1

Participatory Approaches to Sustainable Rural Water Resources Development andManagement : Indian Perspective
Prof. Dr. Asis Mazumdar
Director, School of Water Resources Engineering
Jadavpur University, Kolkata – 700 032, India
Phone : +91 33 2414 6979/ 6161 Fax : +91 33 2414 6886
Email : asismazumdar@yahoo.com
Keywords : Watershed, PIM, WUA, Rainwater Harvesting, Rainfed Agriculture
Summary :India is facing the increasing water stress due to population growth, increase in water demand,
vulnerability from climate change and deterioration in water quality from domestic as well as
industrial and agricultural pollution load. India occupies about 2.45% of the world area and has ashare of 5% of global fresh water resource and with this share of vital natural resources about
16.87% of the world population is to be catered. Currently the population of India is little over 1
billion and it is expected that it will reach a figure of about 1.5 billion by the year 2050. The
water availability per capita per year at present is 1730.6 CM (m3 ) and has almost reached to thewater stressed (<1700 CM) condition.
Despite the tremendous economic development and growth of industries and service sector, thelivelihood of about 68% of Indian population depend on agriculture directly or indirectly. Morethan 70% of its population lives in rural areas although there is an increasing trend of
urbanization in the last two decades. The irrigation water accounts for about 90% of the total
water resources utilization. India stands at a cross roads in institutional options for natural
resources management at local and village levels. The emphasis on future options like watersheddevelopment through participatory approaches coupled with sustainability issues is now widely
recognized as a potential approach for vitalizing the rural economy.
Climate variability in India in terms of rainfall and temperature, has noticeable spatial andtemporal variations. Even after achieving full irrigation potential from surface and sub-surface
water resources, a major portion of cultivated area shall remain rainfed. Furthermore, theconditions may deteriorate in terms of severity of droughts and intensity of flash floods under the
climate change scenario . In this article different measures followed for soil moisture conservation

2

through rainwater harvesting on watershed basis in problematic Laterite, coastal saline and hillzones of West Bengal a state of India are discussed.
Although in recent years, both Government and Non-Government Organizations have stepped up
their efforts in water conservation by rainwater harvesting on watershed basis throughparticipatory approach, the Government of India’s Commitment to Participatory Irrigation
Management (PIM) with the help of Water Users Associations (WUAs) needs to be strengthened
through adoption of its framework from state level down to village level. An attempt is made inthis article to highlight some key factors in structural framework as well as in the operation
domain of PIM involving WUA in the Indian perspective.
Introduction :Watershed is a natural hydrologic entity governed by the terrain topography from where runoff isdrained at a point. Watershed development refers to conservation, regeneration and judicious
utilization of natural resources. It aims to bring about an optimum balance between the demand
and use of natural resources so that they remain sustainable over time. Every human being onearth is a stakeholder in watershed development. And so, for that matter, is every animal,
domesticated and wild – only, they do not have a constituency. We should realize that our wellbeing is inseparable from the well being of the ecosystem (Aswathanarayana, 2001).
The competing demands in agriculture, industry and domestic sectors are fast depleting the water
resources of India. Even after achieving full irrigation potential from surface and sub-surface
water resources, a major portion of cultivated area shall remain rainfed. In the process ofwatershed development, ‘peoples participation’ has been identified as a vital element for successand sustainability of the programme. Environmental regeneration is possible only when theconcerned people realize a need for it and are empowered to have control over the process ofresource utilization, management and conservation. There can be no sustainable natural resource
management unless it involves the participation of all inhabitants of the concerned watershed inan active manner.
In this context a look at Government of India’s Vision for Integrated Water Resources
Development and Management (Ministry of Water Resources, 2003) appears appropriate.
Government of India’s commitment to PIM and the encouragement of water management being
undertaken with the help of WUAs are apparent from a perusal of its National Water Policy.

3

Thus the Water Vision should aim at empowering communities and various stakeholders andbeneficiaries, producing more food and using water more productively, and managing water toconserve the quantity and quality through rainwater harvesting to ensure the existence of healthy
catchments, encouraging more innovation in water resources management, and better governance.
Importance of Participatory Approaches to Sustainable Watershed Development in Rainfed
Areas :
Water Availability in India is Driven by the Monsoon with a high degree of spatial and temporalvariability and the extent varies from 100 mm of mean annual rainfall at westernmost regions to
11,000 mm in some places in northeast part of the country with summer monsoon (June –September) accounts for 75% of the annual rainfall for the major portion of the country. Extreme
temperature variation exists in the range of 50° C in western desert in summer to sub-zero innorthern most area in winter (Table I).
Rainfed agriculture is critical to agricultural performance in India. Nearly half of all food grainsare grown under rainfed conditions and hundreds of million of poor rural people depend on
rainfed agriculture as the primary source of their livelihoods. Of an estimated 143 million ha net
cultivated land in India, about 97 million ha (68%) is rainfed/ dry land producing 44% of thecountry’s food requirements while supporting 40% of human and 60% of livestock
populations(Sharma, 2006). Even if the country’s full irrigation potential of 139.5 million ha isrealized, agricultural production in 75 million ha will continue to be solely dependent on rainfall.
About 15 million ha of dry land lies in the arid region which receives less than 500 mm rainfall;
another 15 million ha is in 500to 750 mm rainfall zone, 42 million ha is in 750 to 1150 mm
rainfall zone, with the remaining 25 million ha receiving more than 1150 mm rainfall per annum.
Droughts occur once in 3 to 5 years either due to a deficit in seasonal rainfall during the main
cropping season or from inadequate soil moisture availability during prolonged dry spells
between successive rainfall events. For more than a century there exists a clear association
between El nino events and weak mo nsoons. Over the period of 1871-1988, 11 of 21 droughtyears were El nino years. Low yields and crop failures often lead to food and fodder scarcity
resulting in a near famine situation that further accelerates the process of land degradation.
Physiographically the rainfed region encompasses 218 Districts including the desert terrain ofRajasthan in the northwest, the plateau region of central India, the alluvial plains of the GangaYamuna river basin, the central highlands of Gujarat, Maharasthtra and Madhya Pradesh, the rain

4

shadow region of Deccan in Maharashtra, the Deccan plateau in Andhra Pradesh and the Tamil
Nadu highlands (Singh et al., 2000). It is in the rainfed belt where cultivation of coarse cereals(91%), pulses (91%), oilseeds (80%) and cotto n (65%) predominates. In these rainfed areas,
farmers’ dependence on livestock besides arable farming, as an alternative source of income, isvery high. Preliminary estimates indicate that nearly two out of three heads of cattle of the total
Indian cattle population of 219 million heads thrive in rainfed regions (FAO, 2000). These dataemphasize the crucial role played by rainfed agriculture in the Indian economy and India’s foodsecurity as the rainfed agriculture would continue to occupy a prominent place in Indian
agriculture for an indefinite period. In the soil and water conservation point of view, the mostvulnerable areas in West Bengal are gravely and lateritic tracts of western districts (Purulia,
Bankura, Birbhum, Western part of Burdwan and West Midnapur), the hilly areas of Darjeeling
district and coastal saline zone mainly comprising of 24-Parganas (South) and 24-Parganas(North) districts. Soil moisture conservation through different insitu rainwater harvesting
practices on watershed basis is the only alternative for improving cropping intensity and thesocio-economic upliftment of farmers in these regions (Ravi Babu, 2006).
Participatory integrated watershed development refers to conservation and regeneration of natural
resources like soil, water and plants through vegetative including afforestaiton, horticulture andpasture development etc. and engineering measures like contour bunding (Figure I), trenching(Figure II), terracing (Figure III), nala bunds, gully plugs (Figure IV) and check dams etc.
through local people active participation.
Soil Moisture Conservation through Rainwater Harvesting on Watershed Basis with
Peoples Participation : State of West Bengal – A Case Study
West Bengal is endowed with remarkable variations in physiographic resources. In the soil andwater conservation point of view, the most vulnerable areas are gravely and lateritic tracts ofwestern districts (Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Western part of Burdwan and West Midnapur), thehilly areas of Darjeeling district and coastal saline zone mainly comprising of 24-Parganas(South) and 24-Parganas (North) districts. Soil moisture conservation through different insitu
rainwater harvesting practices on watershed basis are discussed as below:
Western laterite zone:
Based on the topography and soil characteristics, the land form in this region can be classified
into four groups namely steep sloping (more than 10 %) uplands/barren hillocks (Dungri), upland5(Tanr), midland (Baid) and lowland (Kanali/Bohal). The uplands are mostly in an advanced stateof degradation, lacking humus and major plant nutrients. They are untreated lands and support
low intensity cropping with low productivity, if not actually remaining fallow and barren. The
midlands are mostly terraced Paddy fields with thin soil cover and poor moisture retention
capacities. Seventy percent of total agricultural land in this region falls under upland and midland,
depending mostly on rainfall for any crop to be grown. Annual Paddy is grown in the low lands,
which are relatively fertile and productive. Despite the fact that the amount of rainfall is highenough to sustain the crop growth, but uneven distribution of rainfall during the crop season
causes moisture stress conditions during critical stages of crop growth and lead to frequent crop
failure in the region.
To improve the soil moisture regime of these lands and to address the mid season moisture stresscondition of crops grown in up and midlands, insitu rain water harvesting techniques namely
Staggered Contour Trenches (SCTs)/Continuous Contour Trenches (CCTs), Contour bunding(Figure I), 30:40 and 5 % models (Figure V) etc., have been introduced in the region on microwatershed basis. These measures demonstrated their ability in conserving the rainwater received
during the monsoon season. They helped in maintaining better soil moisture regime conditions,stabilizing yield of crops and providing conducive environment for bringing the severely erodedsoils under the cover of vegetation and grasses. These insitu rainwater-harvesting measures are
now widely acclaimed as successful soil and water conservation measure in the region.
Coastal saline zone:
The coastal area of West Bengal is earmarked by near surface shallow aquifers withsaline/brackish water, whic h is therefore unfit for irrigation purposes. On the other hand, theground water suitable for irrigation is found at greater depths (300 - 400 m) and its exploitation isexpensive and hence not feasible. In most of the coastal area of West Bengal, no perennial canalwith water suitable for irrigation is present. During monsoon, excess water is present, causing
water logging and submergence of crops where as no crop is cultivated during rabi and summer
seasons due to lack of good quality irrigation water. The only alternative left is excavation offarm ponds in individual farmers fields (considering the rest of the field as catchment/watershedof pond) for storing excess rain water during monsoon period and reusing it for giving life saving
protective irrigation to the crops during the post- monsoon period besides practicing pisciculture.
The farm ponds are excavated in 1/4 to 1/3 of the total land holding size of each farmer. The

6

ponds are generally located at the lowest point of the field and the runoff wate r is collected due togravitational flow. The side slope of the ponds varies 1:1 to 2:1. The usual depth of the farm
ponds is maintained at 3 m. The excavated soil is used for construction of peripheral bunds andraising the level of remaining land.
Hill zone:
Agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Darjeeling district. The major food cropgrown in the hills is rainfed Maize, where as Paddy is grown in foothills and plains. In addition to
Tea, Cardamom and Orange are the major plantation crops grown in the region.

The major

source of water supply in Darjeeling hills region is springs or small rivulets locally known as
Jhoras with only limited discharge available during post monsoon period.

The irrigation

facilities exist only in 8 - 10% of the cultivated land predominantly from perennial jhoras andriver lift irrigation in the foothills. The cropping intensity in Darjeeling district is as low as 110%.
To improve the present level of cropping intensity and productivity in Darjeeling hill waters heds,
construction of bench terraces by breaking the steep slopes and structures for collection of rainwater for giving life saving protective irrigation to crops during critical stages of crop growth
were introduced. As inherent topographic features and steep slopes do not allow the farmers ofDarjeeling hills for construction of large water harvesting structures, therefore, Small Water
Harvesting Tanks (Figure VI) with hand pack retaining walls are increasingly becoming popularin this region. These tanks are filled with water either from the nearby springs using siphon pipes
or diverting the excess runoff from their catchment area. The stored water is utilized for giving
life saving irrigation to Maize, Cardamom plantation and Vegetables, which are grownextensively in the region. Under cutting and landslides are common in Darjeeling hills. Hence, forproviding stability to the structure, hand packed and rough dressed retaining walls with locallyavailable stones/boulders are usually made and stone boulder soling of pond base is carried out.
Moreover, stones are hand packed from the foundation level. Other soil moisture conservation
treatments for hill watersheds include repairs to the bench terraces, dressing and stone pitching ofrisers of bench terraces for stability of sloppy lands and stream training works.
The Role of Water Users Association in Participatory Irrigation Management :A practical definition of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) in the Indian context is that
PIM involves a Water Users Association (WUA) taking over management (including operationand maintenance) of at least one level of canals above the outlet (i.e. the minor canal) and also

7being associated with State Irrigation and Command Area Development (CAD) Progrmmes,
Agriculture and Water Resources Departments, efforts at improved and integrated water andagriculture management. Simultaneously, PIM involves a redefinition and refocusing (and not amere reduction or downsizing) of government’s role in irrigation so as to lead to a genuine
partnership or joint management between the government and WUAs. Thus, PIM involves anapproach based upon integrated and joint management of irrigation with the community (in theform of the WUA) and government agencies working together for equitable, rational, timely, andconvenient allocation of water and increase in efficiencies both in canal management and on-fieldwater application. Hooja (2006) opines that the PIM approach should allow flexibility fromregion to region, irrigation system to irrigation system and even WUA to WUA. It can be applied
to major, medium and minor irrigation and even to larger tank or lift irrigation systems,
PIM legislation should specify that regardless of whether the source is lift irrigation (from rivers
or from community tube wells), or a tank system or a conventional irrigation system based uponstorage and water distribution, wherever water is to be distributed between 30 or more farmers,
the PIM and WUA approach should be mandatory.
The organization structure of WUAs and functions would differ for small river lifts (RLIs) or
tube well lifts, from those for tank systems or larger irrigation and Command Area Development
Schemes. For regular irrigation or command area schemes each canal minor should have a WUA
with two members each being provided for, in the Management Committee from head, middle
and tail areas respectively of the minor. As long as Water rights continue to be linked to landownership, each landholder drawing water from the canal minor (or from the RLIs or Community
tube wells) would be a member of the WUA.
Various State governments in India have gone in either for a ‘big bang’ approach of uniform andsimultaneous introduction of PIM throughout the State based upon, and preceded by legislation(the leading example being Andhra Pradesh), or have gone in for some sort of a ‘bottom-up’ slow
and steady approach (starting with pilot projects) of motivating and facilitating the creation of
WUAs wherever the farmers agree to voluntarily come together and to form them so that they
gradually take over some functions on their local irrigation systems.
Conclusion :The rainfed areas which constitute about 70 per cent of cropped land in the country suffer fromseries of problems such as low and erratic rainfall, high degradation of land resources, huge

8volume of runoff, depletion of soil fertility due to continuous soil erosion, depleting ground waterlevels due to over exploitation, low crop productivity and production, low income, lack of
employment opportunities and low standard of living. Over a period of time, participatory
integrated watershed approach for systematic development of rainfed areas has been evolved toaddress these critical problems. Water Resources Development and management with peoples
participation needs to be strengthened through empowerment of Water Users Association.
Recommendations :v Involving all stakeholders in integrated water resources development and management.
v Empowering and institutionalizing Water Users Association.
v Movement towards full cost pricing of all water services.
v Increased pubic funding for research and innovation.
v Increased cooperation internationally (and, may we add, even intra-nationally) in river basins.
v Capacity building programme for all level of stake holder, policy makers, Government
functionaries and researchers for various aspects of PIM involving WUA for sustainable rural
water resources development and management
References :Aswathanarayana, U., 2001. Water Resources Management & Environment. A. A. Balkema,
Netherlands.
FAO, 2000. Year Book, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Hooja, R., 2006. Management of Water for Agriculture, Rawat Publications, India.
Ministry of Water Resources, 2003. Vision For Integrated Water Resources Development andManagement, Govt. of India.
Ravi Babu, R., 2006. Rain Water Harvesting: Mazumdar, A.(Ed.), Soil Moisture Conservation
through Rain Water Harvesting on Watershed Basis. School of Water Resources Engineering,
Jadavpur University, India.
Sharma, K. D., Soni, B., 2006. Land Use Diversification for Sustainable Rainfed Agriculture,
Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
Singh, H.P., Venkateswarlu, B., Vittal, K.P.R. and Ramachandran, K., 2000. Manage ment of
rainfed agro-ecosystem. International Conference on managing Natural Resources for Sustainable
Agricultural Production in the 21 st Century, Indian Society of Soil Science, New Delhi.

9Table – I

INDIA – LAND AND WATER RESOURCES AT A GLANCE

General♦Geographical Area:♦

Location:♦

Forest Cover:

21.11 %♦

Population (As on 01.03.2005):

1097.1 Million♦

Average Annual Rainfall:

1170 mm♦♦

329 MhaLatitude 8º-4´ & 37º-6´ North
Longitude 68º-7´ & 97º-25´ East

Major River Basins:(Catchment Area more than 20,000 sq.km)
Medium River Basins

12 nos. having catchment Area.
253 Mha:(Catchment Area less than 20,000 sq.km)

46 Nos. having catchment Area.
25 MhaWater R esources♦

Natural Run-off:

1869.35 BCM♦

Estimated Utilisable Surface Water Resources:

690 BCM♦

Total Replenishable Groundwater Resources:

432 BCM♦

Total Annual Utilisable Water Resources:

1122 BCM♦

Available Groundwater Resources of Irrigation:

361 BCMLand Resources♦

Total Cultivable Land (200-02) (P):184 Mha♦Ultimate Irrigation Potential:

140 Mha♦Cumulative Irrigation Potential created upto – 2004-05.

:

105.30 Mha♦

Gross Sown Area (2001-02) (P):

190.3 Mha♦

Net Sown Area (2001-02) (P):141.3 Mha♦

Gross Irrigated Area (2001-02) (P):76.4 Mha♦

Net Irrigated Area (2001-02) (P):55.9 Mha♦

Food Grain Production during 1950-51:

50.8 m.t.

♦

Food Grain Production during 2003-04:

213.5 m.t.

Source : INCID NEWS, Volume 5, Issue No. 4, 2005.

10

Contour Bunding

Contour Trenches

Bench Terraces in Hills

Series of Gully Plugs

5% Technique

Water Harvesting Tank on Hill Slopes