemical reactions in living cells, are very
tightly connected with all life phenomena. Two novel engineering disciplines relating to effective enzyme
utilization have emerged in the late 20th century: enzyme engineering and protein engineering. Enzyme
engineering is a branch of bioprocess engineering devoted to increasing efficacy of enzyme utilization
as biocatalysts for various bioconversions. Protein engineering is one of major branches of biomolecularengineering, aiming at creation of enzymes of better nature through various genetic engineering techniquessuch as site-directed mutagenesis, error-prone PCR, DNA shuffling, molecular evolution technique, etc.
Natural lipids are a mixture of hundreds or thousands of triacylglycerols when looked at from the viewpointof organic chemistry. Recently, the so-called ‘structured lipids’ have attracted much attention. In thestrictest sense, the structured lipids are those having definite chemical structure. From a number of clinicalexperiments in lipids nutrition science, structured triacylglycerols (sTAG) have been shown to confer
various enhanced nutritional values so that they are useful as functional foods or nutritional supplements.
Taking advantage of enzyme’s properties, the author and his co-researchers have been studying enzyme
engineering for lipids bioconversions for many years. Recent studies showed success in making feasible theindustrial production of 1,3-dioctanoyl -2-docosahexaenoyl-sn-glycerol by the action of immobilized lipases
following a two-step process, i.e. ethanolysis of fish oil by immobilized Candida antarctica lipase followedby re-esterification of the resulting 2-monoacylglycerol with n-octanoic acid by immobilized Rhizomuco
miehei lipase in neat system. Phosphatidylserine (PS), which is one of structured phospholipids (sPL),
is found neither in soy- nor in egg-lecithin, but is contained highly in mammalian cerebral cortex, and isclaimed to be effective for Age-Associated Memory Impairment (AAMI). Recently, an efficient high-yield
synthesis technique of PS from lecithin by the transphophatidylation action of Streptomyces phospholipase
D in non-solvent system has been developed.
Corresponding author: yamanetu@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp

1. Lipids as Renewable Resource
There are three major food resources:carbohydrate, protein, and lipids. For the lipids,
edible fats and oils are most predominant, but
phospholipids and glycolipids are also included.
When people talk about biomass, it usually
includes starch, cellulose, chitin, xylan, and lignin.
The author, however, would like to emphasize that
lipids are also important, inexpensive, renewable,
biodegradable, and energy-rich natural resources.
Lipid resources are one of the major bio-resources
and hence, are included in the green chemistrystrategy. As for the plant seed oils, the majoroils include palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil,sunflower oil, peanut oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil,safflower oil and others.
The total consumption of these seed oils in 2001
was as huge as 118 million tones in the world. In
some Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia
and Indonesia, very large-scale plantations of oilpalm trees are widely seen. About 23 million tonesof palm oil were produced in 2001 worldwide,of which Malaysia produced 12 millions tones(52 %). Glycerol and fatty acid are obtained
from fats and oils by hydrolysis (chemically or
lipase-catalyzed). The former is a starting material
for nitroglycerine and propylene oxide, while
fatty acids can be converted to methyl esters that61

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

are utilizable as automobile diesel fuels, and to
amides, acid chlorides, and alcohols, all of which
are raw materials of various commodity and finechemicals.
People utilize animal fats and oils as well, suchas beef tallow, lard, milk fat, and fish oil. In 1998,
the total consumption of animal fats and oils in theworld was 18 million. This figure is huge but ismuch less than that of plant seed oil.
Among the edible oils, fish oils are quite
unique because they have the so-called n-3
polyunsaturated fatty acid, which is also called
PUFA for short. In addition to the conventional
plant seed oils and animal fats, novel edible oils
have been exploited. These are single cell oils
(SCO), which are produced by microorganisms.
T h e S C O p r o d u c e r s a r e M o r t i e re l l a s p . ,Schizochytrium sp., and Crypthecodinium sp.
These microorganisms have been screened as
producers of oils containing specific PUFAs.
Table 1 summarizes the lipids bio-resourcesin the world. PUFAs are classified into two(Figure 1): n-6 PUFA such as eicosatrienoic acid, and eicosapentaenoic acid (commonly calledarachidonic acid, ALA), and n-3 PUFA suchas eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic
acid. They are shortly named EPA, and DHA,
respectively. From many clinical tests, these
PUFAs have a number of physiological benefits
so that these may be called functional fatty acids
or neutaceuticals. Because of many double bonds
franking active methylene groups, PUFAs are very
unstable. They are easily oxidized, isomerizedfrom E configuration to Z configuration, andpolymerized. Therefore, any reactions, whether or
not chemical or biochemical, should be carried out
under mild conditions without oxygen.
Major natural resources of phospholipids aresoybean lecithin, and egg yolk lecithin. They
are obtained as byproducts of soybean oil andegg products. The annual production of soybean
lecithin and egg yolk lecithin in Japan in 2001 was
6500 tones, and 250 tones, respectively. Although
they are now utilized mainly as food and cosmetic
emulsifiers as well as fodder feed, they have great
potential as resources for neutraceuticals.

Table 1. Lipid bio-resources in the world

1) Triacylglycerols
Plant seed oils

Animal oils

Single cell oils

Palm oil

Lard

EPA oilRape seed oil

Milk fat

DHA oil

Sunflower oil

Fish oil

OthersPeanut oil

Others

Cotton seed oil
Olive oil
Safflower oil
Others2) Phospholipids
Soybean lecithin
Egg yolk lecithin
3) Glycolipids
glycoglycerolipids (galactosyldiacylglycerol, etc)
glycosphingolipids (gangliosides, etc)62

Fig 1. Structures of Major Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAS)

Enzyme Engineering for Lipids

2. Enzyme as catalyst
Enzymes are involved in all the metabolism andbiochemical reactions in living cells so that they
are very tightly connected with all life phenomena.
From the viewpoint of being a catalyst, enzymes
are characterized by high molecular activity,
being active under mild conditions, and highspecificity (or selectivity) (substrate specificity,
reaction specificity, enantiospecificity, sequencespecificity, positional specificity, etc). Enzymes
are also “tender to the earth” because they areproteins, non-toxic, and quickly decompose innatural environment. Because of these merits,
people have utilized a number of enzymes invarious fields since early civilization. Amongthese merits, specificity or selectivity is themost important characteristic of enzyme. If one
wants to synthesize a chemical compound or tomodify it enzymatically, he has to take maximum
advantage of enzyme specificity. In the next
section, the author is going to introduce his workon syntheses of particular lipid using lipase andphospholipase so that specificity of both lipases
and phospholises are mentioned briefly. Lipases,
which split ester bonds of triacylgylcerol, areclassified into two: 1,3-specific, and non-specific.
There are five phospholipases depending on
their position of splitting. Phospholipase A 1
hydolyses sn-1 ester bond, phospholipase A2 doessn-2 bond, phospholipase C cleaves O-P bondof sn-3 position, and finally phospholipase D
splits P-X bond of phosphate diester, respectivity.
Phospholipase B hydorolyzes ester bond either on
sn-1 or sn-2, or both. Thanks to these specificities,
one can carry out particular bioconversion of lipids
without the introduction of a protecting group andits deprotection.
Two novel engineering disciplines relating toeffective utilization of enzymes emerged in the late
20th century. They are enzyme engineering andprotein engineering.
Enzyme engineering is a branch of bioprocessengineering devoted to the increasing efficacy
of enzyme utilization as biocatalysts for various
bioconversions. Enzyme screening, production,
purification, immobilization, bioreactor system,
are some of technologies involved in enzyme
engineering. Among them enzyme immobilization
is notably effective for its reuse and continuous
reaction.
Protein engineering is one of the major
disciplines under biomolecular engineering, whichaims at creation of enzymes of a better nature. It
involves various genetic engineering techniquessuch as site-directed mutagenesis, saturation
mutagenesis, combinatorial mutagenesis,
e r r o r- p r o n e P C R , o v e r l a p p i n g P C R , D N A
shuffling, molecular evolution technique, highthroughput screening, etc.

3. Enzymatic syntheses of ‘structured
lipids’ (1,2)
Natural lipids are simply a mixture of hundreds
or thousands of chemical compounds when they
are looked at from the viewpoint of organic
chemistry. Natural edible fats and oils are simply
a mixture of a number of triacylglycerols (TAGs)
that are different in terms of both fatty acid species
and their distribution along the glycerol backbone.
Recently, the so-called ‘structured lipids’ haveattracted much of the people’s attention. In
contrast to natural edible lipids, the structured
lipids are, in the broadest sense, lipids that havebeen restructured to change positions of fatty
acids and/or have been modified chemically or
enzymatically to change fatty acid compositions
from the native state to either the type of fatty
acid or the position of the fatty acids. In a lessbroad sense, structured triacylglycerols (sTAGs)
are structured TAGs containing mixtures of
either short-chain fatty acids, or medium-chain
fatty acids (MCFA), or both, and long-chain
fatty acids, in the same glycerol molecule. A
number of studies have been carried out for thesynthesis of sTAGs having (medium chain)-(long-chain)-(medium-chain)-type fatty acids. This
type sTAG is sometimes called symmetricalstructured triacylglycerol (SST). These sTAGs
are claimed to provide fewer metabolizable
calories per gram than do traditional fats andoils, and to be efficient food sources for patientswith pancreatic insufficiency and other forms ofmalabsorption. Cocoa-butter substitute, which
consists predominantly of stearoyl-oleoyl-stearoy
lglycerol (SOS) or more generally SUS (saturated
fatty acid)-(unsaturated fatty acid)-(saturated fattyacid) type TAG, and ‘Betapol’ manufactured by
Uniliver Company, which has the structure of oeo
yl-palmitoyl-oleoylglycerol (OPO), are included inthis category of sTAGs.
In recent years, the concept of sTAGs has been
extended such that sTAGs are designer TAGs
with desired fatty acids in terms of their structuresand positions as ‘nutraceuticals, functional

63

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

food, or pharmaceuticals’ to target the optimal
nutrition, better metabolic conditions, and specificdiseases. Along this trend, in the strictest sense,
the term ‘Structured TAG’ is given to a TAG witha particular fatty acid at a specific position ofglycerol hydroxyl moieties. The strictest definitionof sTAG can be referred to its classification asshown in Table 2: sTAG is either monoacid sTAG,
diacid sTAG, or triacid sTAG. Note that in Table 2,
fatty acids are shown in the order of their positions
located at sn-1, sn-2 or sn-3 of the glycerol
backbone. Thus AAB is not identical to BAA, butthey are enantiomers. AAB (or BAA) type diacidsTAGs and all triacid sTAGs are chiral.

supplement for adult health, sTAG containing
PUFA at sn-2 position and MCFA at the sn-1
and sn-3 positions may be suitable. On the other
hand, due to the antiatherogenic, antineoplastic,
and anti-inflammatory effects of n-3 PUFA, theirintake is important for newborns for eicosanoid
synthesis as well as for normal neonatal brain
nervous system development and cell membrane
structure. Although PUFA are essential to theneonate for both normal growth and metabolism,
neonatal intestinal function is immature, resulting
in reduced levels of pancreatic lipase and bile
acid salts. In addition, pancreatic lipase does nothydrolyze ester bonds containing long-chain n-3
PUFA. Therefore, in the case of the newborn,
PUFA absorption by pancreatic lipase is not
feasible. However, for neonatal adsorption of
PUFA, there is an alternative mechanism. PUFAs
are released from gastric digestion, and gastriclipase exhibits stereospecificity for the α-position of TAG and hydrolyzes the sn-3 position
twice as fast as the sn-1 position. Therefore, for
PUFA therapy for neonates, sTAG containing
PUFA at sn-1 (or -3) position and MCFA at theother sites may be suitable.
The sTAG can be synthesized either chemicallyor enzymatically. However, an enzymatic synthesisof sTAG is more advantageous over a chemical
process with regard to several aspects. Enzymes
are generally specific, thus, giving rise to less orno byproducts, and exhibiting catalytic action
under mild conditions. Enzymatic reactions
have another advantage for the synthesis ofsTAG containing PUFA because PUFAs are very
unstable as mentioned before. They are prone tobe easily isomerised, oxidised and polymerised.
These properties necessitate the use of as mild
conditions as possible, especially oxygen-free
conditions.

The objective to produce ‘structured lipids’
is to enhance their functionalities. Lipid’sfunctionalities are, i) physical properties suchas melting point, polymorphism of crystals, etc,ii) chemical properties such as stability against
oxidation, and iii) nutritional properties such as
calorie, absorption through intestine, digestion,
pharmacological effects, etc. From a number ofclinical experiments in lipids nutrition science,sTAGs have been shown to confer various
enhanced nutritional values so that they are useful
as functional foods or nutritional supplements.
STAGs containing PUFAs such as EPA, DHA
or ALA, have become of great interest becauseof various pharmacological effects of these fatty
acids. These effects include several health benefits
on cardiovascular diseases, immune disorders andinflammation, renal disorders, allergies, diabetes,
cancer, etc. These fatty acids may also be essential
for brain and retina development in humans.
A m o n g s TA G s c o n t a i n i n g P U FA , t h o s econtaining one molecule PUFA and two moleculesof medium-chain fatty acids are very noticeable.
Several studies have been performed for thesynthesis of sTAG containing PUFA at specificsites of the glycerol backbone. The absorption of
PUFA into the body depends upon the positionof PUFA along the glycerol backbone, i.e. Table 2. Classification of structured triacylglycerols (sTAG).
at sn-1 (or 3) or sn-2 position. Those sTAGs
containing PUFA at sn-2 position and MCFA No. of different FA Type
Chirality
Stereoisomerat sn-1 and –3 positions can be hydrolyzed intoAAA
Achiral2-monoacylglycerol (2-MAG) containing PUFA Monoacidand FA by pancreatic lipase and are efficiently DiacidABA
Achiralabsorbed into intestinal mucosa cells in normal
AAB, BAA
ChiralEnantiomers
adults. It is to be noted that mammalian pancreaticABC, CBA
ChiralEnantiomers
lipases hydrolyze the ester linkages at the sn-1 TriacidBCA, ACB
ChiralEnantiomers
and sn-3 positions with a preference for MCFA
over long-chain ones. Therefore, for dietary
CAB, BAC
ChiralEnantiomers

64Enzyme Engineering for Lipids

Taking advantages of the enzyme’s properties, theauthor and his coworkers have been studying enzyme
engineering for lipids bioconversions for many years.
Enzymes involved in lipids bioconversion are mostlyhydrolytic enzymes such as esterases, lipases andphospholipases. One must take some points into
consideration in order to carry out enzyme-catalyzed
bioconversion of lipids effectively, such as
water-insolubility of the substrates, instability of thesubstrate, effect of trace amount of water in both ester
synthesis and transesterification reactions, etc.
1) Synthesis of 1,3-dioctanoyl-2-docosahexaenoyl-sn-glycerolfrom fish oil (3)Fish oil is an inexpensive source of PUFA - containing
TAGs. The content of DHA and EPA and also theirpositional distribution in TAGs varies among the fish
species. Fish oils with a high content of DHA and EPA
at the second position can be used as starting materials
for production of nutritionally valuable symmetricalstructured triacylglycerol (SST) with medium chain
fatty acids at the primary positions.
Some research groups used fish oil or DHA-richoils such as single cell oil for the production of
SST by acidolysis with octanoic acid catalyzed by
1,3-regiospecific lipases. DHA residues situated at
the outer positions could not be exchanged (due tothe low specificity of 1,3-regiospecific lipases for
DHA) resulting in a limited yield of SST. The sameproblem was encountered in another work where SSTs
were obtained in two steps. 2-MAGs were obtainedby ethanolysis of TAGs in an organic solvent with a
1,3-regiospecific lipase and then reesterified with oleic
acid. The yields of ethanolysis were less than 40%
for fish oils with 8% DHA content or more. A large
amount of 1-MAGs was formed probably due to acyl
migration.
Recently the author and his coworkers succeeded in afast and straightforward two-step method for synthesisof SST with octanoic acid residues at the outer
positions from DHA and EPA-rich bonito oil. This
is industrially feasible production of 1,3-dioctanoyl2-docosahexaenoyl-sn-glycerol, which is classified
as a ‘MCFA-PUFA-MCFA’. Fish oil TAGs (bonitooil) were subjected to ethanolysis with immobilized
Candida antarctica lipase (Novozym 435) to yield
2-MAGs, which were subsequently reesterified with
ethyl octanoate catalyzed by immobilized Rhizomucor
miehei lipase (Lipozyme IM) to form SST in neatsystem. Typical time course of this reaction process isshown in Figure 2.

Fig 2. sTAG production from bonito oil via 2-MAG

The ethanolysis reaction was very fast. The
acylglycerol composition at 2 h was 92.5%
2-MAG and 7.5% 1,2(2,3)-DAG (area %). The
TLC analysis of the ethanolysis product showedthat the formed MAGs were 100% 2-MAGs. No
spot of 1-MAGs or 1,3-DAGs was detected. The
reaction mixture composition (area %) at 2 h was
69.55% ethyl esters, 2.3% 1,2(2,3)-DAGs, and28.25% 2-MAGs determined by TLC-FID. The
FID response for ethyl esters is higher than forpartial acylglycerols so that its actual weight %might be lower. No free fatty acids were detectedin the reaction mixture.
The fatty acid composition of 2-MAGs resulting
from ethanolysis was in good agreement with thecomposition of 2-MAGs obtained by Grignard
degradation of the initial oil except EPA andDHA contents. Similar differences of the results
obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis and Grignard
degradation applied for fish oil were alsomentioned in another work. The composition of
ethyl esters resulting from ethanolysis was also
determined. These ethyl esters are theoreticallyremoved only from the primary positions of TAGs
and thus the fatty acid composition of the initial
TAGs might be recalculated using the fatty acidcompositions of 2-MAGs and ethyl esters resulting
from ethanolysis. The result of these calculations
was very close to the initial composition
determined directly after derivatization of initial
TAGs to fatty acid methyl esters and thus theabove hypothesis was confirmed. The analyticalprocedure using Grignard degradation might cause
partial damage of PUFA resulting in the observed
difference of the results for 2-MAGs composition
determined by the two methods.
The results of fatty acid composition analysisof the ethanolysis reaction products (2-MAGs

65

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproductionand ethyl esters) demonstrate that Novozym 435
displays very strict 1,3-regiospecificy in thisreaction under the employed reaction conditions.
Bonito oil is a very complex mixture of TAGs withregard to the large variety of fatty acid species andtheir positional distribution in TAG and therefore
it is an appropriate substrate to test the fatty acidspecificity of Novozym 435 in ethanolysis. The
fatty acid composition of 2-MAGs and ethyl
esters formed after 2 h of ethanolysis indicated no
distinguishable preference of Novozym 435 for anyof the fatty acid species present in TAGs. The highconversion of the original TAGs to 2-MAGs at 2 hmight have alleviated the effect of enzyme's fatty
acid specificity. The acyl migration reactions werelimited by the low water content of the ethanolysis
reaction mixture (only the water contained in the
enzyme preparation and reactants), the absenceof fatty acids, and the low reaction temperature.
Therefore, ethanolysis did not proceed to theremoval of fatty acid residues of the second positionof TGs, which usually affects analytical methods
based on TAG hydrolysis with 1,3-specific lipases.
Reduced acyl migration, strict 1,3-regiospecificity
and good activity of Novozym 435 on PUFA enable
the use of the ethyl esters resulted from ethanolysis
for the determination of fatty acid composition of
the secondary position of TAGs.
SSTs were obtained by reesterification with ethyl
ocanoate of 2-MAGs formed in the first step. The
ethanolysis reaction mixture was used directly inthe second step after the catalyst was filtered andthe excess of ethanol was removed. Novozym 435
showed no regiospecificity in this reaction so thatit had to be replaced with a 1,3-regiospecific lipase,which can work at low water concentrations of thereaction medium. Lipozyme IM gave good results
for a similar reaction and therefore, it was used also
for this work. The value of ethyl octanoate excess
adopted in the reesterification step was chosen
according to some previous results showing thathigher ethyl ocanoate/partial acylglycerol ratios
improve the final reaction yield. The reaction
equilibrium was pushed to high yields by removing
the resulting ethanol under reduced pressure.
The reaction was completed after 1 h as shownby the disappearance of the 2-MAG and 1,2-DAG
spots in TLC analysis. The separation of the finallypurified SSTs by high-temperature GC was muchbetter than that of the initial TGs. The final SST
had lower molecular weight and therefore, higher
volatility resulting in shorter retention times and66

better resolution. The area percentages of C38(TAGs with two octanoic acid residues and one
22:6, 22:5 or 22:4 residue), and C36 (TAGs with
two octanoic acid residues and one 20:5, 20:4, 20:1
or 20:0 residue) were: 51.0 and 4.5%, respectively.
The percentage of trioctanoylglycerol was 1.7 %.
2) Synthesis of phsphatidylserine (4)Phosphatidylserine (PS) is one of the structured
phospholipids (sPL). PS is found neither in soybean
nor in egg yolk lecithin, but is contained highly inmammalian cerebral cortex, and is claimed to beeffective for Age-Associated Memory Impairment(AMMI). In 1983, Weihauch and Son determined
PS contents of some food materials. According totheir data, bovine brain has the highest PS content.
Since then, PS was prepared by extraction of bovine
brain. However, PS content is still quite small(only 1g/bovine head) so that PS is very expensive.
Moreover, PS prepared from bovine brain was
said to possibly cause BSE (Bovine Spongeform
Enphalopasy). Due to these reasons, people
searched for other cheaper and safer biomaterials.
By nature, phospholipase D (PLD) catalyzeshydrolysis of lecithin such as phosphatidylcholine(PC ) to give rise to phosphatidic acid( PA ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , P L D c a t a l y z e stransphosphatidylation reaction, which is abase-exchange reaction (Figure 3). In the presenceof excessive serine, PS can be easily produced by
the action of PLD.

Fig3. Catalytic Action of Phospholipase D (PLD)

Lecithin is not soluble in water so thatconventional PLD-catalyzed reaction is carriedout in two-liquid phase system. That is, lecithin is
dissolved in an organic solvent such as ethyl ether
or ethyl acetate or chloroform, and serine and PLD
are dissolved in water phase. These two-liquid

Enzyme Engineering for Lipids

phases are then mixed vigorously. The productPS can be produced with as high yield as 85%
in 20-30 minutes. However, use of these organic
solvents makes the reaction system unsuitable
for the practical food product. It is highly
advisable not to use such organic solvents fromthe viewpoints of the health of both consumers
and the workers in factory. The n-hexane is oneof several safe solvents that are allowed for use
in the food industry. However, unfortunately,
no transphosphatidylation reaction occurs inhexane-water system.
The author and his coworkers have recently
developed an efficient high-yield synthesis
technique of PS from abundantly safe lecithin suchas soybean lecithin by the transphosphatidylationof Strteptomyces antibioticus phospholipase D in
non-solvent system.
The reaction in aqueous system without any
organic solvents resulted in as low yield as 20%. The author and his coworkers thought thatthe low yield of PS formation would be due topoor dispersion of lecithin, and tried the use of
lecithin adsorbed on silica gel particles. First,
lecithin was dissolved in ethanol, and then silica
gel particles were added, followed by removal of
ethanol by reduced pressure to get lecithin-silica
gel complex. The complex was added in aqueous
buffer containing serine and PLD. About 40% of
PS was obtained in one hour. The effect of ratio oflecithin per silica gel particles was then examined.
Serine concentration was also increased up toits saturation. The ratio of 1/5, and the increased
serine concentration gave us 80 % yield in 24
hours. In order to seek for recovery procedure of
PS after the reaction, the author and his coworkers
tried to determine the location of the PS. Initially,
the PC was on the surface of silica gel particles
as expected. After the reaction, it was found that
PS was in the supernatant, not in the precipitates,that is, not on the surface of silica gel particles.
This makes it difficult to separate PS from theremaining serine existing in excess. A number ofsolid carrier particles were then screened to selectbetter ones, including CaCO 3, CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2,
active carbon, etc. Among them, Calcium sulfate
fine powder gave the best result. It yielded morethan 99 % of conversion, more than 80 % of
PS yield, and less than 10 % of PA (byproduct)
content. The author and his coworkers had thesame question as for calcium sulfate fine powders:
where was PS located when lecithin adsorbed

on calcium sulfate was used? At time zero,
unexpectedly PC was dispersed in the supernatant.
This means that PC was not adsorbed on CaSO 4
particles. At 24 hours, PS was in the precipitates,
indicating that PS was selectively adsorbed on
CaSO4 particles. This makes easy separation of PS
after the reaction. Then, the reaction operation was
simplified. In the preceding experiments, lecithin
was first dissolved in ethanol, followed by theaddition of fine solid particles. In this experiment,
the author and coworkers just added lecithin and
CaSO4 powder to the serine-saturated aqueous
solution containing acetate buffer and PLD to start
the reaction. The time course of the reaction isshown in Figure 4. It is almost the same as in theold operation. PC was completely converted to PS
in 20 minutes. The next attempt was to improve
volumetric productivity by examining the effectof lecithin concentration in the reaction mixture
while keeping the same amounts of CaSO 4 ,serine, and PLD. It was found that the higher
its concentration, the slower the PS formation
rate, but the final PS content of 80 % was still
possible even though it took longer time. The final
experiment of the author and his coworkers wasto establish the method of recovering PS fromthe reaction mixture. As mentioned before, PS
was adsorbed on CaSO4 powders. The author andhis coworkers used the following procedure: (i)reaction mixture was centrifuged, (ii) precipitates
were washed with water first, then (iii) CaSO 4
particles were extracted with a mixed solvent
composed of hexane, ethyl alcohol, water and
1N HCl., then (iv) the system was centrifuged,
resulting in three parts, namely: the precipitate,
the lower liquid phase and the upper liquid phase.
By the analyses of three parts, it was found that
PS was exclusively in the upper liquid phase. The
total recovery yield that was calculated by thisrecovery experiment was ca. 80 %.

Fig 4. High Yield of PS Production from Lecithin By Adding
Fine Powders of CaSO4 in Aqueous System
67

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

References
1) Iwasaki, Y. and T. Yamane. 2000. Enzymaticsynthesis of structured lipids. J. Mol. Catalysis
B, 10, 839-844.
2) Yamane, T. and Y. Iwasaki. 2001. Enzymaticsynthesis of structured lipids. Oleoscience, 1,825-833 (in Japanese).

683) Irimescu, R., K. Furihata, K. Hata, Y. Iwasaki, andT. Yamane. 2001. Two-step enzymatic synthesisof docosahexaenoic acid-rich symmetricallystructured triacylglycerols via 2-monoglycerols. J.
Am. Oi. Chem. Soc., 78:743-748.
4) Yamane, T., Y. Iwasaki, Y. Mizumoto, M. Kasai,
and T. Okada. 2001. Manufacturing method ofphosphatidylserine. Japanese Patent (pending)
2001-3382.

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Protective Role of Dietary Antioxidants in Oxidative StressJeng-De Su(Department of Food Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan)
Corresponding author: so3838@mail.thu.edu.tw

Oxygen radical and free radicals are normal
by-products in biological systems during
numerous physiological and pathophysiologicalprocesses. Oxidant by-products of normal
metabolism cause extensive damage to DNA,
proteins, and lipids. This oxidative damage
appears to be a major contributor to aging andto degenerative diseases of aging such as cancer,
cardiovascular disease, cataracts, immune systemdecline, and brain dysfunction. Antioxidants,
which can neutralize free radicals, may be ofcentral importance in the prevention of these
diseases. The antioxidative and free radical
scavenging properties of polyphenolic compounds
in several plant extracts have recently beenreported, suggesting possible protective role ofpolyphenolic compounds. Thus, the search forantioxidants in edible plants has drawn muchattention.
The herb Mesona procumbens Hemsl., called
Hsian-tsao in China, is consumed as an herb drink
and jelly-type dessert in the Orient. It is also usedas herbal remedy in folk medicine in China against
heat-shock,hypertension, diabetes, and muscle andjoint pains. Most research on this product has
focused on its gelation property and proximate
composition.
The result from the investigation on theantioxidative activities showed that thewater extracts of Hsian-tsao exhibited strong
activities against linoleic acid peroxidation andcorrelated with its polyphenol contents. The
water extracts of Hsian-tsao showed positive
concentraction-dependent scavenging effecton DPPH radical, superoxide anion, hydrogen
peroxide, nitric oxide and peroxyl radical.
Furthermore, the water extracts of Hsian-tsao
exhibited the inhibitory effect on oxidative
damage to biomolecules. The extracts also showed

inhibitory effects, both on the lipid peroxidationof ghost membrane and Chang liver cells inducedby hydrogen peroxide. No toxicity was found in
the water extracts of Hsian-tsao towards Changliver cells. The water extracts of Hsian-tsao
could inhibit oxidative DNA damage induced byhydrogen peroxide and exhibit protective effectagainst oxidative damage in Chang liver cells andintracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS).
Du-zhong (Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.) tea(the aqueous extract of leaves) is commonlyused in Japan and Taiwan for treatment ofhypertension and is thought to be a functional
food. Investigation also showed that leaf
extract of Du-zhong may have recuperative
effects from hypercholesterolemia and fatty
liver. Du-zhong (leaf) tea had a suppressing
effect on mutagenicity and chromosome
aberration following mutagen treatment. The
effect on oxidative damage in biomolecules
and free radical-/ or ROS-/ scavenging effectsof water extracts of Du-zhong (WEDZ) were
investigated. The WEDZ was prepared fromleaves, raw cortex, and roasted cortex. All of these
WEDZ inhibited the oxidation of deoxyribose
induced by Fe 3+ -EDTA/H 2 O 2 /ascorbic acid,in a concentration-dependent manner. At aconcentration of 1.14 mg/ml, the inhibitory effectof the extracts of leaves, roasted cortex, and raw
cortex was 85.2%, 68.0% and 49.3%, respectively.
The extract of leaves inhibited the strand breaking
of DNA induced by the Fenton reaction. WEDZ
also inhibited the oxidation of 2’-dG to 8-OH-2’-dG induced by Fe 3+-EDTA/H 2O 2/ascorbic acid.
The leaf extract of Du-zhong had inhibitory effecton oxidative damage in biomolecules. Therefore,
drinking of Du-zhong tea (leaf) over a long
period of time may have anticancer potential.
The WEDZ also showed remarkable activity
as a ROS-scavenger, and the scavenging effectwas concentration dependent. Also scavenging

69

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

activity of WEDZ on ROS was closely correlated
to protocatechuic acid (PCA) content. The
content of PCA in Du-zhong measured by HPLC
followed the order: leaves > roasted cortex >raw cortex. The extract of Du-zhong possibly
act as a prophylactic agent to prevent from free
radical-related diseases.
Jue-ming-zi”, the seed of Cassia tora L., hasbeen used as a laxative and a tonic Chinese herb
for several centuries. The recent investigation
showed that Jue-ming-zi, had physiological
functions as an antiseptic, diuretic, diarrheal,
antioxidant, and antimutagen. The effects of water
extracts from Cassia tora L. (WECT) treatedwith different degrees of roasting on benzo[ ]pyrene (B[ ]P)-induced DNA damage in humanhepatoma cell line HepG2 were investigated via
the comet assay WECT alone, showed neither
cytotoxic nor genotoxic effect toward HepG2 cells.
B[ ]P-induced DNA damage in HepG2 cells
could be reduced by WECT in a dose-dependent
manner. The inhibitory effects of WECT on DNA
damage were in the order unroasted roasted at
150 roasted at 250. Ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase
activity of HepG2 cells was effectively inhibitedby WECT, and a similar trend of inhibition in
the same order was observed. The activity of
NADPH cytochrome P-450 reductase was also
decreased by the unroasted samples and by 150¢J-roasted samples (50 % and 38 %, respectively).
The contents of anthraquinones (AQs) in WECT,
including chrysophanol, emodin, and rhein, weredecreased with increasing roasting temperature.
Each of these AQs also demonstrated significant
antigenotoxic activity in the comet assay. The
inhibitory effects of chrysophanol, emodin, andrhein on B[£\]P-mediated DNA damage in HepG2
cells were 78, 86, and 71 %, respectively, at
100M. These findings suggested that decreased
antigenotoxicity of the roasted samples might bedue to a reduction in their AQs content.
A d l a y ( s o f t - s h e l l e d j o b ’s t e a r s , ” C o i x
lachryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen Stapf) is a grass
crop that has long been used in traditional
Chinese medicine and as a nourishing food. The
pharmacological activities of the seed adlay wereused in China for treatment of warts, chappedskin, rheumatism, and neuralgia, and also used
as an anti-inflammatory or antihelmintic agent.
Adlay also pointed out to have stomachic, diuretic,
antipholgistic, anodynic, antispasmodic, andantitumor effects. It is widely planted in Taiwan,

70

China, and Japan, and it is considered to be a
supplement healthy food.
The anti-tumor effect of adlay processing
food (APF) on animals was investigated. The
experimental diets containing amount of APF
were fed to ICR male mice during a subcutaneous
injection of Sarcoma-180 tumor cells. The
accessory anti-tumor effect was determined by thetumor weight, transplantation speed of tumor cells,
and mean survival time. The tumor weights of thetest group fed with the diets containing APF levels
of 9%, 18% and 36% were significantly lighter
than the tumor weights of the control group. In
the test group (APF 18%), tumor cell transfer was
undiscovered after 60 feeding days. However.
25% of the mice in the control group on day
45 and 50% on day 60 were discovered to havetumor cells transferred to the lungs. The averagesurvival time of the test group (106.5 days)
was significantly longer than the control group(77 days). The results indicate that APF has anaccessory anti-tumor effect, and the recommended
daily intake is approximately 2.85 g/kg for cancer
patients.
The investigations on the antioxidative effectsof methanolic extracts from different parts ofadlay seed and their antiproliferative activity inmalignant human cells have been conducted.
The methanolic extracts from the hull (AHM),
testa (ATM), bran (ABM), and polished adlay(PAM) were prepared. AHM exhibited greater
capacity to scavenge superoxide anion radicals
in the PMS-NADH system than ATM, ABM, or
PAM. The scavenging capacities of AHM andATM on hydrogen peroxides were about 20% at
a dose of 250 g/mL. By using the method of
deoxyribose degradation to assess damage causedby hydroxyl radicals, AHM was found to inhibit
damage in deoxyribose at a higher concentration.
The inhibitory effect on enzymatic oxidation ofxanthine to uric acid was found to follow theorder: AHM > ATM > ABM >PAM. Exposing
human histolytic lymphoma U937 manocytic cells
to tert-butyl hydroperoxide, AHM protected thecells against the cytotoxicity. In addition, AHM
exhibited antiproliferative activity against humanhistolytic lymphoma U937 monocytic cells ina dose-dependent manner. The antiproliferative
properties of AHM appeared to be attributable toits induction of apoptotic cell death as determinedby flow cytometry. These results showed thatAHM displayed multiple antioxidant effects andProtective Role of Dietary Antioxidants in Oxidative Stressinduced apoptosis of malignant human cells.
Betel quid, a natural masticatory in south-eastern
Asia, is composed of various components indifferent countries or areas. Taiwanese betel
quid includes an entire fresh green areca fruit(containing the husk), Piper betle (leaf orinflorescence) and slaked lime paste. The slaked
lime, handled as pasty form, is either white (white
lime paste), with no additives, or brown (red lime
paste) due to the addition of catechum, an extractof Acacia catechu. An average of 14-23 betel
quids are chewed per day by a Taiwanese chewer,
relatively higher compared with the amountconsumed by chewers in India or the Philippines.
Betel quid chewing appears to be closely
associated with an elevated risk of pre-invasive
lesions such as leukoplakia or submucous fibrosis
and oral cancer. The habit alone or in combination
with tobacco smoking has been condemned as the
major aetiology of oral cancer in some south Asian
countries.
Areca fruit contains some alkaloids, of which
arecoline is the major one. N-nitrosoguvacoline(NG), one of the N-nitrosation products ofarecloine, is the only one N-nitrosamine found in
Taiwanese chewing saliva. The mutagenic studies
in Ames Salmonella microsome test showedthat crude alkaloid extracts of areca fruit andarecoline were active in Salmonella typhimurium
TA100, and NG was weakly active in TA98 andTA100. The activities in both arecoline and NG
decreased further in the presence of rat liver S9mix. Nitrite was significantly consumed during the
N-nitrosation of arecoline and at acidic condition(pH3), whereas the formation of NG was favoredat neutral condition (pH7). Crude phenolic extractsof leaf and inflorescence of Piper betel inhibitedthe formation of NG by blocking the nitrite.
However, a high amount of crude phenolic extractsof areca fruit enhanced the formation of NG.
In the genotoxic study, the Ames Salmonella
microsome test showed that an aqueous extractof betel quid did not induce mutagenicity insalmonella typhimurium strains TA98 andTA100. Mammalian cell studies (Chinese hamster
ovary K1 cell; CHO-K1 cell) revealed that only
higher concentrations (100 and 1000 g/ml)
of aqueous extract increased the frequencies ofsister-chromatid exchange (SCE) in the absenceof S9. Animal (male Sprague-Dawley rat)
studies showed that low-dose feeding (0.53g dry
aqueous extract/kg diet) significantly increased
the activities of glutathione (GSH) peroxidaseand cytoplasmic glutathione S-transferase (cGST)of liver, whereas high-dose feeding (26.5g dry
aqueous extract/kg diet) lowered the contentsof GSH and total glutathione. The effect of anaqueous extract of betel quid on the oxidationof 2’-deoxyguanosine (2’-dG) to 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG) revealed that thisaqueous extract may act as a pro-oxidant at lower
dosage and may be Fe-dependent in the model
system. However, the aqueous extract of betel quid
showed antioxidant activity at higher doses by thescavenging effect of the hydroxyl radicals.
Through the introduction to antioxidant
physiological functions of Taiwan edible plants,
the cooperative studies on the subject should beestablished among the Asian universities. It isalso our goal to promote extensive cooperation
and research scientist development. These studies
will improve human health from the benefit of71

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Biotechnology for insect pest control
Tipvadee Attathom(Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Kamphaengsaen,
Nakhon Pathom, 73140. Thailand.)

Abstract
Insect pests are a major constraint to increased global production of food and fiber. Biological control
agents including arthropod natural enemies, entomopathogens (bacteria, nematode, virus, and fungus),plant-derived insecticides and insect hormones are receiving significant interest as alternatives to chemical
pesticides and as key components of integrated pest management system. Biotechnology has a significant
role in improving efficacy, cost-effectiveness and in expanding the markets for these bioinsecticides.
Several molecular techniques have been employed for identifying and monitoring establishment
and dispersal of specific biotypes of natural enemies. Genetic engineering and insect transformation
technology provide opportunities for the development of insect natural enemies conferring beneficial
traits such as pesticide resistance, cold hardiness and sex ratio alteration. Modern technologies provide
an effective extraction process, formulation solvents and adjuvants, which can enhance insecticidal
activity of plant-derived insecticides. Production, formulation and storage, which are extremely important
for the utilization of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes, can be dramatically improved throughbiotechnology and genetic engineering. The introduction of gene coding for proteinaceous insect toxins(scorpion toxin, mite toxin, trypsin inhibitor), hormones (eclosion hormone, diuretic hormone) or
metabolic enzymes (juvenile hormone esterase) into nucleopolyhedroviruses genome are some approaches
to increase speed of kill, enhance virulent and extend host specificity of the virus. Genetic manipulationof Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) genes encoding for proteins toxic to insects offers an opportunity to produce
genetically modified strains with more potent and transgenic plant expressing Bt toxin. In addition to
the Bt delta-endotoxin, several proteins that are effective against certain insects such as the vegetative
insecticidal proteins (VIP), alpha-endotoxin, a variety of secondary metabolites and proteins of plantorigin are amenable to genetic manipulation. Biological control strategies involving beneficial insects,
microorganisms that attack insect pests and plant-derived insecticide will provide sustainable control
practices that work in harmony with genetically engineered plants. Biotechnology can have a positive
impact on food security from insect attack and can contribute to the sustainability of modern agriculture.
However, the use of biotechnology brings questions regarding the potential impact of those geneticallymodified organisms (GMOs) or plants to human, animal and environment. National biosafety andregulatory systems for proper management of GMOs must be in place to enable the full exploitation of
biotechnology. Insect control strategies that integrate advance knowledge in biotechnology with traditional
wisdom and technology will contribute to the sustainability of agriculture.
Corresponding author: agrtva@nontri.ku.ac.th

Introduction
An estimated one third of global agricultural
production, valued at several billion dollars is
destroyed annually by over 20,000 species offield and storage pests. Synthetic, broad-spectrum
insecticide is a satisfactory and permanent solution
for pest control; however, the excessive use ofchemical insecticides is a threat to human health,natural ecosystem and environment. Societal
concerns over pesticide use have resulted in thedevelopment of new biologically based pest
management strategies that are ecologically sound,reliable, economical and practical. These leadto the development and registration of naturally
occurring and genetically altered bio-insecticides,
which include arthropod natural enemies,
entomopathogens (bacteria, nematode, virus, andfungus), plant-derived insecticides and insect
hormones. Recent global bio-pesticide products
registered include bacteria (104 products, mostly
are B. thuringiensis), nematodes (44 products),
fungi (12 products), viruses (8 products), protozoa(6 products) and arthropod natural enemies (107
products) (Waage, 1996). Bio-pesticides, unlike
the chemical pesticides, can be produced at an
appropriate scale with technologies that are well73

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

within reach of most developing countries. This
could make possible the development of local
bio-pesticide products that target local pests.
However, advance knowledge in biotechnology
and molecular biology can help assess the
production of more potent and cost-effective
bio-pesticides. Most of the modern technologies
are directed at improving the performance ofan engineered product relative to its wild typecompetition by broadening their host range,
increasing the speed of action, enhancing thedelivery of the product to the pest, and improving
their persistence in the environment. This paper
addresses the biological control agents that arereceiving interest as alternatives to chemical
insecticides and the recent progress that has
demonstrated the potential of biotechnology inenhancing efficacy of those bio-insecticides forsustainable agricultural productivity. Developmentof genetic engineering bio-insecticides andcommunity perception of these novel biologicalcontrol agents are also discussed.

Insect natural enemies as bio-control agents
Biotechnology could provide solutions to anumber of basic and applied problems that limit
the use of insect natural enemies as biologicalcontrol agents. Mass rearing of insect natural
enemies for classical or augmentative releaseis the main task of this insect control strategy.
Maintaining quality in laboratory-reared insects
is difficult due to possible genetic changes
caused by accidental selection, inbreeding,
genetic drift and founder effects (Hopper et al.,1993). New DNA-based methods for monitoring
genetic variations are now available such as:
mitochondrial DNA analysis, DNA sequencing,
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP),
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), random
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR andribosomal DNA analysis. Some of these methods
are also of potential value for identifying andmonitoring establishment and dispersal of specificbiotypes of insect natural enemies (Edwards andHoy, 1993). Currently maintaining insect natural
enemies is only by continuous rearing or holding
specimens in diapause. The development ofcryobiological method for preserving embryos ofinsects can significantly save the rearing costs, andthe valuable collection of insect natural enemies
could be maintained indefinitely.
Genetic improvement is a potential approach to74

increase the efficacy of insect natural enemies.
Transgenic techniques provide the opportunity
to introduce and express foreign genes and/or
disrupt existing gene functions so that thedesirable characteristics may be inherited bysubsequent generations, thus reducing frequentmass releases. Introduction of DNA into insect
germ cells can be achieved by using physicalmeans such as microinjection, biolistics andelectroporation or by using biological means inwhich several transposable elements, Sindbis
viruses and retrovirus are used as gene vectors(Atkinson et al., 2001). Microinjection is thebest method for penetrating insect chorions anddelivering vector DNA to the germ cells. Efforts
have been most intense and successful with
Drosophila melanogaster. Inserting cloned target
DNA into the chromosome of insect cells was
rarely successful until the P-transposable element
was genetically manipulated to serve as a vector(Rubin and Spradling, 1982). Micro-injecting
DNA carried in P-element vectors had beenused for gene transfer in several insect species(McGrane et al., 1988, Morris et al., 1989).
A technique called maternal microinjection inwhich the exogenous DNA microinjected throughthe cuticle of gravid females without the aid of
any transposable-element vector, is developed
for certain species of insect (Presnail and Hoy,
1992). The four transposable-element vectors,
Minos element from D. hydei, Hermes elementfrom the housefly, Musca domestica, MosI
element from D. mauritiana and piggyBac elementfrom the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni, havebeen developed for the generation of transgenic
insects and for stable genetic transformation in
non-drosophilid insect species. Sindbis alphavirus
and pseudotyped pantropic retroviruses have beendeveloped as vertebrate gene expression tools,
however, these two viral systems are limited to theexpression of genes in individuals that have been
directly infected with engineered virus (Atkinson
et al., 2001).
Other insect transformation methods including
soaking embryos in a DNA solution, injecting andtransplanting nuclei and pole cells into eggs, using
bacterial symbionts as vehicles for expressing
foreign genes, baculovirus expression vector
and yeast recombinase-mediated recombination
are currently explored (Hoy, 1996). However,many of them are limited to Drosophila species.
A universal transformation system that can beBiotechnology for insect pest control

routinely applied for introducing exogenous DNA
into insect species, nonetheless their genetic
information are barely known, will highlight the
future of transgenic insect production.

and heat tolerance genes can help the insect natural
enemies to adapt to a broader range of climatesand become useful and effective as biologicalcontrol agents (Hoy, 1996).

There are several potentially useful genes thatcan be used to improve the performance of insect
natural enemies. Resistance genes for chemical
insecticides will probably be the most available
genes, which include a parathion hydrolase genefrom Pseudomonas diminuta and Flavobacterium;,an acetylcholinesterase gene from D. melanogasterand Anopheles stephensi; the amplificationcore and esterase B1 gene isolated from
Culex mosquito, which confers resistance toorganophosphorous insecticide. Freeze resistance

The power of biotechnology on genetic
ma n ip u l at io n o f i n s ec t n a tu r a l e n em ies i senormous, however, public concerns on therelease of transgenic insect emphasized the needto assess the biological consequences of such a
release; for example, the risk of any transgene
being transferred to non target species. Releasesof transgenic insect natural enemies into theenvironment should be planned and strictly
following the appropriate regulatory oversightsystem set by responsible persons or institutes.

Table 1. Imported chemical and microbial insecticides of Thailand in 1997-2000.

Imported ProductYear 1997

Year 1998

Year 1999

Year 2000

AmountValue

AmountValue

AmountValue

AmountValue

12,543

1,645,547

12,823

2,044,493

19,525

6,589,279

12,5322,000,546

Microbial

73

36,83378

51,22943

13,32120

5,984

Insecticide(0.5%)(2.2%)(0.6%)(2.5%)(0.2%)(0.2%)(0.15%)(0.30%)

ChemicalInsecticide

Amount : x 1000 kg
Value: x 1000 Baht (1US$~40 Baht)
Source : Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative, Thailand

Entomopathogens
Entomopathogen is a major segment of biologicalpesticides worldwide. Asian countries, where
two phenomena on the widespread resistance tosynthetic pesticides and the unacceptable negative
consequences are so intense, have recognized
the need for biological insecticide in which
entomopathogen received the most attention. For
instance, the imported biological insecticides ofThailand are almost exclusively entomopathogens,which include bacteria, virus, nematode and fungi.
Recent figures as shown in Table 1 demonstrated
the total amount of imported microbial insecticides
in 1997-2000, which account for less than 1%of chemical insecticides and the total value of
those microbial insecticides is less than 3%of chemical insecticides. Bt dominates thebiopesticide market in Thailand but recently,
fungus is increasing its role in integrated insect
management program and is expected to increase
its share in the market. Currently, efforts have been
contributed to local production of Bt, nematodeand nucleopolyhedrovirus in China, Vietnam andThailand. It is, thus forecasted that the growthrate of microbial insecticides over the next ten
years should be higher than chemical insecticides.
This paper will highlight the principal factors
constraining the use of those entomopathogens
and to examine how far modern biotechnologicalprocesses may overcome these constraints inorder to increase the market share for microbial
insecticide products.

75

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

Bacillus thuringiensis and transgenic insect
resistant plants
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a ubiquitous,
spore-forming, rod-shaped, Gram-positivebacterium that produces massive amounts of one
or more proteins that crystallize intracellularly
during sporulation stage. These proteins (Cryproteins) are toxic mainly to insect larvae in order
Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera, but isolateswith toxicity toward Hymenoptera, Homoptera,
Orthoptera and Mallophaga and against nematode,
mites, lice and protozoa have been recently
discovered (Lacey and Goettel, 1995). The
genes encoding the insecticidal proteins known
as cry genes have been of particular interest.
They have been classified into some 30 different
groups by amino acid sequences of the proteinsencoded by the genes (Yamamoto, 2001). The
genetic manipulation of cry genes in Bt offers
promising means of improving the efficacy andcost effectiveness of Bt-based bioinsecticide
products. In Asian countries, Bt products havebeen used almost exclusively as direct sprayfor the control of foliar-feeding lepidopteraninsects. Poor persistence under field condition
and the dissemination of large amount of spores
are two limitations of Bt for spray application.
Cell Cap technology had been developed inwhich Bt toxin genes were cloned into a common
plant-colonizing bacterium, Pseudomanas
fluorescens. The bacteria were killed, resulting
in encapsulated insecticidal proteins that hadenhanced residual property in the field and had
no Bt spores. These novel formulations provide
environmentally safe and stabilized Bt-based
bioinsecticides (Gaertner et al.,1993). The geneencoding Cry1Ac protein has been engineered
into the endophytic, xylem-inhabiting bacterium,
Clavibacter xyli. The engineered bacterium wasthen introduced into corn, and damage caused bystem borer was significantly reduced (Tomasino
et al., 1995). In this alternative approach, theendophytic microbe help to enhance delivery
of toxin to leaf and stem-feeding lepidopteraninsects. Combining genes from different strainsof Bt to increase the activity and broaden their
host range is underway using nonrecombinant andrecombinant technologies. A self-transmissible crygene from a Bt aizawai strain was transferred via
conjugation-like process to a kurstaki recipient
strain (Gawron-Burke and Baum, 1991). Recent
development of Bt-based cloning vector systemenables the construction of recombinant Bt strains76with improved spectrum of insecticidal activity
and these genetically modified Bt products are
currently commercially available.
Advances in plant transformation, tissue culture
and molecular biology offer great potential
for incorporation of genes that produce the Bt
delta-endotoxin into crops to confer resistanceagainst insects. The two most widely used methodsof transforming plant are Agrobacterium-mediatedtransfer of DNA and bombardment of cells with
DNA-coated particles. Bt transgenic crop hasreceived more attention when cry genes had beenreconstructed by a combination of mutagenesis
and oligonucleotide synthesis to produce synthetic
genes. These genes encoded the same proteinsbut had codon usages typical for plant genomes
and which had all aberrant processing signals
removed. Expressing level of Bt toxin from thesesynthetic genes was increased by nearly two ordersof magnitude when expressed in transgenic plants(Perlak et al., 1991). Since then many other crops,
including cereals, root crops, leafy vegetables,
forage crops, and tree are/or being engineered toexpress Bt toxins. Currently Bt crops have beencommercialized for field corn, sweet corn andcotton. Plant varieties that incorporate both Bt andvirus resistant traits or Bt and herbicide resistancehave been produced.
Global commercialized transgenic crops in 2001
has been reviewed by James (2001). Herbicide
tolerant soybean occupied 33.3 million hectares,
representing 63% of the global transgenic croparea of 52.6 million hectares. Bt crops occupy 7.8
million hectares, representing 15%, which include
Bt maize, the second most dominant transgenic
crop that occupied 5.9 million hectares; and Bt
cotton, which occupied 1.9 million hectares.
Stacked genes for herbicide tolerance and insect
resistance deployed in both cotton and cornoccupy 8% of the global area of transgenic
crops (Table 2). It is interesting to note thatthe area of crops with stacked genes for Bt andherbicide tolerance increased from 3.2 million
hectares in 2000 to 4.2 million hectares in 2001.
It is expected that stacked genes will continue togain an increasing share of the global transgenic
crop market. Despite the ongoing debate on
genetically-modified (GM) crops, millions oflarge and small farmers in both industrial anddeveloping countries continue to increase theirplanting of GM crops. Their decision was basedon evidences that clearly demonstrated theBiotechnology for insect pest control

routinely feed by phloem abstraction (Powell
et al., 1993). Genes encoding the pea lectin(P-Lec) and the snowdrop lectin (GNA) havebeen engineered into transgenic plants resulting
in significant reduction of insect damage.
Enzyme inhibitors that have insecticidal and/or
antimetabolic activity in insects such as proteaseinhibitor, cysteine, alpha-amylase inhibitor andcholesterol oxidase have been proven to reduce
insect damage to transgenic plants expressingthese proteins (Gatehouse and Gatehouse, 1998).
With these tremendous opportunities provided bymodern biotechnology, new resistance genes must
continue to be identified from both conventional
and transgenic sources for the advent of moreenvironment-friendly control strategies.

benefits of GM crops, such as more sustainable
and resource-efficient crop management practices;more effective control of insect pests; andreduction of fumonisin mycotoxin level in maizethat provides safer and healthier food and feed
products (James, 2001). The number of farmers
that benefited from GM crops increased from
3.5 million in 2000 to an estimated 5.5 million
in 2001. More than three-quarters of this number
were resource- poor farmers planting Bt cotton,
mainly in China and South Africa. The experienceof China with Bt cotton presents a remarkable casestudy where poor farmers are already benefitingfrom significant agronomic, environmental, healthand economic advantages (James, 2001).
In addition to the Bt delta-endotoxin, a secondclass of protein that is effective against certain
insects such as the vegetative insecticidal
proteins (VIP), alpha-endotoxin, and a variety of
secondary metabolites including Zwittermycin
from B. cereus strains may be amenable to genetic
manipulation (Baum et al., 1999). Several single
gene products of plant origin have been provento confer resistance to insect damage and havebeen transferred to another plant species. Lectin
and lectin-like proteins are carbohydrate binding
molecules that are abundant in seeds and storage
tissue of plants. The role for lectin as defensive
protein in plants against insect is well documented
particularly for homopteran plant pests such asaphids, leafhoppers and planthoppers, which

New genetically engineered and improved Bt
products may provide more opportunity and choicefor growers. It is expected that transgenic plants
resistant to insects will be a major componentof future pest-control system in agriculture. The
risk of developing greater resistance of insects
to Bt transgenic plants than to Bt formulations
applied as sprays has been raised and will be oneof the major constraints for the utilization of Bt
crops. However, strategies have been developed
to delay the evolution of resistance involving
establishment of refugia for sensitive insect, highdose expression in engineered plants, pyramiding
traits and agronomic practices (Gould, 1998).

Table 2. Dominant transgenic crops, 2001.
Crop

Million hectares% Transgenic

Herbicide tolerant soybean

33.3

63

Bt maize

5.9

11Herbicide tolerant canola

2.7

5Herbicide tolerant cotton

2.5

5

Bt/Herbicide tolerant cotton

2.4

5

Herbicide tolerant maize

2.1

4

Bt cotton

1.9

4

Bt/Herbicide tolerant maize

1.8

3

Total

52.6

100

Source: Clive James, 2001

77

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

Entomopathogenic nematode
Insect nematodes have enormous potential
for inoculative and inundative release andcontrol of a wide range of insect pests. They
are probably second only to bacteria (i.e., Bt )in terms of commercially important microbial
insecticides. Commercially available speciesof nematode as bioinsecticide are in threefamilies: Rhabditidae, Steinernematidae, andHeterorhabditidae. Nematodes parasitize theirhosts by direct penetration either through the
cuticle or natural opening in the host integument(i.e., spiracles, mouth, or anus). Insect death
is not due to nematode itself but a symbiotic
bacterium that is released upon entry into thehost. The symbionts are specific with membersof the genus Xenorhabdus associated with thesteinernematids and Photorhabdus associated withthe heterorhabditids (Lacey and Goettel, 1995). In
general, both steinernematids and heterorhabditids
tend to do best against soil-inhabiting insects
and borers. There have been limited successes
when applying to other insects. Strain selection
and new formulations may be able to address thislimitation. Molecular techniques such as RFLP,
RAPD-PCR, AFLP, ribosomal internal transcribedspacer (ITS) analysis, satellite DNA analysis havebeen applied to measure genetic diversity of thenematodes and provide an initial screen to identify
useful strains. The development of large- scalein vitro rearing systems and formulations thatwould allow for adequate shelf life and infectivity
in the field are underway. Currently, nematodes
are successfully grown in large-scale bioreactors
similar to those used for the production of Bt or
antibiotics. Formulation by chilling the produced
nematodes prior to formulation and then mixing
with materials that will enhance their handling,
application, persistence, and storage will help tocreate a commercial venture. Another limitation ofnematodes for insect control is their susceptibility
to environmental stress, extreme temperature,solar radiation and desiccation. The potentialof genetic engineering to enhance these traits isbeing explored. In addition, genes that confer
resistance to insecticide or fungicides could also
be incorporated for protective purposes (Harrisonand Bonning, 1998).
Efforts to engineer entomopathogenic nematodes
have been immense and relied heavily onknowledge and techniques for manipulating of
the Caenorhabditis elegans genome (Poinar,

78

1991). The research has been focused mainly on
enhancing the environmental stability with respect
to heat tolerance. The nematode, Heterorhabditis
bacteriophora was engineered to express C.
elegans Hsp70A (heat-shock protein genes) toenhance tolerance of high temperatures (Hashmi etal., 1998). Research on genetic of heterorhabditidand steinernematid nematodes especially on
pathogenicity traits are required for future genetic
manipulation of more efficient strains of nematodefor insect control.

Recombinant Baculoviruses for Insect
Control
Entomopathogenic viruses have been employed
as bioinsecticides for a wide range of situations
from forest and field to food stores andgreenhouses. Baculoviruses, particularly the
nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) are the mostcommonly used or considered for development
as microbial insecticides mainly for the controlof lepidopteran insects on field and vegetable
crops. NPVs are formulated for application as
sprays in the same fashion as chemical insecticide
and Bt strains. However, only moderate successhas been achieved due to several key limitations,which include a relatively slow speed of kill, anarrow spectrum of activity, less persistence in thefield, and lack of a cost-effective system for mass
production in vitro. Fermentation technology for
their mass production on a large-scale commercial
basis is extensively investigated to reduce theproduction cost.
Approaches to engineer NPVs as improved
biological insecticide include deletion of genesthat encode products prolonging host survival,
and insertion of genes that express an insecticidal
protein during viral replication. O’ Reilly andMiller (1991) demonstrated that deletion of theecdysteroid UDP-glucosyltransferase (EGT) geneof Autographa californica NPV caused infected
fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda to feedless and die about 30% sooner than larvae infectedwith wild-type AcNPV. Research to insert specifictoxin genes or disrupters of larval development
genes into baculovirus genome is progressing.
The most common used strategy for engineering
baculoviruses has exploited the polyhedrin or p10
promoters and the construction of recombinantbaculovirus is achieved by allelic replacement of
the polyhedrin gene by foreign genes. When therecombination is successful, the polyhedrin of

Biotechnology for insect pest control

p10 promoters drive the expression of the foreign
gene to levels equivalent to those of polyhedrin or
p10 in wild type virus (Miller, 1995). Hundredsof proteins from viral, bacteria, animal andplant origin have now been produced via such
recombinant baculovirus expression vectors.
Candidate genes for insertion into baculoviruses
and potential to enhance pathogenicity andinsecticidal activity are listed in Table 3 (Vlak,
1993). Introducing an insect-specific neurotoxin
gene from the Algerian scorpion, Androctonus
australis and from the straw itch mite, Pyemotes
tritici into insect genome using the baculovirus
expression system have received the greatest
attention to date (Treacy, 1999). There are several
insect hormones that play vital role in the control
of insect morphogenesis and reproduction and arefocused for engineering into baculoviruses. These
include eclosion hormone that initiates ecdysis,
the process leading to the shedding of old cuticle,
prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), whichis involved in triggering the molting process;allatostatins and allatotropins, which regulate therelease of juvenile hormone; and diuretic hormone(DH) that regulates water balance and possibly
blood pressure in insect. Another interesting
gene for genetic manipulation of baculovirus
is the enzyme gene, juvenile hormone esterase(JHE) that caused the reduction in JH level. A
reduction in the titer of JH early in the last instar
initiates metamorphosis and leads to cessation of
feeding. Insertion of two or more toxin genes into
baculoviruses has been studied and Hermann etal.(1995) found that binary mixtures of scorpion
toxin, AaIT and LqhIT injected into larval of
Helicoverpa virescens induced 5-10 fold thelevels of activity. The authors suggested thatsimultaneous expression in baculoviruses ofsynergistic combinations of insecticidal proteins
could lead to even more potent, insect-selective
bioinsecticides.
The development of baculovirus expression
system and the accomplishment of insect cell
culture technology have broadened the utilityof insect viruses as effective insecticides
and as expression vector of foreign genes ineukaryote host for the production of usefulproteins. Production, formulation and application
technology in conjunction with genetic
engineering for fast kill and broader host range
will be necessary to enable the development of
more economic and efficacious viral products for
insect control.

Table 3. Candidate genes for introduction into
baculoviruses
and potential to enhance insecticidal activity.
Gene class
ToxinsHormones

EnzymesProteinInsecticida1
potential

Bt-toxin
Scorpion toxin
Mite toxin
Trypsin inhibitor
Eclosion hormone
Diuretic hormone

+/+++
+++
?
+/+

Prothoracicotropic+

hormoneAllatoropin
Allatostain
Proctolin
Juvenile+++

Source : Vlak, J. M. 1993

Entomopathogenic fungi
Although over 750 species of entomopathogenic
fungi were reported to infect insects, few havereceived serious consideration as potentialcommercial candidates. The first registeredmycoinsecticide was Hirsutella thompsonii, which
has been known to cause dramatic epizootics
in spider mites. The next mycoinsecticides
are Verticillium lecanii and Paecilomyces
fumosoroseus, which have been recently registeredfor control of whitefly, thrips, aphids and spider
mites. Insect fungi that have much broader hostrange are Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium
anisopliae, which are effective against homopteranand lepidopteran greenhouse insects as well as
coleopteran and lepidopteran field insects (Flexner
and Belnavis, 1998). The broad host range of some
insect fungi is an attractive characteristic for insect
pests control. Nevertheless, there are numerous
biotic and abiotic constraints on the ability of fungi
to infect their hosts. These include dessication, UV
light, host behavior, temperature, pathogen vigor
and age. Certain aspects of the insecticidal efficacyof these fungi such as production, stability andapplication have been optimized by nongenetic
means. For instance, advances in production
and formulation technologies have contributed
substantially to the cost-effectiveness and viabilityof mycoinsecticide as practical insect control
agents.
Optimization of entomopathogenic fungi by
genetic engineering is limited due to lack ofknowledge of molecular and biochemical bases
for fungal pathogenesis, and the unavailability

79

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproductionof good cloning system for species otherthan deuteromycete fungi. The molecularand biochemical bases of pathogenicity ofM. anisopliae which cause green muscardinediseases, have been well studied especially onhost cuticle penetration by the fungus. Various
genes related to formation of the appressorium(a specialized structure involved in penetrationof the insect cuticle by the fungus), virulence,and nutritional stress had been cloned from M.
anisopliae. Additional copies of the PrI gene,which encodes a subtilisin-like protease involvedin host cuticle penetration were engineered into
the genome of M. anisopliae. The larvae infectedwith recombinant strains died 25% sooner andfeeding damage was reduced by 40% (St. Legeret al., 1996). The prospect of using recombinantfungi for insect control highlights the need forfurther research in identifying and manipulating
genes involved in pathogenesis and monitoringof genetic exchange between strains by using
isolate-specific molecular markers. (Harrisonand Bonning, 1998). Despite a potentiallywide array of insecticidal proteins produced byentomopathogenic fungi, fungal genes have played
little part in agricultural biotechnology to date.

Botanical Insecticide
More than 2,400 plant species around the world
are currently known to possess pest control
properties. The promising species include theneem tree, sweet flag, onion, garlic, custard apple,
pyretrum, derris, common latana, holy basil,
black pepper, and common ginger (Weinzierl,
1998). Botanical insecticides may be in the formof dust or powder of crude preparations of plantparts that may be used in full-strength or diluted
in a carrier. Some preparations are the water
extracts or organic solvent extract of insecticidal
components of plants. The most processed
forms are purified insecticidal compounds thatare isolated from plant materials by a series ofextraction and distillations. The use of botanicalinsecticide is well documented in Asian countries
and extracts from neem tree, Azadirachta indica
appear to be the most widely used. In Thailand,
the availability of neem-based bioinsecticide
was a prerequisite to the emergence in the early
1990s of a new market of organic vegetables, fruitand rice, now widely sold through a network of“green” shops. More than 15 complex chemicals
having repellent, antifeedant, insect growth80

regulator and insecticidal properties have been
identified in aqueous and chemical extracts ofneem leaves, bark, stem seed and other parts.
Seeds or seed kernels provide the greatest amounts
of insecticidal compounds (Schmutterer, 1990).
Neem is generally considered to be most effective
against the soft-bodied, immature stages of plantpests, including whiteflies, thrips, mealybugs,
and various caterpillars (Weinzierl, 1998). Neem’s broad activity against plant-eating insects, its
virtual nontoxicity to mammals, beneficial insects
and environment make it an extremely appealing
insecticide.
Despite several appealing traits, however,botanical insecticides continue to fill only a minorrole, primarily because most are very expensive
in comparison with synthetic insecticides.
Their availability is often limited because
production levels are not sufficient to meet ahighly fluctuating global market demand andbioactivity of some products often varies among
seeming identical preparations (Weinzierl, 1998).
Research should be focused on increasing natural
production, improving extraction rates of the
toxic compound and improving formulation forspray application. Gene transfer into bacteria or
directly into food crops for the production of toxic
compound is encouraging.

Pheromone for Insect Pest Control
Pheromones are signal compounds used by
insects to communicate. The direct insect
control approaches using pheromone includes
mass trapping, lure and kill tactics and mating
disruption tactics. The most efficient way is
the lure and kill technique. Combination ofpheromone and pathogen is designed not to kill
the insects right away, but rather to use them asvector of the disease into the wider population.
Mating disruption technology has received
considerable attention, however it only works
with isolated population. A large number ofpheromone dispensers were deployed to interferewith orientation toward conspecifics and interrupt
the life cycle of the insect by preventing mating(Suckling and Karg, 1998). All the pheromones
currently marketed are made by chemical
synthesis, but biotechnology is of potential
interest. For instance, pheromone consists of twostereo-isomeric variants, only one of which has
the desired biochemical effect. The use of enzyme
technology will allow the effective form only toBiotechnology for insect pest control

be produced, whereas in chemical synthesis bothvariants are produced. Accurate identification,
increased stability and longevity, and more
uniform release rate following field exposure,can enhance the performance of pheromones.
These improvements can be achieved through thecontinued progress of biotechnology (Suckling andKarg, 1998). However, the adoption by growers ofpheromone-based biological control will dependon how well the system can meet grower concerns
about efficacy and cost. A better understanding of
how and why the technology works will lead to thedesign of a more cost-effective technology.
Table 4 Awareness of cotton growers in Thailand on the impactof
Bt cotton on the environment.
Awareness

Number of growers%

Aware of(positive & negative)

15

24.19

Not aware of

38

61.29

Not indicated

9

14.52

Source : Kunalasiri, A. and S. Buskaew (2000)

Table 5. Acceptance of Bt cotton by cotton growers in Thailand.
Acceptance

Number of growers%

Accept48

77.42

Not accept

3

4.84

Not certain

6

9.68

Not indicated

5

8.06

Source : Kunalasiri, A. and S. Buskaew (2000)

Community Perception on Genetically
Modified Organisms
Most of the agricultural countries recognize thepotential of biotechnology as an important tool for
agricultural productivity. In the past decades, many
genetically modified (GM) microorganisms andplants have been produced and used in agriculture
primarily for insect and disease control. There
are growing concerns of the community overGM plants and products derived. Those who arein favor of the technology believe that GM plant
could help the farmers reduce pesticide use andincrease crop productivity. On the other hand,the opponents are anxious about the possible riskthat may be associated with GM technology. The
production of GMOs is now being considered as
biosafety, trade and political issue. Community
perception on GMOs will be presented here withspecial reference to public and farmer’s perceptionof GM plants and products particularly the cottonengineered with Bt toxin genes in Thailand.

Cotton has been considered an importanteconomic crop for Thailand since 1961 due to its
high demand for the textile industry. The major
constraint for cotton production in Thailand is
the presence of insect pests especially the cotton
bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera. Bt cotton
resistant to insect attack, therefore, received
much of public attention and demonstrated highpotential for commercialization. The NuCOTN
33B Bt cotton was first introduced by MonsantoLtd. Thailand Company in 1995 for screenhouse
testing. This cotton line was described ashaving the crylAc gene from B. thuringiensis
that is effective against the cotton bollworm,
H. armigera. In 1996, Bt cotton was approved
for isolated small scale field trial in Chiang Mai
Province. By 2000, nine isolated large scale
field trials of Bt Cotton were conducted in the
Department of Agriculture (DOA) experimentstations and farmer’s fields. During these fieldtrials, GMO debates were so intense among theThai community. In 1999, the National Center
for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology(BIOTEC) had conducted a survey on publicawareness, understanding and opinions about
genetically modified organisms (GMOs). On
the understanding of GM technology, 34.15%
indicated that they have no knowledge about it.
Those who understand the technology at good,average and basic levels were at 15.57, 32.51 and16.39%, respectively. Most of the Thais (90.71%)
were aware of the GMOs but they have fewer
concerns on GM food as compared to chemical
residues being food contaminants. It is obviousthat media plays an important role in publicawareness (Noppakornvisate et al., 2000).
In the same year, the DOA made a survey on thesocio-economic effect of the transgenic Bt-cotton
to cotton growers in six provinces in Thailand.
Generally, cotton growers (91.93%) knew about Bt
cotton from the media and seed companies. They
have heard of the advantages and disadvantages ofthe so called GM plants. Yet, only 24.19% were
aware of the possible adverse effects of Bt-cottonon the environment (Table 4). About 77.42% of
the farmers in the survey were willing to plant
Bt-cotton as soon as it is permitted and only 4.84%
denied to accept Bt cotton (Table 5). Most of the
farmers believed that Bt-cotton could reduce thecost of production and lessen the use of chemical
insecticides, which consequently contribute totheir better living conditions (Kunalasiri and
Bukaew, 2000). However, due to the strong81

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

movement of the anti-GMO and NGO groups
campaigning against the technology monopoly
and possible adverse effects on biodiversity,
the government decision on deregulation oftransgenic Bt-cotton for commercialization has
not been made. The surveys clearly showedthat the scientific community in Thailand is
open-minded to the GM technology. Yet, there is aneed to help the public understand the technology
better, especially those who are not in the field of
biological science.

Conclusion
Sustainable agriculture could be achieved
not only through proper agricultural practices
but also through continuous research anddevelopment of new technologies, particularly
agricultural biotechnology, which is probably
a very important investment to achieve greater
competitiveness in the world market. Knowledge
and continuous research is the key to assess thepotential of biotechnology to increase agricultural
productivity and to contribute to sustainabilityof agricultural systems. Potential improvementsof bio-control agents involving beneficial insects
and microorganisms that work in harmony withgenetically engineered plants are examples of theutilization of biotechnology that lead to sustainable
control practices.
Public concerns on extensive use of chemical
insecticides, insect resistance development,
and the rising cost of developing new synthetic
insecticides, all suggest that integrated insect pest
management utilizing biological control products
will become increasingly important in the years tocome. However, products of biotechnology should
be handled and marketed in much the same way
as chemical pesticides. It is important to provide
appropriate regulatory mechanisms to ensure that
products produced by using new techniques are assafe as the products of traditional biotechnology.
It is wiser, especially for the Asian countries tolook into bio-control products that complement
synthetic pesticide instead of replaces them.
Bio-insecticides should bring great benefit in
reducing the use of synthetic pesticides, especiallythose that are toxic and persistent. An integrated
insect pest management underlying less input, costeffective and friendly environment is the key forsustainable agriculture.
Despite tremendous benefits of biotechnology in82

insect pest management, there are still questions
that required answers especially in Asian
countries where biotechnology could be mostprofitable. Specific examples are the uncertaintyof the technology in terms of successful research
and adoption by the end users; high start-up
investment; public awareness and acceptance;
national policies on bio-safety and intellectual
property issues; technology dissemination andproper implementation; human resource andinstitutional development; and limited funding due
to long-term and continuous nature of the research.
Responsible national institutes and other affiliatedresearch centers should engage in educational andtraining programs aimed at the general public forbetter understanding of the risks and benefits ofbiotechnology application.

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Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Biotechnology of Crop Production and International Consortium

Tetsuko Takabe(Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Japan)

Abstract
Session 2 of this Forum, which I chaired, tackled the topic on Biotechnology for Sustainable
Bioproduction. All speakers shared with us their research findings and technical knowledge on carbon
metabolism and nitrogen metabolism in relation to biotechnology for crop productivity; enzyme
engineering of lipids and dietary antioxidants as related to biotechnology for food production; andbiotechnology for biotic stress tolerance. While we discussed various concerns about agriculture in
Asia, we did not discuss about abiotic stress tolerance in plants. So, I would like to share with you someproblems and recent developments in research in this field, which result from our works.
Corresponding author:tptakabe@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Recently, global warming has accelerated
desertification all over the world. To prevent thedesertification and keep agriculture sustainable,
we have been studying on the mechanism of salt,
drought and heat tolerance in barley (11,12,13)
and highly drought- tolerant sheep grass,
Aneurolepidium chinense (6). We obtained hundredsof salt, drought and heat inducible genes and are
now looking for strong genes to confer salt, drought
and heat tolerance to rice (Japonica). We havebeen discussing about possible collaboration withKasetsart University because Thailand has salty
desert area and it is a serious problem not onlyin Thailand, but also the whole of Asia and othercountries including developed countries. Our grouphas established transformation systems of Japonica
rice and Indica rice (poplar trees also recently).
We now recognize that collaboration between
universities in Asia and our University is of great
advantage to resolve this serious environmental
problem for sustainable agriculture.
I would like to introduce the following strongtransgenic model and rice plants towards abiotic
stress analyzed in my laboratory:

WT Dnak-rice

WT1) Transgenic tobacco and rice with
DnaK from highly salt-tolerantcyanobacterium Aphanothece
halophytica
I have been using Aphanothece halophytica forquite some time to study on subunit structureand function of CO 2 fixation enzyme, RuBP
carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). Aphanothece
halophytica accumulates glycinebetaine ca. 2 M
in the cell. I noticed that this cyanobacterium hasquite unique enzymes depending on glycinebetaine
or highly salt-tolerant enzymes. We then started
cloning a kind of heat shock protein (HSP70)
gene, DnaK. Usually, DnaKs have a molecularweight of 70kD. But our DnaK has an extra C-tail(9 kD) at the end of the protein compared toother HSP 70 groups. This C-tail is important tomake the DnaK strong under both salt and heatstress (1). We introduced this gene into tobacco
plants first (8). The transgenic tobacco acquired
resistance to salt stress at the vegetative stage. We
also confirmed that the transgenic tobacco has
highly enhanced heat tolerance at the germination
stage and young vegetative stage (5). We wereastonished that these transgenic plants have a highproductivity (almost twice compared to that of
WT) of seeds under heat stress at the reproductive
stage. We also made transgenic rice plants using
DnaK. DnaK-rice acquired high heat tolerance atboth young vegetative and reproductive stages.
The DnaK-rice has grown better than WT at thenormal temperature ( 28 ℃ /23 ℃ ) and at highDnak-rice85

Chapter 2: Biotechnology for Sustainable Bioproduction

temperature ( 35 ℃ /23℃ ). The yield of seeds
also increased twice in the transgenic rice like intransgenic tobacco as described above. We are
now field-testing the phenotype of DnaK-rice in astrictly regulated area for the safety of geneticallymodified crops under the collaboration with Dr.
Takiko Shimada (Ishikawa Prefecture Univ.). Thistransgenic rice could be applicable to agriculture
under salt, drought and heat stress conditions.
We also introduced this gene into poplar and are
now analyzing the phenotype. We are expectingthat DnaK-poplar trees grow better under normal
conditions and stress conditions.

2) Transgenic rice transformed with GSII gene
GSII is glutamine synthetase, which is localizedin chloroplasts and involved in photorespiration.
GSII is the limiting step in photorespiration as
well as Calvin-Benson cycle. Photorespiration
is essential in plants that grow under stressful
conditions, such as high light. We tested thistransgenic rice with salt tolerance. We confirmedthat the transgenic rice plants have highly
increased tolerance to salt stress (2).

3) Transgenic rice plants transformed with
KatE and yeast mitocondrial Mn-SOD
genes
We also made transgenic rice plants using
catalase gene ( KatE ) from E. coli . Thistransgenic rice also showed a strong phenotype
about salt tolerance.
We also examined transgenic rice overexpressing
yeast mitochondrial Mn-SOD in chloroplasts.
Actually this transgenic rice came from Plantec
Research Institute in Japan. Seeds were T7, whichshowed a weak phenotype of salt tolerance (9).
We believe that gene silencing occurred in thistransgenic rice (T7). About 50% of the seeds
lost the yeast Mn-SOD gene. This is a problem
of genetic engineering of plants sometime. We
also made transgenic Arabidopsis and rice using
heat-inducible peroxisomal APX. Those transgenic
plants showed enhanced heat tolerance at bothvegetative and reproductive stage (7).
We found that glycinebetaine synthesis is inducedby H2O2 (3). This is an interesting finding. A lowlevel of H2O2 enhanced growth of rice under salt
and heat stress (10), although it is toxic with highconcentrations.

864) Other transgenic plants and rules forcollaboration
We have been making transgenic rice producing
glycinebetaine (4). Rice is a very salt-sensitiveplant and does not accumulate glycinebetaine. We
used modified gene (betA) of choline oxidizing
enzyme from E. coli to transform rice, because
codon usage is different between E. coli andrice. We collaborated with a Japanese company.
The company obtained very good data about
salt tolerance, although we were competingwith another big group. Finally they did not
publish the paper at all and obtained the patent
for the genetically engineered rice without me.
Although I do not mind, I think there are somedifficulties to collaborate with companies.
However we have to be patient in breeding newcrops for our future. Both the university andcompany people must mutually understand more.
Although almost five years have passed after
collaboration with the company, I am looking
for a possibility of studying the transgenic ricefrom other points of view, such as acid rain or
heavy metal stresses. This experience became acase story in my laboratory, after we made manystronger transgenic plants towards abiotic stresses.
I also had a similar experience in collaboration
with an Asian university. I realized that any
genes from developed countries are kind gifts
for Asian people. I think it is a great idea andI am very pleased if they can use the genes wedeveloped for agriculture. However I started theresearch as a collaborative work. But the Asian
scientists wanted to study by themselves. We
must establish rules on how to collaborate withnot only companies, but also Asian universities,
before implementing any activity. Rules on patents
and authorships should be well defined to avoid
problems.

5) Academic International Consortium
Our laboratory is now open to anyone in theworld, if collaboration is honestly carried out
between two or more collaborating institutions.
We have many candidate genes to develop strongtransgenic rice or other plants including poplar
trees. Our genes can be used for sustainableagriculture in Asia and an international consortiumfor this purpose is welcome anytime. The Japanese
professors must have at least one postdoctoral
fellow and one technician, just like in research
institutes or universities in the USA. Our situation

Biotechnology of Crop Production and International Consortiumin Japan is too stiff to consider any collaborative
work with Asian scientists now. I am training two
graduate students from Asian countries. It is noteasy to train them by myself, although it gives
me great pleasure and I enjoy guiding them. The
School of Bioagricultural Sciences in Nagoya
University needs not only high impact papers on
basic sciences, but also high levels of application
studies to produce crops and develop and improvetree species for forestry in Asia, including Japan.
It is my worry that the time will come whenshortage of food will be experienced in Japan. It is
my hope that grants are given to the more appliedfields in agriculture and forestry.

References
1) Hibino, T., N. Kaku, H. Yoshikawa, T. Takabe
and T. Takabe. 1999. Molecular characterizationof DnaK from the halotolerant cyanobacterium
Aphanothece halophytica for ATPase, protein
folding, and copper binding under salinity
conditions. Plant Mol. Biol. 40: 409-418.
2) Hoshida, H., Y. Tanaka, T. Hibino, Y. Hayashi,
A. Tanaka, T. Takabe and T. Takabe. 2000.
Enhanced tolerance to salt stress in transgenic
rice that overexpresses chloroplast glutaminesynthetase. Plant Mol. Biol. 43: 103-111.
3) Jagendorf, A.T. and T. Takabe. 2001.Inductionof glycinebetaine synthesis in barley. cations,oxidants, and a possible role for the roots. Plant
Physiol. 127: 1827-1835.
4) Kishitani, S., T. Takanami, M. Suzuki, M.
Oikawa, S. Yokoi, M. Ishitani, A.M.AlvarezNakase, T. Takabe and T. Takabe. 2000.
Compatibility of glycinebetaine in rice plants: evaluation using transgenic rice plants witha gene for peroxisomal betaine aldehyde
dehydrogenase from barley. Plant Cell andEnviron. 23:107-114.
5) Ono, K., T. Hibino, T. Kohinata, S. Suzuki,Y.
Tanaka, A. Hamada, T. Nakamura, T. Takabe
and T. Takabe. 2001. Overexpression of DnaKfrom a halotolerant cyanobacterium Aphanothece
halophytica enhances the high-temperature

tolerance of tobacco during germination and early
growth. Plant Science 160: 455-461.
6) Shi, W. M., A. Ueda, K. Ozaki, M. Inada, A.
Takamatsu and T. Takabe. 2002. Analysis ofheat-stress responsive genes in Aneurolepidium
chinense leaves by differential display. Plant
Prod. Sci. 5: 229-235.
7) Shi, W. M., Y. Muramoto, H. Mori, A. Ueda,
T. Takabe. 2001. Cloning of peroxisomal
ascorbate peroxidase gene from barley andenhanced thermotorelance by overexpressingin Arabidopsis thaliana. Gene, 273: 23-27.
8) Sugino, M., T. Hibino, Y. Tanaka, N. Nii, T.
Takabe, T. Takabe. 1999. Overexpression of
DnaK from a halotolerant cyanobacterium
Aphanothece halophytica acquires resistanceto salt stress in transgenic tobacco plants. Plant
Science 137: 81-88.
9) Tanaka, Y., T. Hibino, Y. Hayashi, A. Tanaka,
S. Kishitani, T. Takabe, S. Yokota and T.
Takabe. 1999. Salt tolerance of transgenic riceoverexpressing yeast mitochondrial Mn-SOD inchloroplasts. Plant Science 148: 131-138.
10) Uchida, A., A.T. Jagendorf, T. Hibino,
T. Takabe and T. Takabe. 2002. Effects ofhydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide on both salt
and heat stress tolerance in rice. Plant Science
163: 515-523.
11) Ueda, A., W.M. Shi, T. Nakamura and T.
Takabe. 2002. Analysis of salt- inducible genes
in barley roots by differential display. J. Plant
Res. 115: 119-130.
12) Inada, M., A. Ueda, WM. Shi, T. Takabe. 2004.
A stress-inducible plasma membrane protein 3(AcPMP3) in a monocotyledonous halophyte,
Aneurolepidium chinense, regulates cellular Na+
and K+ accumulation under salt stress.
2004. planta in press.
13) Ueda, A., A. kathiresan, M. Inada, Y. Narita, T.
Nakamura, WM. Shi, T.
Takabe, J. Bennett. 2004. Dissection of osmotic
stress induced gene expression under salt stressin barley. J. Exp. Bot. in press.

87Chapter 3
International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Perspectives for Development of Research and Education by International
Collaboration in Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences,
Nagoya University
Norihiro Tsukagoshi(International Exchange Committee, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University)
Corresponding author: tukagosi@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp

The total number of foreign students in Japan has
increased rapidly to 80,000 during the last three
years. This increase was due to the rise in numberof self-financed students. The number of students
under the Japanese government scholarship
remained rather constant and comprises only 10%of the total number. This situation poses a serious
problem, which needs the attention of the Japanese
government. One possible solution is to request
the Japanese government to increase the number ofstate-supported fellowships.
At Nagoya University, about 1100 students arenow studying on campus, which implies that theFig.1 Changes in numbers of foreign students in Japan
research and educational activities of Nagoya
University are highly evaluated abroad. Thechanges in the number of the foreign studentsof Nagoya University are similar to the generaltrend at the country level where the number ofself-financed students increased and reached about
70% of the total foreign students (Fig.1). The
number of students under the Japanese government
scholarship remained rather constant. However,
the ratio of the Japanese government scholarshipstudents to the self-financed students in Nagoya
University is significantly higher than that at thenational level (Fig.2).
Seventy percent (70%) of the foreign students
are studying to receive doctorate degrees,
since Nagoya University is one of the research
universities in Japan and aims to provide higher Fig.2 Changes in number of foreign students in Nagoya University
education for graduate students. Eighty-five
percent (85%) of students are from Asian
countries, while only 7% are from Europe andUnited States, and 5% are from Africa and Central
and South America. The majority of foreign
students are from China and they comprise about
45% of the total foreign students, which causes
some disadvantage to them, for example, to get
fellowships (Fig.3).
Foreign students are confronted with issues
and problems not only in their research but also
in their life in Japan. The main problems sharedby students are 1) problems caused by cultural Fig.3 Countries and areas represented by students in Nagoya University
differences, 2) needs for scholarships and housing,and 3) research projects.

91Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

Foreign students in Graduate School of
Bioagricultural Sciences

International exchange programs in
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences

We have admitted altogether 366 students from27 countries up to 2002. Seventy-three (73)students admitted at the School of Bioagricultural
Sciences is the largest number received in our
school so far (Fig.4). However, this number has
reduced to only 56 students studying in our Schoolin 2002. Noticeably, the number of self-financed
students has increased. The countries and areas
represented by the students in our School and theirrelative ratios are also similar to those of entire
Nagoya University (Fig. 5).
The research facilities in our school are of top
levels in Japan and we have many advanced
equipments. Foreign students find it convenient to
conduct their researches in their own laboratories.
Most of the faculty members have experiencesin doing research abroad and they are making
efforts to maintain their high level of researchthrough cooperative works with foreign scientists.
To achieve high quality level of research, foreign
students are requested to do experiments oncomplex problems requiring intensive research. As
far as foreign students of our school are concerned,
they perform very well and do their best to
respond to the requests made by the academic
advisors. So far, 188 students obtained PhD and
150 students obtained Master degree.

We have altogether 11 exchange programs with
11 universities and institutes from nine different
countries. Implementation of activities based onagreements with Kasetsart University and North
Carolina State University has been quite active(Table 1). These are university-wide agreements,
which enable the faculty members of other schools
to participate in exchanges. These exchange
agreements aim to promote cooperative researches
and exchange of faculty members between our
school and the other institutions. Exchange ofstudents, usually graduate students, is only a partof the agreement and research projects are mainly
emphasized. Since Nagoya University is a research
university, it is inevitable to place more emphasis
on faculty exchanges than on student exchanges.
To activate the agreements and implement theacademic exchange of the faculty members forthe joint researches, we need financial support.
In the past, we were quite lucky and obtained
twice the University-University cooperative
research grants to conduct joint researcheswith NCSU (1987-1989) and Rosario National
University (1995-1997). In addition to this typeof grants, we can apply for national grants to
conduct joint researches with foreign scientists
at the individual level. I have obtained such joint
research funds with University of Nottingham
in UK and Melbourne University in Australia.
Through these joint researches, I was able to makegood and strong relations with my counterparts.
I did not, however, exert personal efforts toconclude any departmental or university-wideagreements with those universities. There is no
administrative assistance from the university
in carrying out all paper works necessary inconcluding the agreements. Individual faculty
members concerned do all the works. The faculty
members including myself simply have no time
for these administrative works and therefore arevery reluctant to be involved with the exchange
agreements. I feel that there are many similar casesin this School. It is important now to look for joint
research programs for future development of our
School and make efforts to conclude agreements.

Fig.4 Numbers of foreign students in each school

Fig. 5 Changes in numbers of foreign students in Graduate
School of Bioagricultural Sciences

92Perspectives for Development of Research and Education by International Collaboration in Graduate Schoolof Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University

International Exchange Committee in
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences
The External Review Committee evaluates ourinternational exchange activities twice. In general,
our activities are considered to have reached a highlevel by current Japanese university standards.
However, several suggestions have been madeas follows: 1) acceptance of foreign students
from both developed and developing countries,2) establishment of a system that provides
post-departure follow-up of foreign students
and feedback to the School, and 3) education ofJapanese students on their international awareness.

Future Perspectives
A former foreign student suggested several
things in his memoirs, which he contributed to
the 50 years history of the School of Agriculture.
These are as follows: 1) active exchanges at thelevel of graduate and undergraduate students,
2) exchanges of advanced information as well
as planning of joint researches, and 3) financial
support of researches for former students. We

might be able to materialize some of thesesuggestions in the future. We should discuss about
these possibilities in our international exchangecommittee. I would like to take this opportunity topropose a discussion on the possibility to organize
a new Consortium to cooperate on research andeducation for sustainable bioproduction aroundthe world. I would like to conclude this lecture
by quoting the comment made by Dr. Shang FaYang, one of the members of the External Review
Committee:“During the 1960’s and 1970’s, the USA playeda very important role by providing the training
for many international students and visiting
scholars around the world. Now, Japan is in agood position to do the same. I sincerely hopethat Japanese government takes a more activerole in this endeavor, by providing more funds
so that Japanese universities, including Nagoya
University, would be able to more actively
participate in this program. I trust this is theprivilege and also the responsibility of Japanesepeople.”Table 1 Academic exchange agreements in Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences and ICCAE
1) Kasetsart University

Thailand1981

University-wide2) The Southeast Asian Regional Center for
Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture(SEARCA)

Philippines

1983

University-wide3) North Carolina State University

USA

1985

University-wide4) University California, Berkeley

USA

1989

Departmental

5) Rosario National University

Argentina

1993

Departmental

6) The Research Institute of Biochemistry,”Luis F. Leloir, Capomar Foundation”

Argentina

1994

Departmental

7) Nottingham University, The Facultyof Agricultural and Food Sciences

England1994

Departmental

8) The Institute of Cytology and Genetics,
Siberian Division of the Russian
Academy of Sciences

Russia1997

Departmental

9) Australian National University,

Australia

1997

Departmental

10) Bangladesh Agricultural University
The Research School of Biology

Bangladesh

2000

Departmental

Kenya

2002

Institutional11) African Institute for Capacity Development

93Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Tasks in Research, Education and International Collaboration in
Agriculture Biotechnology at Kasetsart University
With Special Emphasis on the Role of Former Students
Who Studied Abroad
Supat Attathom(Department of Plant Pathology, Kasetsart University, Kamphaengsaen, Nakorn Pathom 73140, Thailand)

Abstract
Thailand is considered as one of the food producing countries of the world. For centuries, Thailand has
a large number of skilled farmers engaged in food production. With the increasing demand for agricultural
products for export, animal and crop production systems are moving toward high inputs for higher
yields. High cost of agricultural production results in less income for farmers and creates an unhealthy
environment.
Biotechnology offers a challenge to sustainable bioagriculture production and friendly environment.
Some of the key features for biotechnological products are the less use of chemical pesticides, cropvarieties that fit the unfavorable environment and crop quality that meets the market needs. Innovation inbiotechnology requires a starting point, mainly the university where technology transfer and diffusion canbe made available for farmers, general public or industry. This is the case for Thailand where Kasetsart
University plays a major role in bioagriculture production.
The development of biotechnology at Kasetsart University was very much in line with the close
collaboration between Kasetsart University and the Japanese Government under KU-JICA projectsince 1980. As a result, the Central Laboratory and Greenhouse Complex (CLGC) was established at
Kamphaengsaen Campus. The CLGC is one of the most modernized centers in the region that houses
research facilities and well-trained researchers particularly in the area of agriculture biotechnology.
In 1985, the Plant Genetic Engineering Unit (PGEU) was established within the CLGC through thecollaborative arrangement between Kasetsart University and the National Center for Genetic Engineeringand Biotechnology (BIOTEC) of Thailand. This unit focuses on the development of crop varieties for
insect and disease resistance by genetic transformation. In 1999 and for the first time, the College ofAgriculture offered an undergraduate degree program in Agriculture Biotechnology. During the same
period, the Agriculture Biotechnology Center (ABC), Kasetsart University, was established to offer the
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Agriculture Biotechnology by forming a consortium with four local universities.
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) financially supported the program.
From the brief history of human resource development on agriculture biotechnology at Kasetsart
University, it is well recognized that international collaboration is essential to success. However, theapplication aspect of the technology must come from high quality basic research and contributionof well-trained researchers. The outputs of KU-Nagoya collaboration during the past several years
have clearly demonstrated the importance of this partnership. International collaboration needs to bestrengthened in the future since research institutions like universities will have to attract a group of young,highly qualified scientists to tackle some common issues such as intellectual property rights, biosafety
and bioethics. Commercialization of bioagriculture products will be placed under international rules andregulations, which, in many cases, are being used as trade barriers. These tasks are so critical and vital to
future development in the area of agriculture biotechnology which can be achieved by close collaboration
at national and international levels.
Corresponding author: agrspa@ku.ac.th

Introduction
An increasing demand of food production andthe conservation of natural resources greatly affectagricultural systems in many countries including
Thailand. In the past, countries producing foodcrops and other agricultural products have utilized
lands and water exhaustively for their productivity
and incomes. These common practices resulted

in severe deforestation and adverse effects on theenvironment. Recognizing the potential danger tothe global environment, the World Summit of 1992
addressed in the Agenda 21 of the Rio Principles
for the sustainable development including “better
health care, enhanced food security, improved
supplies of portable water, more efficient industrial
processes, sustainable methods of afforestation95

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

and reforestation, and detoxification of harzardous
waste”. This framework of global agreement
has several key elements that each country
participating in the summit should realize andimplement accordingly.
S c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y, p a r t i c u l a r l ybiotechnology, were given high priority tosolve the pressing problems facing foodproduction. Therefore, it is an urgent need forhuman resource development to implement thetechnology for sustainable development. This is
the main challenge of universities and educational
institutions to respond to the needs of society by
producing graduates and well-trained researchers
who are capable of performing their functions withgreat care and responsibility.

concerned factors where “sustainability” clearly
reveals itself. As long as we are able to maintainthe balance and be competitive, the wholesystem will certainly move forward to the goal of“sustainable bioproduction”.
In terms of sustainable bioproduction,biotechnology offers a new challenge forconventional practices. New generation of
biotechnological products should be causing lessor no pollutant, consuming less energy and should
be safe to consumers. Innovation in biotechnology
requires a starting point, mainly the university
where technology transfer and diffusion can bemade available to the production sector.

Sustainable Bioproduction: The Thai
Perspective
Thailand is considered as one of the foodproducing countries of the world. The country
is the world leader in rice production and export
since rice farming has been practiced for over
5,000 years. Thai agriculture has gone througha significant change from subsistence farming
to commercial farming. Commercial farming
causes the expansion of cultivated land andseveral detrimental effects on the environment. In
addition, the market-oriented agriculture requires
high inputs such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides
and farm machineries. Farmers will have to rely
heavily on the price of their commodities, which
in most cases generate less incomes. This kind oftrend for non-sustainable bioproduction seems toshow clearly in Thailand and other countries in theregion.
Sustainable agriculture has been introduced
as a new concept for bioproduction. There are
varying definitions as to what sustainability inagriculture means. However, most agree on an
efficient use of resources that causes as little harmto the environment as possible ( Sriwatanapongse,
1997 ). Recently, the concept of “self-sufficienteconomy” has been initiated by His Majesty theKing of Thailand and now being applied in almost
all sectors, especially agricultural production. To
be “self-sufficient” in agriculture is to maintainthe (wheel of) three factors including thefarmer, the environment and the production ina well-balanced way (Fig. 1). This balance willundoubtedly lead to benefit sharing among the96

Fig.1 A model of sustainable agricultural productionin Thailand.

Research and development in Agriculture
Biotechnology
Biotechnology covers a wide range oftechnologies. It is, therefore, fair to say that
agriculture itself is also a part of biotechnology.
However, a modern biotechnology generally
known as recombinant DNA technology or
genetic engineering has emerged recently withso many diverse applications. In the simplest
way, a known gene from any living organism
can be precisely transferred into plant or animal
resulting in so-called “genetically engineered ortransgenic” plant or animal. This organism willthen express the character of the transferred genewhile the overall genotypic characters remain
intact. Research and development in agriculturebiotechnology, particularly in the tropicalTasks in Research, Education and International Collaboration in Agriculture Biotechnology at Kasetsart University
With Special Emphasis on the Role of Former Students Who Studied Abroadcountries like Thailand, are focused mainly on
the production of insect, disease and abiotic stressresistant plants (Attathom, 2001). Shelf-life of
fruits and vegetables can be prolonged by delaying
the ripening process through genetic engineering.
Transgenic rice containing vitamin A, which is
now being tested in the Philippines is also an
example of the improvement of crop nutrition by
genetic manipulation.
It is quite clear that biotechnology can lead tothe development of crop variety, which depends
less on chemical pesticides. This is an advantage
for farmers and consumers since chemical
pesticides deteriorate the health of farmers, pollutethe environment, and contribute to the higher
production cost. Products derived from agriculturebiotechnology per se thus facilitate sustainableagriculture development.
Agriculture biotechnology as well as molecularbiology is developing at fast pace. Biotechnology
is now being applied in agriculture in three mainareas: animal and crop variety improvement,
renewable energy and biodiversity conservation.
There are different degrees of complexity inthe application of biotechnology in agriculture.
For example, the improvement of crop variety
may begin with the selection process for theparental lines, the production of pathogen freeplanting stocks, the development of biofertilizer
and biocontrol agents, and the development ofgenetically-engineered or transgenic plant for
specific trait, respectively.
Newly developed agricultural-biotechnology
product not only requires technology input andqualified technical staff, but also has to meet
the basic requirement in accordance with theinternational guidelines and regulations as wellas consumer acceptance in the global market. In
addition, issues concerning intellectual property
and biosafety have to be taken into consideration
before commercialization of the product can bemade (Attathom et. al., 1996). These conditions,on the other hands, are considered to be constraints
for the application of biotechnology in agriculture.

Kasetsart University and Agriculture
Biotechnology
Kasetsart University (KU), established in 1943,
is the country’s leading university in agriculture.
The university produced a large number ofgraduates serving in nearly every sector of

bioproduction including agriculture, fishery,
forestry and agroindustry. Several commercial
plant varieties and livestock have been developed
at KU by conventional breeding and selection
programs. The development of biotechnology
at KU was very much in line with the close
collaboration between KU and the Japanese
Government under KU-JICA project since1980. As a result, the Central Laboratory andGreenhouse Complex (CLGC) was established at
Kamphaengsaen Campus, Nakhon Pathom. The
CLGC is one of the most modernized centersin the region that houses research facilities andwell-trained researchers particularly in the areaof agriculture biotechnology. In 1985, the Plant
Genetic Engineering Unit (PGEU) was establishedwithin the CLGC through the collaboration
arrangement between KU and the National Center
for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology(BIOTEC) of Thailand. This unit focuses on
the development of crop varieties for insect anddisease resistance by genetic transformation.
In 1999 and for the first time, the College ofAgriculture offered an undergraduate degree
program in Agriculture Biotechnology. During
the same period, the Center of Agriculture
Biotechnology (CAB), KU, was established tooffer the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Agriculture
Biotechnology by forming a consortium with four
local universities. The Asian Development Bank
(ADB) financially supported the program. Thisis the real challenge for the university and thecountry to mobilize human resource and facilities
in agriculture biotechnology for the benefit of theThai people.

KU-Nagoya U Partnership: An Academic
Exchange and Cooperation
From the brief history of human resource
development in agriculture biotechnology at KU,
it is recognized that international collaboration isan essential component to success. The university
always seeks for the opportunity to collaborate
with universities and research institutes outside
Thailand to strengthen their research and teachingactivities. Collaboration between KU and Nagoya
University (NU) initiated in 1981 became theclassic example of an academic exchange andcooperation among universities in Thailand
and Japan. This agreement was continued andsubjected to a fourth renewal recently signed byPresident Thira Sutabutra of KU and President

97

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

Minoru Matsuo of NU on May 14, 1999. The
newly signed agreement is valid for another five
years and renewable before the expiration date.
Within the scope of this agreement, both
universities will perform the following activities:
1. Exchange of students by nominating andaccepting from time to time students of thefaculty of the university to be associated withthe host university as a degree/non-degree
student for research.
2. Exchange of faculty members and researchscholars.
3. Exchange of scientific materials, publicationand information.
4. Joint research activities.
Until now, there are a number of staffs, students
and researchers from KU who went to NU for
their studies and research programs and vice versa.
Those who have been trained at NU returned
home and contributed significantly in agriculturebiotechnology, particularly in crop and animal
production. They have organized themselvesby forming “The Nagoya University Alumni,
Thailand”, with 106 members (as of March 2001).
This is quite a unique group of scholars that has
strong potential to lead the country in research anddevelopment in agricultural and social sciences.

Recommendation for Future Collaboration
The long-term relationship of KU and NU
shows a successful case of collaboration. Yet,
there is still much room for improvement. In my
own opinion, there are three areas that need to befocused, namely: the technology assessment, thejoint-degree program, and the collaborative R&D
projects.
Technology assessment can be done by agroup of experts in science, business, law, andeconomics to evaluate the potential impact of agiven technology for the development of Thailand
and Japan. The group will have to identify thestrengths and weaknesses and other constraints
such as the intellectual property issue that could
prevent technology to be available to the public.
Other dimensions of technology development andapplication will have to be determined as well.
For example, is it better to “buy” a technology
than to “develop” it within the country where98

human resource and know-how are very limited?
The joint-degree program can be implemented
immediately since the MS and Ph.D. degrees
in agriculture biotechnology at KU have beenadjusted into research-oriented degree programs.
This system is compatible with most of the degree
programs at NU. No course work is required for
graduate students who may have language barrier.
The collaborative R&D projects can be initiatedin the following areas: agriculture environment,
bioenergy and biosafety (Sukondhasingha, 1998).
Exchange students and researchers should be partof project activities that lead to common goals.
The primary objective of the collaborative projectis to produce any product that causes no harmful
effect on the environment, uses less or renewableenergy and possesses no risk to consumer health.
Above all, this is an important step toward thedevelopment of sustainable bioproduction.

References
A t t a t h o m , S . , D . Wo n g s a s i t h o r n a n d S .
Sriwatanapongse. 1996. Biosafety Capacity
Building in Thailand. In Virgin V. and R. J.
Frederick (eds). Biosafety Capacity Building:
Evaluation Criteria Development. SEI,
Stockholm. Sweden. p. 59-60.
Attathom. S. 2001. Crop Biotech in Thailand.
Global Knowledge Center on Crop
Biotechnology Communication and Network
Planing Workshop. 11-13 January 2001. Siam
City Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand.
Sriwatanapongse, S. 1997. The Role of Scienceand Technology in Thailand’s Agricultural
Sector. In Yuthavong Y. and A.M. Wojcik(eds). Science and Technology in Thailand:
L e s s o n s f r o m a D e v e l o p i n g E c o n o m y.
NSTDA/UNESCO Publishing. p. 45-71.
Sukondhasingha, K.1998. Foresighting in the Thai
Private Sector. In Application of Technology
Foresight. NSTDA, Thailand. p. 91.

Proc. Sat. Forum,"Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

The Role of SEAMEO SEARCA in Human Development in Southeast Asia
Ruben L. Villareal, Gil C. Saguiguit, Jr., and Editha C. Cedicol(SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA),
College, 4031 Laguna, the Philippines)

Abstract
Having predominantly agricultural economies, Southeast Asian countries need to develop its support
infrastructures and services to remain sustainable and globally competitive. This may be done throughcapacity building activities focused on institutions, communities, and people in the agriculture sector.
Formal degree programs, specialized short-term training, curriculum development, institution building
and strengthening, and research on new technologies and methodologies to accelerate growth, ruraldevelopment, and environmental conservation are vital ingredients of this overall endeavor. The SEAMEORegional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) was founded in 1966 toaddress the agricultural development needs of Southeast Asia. Being its flagship program, the Center's
human resource development activities are carried out through graduate scholarship (MS and PhD in
agriculture and related fields) tenable in five leading agricultural universities in Southeast Asia, andthrough short-term training. In support of these efforts in human resource development, SEARCA manages
and coordinates research activities to strengthen institutional capacity in sustainable agriculture for afood-secure Southeast Asia. Its more than three decades of experience in research and development, broad
network of partners and linkages, and multidisciplinary pool of experts have also enabled SEARCA torender consulting services to clients by harnessing required technical expertise in the region. SEARCA's
experience over the past 36 years has proven that investment in human resource development is vital to thewell being of the agricultural sector. This highlights the need for investments, not only in formal degreeand short-term training programs, but also in research and development infrastructure and information
sharing.
Corresponding author: cpv@laguna.net,gcs@agri.searca.org

I. Southeast Asia and its Requirement forDevelopment
Southeast Asia is largely an agricultural region,
with 40-70 percent of its labor force engaged inagriculture and its arable land per capita being
0.25 to 0.98 ha. However, considering the muchlarger global perspective, agriculture in Southeast
Asian countries is still relatively behind their"northern" counterparts. There are many fields not
fully developed, particularly in aspects of support
infrastructures and services and the present levelsof science and technology. This situation thus
necessitates attention and efforts in developing
the agriculture sector in the region in such a way
as to procure sufficient food supply for increasing
populations as well as to support the economies ofSoutheast Asian countries.
One component of overall development efforts
is the focus on capacity building, particularly
investments in human capital. This wouldrefer to the building of capacities of people

who actually depend on, as well as drive theagriculture sector. The review and improvementof traditional agriculture methods, research on
new technologies, and building human resource
capacity through formal education must be
given high priority. Toward this end, much is
expected from educational institutions to deliver
and address this need. The emphasis must be on
producing agriculture professionals of high quality,
enhancing teaching curricula to incorporate
sustainable agriculture principles, and raisingawareness on the importance of agriculture
development.
A purposive analysis of the region as regards this
aspect of development would reveal that there is aneed for the following:1) Improvement of agriculture professionals' job
knowledge and performance.
2) Creation of opportunities for formal
degree programs as well as specialized andshort-term training in agriculture available to99

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

the greatest number of people in the region.
3) Development of curricula to include
sustainable agriculture principles, strategies,
and technologies.

4) Provide development services throughconsulting to address the needs of SEAMEO
member countries.

4) Institution building and strengthening tobetter address the needs of the agriculture
sector.
5) Research and development to develop
new technologies and methodologies that
accelerate growth and development not
only to address the problems of agriculturein the region, but also to build the capacityof communities and individuals engaged inagriculture.

Through more than three decades, agricultural
human resource development has been SEARCA's
flagship program, which is mainly carried out
through graduate scholarship, the University
Consortium (UC), and short-term training.

II. SEARCA: A Response to the Needs of
the Region
There are many development agencies andinstitutions that are similarly concerned with theneeds of Southeast Asian countries. One suchinstitution is the SEAMEO Regional Center for
Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture(SEARCA).
Founded in 1966, SEARCA has been serving
the agricultural development needs of the 10
SEAMEO member countries, namely: Brunei
Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR,
Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore,
Thailand, and Vietnam. It is the first center of
excellence established by the Southeast Asian
Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO),
an intergovernmental body founded in 1965 topromote cooperation among Southeast Asian
nations through activities in education, science,and culture.
Essentially created to address the agriculturaldevelopment needs of the region, SEARCA
primarily carries out the following:
1) Provide nationals of SEAMEO member
countries with high-quality graduate
education (MS and PhD) and short-term
training in agriculture and related fields.
2) Promote, undertake, and coordinate appliedresearch programs related to the needs andimportant problems of agriculture in theregion.
3) Disseminate research findings to enhance
agricultural development in the region and insupport of policy formulation.

100

Graduate Scholarship
SEARCA's graduate program was initiated inacademic year 1968-69 to ensure relevance andresponsiveness of SEAMEO member countries
to agricultural development issues and problems.
Specifically, it provides nationals of countries
in the region with scholarships to pursue
advance degrees in agriculture and related fields.
Through the program, SEARCA seeks to prepare
scholarship grantees for positions of leadership inthe developing economies of SEAMEO member
countries.
To date, SEARCA continues to provide support
for MS and PhD degrees in agriculture, forestry,and related fields to personnel of academic,
government, and non-government institutions
dealing with agriculture. The scholarships are
tenable in five leading agricultural universities
in Southeast Asia and three universities in otherparts of the world, particularly located in Australia,
Canada, and Germany.
Since SEARCA's Graduate Scholarship Program
started, 1,037 study grants have been awarded.
Of this number, 369 PhD and 507 MS degrees
have been completed. The country breakdownis 1 for Brunei Darussalam, 26 for Cambodia,
272 for Indonesia, 11 for Lao PDR, 300 for thePhilippines, 62 for Malaysia, 10 for Myanmar,
4 for Singapore, 275 for Thailand, and 76 forVietnam.
In the past decade, the scope of SEARCA's
graduate scholarship program has been expanded
to include institutional development andnetworking activities and services to enhance
graduate education in the region.

University Consortium
The Southeast Asian University Consortiumfor Graduate Education in Agriculture andThe Role of SEAMEO SEARCA in Human Development in Southeast Asia

Natural Resources is one of SEARCA's major
vehicles for regional academic cooperation. It is
a commitment forged among leading agricultural
higher education institutions in Southeast Asia toshare academic expertise and resources in orderto produce top-quality graduate degree programsin agriculture and natural resources. Its founding
members are Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB) andUniversitas Gadjah Mada (UGM) in Indonesia,
Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), University of
the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), and Kasetsart
University (KU) in Thailand.
SEARCA serves as Secretariat and partner of
the University Consortium (UC), providing morethan half of the funds to support the consortium's
activities in addition to the pool of funds
contributed by the UC members and associate
members. Associate members are University of
British Columbia (UBC) in Canada and Universityof Queensland (UQ) in Australia, which joined the
UC in 1992 and 1993, respectively.
The major UC components are student andfaculty exchanges, research fellowships,
professorial chairs, and thesis grants.
Occasionally, the UC conducts meetings andworkshops on topics of regional interest andrelevance. So far, such workshops have been
convened to discuss the following topics: retoolingof agriculture faculties, academic networking,integrated management of acid upland soils, foodand agriculture policy, curriculum development
for sustainable agriculture, and development ofsustainable agriculture courses.
One of the groundbreaking projects of the
UC is Project SHARE (Sharing Resources inHigher Agricultural Education). It resulted froma workshop on higher education in Vietnam,
organized by the SEAMEO Regional Centre forHigher Education and Development (RIHED)
in November 1996, which identified the needfor sub-regional linkages to render technicalassistance for educational institutions in
Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Vietnam.
The assumption of such technical assistance isthat whatever happens to an agricultural university
will have far-reaching effects on the agricultural
economy and general welfare of the country's
population. The impact of institution building
on food security, poverty alleviation, sustainable
development, and agro-industrialization
should bear some positive effects on national
development and improve the welfare of thecommon citizen.
Sharing resources for institution building isdeemed the most efficient way of improving thecapability of a developing college or university
as it endeavors to undertake instruction,
research, and service functions. With institution
building among agricultural universities as theultimate goal, SEARCA laid the groundworkfor such academic cooperation through Project
SHARE. The general objective of the projectis to accelerate the development of agricultural
universities in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Vietnam
in order to improve their capabilities in teaching,research, and extension by sharing the expertiseof consortium universities under twinningarrangements.
Meanwhile, SEARCA scholars who havecompleted their graduate programs (called
SEARCA fellows) represent a major strength
for the Center and can be a potent force inits efforts to promote sustainable agriculture.
Currently, SEARCA is completing a databasefor the SEARCA-ASEAN Foundation Project
on Regional Volunteer Experts for Agricultural
Modernization (REVEAM), which taps SEARCA
fellows to assist institutions in their development
needs. The project hopes to foster and sponsor
twinning arrangements between the UC andother universities to spur capacity building andinstitutional development in Southeast Asia.

Short-term Training
Another mainstay of SEARCA's humanresource development efforts is the Short-termTraining Program, which was launched in
1971. The program aims to upgrade the skills
and competencies of SEAMEO nationals totackle problems and concerns in agriculturaldevelopment.
After having conducted hundreds of training
courses over the past 32 years, SEARCA has
identified its training target niche in the region,that is, middle- and high-level managers andadministrators who occupy strategic positionsin their institutions, determine policy, andgenerate the most impact in their respective work
places. In addition, to broaden its reach and staycompetitive, SEARCA goes into resource-sharing
arrangements with collaborating agencies,
purposive consultations with clients to tailor-fit
training programs to client needs, and exploring101

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

new working arrangements with like-minded
institutions.
Past training courses covered the areas oftechnical agriculture and social organizations,
technology transfer, agribusiness management,
research management, crop and livestock
production, information processing anddocumentation, and development strategies andplanning for farmers' communities, among others.
Since 1971, SEARCA has produced 11,216
training alumni from Southeast Asia as well as
outside the region.

Research and Development
In support of its efforts in human resource
development, SEARCA coordinates and manages
research activities to strengthen institutional
capacity in sustainable agriculture for afood-secure Southeast Asia.
The Center's Research and Development Program
focuses on strategic issues of regional importance,with the linchpin of research activities being
agricultural development and the promotion ofsustainable agriculture. Moreover, SEARCA's
research interest is mainly on upland, lowland,and coastal zones in a landscape continuum thatemphasizes the holistic and integrated nature ofecosystems and landscapes.
While it identifies and develops research
projects, the Center relies on partnerships andcollaborations to implement these projects.
In-house research is undertaken but on a limited
scale and primarily for project development,
piloting, and resource and socioeconomic
profiling.
In carrying out its research activities, SEARCA
does not confine its efforts to technology
development, but more assiduously focuseson the development and transfer/ adoption of
methodologies and on lessons learned. To achievethese, it espouses and favors participatory andcommunity-based approaches that ultimately
contribute to policy formulation.
The keystone of SEARCA's research anddevelopment efforts is the recognition thatsustainability concerns and environmental
degradation are the two most pressing problems
in the region. The Center's active bid to solve
problems affecting environmental sustainability
is carried out through its Natural Resource

102

Management Program, which covers concerns
in the entire landscape continuum to include
proper management of forests, grasslands,
upland and lowland agricultural areas, inland
water, and coastal resources. Moreover, in
cognizance of the importance of industry
linkage to agricultural development, SEARCA
also pursues an Agro-Industrial Development
Program that focuses on developing models oftechnology transfer, enterprise development,
cleaner production, and sustainable agro-industrial
communities.
SEARCA has also invested in informationand knowledge networks that provide accessto information that catalyze development in
the region, giving inputs to informed decisionand policymaking. Said networks also feed into
the development of curricula that facilitate andenhance research of academic institutions andother development agencies.
Adopting the interdisciplinary andmultidisciplinary approach, SEARCA's research
integrates its programs on natural resource
management, agro-industrial development,
knowledge management, and cross-cutting
projects on gender and development and policy
studies. Knowledge management or the processingof information generated by research projects toapplicable knowledge, and policy studies, which
lay empirical and scientific bases for policy
recommendations, are two vehicles through which
SEARCA hopes to effectively bridge the gap
between research results and their functional andcommercial use.
At present, SEARCA directs its research on
issues and concerns that fall within the Center’s five priority themes defined in its Strategic Planfor 1999-2004, which include the related andintegrative issues of food security, biotechnology,
biodiversity conservation, water resource
management, and environmental risk management.
The value and impact of SEARCA’s research
may spur development only if they reach a criticalmass and are translated into action by their users.
While the target beneficiaries of SEARCA’s
research efforts are farmers and fisherfolk, theCenter works directly with institutions in needof assistance, i.e., government agencies, researchorganizations, academic institutions, and otherdevelopment agencies and non-governmentorganizations involved in agricultural and ruraldevelopment.

The Role of SEAMEO SEARCA in Human Development in Southeast Asia

To respond with relevant and functional research
initiatives and projects to current and emerging
needs of SEAMEO member countries, SEARCA
follows a complex and meticulous process
in selecting and prioritizing research efforts.
Through consultative meetings, workshops,
and scientific fora where representatives frommember countries, partner institutions, anddonors participate, SEARCA tunes in to regional
agricultural conditions in a purposive appraisal of
the situation in the agriculture and rural sectorsof the region. The Center also uses its establishednetworks, particularly the University Consortium,
as feelers to determine the prevailing problems
and gaps in agricultural development in Southeast
Asia.

Consulting Services
Combining more than 35 years of experience
in research and development, a broad networkof partners and linkages, and a multidisciplinary
pool of experts, SEARCA developed and formallyorganized in 1991 its Consulting Services(ConServ).
ConServ provides technical assistance to client
institutions in project development for possible
funding by financial institutions and other donors,
and offers services in the client's perceived
need areas by providing the required technicalexpertise. By 1997, ConServ was implementing
projects in East and Southeast Asia and the Pacificfor varied clients such as the United Nations
Development Program, the World Bank-Economic
Development Institute, the Asian Development
Bank, the Government of the Philippines, andprivate companies. Through the implementationof regional consulting projects, SEARCA has
widened the scope of its professional services andgained recognition from counterpart agencies anddirect project beneficiaries.
Tapping the expertise of Southeast Asian
professionals and international experts andforging partnerships with reputable international
consulting firms in bidding for projects has also
strengthened SEARCA's regional presence.
ConServ has nominated 60 Southeast Asian
professionals in at least 50 percent of available
slots in its consulting projects. With its newcontracts, ConServ has used the services of 155
Southeast Asian professionals and experts.

III. Promotion of Sustainable Agriculture
and the Role of Higher Education
Institutions
Even before the emphasis on sustainableagriculture (SA), SEARCA’s academic andresearch programs have already been focused on
environmental management and natural resource
conservation. SEARCA’s Seventh Five-Year Plancovering fiscal years 1999 to 2004 as discussed
earlier in this paper gave more emphasis on SA
with its vision of being Southeast Asia’s leader insustainable agriculture. SEARCA continues its
advocacy on environment and natural resource
conservation with SA as the core philosophy.
SEARCA’s main goal of promoting SA in
the region is based on purposive and validated
assessment of the situation prevailing in theregion, i.e. the increased importance of agriculture
to provide food to a rapidly growing Southeast
Asian population. The emphasis on the need toprotect our environment and conserve our natural
resources for increased agricultural productivity
without sacrificing the welfare of society has
highlighted the importance of sustainableagriculture development.
In order to achieve agricultural andagro-industrial development in resource-limited
countries in Southeast Asia, there is a need to
produce manpower and future leaders who will
advance agricultural technologies and systems thatare productive and sustainable. This is the roleof agricultural colleges and universities, which
because of the dynamic nature and demands of the
agriculture sector must continuously examine andre-examine their curricula toward the adoption ofsustainable agriculture concepts.
Since 1995, the Center has been assisting
agricultural colleges and universities in facilitating
workshops aimed at the adoption of SA throughcurriculum development not only at the national
level but also at the regional level.
In all of these seminar-workshops at the regional
level, the following were common considerations
that need to be addressed by the agriculturalcolleges and universities:a) In the next millennium, the fight for foodsecurity would be in the uplands; hence theneed to include sustainable agroforestry
curriculum development.

103

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproductionb) SA will have to be adopted under eachcountry’s political system.
c) In translating the framework into an
SA curriculum, the following should beconsidered:
1. cultural/social dimension
2. educational system, which differs fromcountry to country
3. reskilling of faculty, teaching children
how and where to learnd) Graduates of the BSA curriculum should be
able to conceptualize, implement and direct
projects with farmers; analyze ecologicaland conventional food production systems;
integrate biology, humanities, economics,
and ecology in food systems; use systems
approach for complex problems; and analyze
policies on agriculture and food as they relate
to sustainability.
e. SA advocacy should be done at the policy
level to involve the representatives fromthe ministries of education to facilitate theapproval process.
f. Other critical elements are goals of education,
value system, process of curriculum
development, course contents and emphasis,teaching methodologies and approaches,teacher’s attitude, values, and knowledge
about SA, learning resources, policy, material
and financial support, research, extension
program.
It is also a must for agricultural colleges anduniversities that aim to integrate sustainableagriculture concepts into the agriculture
curriculum or even modify existing curricula
towards an SA-oriented one to have a fullunderstanding of what they are introducing, why
they are introducing it, and how it should be
implemented.

IV. Strategies for Strengthening Human
Resource Development and Research inAgriculture in Asia
The call for internationalization of educationand modernization of agriculture requires
higher education institutions to effect thenecessary transformations in order to be
globally competitive. Institutional autonomy,organizational restructuring, innovations in

104

academic and administrative management,
adjustments in curriculum design, expanding
linkages and adjusting to market demands,
creation of innovative evaluation systems, etc,
are changes that are likely to occur in educational
institutions in order to address concerns for thehuman resource development and research inagriculture in Asia. To effect the needed changes
and innovations would require well thought-of
strategies that Japanese universities, particularly
the Nagoya University Graduate School of
Bioagricultural Sciences could implement such as:a. Forging strategic alliances with partners
for complementation of programs
and activities. This would requirebilateral or multilateral agreements on theimplementation of activities for mutualadvantage. An example is establishing
networks or partnerships for academic
exchange and collaborative research projects.
The Asian Association of Agricultural
Colleges and Universities (AAACU),
where the Nagoya University and four otherJapanese universities are members, will soon
implement academic exchange programs(faculty and student exchanges, administrator
study tours); publication exchanges; andcome up with an agricultural bulletinor journal effective this year 2002. The
announcement on the availability of limited
grants for the academic exchange will soon
be disseminated (probably first week of July
2002) after the President of AAACU has
approved the funding. AAACU is a networkof 48 agricultural colleges and universities
in Asia. SEARCA is an affiliate memberof AAACU and manages the Secretariat.
Funding for the AAACU activities comefrom the pooled membership fees of the
Association and donations from interested
donor agencies. Recently, the Executive
Board of AAACU has agreed to officiallyendorse the membership of Tokyo Universityof Agriculture at the 15th Biennial Convention
to be held in Chiangmai, Thailand in
December 2002.

b. Implementation of a Sandwich
Program for the MS and PhD degrees
in agriculture. This scheme has provento be resource-efficient while effectively
addressing the relevance of research doneby the student. Japanese students may take

The Role of SEAMEO SEARCA in Human Development in Southeast Asia

courses in one of SEARCA’s University
Consortium members or any of the membersof the AAACU, then conduct their researchin Japan to make sure that research projects
address their country’s concerns. Likewise,
students from other Asian countries may
take courses in Japan, but do their research
projects in their respective countries. At
SEARCA, an example of a sandwich programis the collaboration with the University
of Gottingen (UG) in Germany, where
Southeast Asian students take courses inGermany under a joint scholarship programof SEARCA and UG’s Centre for Tropicaland Subtropical Agriculture and Forestry(CeTSAF) for a period of one year, thenreturn to their respective countries to doresearch for a period of six months, thenreturn to Germany and spend another six
months to finalize their research results,
defend their thesis, and complete therequirements for graduation.
A more recent example is the first offeringof the Asian-European Master of Science inFood Science and Technology (specializingin Agri-Food Industries Studies) organized
by France’s Ecole Nationale Superieure desIndustries Agroalimentaires (ENSIA) of
Montpellier, France, hosted by SEARCA
and conducted in collaboration with the
Department of Science and Technology(DOST) of the Philippines. It is an
International Program that provides students
with further knowledge in food scienceand technology with an aim of equippingthem with the global approach of industrial
food business aspects and to develop their
methodology applied to an industrial topic.
The duration of the program is 19 months
consisting of nine months of courseworkat SEARCA and ten months of thesis
work carried out either in Southeast Asia
or in Europe. The international faculty iscomposed of professors from Kasetsart
University, Prince of Songkhla University,
King Mongkut Institute of Technology
at Ladkrabang, Suranaree University ofTechnology, all in Thailand; Universiti
Putra Malaysia; and Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia.

c. Implementation of Joint Projects.

Through networking, joint projects may
also be implemented. One example of a
joint project developed by a network is the
University Consortium Distributed Learning
Project, which allows the offering of an MS
in Sustainable Resource Management on
mixed mode of approaches such as on-line,
distance, on-campus or face-to-face andoff-campus. The degree program is jointly
developed by the participating universitiesof the Consortium namely: University of
British Columbia, Canada; University of
Queensland, Australia; and Universiti Putra
Malaysia. SEARCA, being the Secretariat,
shares in the cost of course developmentby hiring and paying the honorarium of theexpert involved in the course development,
marketing the project, and facilitating thecourse development.
The above schemes are just a few of thebest examples of strategies and approaches toenhance the internationalization of agriculture
education in the region that may be adopted by
Japanese universities in general and Nagoya
University Graduate School of Bioagricultural
Sciences in particular. There are many schemes
and collaborative efforts that may be applied
depending on the resources available, the readinessand interest of the institutions concerned, and thecomplementariness of the programs.

V. Concluding Remarks
Over its 36 years of existence, SEARCA has
remained steadfastly committed to its mission ofstrengthening institutional capacity in sustainableagriculture for a food- secure Southeast Asia
through human resource development, research,knowledge exchange, and policy support.
Its experience has proven that investment in
human resource development is the way tosustainable development in the agricultural sector.
This highlights the need for investments, not only
in formal degree and short-term training programs,
but also in R&D infrastructure and information
sharing.
SEARCA’s mandate may only be consideredfulfilled as long as the Center continues to be
relevant and credible, as it satisfies and anticipates
developments in sustainable agriculture, andprovides the options and opportunities that would105

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

show the way out of poverty to the farmers andfisherfolk in the region.
In this undertaking, the challenges are neverending and the problems are sometimes immense.
But, as SEARCA has learned, so are thepossibilities and solutions.

References
Cedicol, Editha C. Curriculum Revisions for
Integration of Sustainable AgricultureConcepts:
Lessons from Southeast Asian Experiences.
Paper submitted to the International
Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education( I C C A E ) a s Vi s i t i n g R e s e a r c h F e l l o w,
November 2000- January 2001, Nagoya
University, Japan.
Ramos, Nova, A. (ed.) The Development of
Sustainable Agriculture Curriculum f o r
Southeast Asian Universities. Proceedingsof the Regional Conference-Workshop on theDevelopment of Curriculum in Sustainable
Agriculture for Southeast Asian Universities
h e l d i n K a s e t s a r t U n i v e r s i t y, B a n g k o k ,Thailand, 29 August-2 September 2000.
SEAMEO SEARCA, Los Baños, Laguna,Philippines.

106

SEAMEO SEARCA. 1999. Seventh Five-Year
Plan (1999-2004). Los Baños Laguna.
SEAMEO SEARCA. 2001. SEARCA Annual
Report 2000-2001. Los Baños, Laguna.
SEAMEO SEARCA. 2002. Exploring Solutions to
Poverty through Sustainable Agriculture.
Villareal, R. L., and Editha C. Cedicol. Education
and Change: Can Higher Education Institutions
Cope? Paper presented during the Annual
Conference of the Association of Collegesof Agriculture in the Philippines (ACAP).
Rembrandt Hotel, Manila, Philippines. 1 May
2002.
Villareal, R.L. 2001. Agriculture Education in
EARTH ASIA Countries: Status, Issues, andChallenges. Paper presented at the "EARTH
Asia Seminar," Maejo University, Chiangmai,
Thailand. 2-6 April 2001.
Villareal, R. L. 2001. Managing and Coordinating
Research in Southeast Asia: The SEARCA R&D
Program. Paper presented at the "East/Southeast
Asia Regional Priority Setting Workshop,"International Rice Research Institute (IRRI),
Los Baños, Philippines.

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Experiences and Prospects of AICAD About International Cooperation
Including South-South for Agricultural and Human Development
Theodosy Msogoya1 and Katsuhiro Kitagawa2(1Sokoine University of Agriculture, Box 3005 Morogoro, Tanzania; 2International Cooperation Center
for Agricultural Education (ICCAE) of Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.)

Abstract
This paper reports on experiences and prospects of the African Institute for Capacity Development (AICAD)
on south-south cooperation in the field of agriculture during the pilot phase (August 2000-July 2002).
Thirteen universities from East African countries participate in AICAD’s activities. In response to water
shortage, AICAD has conducted one regional training course on irrigation and water resources management
to extension workers. As an immediate output of the course, the trainees formed “East Africa Irrigation
Experts Network” with the aim of supporting regional efforts to promote sustainable agriculture. Furthermore,
AICAD has five ongoing research projects in the field of agriculture, the aim of which is to improve
traditional technologies for pest management and milk processing. Most Asian countries have achieved aremarkable agricultural development, and AICAD believes that Africa can benefit from their experiences
and knowledge in agricultural and human development. With assistance from the ICCAE, AICAD expects toestablish a consortium with Asian countries in the next phase (August 2002 to July 2007).
Key words: Sustainable agriculture, South-south cooperation, AICAD’s experiences
Corresponding author: tjmsogoya@yahoo.com

Introduction
Sustainable agriculture is a development
concept in which agricultural natural resources(ecological sustainability), agricultural outputs
and agricultural population (social sustainability)
must all be sustained. It is inadequate to attemptachieving sustainable agriculture by only
enhancing and protecting agricultural natural
resources like organic farming technology.
Agricultural output must increase, and for theincrease to improve living standards of agricultural
population, a fair national and international
trade system must exist. However, the current
North-controlled international trade system does
not allow agricultural population from developing
countries to benefit fully from their agricultural
produce. As there is no place to conduct anintegrated discussion between the North and South
about sustainable agriculture at global level, it isdoubtful if a real sustainable agriculture would
ever be achieved (South Centre, 1997).
South-south cooperation is defined ascooperation among developing countries(also known as countries of the South). It
involves inter-continental cooperation such as
Asian-African, and intra-continental cooperationsuch as intra-African and intra-Asian.

Most developing countries have many similar
agricultural development problems such as
low agricultural outputs and productivity,
weak bargaining power against unfair prices ofagricultural produce and products at global level,
and inadequate trained professionals and researchfacilities (South Commission, 1990).
There is a very strong relationship between
sustainable agriculture and south-south
cooperation. At a political level, south-south
cooperation implies solidarity among developing
countries to bargain against unfair prices ofagricultural commodities in the international trade
in a way that would protect the right of small
farmers. Technologically, few developing countries
have advanced research capacity including
biotechnology, but many still lag behind, implyingthat south-south cooperation would facilitatesharing of knowledge and experiences. As opposed
to developed countries, developing countries
usually develop low technologies by improving
traditional technologies. These technologies areoften safe to the environment and appropriate tosmallholder farming systems.
The African Institute for Capacity Development(AICAD) is an institute that promotes
development of African region through enhancing

107Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

south-south cooperation (AICAD, 2001).
AICAD was established in August 2000 out ofcollaborative efforts by the government of Japan,
Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. The objective of
this paper is to report on AICAD’s experiences
and prospects on intra-African and African-Asian
cooperation in the field of agriculture during thefirst phase (August 2000 –July 2002).

AICAD’s Experiences on South-South
Cooperation
1. AICAD’s participants
AICAD promotes collaboration, in various
fields among universities, research institutions,
government institutions, private sector, industries,
non governmental organisations (NGOs) andcommunity-based organisations. Currently, there arethree East African countries participating in AICAD’s activities, namely: Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
The collaboration actively involves eight public
universities working together in order to increase theircapacity to tackle African problems. Five universities
are located in Kenya (University of Nairobi, Moi
University, Kenyatta University, Egerton University,
and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture andTechnology); two in Tanzania (Sokoine University ofAgriculture and University of Dar es Salaam); and one
in Uganda (Makerere University) (Fig. 1). One year
later, five more universities joined AICAD, namely:
Maseno University in Kenya; Mzumbe University andOpen University of Tanzania, both in Tanzania; andMbarara University and Chiambo University, both in
Uganda.

Fig1. Geographical location of AICAD’s main eight participating
universities sorted by country: Kenya: EU (Egerton University), JKUAT(Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology), KU (Kenyatta
University), MU (Moi University), UoN (University of Nairobi). Tanzania:
SUA (Sokoine University of Agriculture) and UDSM (University of Dar essalaam). Uganda: MKU (Makerere University)108

2. AICAD’s goal and main activities
AICAD aims at solving various issues of poverty
in the African region by undertaking two major
functions, namely: strengthening educational andresearch functions of African institutions, andaccelerating human capacity development. AICAD
integrates techno-creators, techno-disseminatorsand techno-end-users in order to facilitate effective
sharing of valuable knowledge and technologies
through demand-driven joint research, traininga n d i n f o r m a t i o n n e t w o r k i n g ( F i g . 2 ). T h e
AICAD’s ultimate target of the integration is todevelop appropriate technologies for sustainableagricultural development of Africa (AICAD,
2002).

Fig 2. AICAD project concept: integration of academic,transition and community groups for sharing of valuableknowledge for development of appropriate agricultural
technologies (Source: AICAD, 2002)

3. AICAD’s experiences in research andtraining
AICAD conducts agricultural andnon-agricultural research through three divisions,
namely: Research and Development; Training
and Extension; and Information Networking andDocumentation. AICAD has five ongoing joint
research projects in the field of agriculture, of
which three are on disease and pest control, andtwo on milk preservation and processing. Many
farmers use traditional agricultural technologies,
which (though appropriate to the environment)
result into low agricultural output. Thus, AICAD
attempts to improve the exiting traditional
agricultural technologies. The expected outcomeof the research projects is to have improved
traditional technologies for disease and pest
control, and milk preservation and processing.

Experiences and Prospects of AICAD About International Cooperation Including South-Southfor Agricultural and Human Development

AICAD conducted a one-month regional
training course on irrigation and water resourcesmanagement to 30 extension workers working
with farmers at grassroots. The course wasconducted because water shortage is among theserious problems affecting rain-fed agriculture
in Africa. AICAD identified lack of knowledge
and skills on irrigation and water resourcesmanagement as a major source of the problem.
The training course mainly focused on appropriate
rainwater harvesting and water-use-economy
irrigation techniques (Fig. 3), water sourcesmanagement, and integration of water use andcrop husbandry practices. As an immediate
output of the training course, the trainees formed
an association called the “East Africa Irrigation
Experts Network” with the aim of supporting
regional efforts in poverty alleviation throughsustainable agriculture.

Fig 3. Application of a “bucket drip irrigation” technique fora water-use economy in a production of vegetables. (Source:International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR), 1998)

4. SUA’s experiences in south-south
cooperation
Although AICAD seems young, its participating
universities have long experiences in south-south
cooperation. For example, Sokoine Universityof Agriculture (SUA) in Tanzania collaborates
in vegetable research and training with the
Asian Vegetable Research and Development
Center-Africa Regional Program (AVRDC-ARP),w i t h m a i n o f f i c e i n A r u s h a , Ta n z a n i a .
AVRDC-ARP attempts to improve the existing
tomato cultivars by using solanaceae germplasms
from Asian countries. SUA serves as one of the
major stations in the Eastern zone of Tanzania
for multilocational evaluation of AVRDC-ARP’s tomato new cultivars. As a result of thiscollaboration, two tomato cultivars have beenreleased for commercial production, namely
Tengeru 97 ® (indeterminate type) and Tanya ®
(determinate type) (AVRDC, 2002). Kalwani etal. (2002) recently reported that Tanya® was doing
better than the traditional determinate tomato
cultivars (Roma VF® and CAL J®).

5. General lessons learned from south-south
cooperation
5.1.Demand-driven and participatory research
To develop a demand-driven technology,
scientific researchers must look for farmers’
needs. Although private companies are successful
in developing demand-driven innovations,most researchers still do what they think is bestfor farmers. One of the main reasons is that
researchers do not suffer the consequences of
their innovations being rejected by farmers. Since
researchers get their rewards from the government,
farmers have little to influence demand-driven
research.
Farmers’ participation in research enables
researchers to understand better about farmers’
knowledge and experiences on a researchable
area. This in turn enables researchers to integrate
farmers’ knowledge and experiences into a project.
It has been reported that farmers’ motivation andparticipation to research project implementation
are increased when their knowledge andexperiences are integrated in a research project.
Although most researchers have currently started
conducting demand-driven and participatory
research, they often select progressive farmers,
usually able to express themselves, and found in
vicinal and easily accessible villages, and withgood records of working with research projects(Chambers, 1983). Researchers hardly workwith marginalized socio-economic classes ofrural farmers. It is a big challenge for researchers
to overcome this weakness with the current
inaccessibility of many rural areas caused bybad roads, inadequate transport facilities andresearchers’ short of time in working with rural
people. Additionally, it is difficult for researchers
to work with destitute farmers who are habitually
laggard, and shy and suspicious to outsiders.

109Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

5.2. Inter-disciplinary research
Many agricultural problems have multi-causatives,
meaning that they cannot be successfully solved bya single discipline. Successful research projects on
agricultural problems must integrate high quality
professionals from different disciplines. However,
the integration of disciplines in tackling problems
is practically not so easy. What is currently called“integration of research disciplines” is merely
grouping together of researchers from different
disciplines with an assumption that they would
work as a unit. In fact, the grouped researchers
divide a research project into subtopics so thateach researcher can individually deal with asubtopic according to his/her area of specialisation.
Although not very certain, the researchers’
tendency to disrepute and dislike other disciplines
might probably be the cause of disintegration.
This disintegration might partly originate fromprofessional superiority complex and specialization.
Successful inter-disciplinary research may require
creation of a new science. One of the alternative
approaches of the new science would be toestablish a system where researchers from different
disciplines work for one final outcome, for instance“improved living standards of coffee farmers in agiven area”. Their performance is then evaluatedand rewarded based on the level of improvement ofliving standards of the coffee farmers. This would
probably facilitate integration of sociologists, soil
scientists, crop scientists, economists, politicians,
etc.
5.3. Farmer-extenstionist-researcher (FER)
linkage
Effective extension services are imperative forsuccessful dissemination of research findings
from researchers to farmers. In many developing
countries, extension services do not work well, asa consequence of which good research findings
often show little effect on agricultural production.
Some of the major problems with extension
services are inadequate extension workers andfacilitation, especially transport and salaries. It has
been reported that extension workers rarely provide
technical assistance to farmers, and sometimes
even when they live within the same village with
farmers (Kirumira, 2002). Similarly, it has been
noted that “experienced farmers” at Nzihi and
Kidamali villages in Tanzania play more effectiverole in training other farmers on tomato production
than extension workers (Kalwani et al. 2002). On

110

the contrary, successful results of extension services
are reported when extension workers are attached toNGOs and community development projects, where
good transport services for fieldwork and allowanceto supplement their small salaries are provided.
Many research projects attempt to strengthen the
FER linkage through conducting farmers’ forums,
increasing number of farmers participating in joint
research meetings and on-farm trials, and increasing
number of researchers participating in extension
meetings (TARP II, 2000). However strong it
is, such FER linkage would collapse as soon as
the projects phase out. Making an effective FER
linkage under the existing government funding
systems still remains a big challenge. It is therefore
doubtful if training extension workers would havesignificant impact to agricultural development.
3. Advantages of African-Asian Cooperation to
AfricaScience and technology (S&T) was a key issue
in the North-South development dialogue. During
the Vienna Conference on S&T for development in
1979, major policy and conceptual advances weremade in the efforts to harness S&T to development,
to promote the transfer of technology to developing
countries, and to assist developing countries in theirefforts to develop their own S&T capabilities. The
recent ascendance of neo-liberal paradigm (wherescientific knowledge and technologies are patented
and commercialised) results into even greaterdifficulties and obstacles for developing countries
in accessing to and benefiting from S&T from theNorth. So far, there is no place to discuss S&T
issues in an integrated and sustained manner at the
global level.
As a last alternative, developing countries needto tap an increasing range of opportunities forsouth-south cooperation in the domain of S&T.
With exception of a few, many African countries
still lag behind advanced technology; the major
cause being the inadequate research facilities
and trained professionals. On the contrary, somedeveloping countries in Asia like Indonesia, thePhilippines, Thailand and Malaysia have reachedadvanced levels of S&T, including biotechnology,
and have shown major strides in development asevidenced by the “Green Revolution”. This may
offer an advantage to Africa for sharing agriculturaldevelopment experiences and knowledge with such
Asian countries through African-Asian cooperation.

Experiences and Prospects of AICAD About International Cooperation Including South-Southfor Agricultural and Human Development

The acquired new technologies from Asia would
give good responses to African agriculture, whichcurrently has low productivity due to lack of goodtechnologies. Distance, slow communicationand cost of travel have in the past hampered
potential joint scientific research and technologicaldevelopment projects between Asian and Africancountries. However, Internet, E-mail and computer
conferencing now enable interaction on a more
speedy and regular basis, and hence make researchand development programmes more feasible.
The rapidly decreasing assistance from the north(with future assistance being less predictable)
calls for an immediate establishment of effective
south-south cooperation as a sole alternative. In theabsence of or reduced assistance from the north,stronger south-south cooperation would not only
reduce dependence but also increase self-reliancespirit among developing countries. Under goodenabling environment, self-reliance spirit isimperative for a self-initiated and self-controlled
development of developing countries (Nyerere,1990). Such type of development is sustainable
since it is owned by the people.
4. Future Prospects of Asian-African
Cooperation
Successful south-south cooperation requires
complementation and relevance of programmes
to each participant region’s concerns, and mutual
understanding and respect. Preliminary studies
with SEARCA (Southeast Asian Regional Centre
for Graduates Study and Research in Agriculture)
have exposed that there are many areas of common
interest between Africa and Southeast Asia.
These include poverty alleviation, health andnutrition, education and training, food security,environmental and water resource management, andcommunity development (Editha Cedicol, personalcommunication, 2002).
In addition, AICAD’s visitation tour to Indonesia
in October 2001 revealed that the country had
many useful development experiences, including
improved irrigation and rice production. During thevisit, AICAD was offered training opportunities for
Third-Country Training programmes implemented
by the government of Indonesia (AICAD,
2002). With assistance from the International
Cooperation Centre for Agricultural Education of
Nagoya University, AICAD expects to establish
a consortium with Asian countries in the field ofagriculture during the second phase II. Furthermore,
AICAD anticipates establishing consortia withother sub-Sahara African countries and internationalorganisations during the third phase (August
2007 – July 2012) (Fig. 4). Its ultimate vision
is to form a triangular cooperation consisting ofSouth-South-North, an idea that was also stressedby the Second Tokyo International Conference on
African Development (TICAD II, 1998).

Fig 4. Ultimate vision of AICAD: promotion ofSouth-South (Africa-Asian) and South-South –North(African-Asian-International organisation from the North)cooperation during the second and third phase respectively(Source: AICAD, 2002).

Conclusions and Recommendations
AICAD has successfully promoted the cooperationof 13 universities of Tanzania, Kenya andUganda as a strategy to alleviate poverty throughagricultural development. AICAD tries to improve
agriculture through two approaches. The first
approach involves improving traditional farming
systems through collaborative research and training.
In comparison to high technologies, improved
traditional technologies are more appropriate tosmallholder farmers, the environment, and theexport market (which looks for eco-produce).
The second approach is to promote exchange ofknowledge and technologies through African-Asian
cooperation. The reality behind this approach isthat the “Green Revolution” in Asia occurred as aresult of technological development (such as use of
new cultivars, fertilizers and irrigation) combinedwith good agricultural policies and infrastructures(transport facilities, communication, etc.). The low
productivity of African agriculture is principally
due to lack of good technology. For this reason,
AICAD believes that exchange of knowledge and111

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

technologies between Africa and Asia would givea considerable progress to African agriculture.
But for this agricultural development to happen,
Africa must make its agricultural environment more
conducive in terms of agricultural policies, physicalinfrastructures and access to agricultural inputs.
Furthermore, Africa must take serious measureson environmental protection and enhancement
for the anticipated agricultural development to besustainable.

References
AICAD, 2001. A Newsletter from AICAD.
January 2001, Issue No. 1.
AICAD, 2002. A Newsletter from AICAD.
January 2002, Issue No. 2.
AVRDC-ARP. 2002. The “Asian Vegetable
Research and Development” in Arusha in
Tanzania: A source of seed and knowledge.
(http://www.sadc fanr. org. zw /sssd/ 1ssnv63/
vegdev0101. htm).
Chambers, R. 1983. Rural Development: Putting
the Last First. Addison Wesley Longman
Limited: Edinburg Gate, England, 236 pp.
International Institute of Rural Development.
1998. Sustainable Agriculture Extension Manualfor Eastern and Southern Africa. International
Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR),
Nairobi Kenya.

112

Kalwani, H.L., T. J. Msogoya, and P.M. Kusolwa.
2002. Evaluation of tomato production bysmallholder farmers during rainy season: A
case study of Nzihi and Kidamali villages inIringa-Tanzania (Unpublished).
Kirumira, E. 2002. The Construction of Strategies
for Poverty Reduction and Integrated Rural
Development in Central, North Eastern andWestern Uganda. In AICAD REVIEW. 1: 11-17.
Nyerere, J. K. (1990), " Africa Exists -In the
Economic South." In Africa Commentary (AJournal of Peoples of Mrican Descent), vol. II,
issue 4 and 5 (May) pp. 4-10.
South Centre. 1997. Universal Food Security:
Issues for the South, South Centre. Geneva.
(http://www.southcentre.org/publication/agricba
raclough/agriculture-06.htm).
South Commission. 1990. The challenge to theSouth. The report of the South Commission.
Geneva.
(http://www.southcentre.org/publication/agricba
raclough/agriculture-06.htm).
TARP II. 2000. Project Overview: Collaborative
Research Under the Tanzania Agricultural
Research Project Phase 2 (TARP II). Sokoine
University of Agriculture, Tanzania.
TICAD II. 1998. African and its development
partners ready for actions. Principal documents
adopted in October 1998. Tokyo, Japan.

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Human Development and Collaboration with Universities in Japan
International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)
Tomohide Sugino(Research Planning and Coordination Division, Japan International Research Center
for Agricultural Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan)
Corresponding author: tosugino@jircas.affrc.go.jp

1. Introduction
Global problems are increasingly impacting world
food security. These include continued world
population growth, deterioration of environments,
and destruction of cultivated lands. The promotionof sustainable agriculture, forestry and fisheries tobe in harmony with natural ecologies is a criticalneed. The demand for food is increasing in many
developing countries due to both population
increase and improved diets. At the same time,
where agricultural and fisheries productivities haveremained low, food supplies remain unstable andserious problems of hunger and poverty continue
to persist. To address these critical needs, Japan
International Research Center for Agricultural
Sciences (JIRCAS) promotes research aimed atachieving a stable global food supply and ensuring
sustainable agriculture, forestry and fisheries
in harmony with the environment. It carries
out interdisciplinary researches on biologicaland social aspects of agriculture, forestry andfisheries, and undertakes collaborative projects
with institutions of developing countries as wellas international organizations. JIRCAS is making
many active contributions internationally toaddress the agricultural, forestry, fisheries, foodand environmental problems of the world, withparticular focus on developing regions.

JIRCAS was established on October 1, 1993 in thecourse of the reorganization of the former Tropical
Agriculture Research Center (TARC) founded onJune 1, 1970. Effective April 1, 2001, JIRCAS
operated as an independent administrative institution(IAI) (Fig.1).
The IAI is a newly created public corporation
established under the concept of separation ofpolicy planning and implementing, as presented
by the Administrative Reform Committee of theJapanese Government. Reorganized into IAIs are
the national agricultural research institutes affiliatedwith Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries(MAFF) and the national research institutes
affiliated with other ministries, investigation centerssuch as National Agricultural Chemicals Inspection
Station and educational institutions such as National
Farmers’ Academy.
The characteristics of the IAI are defined in
the General Law of Independent Administrative
Institutions enacted in July 1999. The IAI is anindependent organization separated from thenational government. The government decides
the objective (mid-term objective) that should becompleted by each IAI within five years throughtheir activities. The IAI then makes a mid-term planto achieve mid-term objective. A mid-term plan isnecessary to be acknowledged by the government.
The IAI carries out its activities according to the
mid-term plan. The government bears nearly
100% of the cost of the activities. The Presidentof IAI can decide how to use the budget, establish
organizational structures, recruit and promoteresearchers. The external evaluation committeeorganized by the national government evaluates theefficiency and effect of IAI activities.
The management, organization, treatment of
employees under the IAI set-up is completely
different from that of the former national research
institutes. The IAI is expected to overcome rigidity,
bureaucracy and inefficiency that are thought toFig.1 Reorganization of JIRCAS into Independent
Administrative Institution
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Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

have characterized a governmental organization. On
the other hand, we are afraid that the establishmentof IAIs causes a decline on agricultural research,which requires long-term investment in termsof time and resources, but is expected to yield arelatively low economical return.
In view of the IAI establishment and considering
the circumstances of agriculture in Japan, 29
national agricultural research institutes have beenreorganized into eight IAIs and one national institute(Fig.2).
In line with the reorganization, JIRCAS madea drastic change in its activities. This report will
introduce some aspects of new JIRCAS activities
concerning human resource development andcooperation with other organizations including
universities.

*: National research institute, not IAI
Fig. 2. Reorganization of National agricultural research institutes into IAI
114

Human Development and Collaboration With Universities in Japan International Research Center
for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)

2. JIRCAS International Research
Career Network (JIREC) - A projecton the development of Japanese humanresources for international collaborative
agricultural research

make inquiry and analysis of the mechanisms andoperational conditions in the implementation ofinternational collaborative agricultural researches
being conducted by international and national
research institutes in foreign countries.

(1) Objectives(2) Contents

Technology development in the modern era isa matter of competition and cooperation. It isevident that countries of the world are competingwith each other in fields like biotechnology andother ultramodern technologies. At the sametime however, it is recognized that international
collaboration by combining and sharing the latest
knowledge and information in these fields is
indispensable for an efficient research program.
On the other hand, the world is presently facedwith many problems on a global level in addition
to the food and environmental problems, which
are due to factors such as population increase.
These problems must be grappled with and be
solved by devising speedy and efficient technology
development. For this purpose, the western as wellas the developing countries are seeking a more
prominent contribution from Japan. Therefore,
Japan should prepare itself to make a far greater
human contribution to international agriculturalresearch.
As concerns get associated with international
research, skills in conducting research in various
fields, the ability to speak and communicate
in foreign languages, adaptability to different
cultures, living environments and lifestyles,
and firm resolve to endure the hardships ofinternational research are very important.
Therefore, as a supporter of international research
it is essential for Japan to foster and build up
a pool of competent human resources to betapped for international collaborative agriculturalresearches.

This project is implemented by JIRCAS under
the sponsorship of MAFF. There are two main
activities of the project.

1) JIREC Database (JIREC-DB)
This activity involves the establishment of adatabase of Japanese aspirants to international
research positions (including working and retired
researchers of National Institutes, independentadministrative institutions, prefectural agricultural
institutes and other private institutes).
In FY2001, about 3,000 sheets of questionnaires
were distributed to the national research institutes
and IAIs affiliated to MAFF. A total of 878
researchers including post-doctoral researchers
answered the questionnaire and registered withJIREC-DB. JIREC adopted almost the sameformat and survey questions among the basic items
as those contained in the database questionnaireof Nagoya University International Cooperation
Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE), forthe convenience of linking the two databases in the
future.
Below is the summary of responses:
a. Age of respondents
Majority of the respondents (34%) are from the
30 to 39-age bracket, followed by those with ages
ranging from 40 to 49 (32%), and finally, from 50
to 59 years of age (24%) (Fig.3).

To achieve its purposes, the project “JIRCAS
Research Career Network (JIREC),” which isoperational from 2001 to 2004, has an ongoingsurvey of employed as well as retired researchers
in order to identify competent human resources
who possess the necessary dispositions and areinterested to work for international collaborative
agricultural researches. These researchers shall beadvised of appropriate opportunities available tothem for participation in international researches toutilize their expertise. In addition, the project shallFig.3 Age of respondents
115

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproductionb. Specialization of respondents
The respondents were asked to indicate theirfields of expertise by selecting from among the 9major agricultural fields listed in the questionnaire
as follows: Agronomy, Agricultural Engineering,Forestry and Forest production, Animal Scienceand Veterinary Science, Fisheries, Agricultural
Chemistry, Food Science, Agricultural Economics,
Regional Agriculture. Those whose fields ofspecialization do not fall within any of the major
fields listed have to indicate their fields under
Others. Majority of the respondents indicatedAgronomy as their field of specialization, followed
by Agricultural Chemistry, and Animal scienceand Veterinary. The registered personnel of the
DB covers almost all the fields of agriculturalsciences (Fig.4).

Fig.4. Fields of Specialization of respondents

c. Experience of research in developing regions
Thirty-nine percent (39%) (343 persons) of
all the respondents have experiences in doing
research activities in developing regions(Fig.5). On the frequency of being dispatched todeveloping regions, 140 persons indicated thatthey were dispatched only once, while 38 persons
indicated five times (Fig.6). On the places where
researchers are dispatched, majority (83) indicatedThailand. The second country indicated as mostvisited by a number of respondents for the conductof research is People’s Republic of China, while athird larger group indicated as having conducted
researches in Malaysia (Table 1)

Fig.5 Experience of research in developing regions

Fig.6 Number of times (experience of research in developing regions)
Table 1. International collaborative projects in JIRCAS (Comprehensive projects)
Time Frame

Project Title

Research Site

1 1996 - 2002

Comprehensive studies on the development of a sustainable agro-pastoral systemin the sub-tropical zone of Brazil

2 1997 - 2003

Development of sustainable production and utilization of major food resourcesin China,
People s Republic of China

3 1997 - 2006

Comprehensive soybean research project in South America (multinational)

Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina

4 1998 - 2002

Evaluation and improvement of regional farming systems in Indonesia

Indonesia

5 1998 - 2002

Improving food security in West Africa through increased productivity in rainfed rice systems

Cote d'Ivoire

6 1999 - 2003

Development of new technologies and their practice for sustainable farming systems
in the Mekong Delta (Phase Ⅱ )Vietnam

7 2000 - 2004

Development of low-input technology for reducing postharvest losses of stables
in Southeast Asia

ThailandBrazil8 2000 - 2006

Development of agroforestry technology for conservation of tropical forest

Malaysia, Philippines

9 2001 - 2005

Studies on sustainable production systems of aquatic animals in brackish mangrove areas

Malaysia, Thailand

10 2002 - 2008

Increasing economic options in rainfed agriculture in Indochina through efficient use
of water resources

Thailand, Laos

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Human Development and Collaboration With Universities in Japan International Research Center
for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)

d. Experience of researchcollaboration withinvited researchers from developing regions
Fifty-seven percent (501 persons) of all the
respondents indicated that they have experience
in research collaboration with invited researchers
from developing regions (cooperative experiment,
fieldwork, seminar etc.) (Fig.7).

Fig.7 Experience of research collaboration with invitedresearchers from developing regions

e. The possibility of participation ininternational research collaboration
Seventy-one percent (71%) of the total
respondents gave positive answers to question on
possibility of participation in international researchcollaboration conducted in developing regions.
Of this total, nine percent (83 persons) of all the
respondents answered that they can participate inresearch activities in developing regions right away.
Other positive answers include “If the conditions
allow, I can” (47%), and “I can in the near future,”(15%) (Fig.8). Twenty-two percent (22%) had a“No” answer, while 7% did not answer the question.

Sixteen percent (16%) (137 persons) of the total
number of respondents indicated that they could
accept researchers from developing regions into
their laboratory right away. A total of 68% of all
the respondents gave positive answers to the itemon collaboration with invited researchers fromdeveloping regions (Fig.9).

Fig.9. Participation in international researchcollaboration with invited researchers fromdeveloping regions

2) Collection and analysis of information
The purpose of this program is collection andanalysis of information pertaining to operational
mechanisms and enforcement of conditions forinternational collaborative agricultural researches,
which are being carried out by foreign countries andby reputed international institutes participating with
the CGIAR (Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research). Collection of information
on employment opportunities in international
agricultural research institutes is also being carriedout through this project.
In 2001, JIRCAS dispatched its researchers tointernational agricultural research institutes suchas the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI);
Australian Center for International Agricultural
Research (ACIAR), etc. and a funding agency fortechnical cooperation, the Asian Development Bank
(ADB). The researchers interviewed the program
managers in those institutes and gathered useful
information for the formulation of international
research collaboration strategies. The informationcollected was published the “JIREC Report,” whichshall be provided to researchers registered in JIREC
DB.

Fig.8. Participation in international researchcollaboration in developing regions

117

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction(3) Future activities
From FY2002, we are expanding the target
of JIREC-DB from researchers in national
research institutes and IAIs to those in prefectural
agricultural research institutes, as well as private
research institutes. We have continued collecting
and analyzing information about operational
mechanisms of international agricultural research
institutes. In 2002, we are planning to dispatch
JIRCAS researchers to institutes engaged in researchconcerning Africa, which is one of the priority regionsin JIRCAS research collaboration.
To establish a network of researchers who haveinterest in international research collaboration, it
is necessary to provide appropriate informationand opportunity to exchange opinion among the
researchers registered in JIREC-DB. We consider
possible activities to achieve this objective suchas sending newsletters to registered researchers,
constructing Internet forum, holding a workshop etc.
We believe that one of the most effective means tofoster young researchers who wish to participate inresearch activities in developing regions is to establish
an internship program. Through this program,
we dispatch young researchers to the researchcollaboration sites in developing regions to carry out
researches under the leadership of senior researchers.
As mentioned, JIRCAS implements comprehensive
international research projects in developing
regions. JIRCAS believes that it can provide young
researchers appropriate opportunities to experience
research in developing regions through visit to theCenter’s research project sites.
3. Collaboration with universities and otherinstitutes
As a result of reorganization into an IAI, JIRCAS
got wider freedom to implement activities, but
bearing in mind that the result of the research
activities are strictly evaluated. Making research
activities more efficient is an urgent task for
JIRCAS. The Center aims not only to improve
the research ability of individual researchers but
also to develop an organizational structure thatcan promote research activities more effectively.
Establishment of new methods of project
management is also needed in order to utilize more
efficiently the limited budget and human resources
available to the Center.

Fig.10 Research programs and regional projects of JIRCAS
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Human Development and Collaboration With Universities in Japan International Research Center
for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)(1) Organizational operation after the
reorganization
In the organizational operation of JIRCAS, twocomponents are important in order to increase theresearch ability of the whole institute. These are:1) Human resource development throughlong-term research activities
2) Concentration of human resources to important
short-term comprehensive research projects
Considering these two components, JIRCAS
adopted matrix systems after the reorganization.
Tw e n t y - s e v e n ( 2 7 ) r e s e a r c h g r o u p s w e r eestablished under seven research programs(Fig.10). These are as follows:
Research Program 1: Food Supply and Demand(1): Food supply and demand
Research program 2: Regional Characteristics(1) Information systems(2) Regional trend(3) Farming systems
Research program 3: Sustainable Production
Technologies(1) Crop management(2) Plant nutrition and physiology(3) Pest management(4) Material cycling(5) Animal production(6) Feed production(7) Animal health in tropical area
(8) Water resource management(9) Aquaculture
Research program 4: Quality, Processing andDistribution(1) Food quality(2) Food distribution and processing(3) Forestry resource management
Research program 5: Crop Development(1) Genetic resource utilization(2) Genetic engineering(3) Breeding methodology
Research program 6: Environmental Resources(1) Forestry(2) Fishery resource management(3) Coastal environment
Research program 7: Sub-tropical Station(1) Stress tolerance crop(2) Germplasm development(3) Tropical fruits(4) Integrated pest management(5) Islands environment

Researchers implement research activities
related to their major fields in each researchgroup. Project teams were also organized
to promote comprehensive research projects(Table 2). Most of the researchers participate
as members of the project team that carries out
Project researches under their respective groups.
There are seven research divisions and one
subtropical station in JIRCAS (Fig.11). Directorsof research divisions are also designated as leadersof the comprehensive research projects. The
Vice President supervises all the project teams.
Research Coordinators are assigned to help theVice President coordinate the projects.
The newly established Development Research
Division gathers and analyzes information anddata on the natural and social environments,
economic aspects, and the agriculture, forestry andfisheries sectors of developing regions throughout
the world. Using these data, the Division carriesout research aimed at developing a global foodsecurity data collection system and a world foodsupply and demand forecasting model. Anotheractivity of this division is the assessment of current
farming system and the development of improved
systems in representative priority regions. The
division also carries out researches to identify
the directions of technology development most
likely to meet future needs, and contribute to
the establishment of a comprehensive researchstrategy for JIRCAS.
In order to attract excellent res earchers ,recruitment is open to highly qualified personnel
within and outside Japan through apply- andreview basic recruitment procedure.

Fig.11 Organization of JIRCAS
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Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction
Table 2. International collaborative projects in JIRCAS (Comprehensive projects)
Time Frame

Project Title

Research Site

1 1996 - 2002 Comprehensive studies on the development of a sustainable agro-pastoral system

Brazilin the sub-tropical zone of Brazil
2 1997 - 2003 Development of sustainable production and utilization of major food resources in China People’s Republic of China
3 1997 - 2006 Comprehensive soybean research project in South America (multinational)

Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina

4 1998 - 2002 Evaluation and improvement of regional farming systems in Indonesia

Indonesia

5 1998 - 2002 Improving food security in West Africa through increased productivity

Côte d'Ivoire

in rainfed rice systems
6 1999 - 2003 Development of new technologies and their practice for sustainable farming systems

Vietnamin the Mekong Delta (Phase Ⅱ )7 2000 - 2004 Development of low-input technology for reducing postharvest losses of stables

Thailandin Southeast Asia
8 2000 - 2006 Development of agroforestry technology for conservation of tropical forest

Malaysia, Philippines

9 2001 - 2005 Studies on sustainable production systems of aquatic animals

Malaysia, Thailand

in brackish mangrove areas
10 2002 - 2008

Increasing economic options in rainfed agriculture in Indochina through efficient use

Thailand, Laosof water resources(2) Collaboration with universities and otherinstitutes
JIRCAS endeavors to develop human resources
and improve research capacity. Faced with budget
and personnel limitation, JIRCAS aims to explore
other collaborative schemes through stronger
linkage with other institutes including universities
and research institutes in developing regions in thenear future.
a. Strengthening the linkage with universities andother institutes
After the reorganization of JIRCAS into an IAI,
it became relatively easier to make collaboration
with other institutes due to the deregulation ofvarious governmental rules, which were applied togovernmental organizations. For example, before
the reorganization, prior approval of government
was necessary to conclude research cooperation
contracts with other institutes. Nowadays IAIs canmake such decision for collaboration. To use thebudget and human resources effectively, JIRCAS
should strengthen its linkage with universities,
other IAIs, JICA, international research institutes,
advanced research institutes and the private sector.
Sharing of facilities, personnel, information andbudget to promote research activities in the field ofagriculture in developing regions shall be exploredwith existing linkages.

120

In FY2001, JIRCAS dispatched five researchers
from Japanese universities to developing regions
to participate in JIRCAS research cooperation
projects. Such number is small compared to thetotal number of dispatched researchers to the
JIRCAS project of about 200 persons per year.
Before the reorganization, university researchers
rarely get engaged in JIRCAS projects. JIRCAS
hopes that more and more university researchers
participate in its researches. The possibility todispatch postdoctoral researchers in universities,
and graduate students to the research sites of
JIRCAS international collaboration shall be
explored. A system of contracting researches toother research institutes shall also be considered.
Sharing of facilities has been arranged with JICA
in some of JIRCAS’ research projects. Adequate
application of research results and its diffusion
is expected through the close linkage with JICA
and private sector. JICA’s experience in handlingtechnical cooperation projects is seen as a big
help in strengthening JIRCAS capability. In
promoting such linkage, especially with private
sector, attention should be given to the basic policyof handling research results and information inorder to avoid problems related to violation of
intellectual property rights.

Human Development and Collaboration With Universities in Japan International Research Center
for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)

b. Participation of researchers in developing
regionsMore active participation of researchers fromdeveloping regions to JIRCAS projects should
also be considered. Although JIRCAS projects arebasically collaborative projects with developing
regions, the conventional project management
practice tend to forget the active participation offoreign counterpart researchers who have usefulknowledge and experience about the region. To
improve this situation, three schemes shall be
implemented:a) Coordinator scheme
Through this scheme, JIRCAS dispatches its
researcher to a selected country in a developing
region as a project coordinator. The coordinatormakes project proposals to the research institutes
in the region and forms the project team mainlycomposed of researchers in the region. In initialstage of the project, it is necessary for JIRCAS
to dispatch the coordinator on a long-term basis.
After the research activity takes off, the JIRCAS
coordinator visits the research site on a short-termbasis, i.e., once or twice a year for discussion
with counterpart researchers and evaluation of
the research plan and result. It is expected that
efficiency on the use of resources is maximized withthe utilization of minimum research manpower of
JIRCAS by entrusting most of the actual research
activities to researchers in the developing regions.

c) Invitation scheme
One of the important activities of JIRCAS is
the invitation program for foreign researchers
from developing regions. Every year, JIRCAS
invites about 100 researchers from developing
regions under various invitation programs such ascounterpart researcher invitation, research manager
invitation and JIRCAS fellowship programs.
Graduates are also being considered for involvementin these invitation programs for research projects.
This scheme is best illustrated as follows: First,
JIRCAS invites researchers from developing
regions to participate in the training program to
study advanced research methods in Japan. Uponcompletion of the program, the participants arerequested to make research proposals on agriculture
focused on their respective countries. Afterevaluation of the research proposals, a group of
researchers are selected from among the invitedresearchers to carry out a project on a research themein their countries to be funded by JIRCAS, which
contributes to JIRCAS objectives of achieving astable global food supply and ensuring sustainable
development of agriculture (Fig.12).

b) Multilateral cooperation scheme
This is similar to the “Coordinator scheme”.
The difference is in the number of counterpart
countries. In coordinator scheme, one country
in a developing region participates in the
project, which is carried out under a bilateralagreement. In the multilateral scheme, more than
two countries in developing regions participate
in the research. Therefore, the management of
the project would be more complex than that of
the coordinator scheme. JIRCAS has alreadyestablished some offices in developing regions,
namely: Bangkok in Thailand, Beijing in P. R.
China, and Londrina in Brazil. In addition to
the research coordinator from JIRCAS, theseoffices will be expected to work as core centersof multilateral research cooperation whenever
JIRCAS decides implement the multilateral
cooperation scheme.

Fig.12 The concept of invitation method

The Coordinator scheme, multi-lateral
cooperation scheme and invitation scheme havethe following advantages:
1) Reduction in travel expenses of Japanese
researchers, and therefore, savings on thebudget allocation
2) Promotion of research that suits theenvironment and social condition of thedeveloping regions, and establishment ofappropriate technologies.
3) Decrease the problem of dispatched Japanese
researchers encountering difficulty due tochange of living circumstances.

121

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

In the management of research projects, there
should be clear delineation of roles and sharing of
responsibilities between JIRCAS and counterpart
institutes. Appropriate research personnel in theregions are also selected to manage the project
efficiently. The experiences of other international
research institutes, which already adopted similar
methods, like ACIAR and ESCAP CAPSA (Center
for Alleviation of Poverty through Secondary
Crops Development in Asia and the pacific) will
be useful to establish new project management
Policy. Collection of data in the regions also
considers the advantage of JIRCAS as an
information center for research activities in thedeveloping regions.

122

4. Conclusions
Human resource development and collaboration
with universities play important roles in the
promotion of JIRCAS activities. JIRCAS could
become more responsive to technological needsfrom developing regions, especially through close
cooperation with university and its personnel.

References
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural
Sciences 2002. JIRCAS – Japan International
Research Center for Agricultural Sciences.
Miwa,E. 2002. Research Organizations ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Japan:
Reform in 2001. Farming Japan 36-1: 5-7.
Miyashita,K. 2001. Toward the reorganization
into independent administrative institutions.
Research Journal 1: 7-10.

Proc. Sat. Forum,"Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Evaluation of ODA to Build and Strengthen International Cooperation:
Towards Constructing an International Framework of Evaluation
for International Cooperation
Koichi Miyoshi(Japan International Cooperation Agency /Nagoya University International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education)

Abstract
This paper claims that building international framework for evaluation needs to be recognized as a criticaland urgent agenda to promote the effectiveness and efficiency of international cooperation. Most of efforts
during evaluation activities are concentrated within an aid agency, not among aid agencies and recipient
countries. There is a lack of connection between the efforts of aid agencies. This situation reduces theeffectiveness of evaluation efforts and international cooperation. To remedy this situation, two possible
future efforts are recommended: 1) building a network centered on evaluation, and 2) establishment of anevaluation archive for knowledge sharing. One possibility for achieving the above mentioned idea is theutilization of existing universities’ networks and their capabilities in knowledge accumulation.
Corresponding author: Miyoshik@apu.ac.jp Currently Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University

Introduction
The High-level Meeting of DAC (The
Development Assistance Committee) of OECD
(The Organization of Economic Cooperation andDevelopment) adopted the resolution: “Toward the
21st Century: The Contribution of Development
Cooperation (DAC New Strategy)” in May 1996.
With the adoption of The New Development
Strategy, which, for the first time, provided thedevelopment goals in numerical term, evaluation
became more important than before in the field ofinternational cooperation. The new development
goals have played an important role to convert
the conception from the inputs of cooperation,
which is represented by the ratio of Official
Development Assistance (ODA) to GDP, tothe results of cooperation. As this new concept
gains acceptance in aid communities, each aid
agency is obliged to develop concrete policies
and implementation strategies by stressing theirresults. This concept also affected the developmentof ideas of sector-wide approach and poverty
reduction strategy paper, which are key concepts
in international development. Following the
New Development Strategy, the Millennium
Assembly of the United Nations, which was heldin September 2000, adopted the Millennium
Development Goals. This means that seeking
the results of international cooperation, whichcorrespond to the development goals defined bydeveloping countries, requires the establishment ofrecognition of common goals among donors andrecipient countries. As a consequence, results ofevaluation, which confirm the performance, study
the process, and clarify the cause and effect relationof international cooperation, have to be shared
among donors and recipient countries to perform inorder to accomplish the development goals.
Evaluation provides international cooperation
activities with various possibilities. The evaluation
is an assessment, as systematic and objective as
possible, of an ongoing or completed project,p r o g r a m o r p o l i c y, i n t e r m s o f i t s d e s i g n ,implementation and results.
The aim is to determine the relevance andfulfillment of objectives, efficiency, effectiveness,
impact and sustainability (OECD-DAC 2001).
If an evaluation is credible and useful, it enables
to incorporate the lessons learned into thedecision-making process of recipients and donors.
Therefore, many aid agencies have started tomake efforts to integrate evaluation into the various
aspects of international cooperation activities
so as to maximize the advantages of evaluation.
In this case, evaluation performs two importantfunctions: 1) as a management tool for creatingideas, and 2) as a learning tool for all interested
parties. More concretely, evaluation is used as aneffective tool to improve the policy structure thatis composed of policy, program, and project, byassessing their relevance and value, with influence
from people concerned. In this case, evaluation
provides opportunities to build and strengtheninternational cooperation by accumulating the123Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

results of evaluation as resources of knowledge andexperiences. While each aid agency’s respective
efforts in promoting evaluation are progressive,the effect is rather small. Therefore, it is important,for more effective evaluation, to integrate various
efforts in accumulating and utilizing the results ofevaluation by aid agencies in order to maximize
the contribution of evaluation. In other words,
accumulation of the results of evaluation has to be
conducted not only at the state level but also at theinternational level.
This paper claims that building internationalframework for evaluation needs to be recognized
as a critical and urgent agenda to promote theeffectiveness and efficiency of international
cooperation. The first section examines an effort
of Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
as an example of promoting evaluation activities
by accumulating the evaluation results at thestate level. Following this, the second section
clarifies agendas of promoting international
evaluation activities stimulated by the experiencesof JICA. Finally, the third section provides some
implications to build international framework formore effective evaluation that eventually leads tomore effective international cooperation.

1. Aid Agency’s Efforts: A Case of JICA
In order to show the significant role of evaluationin aid agencies, this section examines the efforts
of JICA in shaping evaluation structures. JICA is
one of Japan’s two aid agencies, which executes
technical cooperation and grant capital cooperation
activities. In FY 2000 JICA conducted over
800 training courses of technical cooperation in
Japan and overseas. The number of participants
reached 16,990. The total number of experts
dispatched overseas is 15,138. JICA conducted

over 250 technical cooperation projects, andover 250 feasibility and master planning studies.
Furthermore, JICA conducted a number of project
identification and formulation activities to support
the above-mentioned activities. In addition, JICA
conducted over 300 grant capital projects mainlyon the development of social sectors by providing
facilities and equipment. In terms of organization
structure, JICA has International Training Centers
in Japan and overseas offices outside of Japan.
JICA operates technical cooperation activities allover the world.
In recent years, the environment that surrounds
JICA has become severe. Discussions on ODA
have been conducted in the National Diet more
often than before. The ODA budget was cut in
FY 2002, which affected JICA’s budget. The
Diet approved an administrative evaluation
bill in July 2001 that became effective in April
2002. Consequently, clarifying the purpose ofaid activities and its verification has become
an important task for aid agencies. One of theeffective ways to pursue this direction is toadvance “country and issue oriented approach”.
Importantly, JICA views evaluation as a crucial
element to promote this approach, so that itproceeds by establishing an operational systemthat stresses on evaluation functions as acomponent of its management process.
Table 1 shows the current JICA evaluation
structure. JICA’s evaluation activities are classified
into two categories by the level of objectives
for evaluation, namely: project evaluation, andprogram/policy evaluation. Project evaluation
mainly focuses on individual projects and theiroperations, which are performed mainly by
the modality of activities. Project evaluationis conducted in the form of ex-ante, mid-term,
terminal and ex-post evaluation in the context ofTable 1. JICA’s Evaluation Structure.

Type of Evaluation

Objectives

Responsible Department

Nature of Evaluation

Project

Ex-anteRegional/Sector Dept.

Self-Evaluation

Mid-term

Regional/Sector Dept.

Self-evaluation

Terminal

Regional/Sector Dept.

Self-evaluation

Ex-postOverseas Office

External evaluation

Country evaluation
Sector evaluation
Thematic

Evaluation OfficeInternal/ External

Program/Policy

124Evaluation of ODA to Build and Strengthen International Cooperation:
Towards Constructing an International Framework of Evaluation for International Cooperation

project implementation. The ex-ante, mid-term,
and terminal evaluations are conducted byrespective responsible operation departments,
namely: regional and sector departments; while
the ex-post evaluation, by overseas offices. The
character of project evaluation is categorized
as self-evaluation. On the other hand, program
evaluation consists of country, sector, and thematic
evaluations focusing mainly on policy structure.
The nature of these evaluations is categorized as
ineternal/external evaluation.
The staffs in the Office of Evaluation, as well
as external evaluators who are independent fromdirectly responsible departments, conduct theevaluation.
It is clear that the aid agencies are required toperform their activities effectively and efficiently.
However, in the actual situation, it is not so easy
to demonstrate effectiveness and efficiency ininternational cooperation activities. In 1999 JICA’s Office of Evaluation conducted a survey on
utilization of evaluation results. It was found thatutilization of evaluation results is poor. More
importantly, the study showed that there had notbeen a clear methodology on measurement ofaccomplishments and verification on effectivenessof activities (JICA 2001b).
The JICA’s Office of Evaluation took thisissue seriously and took actions to improve thesituation by setting up the following processes;
1) establishing an evaluation policy, 2) building
an system from ex-ante to ex-post evaluation,3) studying and establishing evaluation
methodologies, 4) strengthening external
evaluation, 5) promoting feedback of the evaluation
results, and 6) disclosing evaluation results.
In JICA, evaluation is now an integrated
component of project activities, eventuallyproviding a framework of project activities.
However, the progress of integrating evaluation
with JICA’s activities is not faster than expectedeven if steady progress has been seen, especiallythat it is necessary to work more at the policy
and program levels. There is a need to develop
an evaluation methodology to conduct policy
and program evaluation by synthesizing various
modalities of aid activities
For this purpose, JICA recently conducted athematic evaluation of its cooperation in the fieldof infectious disease control in the Philippines.
In this evaluation, a program defined the policy

structure of aid conducted by JICA. Thisevaluation approach promoted discussion on JICA’s activities as integrated activities in the context
of the Philippines’ policy structure on infectious
disease control, and proposes further approaches
concerning JICA’s cooperation policy in the future.
It also provided the evaluation methodology ofthe program as well as aid coordination with other
donors in this study with USAID. This evaluationshows a new approach, which is more focused onpolicy structure, and increase in the effectivenessof evaluation. On the other hand, this approach is
required to integrate evaluation with the recipient
country’s policy structure and those of other
donors’ aid policy structures.
JICA is also currently making efforts to increase
external evaluations. One example is the evaluation
study conducted by Nagoya University under the
JICA contract. The evaluation study examined how
the technical cooperation projects in agriculture,
forestry and fisheries conducted by JICA in Nepal
impacted on farmers at the community level. In
particular, the study focused on impacts on poverty
and gender issues, as well as the changes in thelife of residents. The study had two purposes: 1)
to research on new evaluation procedures from theviewpoint of poverty and gender; and 2) to apply
the new methods produced as a result of suchresearch to actual cooperation projects of JICA
in Nepal in the past. The Joint Study Committeethat conducted the evaluation study was composedof representatives from the Graduate School ofInternational Development, the Graduate Schoolof Bio-agricultural Sciences, and the International
Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education.
This study provided useful evaluation experiences
and knowledge by utilizing the university’s
academic resources and showed that universities
are one of prominent organizations to provide
excellent evaluators based on accumulated researchand study experiences.

2. Agenda for Promoting International
Evaluation Activities
In the previous section, the efforts of an aid
agency in promoting evaluation and maximizing
its advantages were examined by using JICA asa case. This kind of effort is also predominant
in other aid agencies. One example is the WorldBank’s distance education for training evaluatorsin order to increase the number of evaluators indeveloping countries. In order to clearly define

125Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

the result of international cooperation increasing
the number of evaluators is an indispensable task.
The number of joint evaluations by aid agencies
is increasing nowadays, and provides very
prominent opportunity, where aid agencies bring
their own experiences for future collaborationin their programming and operation. On theother hand, developing countries make efforts tointroduce evaluation system such as performancemeasurement. Universities are also involvedin evaluation works of ODA by utilizing theiracademic resources. The increase of evaluation
activities in various organizations can be seen in
the various fields of international cooperation.
Considering these situations, it is important
to integrate various efforts of aid agencies formore effective evaluation. In fact, although eachagency’s efforts are progressive, it is not possible
without integrating the efforts of each aid agency
to maximize them. As mentioned earlier, thecurrent policies and strategies of aid agencies todeveloping countries seek the common results,
which correspond to the development goals thedeveloping country defines. This means thatseeking the results of international cooperationemphasizes establishing recognition of common
goals among donors and recipient countries.
Consequently, results of evaluation, which confirm
the performance, study the process, and clarify
the cause and effect relation of international
cooperation, have to be shared among donors andrecipient countries to utilize for accomplishing thedevelopment goals.
What is necessary to accomplish this?
The following are issues to be discussed: 1)
establishment of effective evaluation methodology;2) generalization of knowledge based on evaluation
results; 3) collaboration work of evaluation
among aid agencies and recipient countries; and4) promotion of stakeholders’ participation in
evaluation activities.
One of the important issues is to share knowledge
on effective evaluation methodologies. Various
agencies apply evaluation methodologies basedon their own policies and strategies, or guidelines
of evaluation. Some agencies stressed project
evaluation while others, program evaluation.
Most of evaluation defines targets together withindicators. However, they do not always sharethem with other evaluation. Even in the same
field of cooperation activities, different evaluation
methodologies are observed. Although utilization

126

of different methodologies is not undesirable,
sharing ideas of methodologies makes more
effective execution of evaluation, especially inprogram evaluation, where policy issues of therecipient country is involved and other activitiesof aid agencies affect the result to be evaluated.
In particular, the evaluation on capacity building
needs to consider the contribution of other aid
agencies because each agency often shares
activities each other.
Furthermore, conceptualization and generalizationof evaluation results are necessary in order toshare the knowledge created by evaluation. In
conceptualization and generalization of the resultsof evaluation, evaluation methodologies, purposeof activities, and assumption of activities areclarified, and a series of evaluation results areanalyzed in a comprehensive manner. Throughthese procedures, the results of evaluation
conducted in the past are firmly converted toand accumulated as knowledge, and are thendisseminated to the peoples concerned. The
comparison of results of various evaluations
provides the best practices and appropriate way of
thinking in international cooperation.
Collaboration work of evaluation among aid
agencies and recipient countries is indispensable
in the era of aid coordination. There is a change
in aid coordination. In fact, in many developing
countries, poverty reduction strategy papers areunder formulation and sector-wide approaches are
introduced in various sectors so that evaluations
conducted by one aid agency have not always
provided substantial results. The developmentof these approaches depends on the capabilityof recipient countries. Therefore, it is desirable
that most of aid agencies, which participate in
the development of these approaches, conduct
evaluation jointly by allowing greater involvementof the recipient country for more useful evaluation
results. Basic education is one of the sectors where
joint evaluation is indispensable to access policy
and program, due to the involvement of various aid
agencies.
Finally, promotion of stakeholders’ participationin evaluation activities is an important issue
to address in order to make evaluation more
effective. As discussed before, stressing on theevaluation at the program and policy levels requires
more involvement of stakeholders of recipient
countries, especially when focused on poverty as adevelopment issue.

Evaluation of ODA to Build and Strengthen International Cooperation:
Towards Constructing an International Framework of Evaluation for International Cooperation

3. International Frameworks for Effective
Evaluation
Based on discussions on aid agency’s efforts inevaluation and agenda for international evaluation
activities, it is understood that in order to makeevaluation more effective for international
cooperation, it is necessary to improve evaluation
not only within an aid agency but also among
aid agencies. It is also indispensable to improvepolicy structure both of recipient country and aid
agencies.
However, it was observed that most of efforts
during evaluation activities are concentrated
within an aid agency, not among aid agencies andrecipient countries. There is a lack of connection
between the efforts of aid agencies. Therefore, it isnecessary to increase a linkage among aid agencies
for more coordinated evaluation efforts. On theother hand, the establishment of this kind of bondstimulates the efforts of aid agencies’ evaluation
works.
In conclusion and to facilitate this situation,
two possible future efforts are recommended
for more effective evaluation activities: 1)
building a network centered on evaluation,and 2) establishment of an evaluation archivefor knowledge sharing. Firstly, as discussed in
the first section, the success of establishing aneffective evaluation methodology, generalizationof knowledge based on evaluation results,
collaboration of evaluation work among aid
agencies and recipient countries, and promotionof stakeholders’ participation into evaluation
activities fairly depend on the interchange ofideas and knowledge of people who are involved
in international cooperation. Therefore, thecreation of vehicle for interchange of ideas andknowledge, that is, the establishment of networks,
is indispensable.
Secondly, accessibility is also an important
issue in order to increase sharing experiences andknowledge based on evaluation results. In thepast, this kind of issue is difficult to solve, but
nowadays, a knowledge base created by utilizing
the developed information and communication
technology enables increased accessibility without
the restriction of time, distance or place. The
knowledge base accumulates explicit knowledge
created by evaluation results. Therefore, it ispossible to share more easily these information bycreating an evaluation archives of knowledge on
evaluation.

One possibility for achieving the above mentioned
idea is the utilization of existing universities’ networks
and their capabilities in knowledge accumulation.
As I introduced in JICA’s case, there is an increasein the involvement of universities into evaluation
activities. When evaluation is focused on policy/program and become more complex, this tendency
is accelerated because universities can accumulate
academic resources, and provide appropriate
evaluators. Furthermore, the experience of evaluation
can integrated into various academic activities andcan be utilized in academic discussions throughacademic exchange. This accumulation of knowledge
on these kinds of activities increases the possibility ofutilization of evaluation results.

References
Japan International Cooperation Agency. 2001a.
Annual Evaluation Report 2001. Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Japan.
http://www.jica.go.jp/english/evaluation/report/2
001_12.html
Japan International Cooperation Agency. 2001b.
Feedback of Evaluation Result (Japanese). (http://www.jica.go.jp/evaluation/etc/2001feedback.ht
mlMiyoshi, Koichi. 1999. Knowledge Managementin Development Aid Agencies.
The Japan Society for International
Development Journal of International
Development Studies (Japanese). 8, 2: 29-49.
Miyoshi, Koichi. 2001. Feedback of Evaluation:
Influencing Stakeholders through Evaluation.
Journal of International Development Studies(Japanese).The Japan Society for International
Development. 10, 2: 71-86
Miyoshi, Koichi. 2002. Technical Cooperation
and Globalization of Universities - The Roleof Universities in the Change of TechnicalCooperation under the Development ofInformation and Communication Technology.
In Aya Yoshida. (ed.). How Can IT Help
Universities to Globalize? International
Symposium 2001. National Institute ofMultimedia Education. Chiba, Japan pp.106-117.
Miyoshi, Koichi. 2002. Utilization of Program
Theory Matrix For Improving the Usefulnessof Evaluation Analysis. The Japanese Journalof Evaluation Studies. The Japan Evaluation
Society (Japanese). 2, 1:11-27.

127Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

M i y o s h i , K o i c h i a n d Ta k a s h i m a . 2 0 0 0 .
Responding to the Changing Environment
in Development Cooperation- A Case Study:
Organizational reform of the Japan International
Cooperation Agency. Journal of International
Development Studies. The Japan Society forInternational Development (Japanese). 9,
2:127-143.
Miyoshi, Koichi and Yayoi Tanaka. 2001. Futureof Participatory Evaluation: Concept andUtilization of Participatory Evaluation. The
Japanese Journal of Evaluation Studies. The
Japan Evaluation Society. (Japanese). 1, 1:65-78.
Miyoshi, Koichi & Yuriko Minamoto (2001)
Theoretical Framework of JICA Evaluation
Guideline: Some Issues in Developing the
Guideline, The Japanese Journal of Evaluation
Studies. The Japan Evaluation Society(Japanese). 1, 2: 89-100.
Miyoshi, Koichi, Kimiko Sakamoto and Ryoko Abe.
2002. Beyond the Dualism of Program and Project
Aid: From A case of Tanzania. The Japanese
Journal of African Studies. Japan Society of
African Studies, (Japanese). 60: 123-137.

128

O ff i c e o f E v a l u a t i o n , J a p a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Cooperation Agency, 2002. Practical Methodof Evaluation: JICA Evaluation Guidelines,(Japanese). Kokusai Kyouryoku Shuppan-kai,
Tokyo, Japan
OECD-DAC. 2001. Evaluation Feedback for
Effective Learning and Accountability. OECD,.Paris, FranceOECD-DAC. 1998. Review of The DAC
Principles for Evaluation of Development
Assistance.
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/63/50/2065863.pdf
The Graduate School of International
Development, The Graduate School of
Bioagricultural Sciences, and the International
Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education.
2000. Evaluation of JICA technical cooperationin agriculture, forestry and fishery projects in
the Kingdom of Nepal with a focus on poverty
and gender issues and research concerning
evaluation methods used to determine impacts
of programs on beneficiaries in rural area. Japan
International Cooperation Agency, Tokyo, Japan

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Role of International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE)
in Capacity Building for Sustainable Agriculture
Tetsuo Matsumoto(International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education, Nagoya University, Japan)

Abstract
The International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE) was established in April
1999 and is one of the five centers for international cooperation established in Japan, but the only one
dedicated to agriculture. In pursuit of its vision of becoming a leading center for international cooperationin agriculture education, the Center’s Project Development Division implements activities towards the
conduct of evaluation studies, development of agricultural projects and technologies, training of humanresources, and creation of scientific solutions to address problems related to agriculture and environmental
issues through international cooperation. The other division, which is in charge of Network Development,
endeavors to develop and coordinate a human resource database for teachers and researchers in domestic
universities, research institutes, and high schools in the field of agricultural sciences in order to achieveeffective international cooperation in agricultural education. In addition, it establishes well-working
consortia and cooperative networks between and among international and/or domestic organizations.
Over the past years, ICCAE has been involved in projects such as the development of higher education inagricultural universities in Cambodia and Namibia, and the African Institute for Capacity Development(AICAD). The Center’s collaboration with the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) is also
crucial in the human resource development of countries in Africa. The activities promote the project’s
goal to strengthen practical education and research in the universities to assist in the alleviation of poverty
in each developing country. ICCAE continuously explores ways to enhance linkages with international
institutions to promote cooperation in the area of agriculture. Establishment of linkages has been foundto be very effective and efficient way of ensuring cooperation in Asia and Africa. The Southeast AsianRegional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) and ICCAE look forward tofurther collaboration in the project with Royal University of Agriculture in Cambodia.
Corresponding author: matsumot@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Introduction
This paper is composed of two parts. The
first part introduces the function of ICCAE ininternational cooperation in developing countries.
The second part presents the Center’s experiencein implementing curriculum development
assistance to the Royal University of Agriculture
in Cambodia as one of the component activities of
ICCAE in higher education.

I. The ICCAE: Its functions and Activities
The ICCAE was established in Nagoya
University in April 1999. Its vision is to be aleading center for international cooperation inagricultural education. ICCAE is one of the fivecenters for international cooperation established inJapan, but is the only one dedicated to agriculture(Table 1). Its missions are 1) to contributeto human resource development for solving
agricultural issues in developing countries as thenational center; 2) to coordinate international
cooperation projects with institutions as aninternational center; 3) to establish human resource
databases and managing methods for effective
international cooperation; and 4) to conduct
research in agricultural cooperation projects forthe well-being of people in developing countries.
Within three years since its establishment, ICCAE
aimed to be the national center for human resource
development to address agricultural issues indeveloping countries through international
cooperation in agricultural research and education.
Having achieved its first target on time in 2002,
ICCAE is now working towards achieving its goalof acquiring the status as an International Centerfor human resource development in Japan within
two years.

129Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction
Table 1. International Cooperation Centers establishedCenters

Year of Establishment

Center for the Study of International Cooperation in Education (CICE), Hiroshima
University
International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE), Nagoya
University

1997

International Research Center for Medical Education (IRCME), the University of Tokyo

2000

International Cooperation Center for Engineering Education Development (ICCEED),
Toyahashi University of Technology

2001

Center for Asian Legal Exchange (CALE), Nagoya University

2002

To realize the Center ’s missions, ICCAE
consists of two divisions that take charge ofseveral functions including field survey, project
development, project evaluation, human resource
database, network development, and training withfour permanent staff (two professors and two
associate professors). A Director heads the Center.
The Division of Project Development 1) surveys,
analyzes and evaluates the needs, requests, andprojects of developing countries that focus oninternational cooperation in agriculture andagricultural education to improve agriculture andrural life; 2) develops agricultural projects andtechnologies to meet the field and rural life needsof developing countries, considering traditional
agricultural practices and environmental issues;3) cooperates in human resource development at
any level of education; and 4) creates scientificsolutions for addressing agricultural problems in
the field through international cooperation.
The Division of Network Development 1)

1999

develops a human resource database for teachers
and researchers in domestic universities, research
institutes, and high schools in the field ofagricultural sciences; 2) researches and develops
methods for coordinating use of the database inorder to achieve effective international cooperationin agricultural education; and 3) establishes
well-working consortia and cooperative networks
between and among international and/or domesticorganizations.
The ICCAE has two posts for Visiting Fellows inorder to conduct joint research or cooperation on
the projects in ICCAE. One of these positions is
for Japanese scientists or professionals under one
year contract. The other is for foreign scientists
or professionals for a period of three to twelve
months. ICCAE usually invites three foreigners
with three to five month-stay a year.
The main activities of ICCAE in international
cooperation are summarized in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2. Main activities of ICCAE

Project

Activities

Project for Capacity Building of the Faculty ofAgriculture and Natural Resources, University ofNambia (JICA, 2002-present)

Conducted preliminary survey; trained 3 teaching staff;
dispatched 1 long-term and 3 short-term experts.

African Institute for Capacity Development (AICAD)
Phase 2 (JICA, 2000-present)

External Evaluation of JICA Agricultural Projects in
Nepal (JICA, 1999-2000)

Conducted preliminary survey; participated as memberof the JICA support committee; dispatched a long-term
research advisor and short-term experts.
Hosted 5 visiting fellows from RUA; implemented
curriculum development assistance; supported theestablishment of the master’s course.
Conducted joint evaluation with the Graduate Schoolsof International Development and of Bioagricultural
Sciences, Nagoya University.

External Evaluation on the SG 2000 Program (Sasakawa
Africa Association, 2001-2002)

Evaluated SG 2000 Program in 9 African countries.

Database of Human Resource in Agricultural
Cooperation (ICCAE, 1999-present)

Developed the database registering more than 2500
human resources.

Collaboration with Royal University of Agriculture,
Cambodia, in Higher Education and Capacity Building(ICCAE, 2000-present)

130Role of International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE) in Capacity Building for Sustainable Agriculture

Table 3. Training by ICCAE
Training Courses

Activities

Group Training Course; GIS (Geographic Information
System) Technology for Sustainable Management of Natural
Resources and Agricultural Products (JICA, 2000-present)

Trained 6 research fellows in agricultural sciences for 5
weeks a year.

J I C A R i c e R e s e a r c h Te c h n i q u e s C o u r s e ( J I C A ,1999-present)

Trained 6~7 research fellows once a year.

Group Training Course in Bioindustries (JICA, Japan
Bioindustry Association, 1999-present)

Trained 10 research fellows once a year.

II. Curriculum Development and Capacity
Building for Royal University ofAgriculture (RUA)

were used until the first semester of the academic
year 2000-2001, although there were somechanges introduced by French non-governmentalo rg a n i z a t i o n s ( N G O s ) s u c h a s G r o u p e d e
Recherche et d’Echanges Technologiques (GRET)
and Veterinaires Sans Frontieres (VSF) (MAFF1999).
The ICCAE has been assisting RUA indeveloping the new curricula since 2000.
The RUA and ICCAE jointly studied higher
educational systems and curricula of otheruniversities throughout the world. The ICCAE
staff visited RUA to study the status of RUA andthe higher education in Cambodia in February
and June of 2000. The Center then invited an
RUA staff as an ICCAE Visiting Fellow for
the joint study from August to October 2000.
ICCAE proposed a number of recommendations
concerning the new curricula and educational
system. The RUA accepted the recommendations
with few modifications, and completed the new
curricula and educational system in 2001, whichwere then introduced in the second semester of theacademic year 2000-2001.

The development of a new curriculum andcapacity building for Royal University ofAgriculture (RUA), Cambodia, are cited as one of
the representative activities of ICCAE in higher
education.
RUA was founded in 1964 during the Prince
Norodom Sihanouk regime as one of the nine (9)national universities and had been playing a keyrole in offering agricultural higher education in
Cambodia. Statistically, 200 students graduatedfrom the RUA from 1965 to 1975. Unfortunately,
RUA was completely closed and converted into an
ammunition factory during Pol Pot’s regime from1975 to 1978 (APIP 2000; MAFF 1999).
Designing new and appropriate curricula has
been recognized as one of the most important
issues for RUA (APIP 2000; MAFF 1999). It
took as long as eleven years to complete the new
curricula after the former Soviet Union withdrew
from Cambodia in 1990 because little effort had
been directed to curriculum development before
1999.
Russian lecturers designed the former curricula
when the former Soviet Union supported theuniversity from 1985 to 1990 (MAFF 1999). In
1990, when the former Soviet Union support
suddenly withdrew from Cambodia, theuniversity (Institute of Agricultural Technology
at that time) faced a lot of problems, especiallythe replacements of the teachers. In order toalleviate the urgent needs, the young graduatesfrom the Institute were appointed as teachers
notwithstanding their lack of teaching and researchexperience. The newly appointed lecturers
continued using the curricula designed by the
Russian lectures, although the Khmer was used as
the medium of instruction. The former curricula

As a starting point for discussion on curriculum
development, the first draft of “Academic Catalog
for Undergraduates” was used, which included
the curricula and educational system. This firstdraft was provided by RUA with assistance froma French project called Programme d’Appui a laFormation Agricole et Agronomique au Royaume
du Cambodge (PAFAARC) as suggested from a
project of the National Action Plan for Agricultural
Higher Education by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nation (FAO) (MAFF1999).

131

Chapter 3: International Collaboration for Sustainable Bioproduction

New Curriculum
The main points of curriculum reform were as
follows:
1) The term of school attendance was shortened
from four and a half years to four years;
2) The hour-based curriculum was changed to acredit-based system;3) The number of credits required for a BS
degree was reduced from 170 (hours
converted into credits) to 144 credits;4) Electives were introduced for the first time,
and the status of English and French courses
were changed from compulsory to elective;and5) The list of subjects was changed completely.
The additional major changes included thedevelopment of a mission statement for theuniversity and a policy for the instructional
program together with a manual describing theprocesses from admission to graduation. There
were, however, some recommendations that
could not be realized in a short time, such as
strengthening practical subjects, and shifting thesis
supervision from extramural to intramural persons,which must be matched with human resource
development.
Introduction of the credit system into the new
curriculum was the chief objective of RUA in the
curriculum revision. The credit system, whichis convenient for indicating the outcome andsubstance of education, is widely adopted byhigher education institutions around the world.
RUA received a number of advantages byintroducing the credit system such as:1) Credits clearly show the quality and thequantity of academic achievement;
2) Students are able to study at their own paceas full-time or part-time students, so thatsome students may simultaneously have ajob;3) Students are able to take leave of absencefrom school and to return to school later
while retaining their credits; and
4) A credit transfer system can exist.
Credits must reflect the quality of education
and assure a university degree. It is clear thatthe credit system needs to be universal. The
university has a responsibility to ensure the132

quality of education. However, RUA students are
not really satisfied with the quality of education
because of insufficient practical activities, ashortage of human resources, a lack of textbooks
and teaching materials, and inadequacy of
educational facilities and equipment. In RUA, thequality of credits is limited mainly to the qualityof the education. Improvement in the quality ofeducation is vital to ensure accreditation. The
impact of the introduction of credit-based curricula
will be limited unless the quality of education is
improved.

Establishment of master’s course
RUA is the only university that achieved
curriculum development among the nine national
universities in Cambodia. It is expected as theforerunner of reforming the higher education
system and consequently gaining approval toestablish the master’s course of graduate school.
ICCAE started the joint study on the education
system, management of the graduate school,
and the master’s course curriculum with RUA
by inviting the Dean of RUA as Visiting Fellow
from 2001 to 2002. As a result of this study, RUA
opened the master’s course of graduate school in
October 2002. ICCAE also trained the RUA staff
in administration aspects in cooperation with theadministrative office of Nagoya University.
The key issues for RUA to live up to the
expectations of the government, society, andstudents from now on are as follows:
1) Capacity building of staff. It is very
important to provide quality higher education
to students. The number of staff who has thedegree is one of the indicators to analyze
the quality of staff. There are only 6 and 13
permanent lecturers having PhD and MS
Degrees, respectively, out of 106, and 6 and12 contract lecturers having PhD and MS
Degrees, respectively, out of 47 in RUA. It
is therefore, urgent for RUA to pursue thedispatch of staff to overseas universities
or institutions for degrees. The number ofMS degree holders in RUA is expected toincrease as RUA opened the master’s course
in 2002. Without improvement in the qualityof education, the capacity building of lecturers
will not be realized even if the number of MS
degree holders will have increased.

Role of International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education (ICCAE) in Capacity Building for Sustainable Agriculture2) Strengthening of practical activities. In
reality, classes at RUA are mainly conducted
as oral lessons, and few practical activities
such as laboratory training and farm practice
are carried out, even after the introductionof the new curricula. The balance between
theory and practice should be consideredin the curricula of RUA. Although fairly
large portions of time are allocated topractical activities both in the former andthe new curricula of RUA, few practices
are implemented because of insufficient
lecturer ability and a shortage of facilities
and equipment. Practical activities in RUA
curricula are set by repartitioning a subject
into oral lessons and practical work withsome set proportion of time allocated toeach. In this system, it is easy to convert thetime for practical work into oral lessons.
This system may cause the insufficiency
of practical work. The development of thecapability to conduct practical activities, fromthe aspect of the human resources and thesystem, is one of the most urgent problems
facing RUA.
3) Development of quality textbooks. The
shortage of teaching materials, including
textbooks, is one of the major issues
concerning the education at RUA. The
shortage of recent textbooks and referencematerials hinder progress in the renewal or
updating of course content. Developmentof textbooks and an enhancement of libraryservices are needed to upgrade educational
standards. However, the most important issue
is the enthusiasm of lecturers to constantly
improve the education in their classes.
Lecturers need to be motivated to collect new
information within their fields. The point ofeducation at university level should not only
be just the transfer of knowledge, but also
the development of intellectual capability.

Training programs for teaching techniques arealso necessary as well as the willingness oflecturers to improve their teaching.
The ICCAE contributed in the human resource
development of RUA by assisting an RUA staff
to be a PhD student of the United Graduate
School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime
University under the supervision of Professor
S. Hayakawa at Kagawa University. Two RUA
staffs are now studying as MS and PhD students,
respectively, in Plant Genetics & Breeding
Laboratory and Socioeconomic Science of Food
Production Laboratory of the Graduate Schoolof Bioagricultural Sciences (GSBS), Nagoya
University. The Animal Genetics Laboratory of
GSBS is going to conduct biodiversity study ofwild animals with RUA in 2002 and 2003. GSBS
and ICCAE will continue to support RUA in
capacity building.
The ICCAE is exploring the enhancement oflinkages with international institutions to promoteinternational cooperation in the agriculturalarea. It has been proven to be very effective andefficient way in dealing with agriculture concerns
in Asia and Africa. SEARCA and ICCAE are
now exploring collaboration in the Asia and RUA
projects.

References
Agriculture Productivity Improvement Project(APIP), Agricultural Education and Training
Component, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries. 2000. The agricultural educationand training system in Cambodia: ananalysis.Phnom Penh, 206p.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries(MAFF), Kingdom of Cambodia. 1999.Sectoral
national action plan for agricultural higher
education. Phnom Penh.256p

133Summary, Highlights of Discussion and Closing Statement

Proc. Sat. Forum, "Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia," Nagoya: June (2002)

Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia:
Student Development Towards Global Standard
Hiroyuki Takeya(International Cooperation Center for Agricultural Education, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku 464-8601, Japan)(Corresponding author: sdtakeya@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp)

Introduction

Highlights of Discussion

This paper presents highlights of the general
discussion on Student Development Towards Global
Standard, a subtopic under the theme of the Satellite
Forum on Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia
held on 21 June 2002 at Nagoya University, Japan. I
wish to express my appreciation to Professor Tetsuko
Watanabe and Professor Akira Yamauchi who served
as assistant moderators in this session.
The satellite forum had two objectives: first, todiscuss sustainable agricultural production systems
and biotechnology in Asia, with special emphasis
on research and resource development; andsecond, to document the contribution of Nagoya
University in general, and the Graduate School of
Bioagricultural Sciences in particular, in research andidentification of sustainable agricultural production
systems. We wanted to recognize and discuss theschool’s accomplishments in terms of international
collaborative programs as it continues to find ways toestablish an active international academic consortium.
The purpose of the general discussion was to learn
and share various experiences and teachings on
how to improve our education so that our graduates
would play more important roles in the international
community in the agricultural sciences or related
fields. The general discussion was composed ofthree parts: first, a summary of the three sessions,
including research achievements, their consequencein education in the field of sustainability inagricultural sciences, and the future direction ofresearch and education in agriculture; second, an
overview of the goals of the university in research andeducation for agricultural sustainability in view of theestablishment of an academic consortium; and third,
suggestions and recommendations for strengthening
the human resources development programs in
education and research in Japanese universities ingeneral, and at the Nagoya University Graduate
School of Bioagricultural Sciences, in particular.

As a backdrop of this discussion, I must statethat our national university currently faces adrastic change to a parastatal institution. The Japan
International Research Center for Agricultural
Sciences (JIRCAS) is now under this category of
institution. In view of this recent development, theJapanese universities face the challenge of how
to further enhance their research and education
programs in order to be globally competitive.

1) Achievements, consequences and future
directions in research and education insustainable agriculture
Professor Yamauchi presented a summary of thefive paper presentations as follows:
In the cultivation of rainfed lowland rice, Dr.
Shu Fukai stressed the importance of thoroughly
characterizing the environment where crops aregrown. He cited that among the several traits
considered important for crop production isdrought resistance. Research agenda has been
totally different during the time of the Green
Revolution when basic studies in laboratories
can be directly applied to the field. But after that,
there is a need for a paradigm shift. There is anurgent need to consider sustainability now thathigh-output studies have been conducted. Thus, inorder to study sustainability, the accomplishmentsof different fields of science must be integrated
toward the creation of a new science.
Dr. Jose R. Pardales Jr. highlighted the unlimited
potential of root crops, a very neglected lesseconomically important crop. He emphasized
the prospects of root crops for use as food andindustrial material. He mentioned that researchon these crops must consider the social science
aspects, including technology transfer fromthe researcher to the end user. He stressed that137

Summary, Highlights of Discussion and Closing Statement

extension workers, researchers, and students, areimportant components of the research that must be
working together to help provide solutions to foodsecurity problems.
Dr. Sri Nugroho Marsoem emphasized theimportance of forest management and the value ofwood and non-wood forest products. Exploring thefull potential of these forest resources for food andincome while aiming for forest sustainability is a
big challenge. One area that needs to be further
enhanced is the linkage of agricultural production
and forestry management. Efforts to introduce
agro-forestry as an alternative to sustainable forest
development have increased, although many
institutions still put little attention to this field.
Marsoem stressed that networking of educational
institutions in Asia for stronger cooperation issurely a welcome initiative.
Dr. Inkee Paik gave a very good example of
the application of basic science to practice. Plant
scientists consider nitrogen phosphorous as anutrient; however, in this case as presented by Dr.
Paik, nitrogen phosphrous can be a pollutant. By
controlling diets, nitrogen phosphorous can control
or prevent a serious problem on pollution causedby animal and livestock production in relation toenvironmental issues.
Dr. Osamu Ito talked about farming system
and management of technology under diverse
agro-ecosystems. In his paper, he clearly showed
that, in order to attain sustainability, there must bea science that covers the various disciplines of soil
science, crop science, forestry, aquatic science, andanimal science.
Based on the five paper presentations, Dr.
Yamauchi concluded that there seemed to
be an agreement on the importance of aninterdisciplinary research in looking at theconcerns for sustainable agriculture. And thiswould require not just the convening of soil
scientists, crop scientists, breeders, and others toform a team of researchers but the creation of a
new field of science that integrates all those fields
of discipline. It is recognized that this is a difficult
task because of the diverse academic backgrounds
and experiences of the players involved; however,there is a need to start from the level of education,
which requires the development of an integrated
curriculum aimed at developing the mental
faculty and skills of the student towards providing
solutions to problems and concerns for sustainableagriculture in a more holistic point of view.

1382) Goals of the university in research andeducation
Dr. Takabe summarized the next batch of paper
presentations as follows:
Dr. Steven C. Huber shared his experience inproducing a transgenic plant with an increased
level of cartinine. Such an interesting work, hementioned, shows that the university can truly
function as an “architect of the new century” byassembling teams and providing the seed money toinitiate programs and conduct fundamental research
for applied problems that impact agriculture. So far,whether for the environment or to increase plant
productivity, the focus of biotechnology is just on
the gene level. Using the up-regulated gene, salt
tolerant or more salt tolerant transgenic plants thatmake plant productivity a little bit higher than thatof non-transgenic plant. Dr. Huber said that theseachievements are partially successful, and pointed
out that there must be more studies on protein levels
and enzyme interferal localization in the enzyme
degradation. He stressed that to fully understand theregulation of carbon metabolism, it is important tocarry out efficient biotechnology.
Dr. Tatsuo Omata talked about the controlof nitrogen uptake in a simulation and plant
productivity. He mentioned problems caused bynitrates in the environment and in the plant body,which are becoming serious problems, even in
Japan. Nitrates are used for agriculture, but extra
nitrates are getting into drinking water and into thebody. Nitrates converted to toxic nitrates are notgood for health. Dr. Omata stressed the importanceof finding ways on how to regulate the nitrate
uptake system. He suggested two ways: one is toregulate the nitrate transporter gene, and the otheris to just accumulate nitrates only in the root, notin the leaf, as in the case of the spinach. He said
that spinach accumulates a lot of nitrates; therefore,
eating spinach leaves in a salad might be dangerous.
He emphasized the importance of basic research inorder to successfully carry out genetic engineering.
In the field of food production and biotechnology
for food production, Dr. Tsuneo Yamane presented
interesting findings of the research on enzyme
engineering of lipids. One of these findings isthe effectiveness of phosphatidylserine, or PS for
AAMI or age-associated memory impairment,
which is wonderful news for middle and old-aged
persons in the future.
Dr. Jeng-de Su discussed the protective role ofSustainable Agricultural System in Asia: Student Development Towards Global Standard

antioxidant compounds in oxidative stress, which
occurs in the human body. He expressed that there
maybe a lot of new dietary antioxidants that can befound in the future and if the pathway to produce
such antioxidants is clarified, this can be applied tobiotechnology.
In Thailand, the general public has a positive
attitude toward GMO (genetically modified
organisms) based on the report of Dr. Tipvadee
Attathom. Most of the Thais accept GMO since
it is permitted. However, he saw the need tocompare the toxicity of chemical pesticides to
GMO and transgenic plants. This is also an issue
in Japan where the people fear the effects of GMO
on humans. This attitude might be partly due tothe inability of the scientists to disseminate theright information about GMOs. Biotechnology
is viewed as a very important and powerful tool
for sustainable agricultural systems in Asia.
Dr. Tipvadee expressed that there is a need tocollaborate in this aspect.

3) Suggestions and recommendations
for strengthening human resource
development programs for sustainableagriculture
The papers in Session 3 mostly dealt with sharingof experiences of different institutions and presented
suggestions and recommendations toward thestrengthening of human resource development
programs in education and research for sustainableagriculture.
Dr. Norihiro Tsukagoshi gave a perspective of
the international collaloration for education andresearch at Nagoya University especially focusedon the achievements of the Graduate School of
Bioagricultural Sciences. He pointed out that one
way to improve the educational learning experienceis to create the conditions and provide opportunities
for such experience in order to attract bright andcompetent students from both the developing anddeveloped countries to come to Nagoya University
to study. He noted the imbalance in the number ofstudents from developing and developed countries
and suggested an improvement of working
conditions of staff who provide assistance inacademic and foreign relations services in order to
expedite and accommodate requests and monitoringof student programs.
Dr. Supat Attathom pointed out the university’s role in developing technology in the advent of

globalization, which is providing newer conditions
such as global standard, new rules on safety, ethics
and the like. She discussed the relation between thedevelopment of technology and the developmentof science and stressed the importance of striking
a good balance between the two. How to connect
research and education in with the actual needs indeveloping countries poses a big challenge that need
to be addressed.
Dr. Villareal. talked about the role of SEAMEOSEARCA in human development in Southeast
Asia. As he mentioned, SEARCA’s experiences
have proven that investment in human resource
development is vital to the well-being of the
agricultural sector. He pointed out the needfor investment, not only in degree and training
programs, but also in research and development,
infrastructure, and information sharing.
Mr. Mosgoya shared the experiences and prospectsof AICAD, whose mission is to foster south-south
collaboration as supported by developed countries,
such as Japan. He pointed out that south-south
cooperation, as well as north-south cooperation,
could provide an important role for humandevelopment, especially in low technology and in
the building and spreading of a self-support sphere.
He stressed the importance of establishing aneffective farmer-researcher- extension linkage.
Mr. Sugino introduced new aspects of the
new JIRCAS structure and activities, especiallyconcerning human resource development
cooperation with other organizations, including
universities. Such information should provide
directions on how national universities should revise
or modify their activities, including cooperation withother institutions.
The culture of evaluation as exemplified in
the evaluation system of ODA, according to Dr.
Koichi Miyoshi, was introduced to Japan by otherdeveloped countries, such as the United States. He
pointed out that external evaluation has an importantfunction, such as providing management tools forcreating and learning for all interested organizations.
He also indicated that universities are expected toparticipate in these kinds of evaluation activities, andshowed the achievements of evaluation activities ininternational work.
Dr. Tetsuo Matsumoto introduced the mission,functions and activities of ICCAE at Nagoya
University, which is one of the core centers serving
in the field of agricultural sciences, engineering,139

Summary, Highlights of Discussion and Closing Statement

research and education. He emphasized theimportant role that ICCAE has to play in researchand education and encouraged the graduate schools
and other interested institutions whose mandates
are similar to those of ICCAE to collaborate with
the Center for their activities. ICCAE continues
to explore possible linkages with international
institutions to promote international cooperation inagriculture. It pursues the strengthening of existing
collaborations to efficiently and effectively carryout activities in Asian and African regions. The
case study of ICCAE’s ODA in Cambodia is an
example of collaboration between ICCAE and
JICA. SEARCA and ICCAE are now looking
for collaboration in its project to assist the Royal
University of Agriculture in Cambodia.

General Recommendations
After lengthy discussions and exchange ofideas during the open forum, the following were
the general recommendations set forth by theparticipants in the forum:
1. It would be best for JICA to consider
reclassifying or reengineering the evaluation
and approval process in awarding grants fora project at the institution level and select
only those that are ready to go into research
to shorten the process and eliminate too muchcompetition, sometimes for just a single grant.
In this case, alumni groups or institutions that
may be interested in conducting the research
may have better chances of winning the grant.
2. Results of discussion in this forum should
be considered when evaluating the present
curriculum in the context of Asia.
3. Higher education institutions should take thefollowing roles in the promotion of sustainableagriculture:a. Continuously generate knowledge;b. Develop and produce high-quality manpowerat the undergraduate and graduate level, or in
non-degree training programs equipped withthe proper skills to undertake researches andprojects that promote sustainable agriculture;c. Continuously perform advocacy workon environment and natural resource
conservation, seeing to it that the corephilosophy is sustainable agriculture.

140

4. Higher education institutions should be able toassist weaker universities to gain the conceptof sustainable agriculture and biologicalequilibrium through discourse of agriculture
and related sciences in conferences, symposia,
training programs and curriculum development
projects.
5. The following strategies are recommended for
adoption in strengthening agricultural R & D in
Asia:
a. Forging of strategic alliances with partners forcomplementation of programs and activities;
b. Implementation of a sandwich program- avery important innovation in education;c. Implementation of joint projects in as many
areas as possible.
6. Institutions must remember three very importantelements of collaboration:a. Common interest to enrich the knowledge ofstaff;
b. Willingness to share resources;c. A mechanism to stipulate such a relationshipso that activities will succeed.
7. Since the environment that surrounds theuniversity is becoming more complex, thefollowing factors need to be considered:a.The discipline issue, whether it isinterdisciplinary issues, and academic versus
practical issues;b. The various roles of the public and the private
sector, the non-state sector; the universities,
research organizations, aid agencies, andother stakeholders.
c. The issue of globalization versus localization;
d. A concrete framework and system to set
the direction of the University, which may
consist of three things, namely: a network, aknowledge creation system, and a knowledge
accumulation system.
e. Utilization of various resources in the creationof a new field of sciencef. Management framework to consider any
change in rules
8. Universities must provide activities that would

Sustainable Agricultural System in Asia: Student Development Towards Global Standard

allow exposure of students to other countries
and gain experience on how things are donein other countries. The example of Japanese
students going to Thailand, and vice-versa for
immersion in the farm or to do extension workin a community, and at the same time learn theculture of the people in the host country is goodmodel. The spirit of collaboration can also
be found in this model because of the sharingof resources as demonstrated by both host
universities taking care of the living expenses ofthe students whenever it is their turn to host theforeign students.
9. In organizing conferences on topics pertaining
to agriculture in Asia, organizers should see toit that a balance of views would be obtainedby ensuring that participants come fromdifferent disciplines so there would be a better
understanding of what Asia needs for thedevelopment of agriculture within the region.
10. It would be beneficial to developing countries
if JICA, JIRCAS and other funding agencies
in Japan could consider supporting researches
and re-entry programs/projects of fellows
who graduate from Japanese universities
to be conducted when they go back to theirrespective countries. These researchers or
re-entry programs should address problems
confronting the home countries of the fellows.
The reason why most developing countries
suffer from brain drain of technical people
is oftentimes because of the absence ofopportunity for fellows to establish follow-up
researches in their own countries becauseof financial constraints. As a result, most ofthem go to developed countries in order topursue their research interests. Since Japanis a very powerful country in Asia, Japanesefunding agencies may wish to consider
supporting foreign student alumni of Japanese
universities to establish research in respective
countries.
11. To prepare the students to face the challenges
of globalization, universities must come up
with a program that would hone the skills of
the Japanese as well as other Asian students,
especially the research students, to learn
to speak and write their research reports
and thesis in English. It is advisable to docomprehensive literature search on related
topics during the initial three months of thestudent’s stay in a foreign university, thus
exposing oneself to new findings while
gradually learning to write his or her thoughts
and ideas in English.
12. The establishment of academic and alumni
societies in each country such as the one in
Thailand would be a good strategy for bothdevelopment and linkages.
13. The small farmers who comprise about 60% of
total farm families in the world have been left
out from the mainstream of the agriculturaldevelopment process. Because these small
farmers always practice the traditionalfarming, they are usually not interested toadopt the modern technology in farming
because of lack of information on the benefitsof modern technology, or they may lack thecapital to apply new technologies in the farm.
It is therefore recommended that information
on new technologies be extended to the fieldlevel to educate the small farmers, and somedevelopment programs be made available forthe benefit of these small farmers
14. There is an urgent need for a new integrated
field of science that would provide thestudents and faculty the knowledge andskills for integrated agricultural developmentthat can functionally link agriculture crop
production and livestock industry, forestry,and other sciences. This new field of scienceshould allow an interdisciplinary team to teachand do research on sustainable agricultural
system grounded on the principles ofsustainable agriculture development, as well
as expose the students to practical experiencesin sustainable agriculture in Asia.
15. Universities should encourage an academic
exchange program that would allow students
to do relevant research in their own countries
on problems specific to their respective
countries and their advisers to see how they
are going about in their researches. The
student exchange program implemented by
University of Queensland in Australia, andthe one by Kasetsart University, Thailand
with Ethiopia are good examples. The faculty
adviser also needs to see and monitor the
research of the student, although local faculty
supervisors are assigned.
16. It would be advantageous to the students

141Summary, Highlights of Discussion and Closing Statement

and university faculty if JIRCAS would
disseminate information on the guidelines,
procedures and requirements to enable thestudents to avail of opportunities to do visit or
do research with the JIRCAS foreign scientists
in the specific research sites of JIRCAS
projects. In this way, students get exposed
to problems associated with the different
agricultural systems in different countries
which could serve as very good inputs to theimprovement of their own researches when
they go back to their respective universities.
17. Since universities are one of the eligible
institutions to participate in contract-based
projects with JICA, Japanese universities areencouraged to avail of this opportunity bysubmitting proposals to JICA.
18. Universities can certainly play a role inproviding the venue for scientists fromdifferent disciplines to work closely together,and for the training of students who have anappreciation for very fundamental and applied
aspects of science.

142

Closing Statement
In his closing remarks, Dr. Shohei Yamaki
stressed that the main questions and important
points in relation to sustainability in agriculturalscience, the role of universities, and the future
direction of education and research programs
presented by the different resource persons andparticipants in the forum are valuable contributions
that should be documented. The proceedingsof the forum should be able to reflect all the
points raised, the highlights of discussions, andrecommendations made. This publication shouldbe able to provide initially the direction towards
organizing an academic consortium in the fieldof agricultural science. Dr. Yamaki expressed
confidence that the universities, together withthe students and faculty, will certainly play animportant role in the international communities ofagricultural science in the near future.

Acknowledgement
The author expresses cordial gratitude to Dr.
Edicol C. Editha at SEARCA to her excellent
cooperation in editing all the points raising, thehighlights of discussions and recommendations
made at the forum.