CJANG 1In-Sung“East Asian Community and Intercultural Studies”
Symposiumore presentation
The Social Construction ofan East Asian Community
and Regional Culture
JANG In-Sung
Professor, Seoul National University

Prologue: Between the Reality and the Ideal

workings of globalism and nationalism. However, it also
implies an ideal presumed in those theories and dis-With the end of the Cold War and the subsequent

courses on East Asia whose main concern is to transformtide of globalization, the East Asian region has under-

the region into one with strong sociality and cohesion.

gone significant structural changes. A set of split bilat-

Some actively seek regional cooperation to cope witheral relations in the area has gradually become moreglobalization and global capitalism, while others put for-complicated and evolved into multilateral relations. Mu-

ward a number of solutions to overcome the nation-statetual interactions have deepened as economic interde-paradigm. The former presupposes the ideas of a coop-pendence and cultural exchanges increased between theerative body aiming to adjust conflicting national inter-

East Asian countries, forming new social relations. But

ests and increase common interests between the member

on the other hand, the East Asian nations are facing

states in some fields, while the latter holds the ideas offierce economic competitions and experiencing the oc-

a regional community, where common norms or institu-

casional burst of nationalist sentiments, often resulting

tions are shared in every level of the fields.

in political frictions. They are both cooperating andIt may be possible to establish a cooperative bodycompeting with each other at an unprecedented level. As

in the region, but building a regional community cannot

a result, East Asia is transforming from a reactive region,

be easily accomplished because of the persistent domi-

which is controlled by powers outside of the region andnance of the nation-state paradigm and the principle ofwhose identity was designated by them, into a proactive

territorial sovereignty. There is a huge gap between theregion, in which the member states take an active partcurrent system of nation-states and the ideal community.

in the formation of their own regional identity.

The theory of a regional community tends to propose

Regionalism in East Asia denotes the reality of thenormative prospects of the East Asian region, and some-regional structural change caused by the correlative

times it reflects the selfishness of states to increase their

11

The Social Construction of an East Asian Community and Regional Culture

national interests. If the states in the region maintainvariable. Andre G. Frank argues that East Asia had been

their selfish behaviors, they can do no more than build

the center of the world economy until the end of thea cooperative body. But if they merely follow the nor-eighteenth century. Kaoru Sugihara has underlined themative propositions, they cannot achieve what they wantsupremacy of the East Asian economy over that of Eu-

because of the gap between their ideal and the reality. Ifrope and the effectiveness of East Asian patterns by

one sees the establishment of an East Asian community

praising East Asian labor-intensive production and in-as the final goal of East Asian regionalism, this gap must

dustriousness. Takeshi Hamashita has clarified East1

be filled or lessened. The idea of East Asia from the

Asian economic dynamism by analyzing how trade net-strategic point of view will be of no use here. To fill theworks worked in maritime Asia.2 Since all these re-gap between the reality and the ideal, some reflection

assessments of East Asia are basically conducted on theshould be made epistemologically to project a visionpresumption that equates any economic development

into the region. That is to say, rational consideration

with the capitalist “civilization,” there is little room forshould be made to understand the structural changes in“culture”.

the East Asian region and thereby to grasp its social con-

Such a viewpoint is adopted in the discourse of East

struction focusing on regional culture from the view-

Asian economic community or cooperative body thatpoint of international society and culture.

puts emphasis on economic rationality and efficiency.
For instance, Yonosuke Hara’s theory of East Asian

East Asia Discourses and “Culture”“Culture” in East Asia Discourses

economy envisions the creation of a “New Asia” and“area study of East Asian civilization” by building an
East Asian economic body of cooperation or economic

There are a variety of ways to imagine East Asia.

community3. His theory is a response to global capital-

Some aim to redress the negative image of East Asia in

ism in economic rationality based on national economy.

the past; others are interested in explaining the economic

In trade network theory in general and the discourse ofdevelopment as well as the democratization of the East

East Asian economy in particular, “culture” is forgotten

Asian countries; still others place emphasis on the ne-

and trapped in “national culture”. Put differently, when

cessity of constructing a regional community or “an East

the formation of “an East Asian civilization” is seen as

Asian civilization” as an alternative to Western civiliza-a reaction to capitalist civilization, “culture” is unavoid-tion from a postmodern perspective. Understandably, theably reduced to “civilization”.

concept of “culture” bears different meanings for eachof the groups.
As for those who study the economic development

Meanwhile, in the discourses on Asian values, Confucian capitalism and Confucian democracy, East Asianpolitical economies are discussed by employing the vari-of the region from the viewpoint of “civilization,” “cul-able “culture.” Such terms as “Asian values,” “Confu-

ture” tends to be disregarded or treated as a dependentcianism”, and “traditional cultures,” all carry strong1
2
3This article does not intend to prove that the construction of an East Asian community is a historical necessity, but rather argues for alogical process to be searched for when the historical necessity is assumed and wished for in the light of historical evolution.
Jang In-Sung, “Remapping East Asia as an International Society: the Discourses on East Asia and Asian Identity in Contemporary Korea,”
Kazuko Mori and Kenichiro Hirano eds., A New East Asia: Toward a Regional Community (Singapore: NUS Press, 2007).
Yonosyke Hara, A New East Asia (Tokyo: NTT Shuppan, 2002 in Japanese).

12

JANG In-Sung

cultural connotations, and are used to explain the natureterms “(regional) norm community” and “epistemicof economy or politics in the region. But there is no re-community” are comprised of such issue areas as poli-

ligion or value system that works as a prevailing ideol-

tics, security, economy, and culture, and convey the no-ogy. “Culture,” however, is also considered as ation of “culture” at a regional level. In doing so, they

dependent variable of East Asian “civilization” from theprovide room for broadening the range of “culture” thatviewpoint of the capitalist political economy. “Culture”

has been confined to “national culture.” Nonetheless,is regarded as the basis of regional identity, but the con-they do not represent “culture,” but can only appear

cept of “national culture” is not jettisoned. Underlying

upon the “culture” of the international realm as shown

this viewpoint is the belief that “East Asian civilization”

in the European community.

as a whole should take on the task of competing with
Western civilization.

“International culture,” the culture of the international region, can be defined neither as an aggregation

By contrast, the Korean reflective discourse on Eastof national cultures nor as a counter-culture to global

Asia, which is interested in constructing an alternative

culture. Every community or society presupposes its

civilization or proactive East Asia from a postmodern

own distinctive culture. Every national community op-

perspective, seeks to overcome the nation-state para-erates on and is preserved by its own national culture.

digm by employing the viewpoint of “East Asia as a

Evidently, international or regional community does notmethod”, while responding to the transformation of na-

arise from national cultures; it needs international or re-tion-states triggered by depoliticization and territorial

gional culture. By the same token, the culture of an East

permeability as a result of the end of the Cold War andAsian community cannot be expected to arise from theglobalization. Their reflection, however, reveals theirperspective of national culture. In a nutshell, East Asian

mentality to resist global capitalism as well as to docommunity presupposes the existence of “East Asianaway with the insecurity of globalization and their con-culture.” Imaginary East Asian culture cannot but re-4cern about the possible rise of regional hegemons. For

main a fiction unless the regional community works. To

them, “East Asia” is an alternative civilization to global

construct a community, one needs to generate culture.

capitalist civilization. Hence, it is impossible to envisage

Building an East Asian community is equivalent to cre-

“East Asian culture” equivalent to “global culture” orating East Asian culture. Any discourse on East Asian“national culture.”community will therefore be a discourse on East AsianThis critical review of the East Asia discourses
holds a perspective that “culture” preserves the regional

culture. And regional culture is supposed to mediate
global culture and national cultures.

society by providing an identity for its members. Such
conception of “culture” cannot be derived from the term

“East Asian World” and “East Asian Culture”“(regional) cultural community.” For the latter, even

Half a century ago, Sadao Nishijima coined thethough it has become fashionable nowadays, is still con-terms “the East Asian Cultural Sphere” and “the East

fined to the idea of culture as a specific issue area. The

Asian World” with a view of depicting the East Asian

4

On the Korean reflexive discourses on East Asia, see Jang In-Sung, “Remapping East Asia as an International Society.”

13

The Social Construction of an East Asian Community and Regional Culture

region. The former represents an area in which Chinese

between globalism and nationalism. Secondly, regional

characters, Confucian cultures and the Chinese legal

culture should be conceived as in close relation to both

system were shared, while the latter stands for a self-ful-

regional politics and economy. “Culture” in the past wasfilled world established by the Chinese cultural spherea substantive concept concerning politico-economic

by means of the tributary system.5 Even though Nishi-

power within “the East Asian World”. Not only the term

jima’s concept of “the East Asian World” garnered con-

“East Asian culture” or “oriental culture” formulated

siderable attention for examining the Japanese history

under and for the Japanese imperial system, but also the6from the perspective of world history (regional history),term “American culture” born during the Cold War, re-what is more notable is his view that the cultural sphere

flect the power relationships among the states. Likewise,is inseparably connected with political order. “The Eastthe emerging East Asian culture may be considered in

Asian World” was a self-sufficient regional world,

relation to the regional politico-economic phenomena.

wherein Chinese political order (tributary system) and

Needless to say, however, both the terms “the East

civilization (Confucian texts) operated as did “the Eu-

Asian cultural sphere” and “the East Asian world,” asropean world” or “the Islamic world” in their respective

they are based on the politico-economic center-periph-

regions. The tributary trade system and trade networks

ery relationships in the Chinese world order, are unsuit-

were economic factors that constituted “the East Asianable for the present situation. The term “East Asianworld.” “The East Asian World” was later replaced byculture” necessarily has different meanings if “culture”“the Greater-East Asian world” and “Oriental culture”

is confined to national culture intertwined with national

under the auspices of the Japanese Empire. Under theidentity in the competitive system of nation-states, andCold War system, the control the two regional hege-

if a regional culture overarching the national culturesmons, China and Japan, had over the area for a long timearises under the wave of globalization. In short, “Eastwas destroyed by the two outer-regional hegemons, theAsian culture” is neither a mere aggregation of national

United States and Russia. But the end of the Cold War

cultures nor a revival of traditional cultures of the Eastand the process of globalization have encouraged the

Asian countries. Rather, it will emerge through the social

proactive formation of an East Asian regional world.

construction of the East Asian region under the wave ofHere we can extract two useful perspectives for in-globalization.

vestigating contemporary East Asia. First, “East Asia”
can be regarded as a regional world, and “East Asian
culture” as a unit of analysis. Increasing public intra-regional interchanges beyond national cultures makes

The Social Construction of the East Asian Region“East Asian International Society”

room for discussing the formation of a regional culture.

The perspective of “international society” can be

There is a prospect that regional culture may emerge in

useful in thinking about the “regional world” and “re-56

Nishijima, Sadao, “The Formation of East Asia,” History of the World, Iwanami Koza, vol.4 (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1970 in Japanese);
Nishijima, Sadao, The Chinese Ancient State (Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, 1983 in Japanese).
Sung-Si Yi, however, criticizes that Nishijima’s theory of the East Asian world is confined to national (Japanese) history. Sung-Si Yi, The
Formation of East Asian Cultural Sphere (Tokyo: Yamakawa Publishing Co., 2000 in Japanese); Sung-Si Yi, The Ancient Created (Seoul:Samin, 2001 in Korean), Part III “The Formation of East Asian Cultural Sphere.”14

JANG In-Sung

gional culture” in East Asia. At the moment, the East

the concept of ideational regionalism (“Orientalism,”

Asians are facing threefold transformation: (1) global“Asianism”), but their efforts were overshadowed by thetransformation toward global capitalism and global so-

Japanese imperial power which imposed Japan-centeredciety, (2) national transformation rearranging nation-

regional order in the course of its expansion. Exposed

states and national economy in accordance with global

to world politics introduced by the U.S. and the Sovietchange, and (3) regional transformation occurring inUnion, nationalism in East Asia had little opportunity toclose connection with global and national transforma-

evoke regionalism. This was because the East Asiantions. The end of the Cold War, economic development,

countries were unable to connect themselves to global-

and globalization have instigated these transformations,ism under the Cold War. Put briefly, the empire systemand they in turn have transformed the East Asian area

had influenced East Asian regional relations for a longfrom a reactive region dependent on the design of outertime, and the nation-state system was incapable of form-

powers to a proactive region constructed independently

ing a normal regional international society because sov-by its own members, and from a set of split bilateral re-ereign inequality brought about the imbalance within thelations to a complex network of multilateral relations,area. The only exception was an incomplete operationbuilding an international society of states hitherto un-in the late nineteenth century.

seen in the area. Enlarging political sovereignty, deep-“System” is a mechanism of structure, actor, andening economic interdependency, and increasing stateinteraction, which conditions the nature of a “society.”autonomy, all have stimulated the formation of an inter-

International system is not international society, thoughnational society in East Asia.

it shapes the nature of it. The nation-state system has

For centuries, because of the enduring influencestransformed the traditional international order in Eastof regional as well as global powers, East Asia had noAsia. Yet, the formation of a new kind of sociality was

opportunity to construct an international society withaffected not only by the workings of the inherited social

equal sovereignty. Interventions in the region by global

relationships, but also by the newly-organized power re-powers obstructed mutual interactions between the East

lationships or the implementation of distributive power

Asian countries, and the intra-regional imbalance ofin East Asia. Unlike Europe where the international sys-

power hampered the formation of sociality within the

tem and international society evolved simultaneously

area. International society suitable for the international

and ultimately achieved the creation of the European

system hardly ever emerged partly because of the inter-

Union, there has been an unbridgeable gulf between theregional imbalance of power between the Western pow-

acceptance of the international system and the formationers and the East Asian countries having increased theof international society in East Asia. The kind of inter-vulnerability of the East Asian region, and in part be-national society that Europe has established did notcause the intra-regional imbalance of power between theemerge in East Asia, despite the introduction of such

East Asian countries caused by different levels of sov-principles as sovereignty, international law, and the bal-ereignty and development resulted in regional instabil-ance of power that control social relations. International

ity. A number of East Asian intellectuals who weresystem and international society developed separately.

concerned about foreign threats formulated an image ofWhat East Asia had experienced was not so much “thea united East Asian region (“the Orient”). They createdexpansion of a European international society” as “the15The Social Construction of an East Asian Community and Regional Culture

expansion of a European international system.” 7 The

ereign state system is an objective factor of international

gap between the modern international system and thesocietalization, the perceptions or ideas of international

East Asian international society cannot be bridged withsociety, that is, ways in which people conceive of global

the concept of international socialization, which meansor regional relations, is its subjective factor. The Chinese“entrance” or “entry” into the European international so-

had a China-centered notion of the region. They imag-

ciety, or “acceptance” of its norms, values, and practices.

ined a regional world with a concentric circular type ofDuring the transition from the China-centered sys-

center-peripheral structure managed by Chinese norms.

tem to the system of sovereign states and then to the

By contrast, the Japanese cherished a dichotomous

Japanese imperial system, which exacerbated the intra-

image of Japan versus the West, begetting wavelike

regional imbalance of power, the East Asians have car-types of images with which they perceived East Asia as

ried their own notions of the region, while accepting thea target for Japan’s expansion to overcome the West.

principles of the European states system. Here one canHowever, the Koreans envisaged a tripod-structured re-formulate the concept of international societalization,

gion consisted of Japan, China, and Korea in the hopewhich means the social construction of an internationalthat Korea would survive and develop further by keep-

region. This concept enables us to reflect on the creation

ing the balance of power between the three. For them,of social relations without disregarding East Asian ex-

such a balance was a prerequisite for establishing global

periences and power relations, while taking the acceptedbalance between the West and East Asia. These ideas ofprinciples of the international system into account. In-

the region still persist despite the process of globaliza-

ternational societalization points to a process of social

tion, and add a new geo-political/economic dimension

construction interconnected with the accepted principles

to the region. The Chinese notion of region is projectedof the international system and the sociality of the cur-into the larger Asia, seeing East Asia or Northeast Asia

rent East Asian region. It is also a process of creation byas part of it. The Japanese conception of region is cen-

combining the actual “expansion” of the global system

tered on East Asia, but also includes Southeast Asia as

and the independent “transformation” of the regional so-

it was formulated with the intention of building aciety. It also encompasses a kind of acculturation

broader area of economic cooperation under the leader-whereby principles and institutions of the international

ship of Japan. The Koreans tend to focus on Northeast

system are reinterpreted and transformed by the prac-

Asia in their conception of region and their main con-tices (norms, values and ideas) of the recipients. In thiscern resides in Korean security and development. These

theory, the East Asian countries are viewed as subjects

different geographical images of East Asia make it al-of international transformation.

most impossible to form a common regional identity or

If the power structure generated by the correlative

shared understanding needed to build a regional society

workings of globalism and nationalism under the sov-or community and to envisage a regional world like “the7On the expansion of European international society, see Hedley Bull and Adam Watson eds., The expansion of international society (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1984). In his contribution to this work, Hidemi Suganami deals with the East Asian entrance into European internationalsociety. For recent studies on the East Asian entrance into European international society, see Yongjin Zhang, China in international society
since 1949: alienation and beyond (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998); Shogo Suzuki, Civilization and empire: China and Japan’s encounter with European international society (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009).

16

JANG In-Sung

East Asian World.”

flicts between the East Asian countries, hindering theYet, these different notions of region can stimulatebuilding of an international society and the progress to-the imagination for “one East Asia” and further invig-

ward an international community. In some respects,

orate the dynamism of international societalization. And

competing for national interests is becoming fiercer, dis-

the will to sovereign equality and economic/social de-putes appear over territorial and historical issues, andvelopment to overcome those differences can enable thenationalist sentiments are surfacing. These appear toregional actors to develop a vision for constructing a

have been caused by the diversification of intra-regional

new sociality in the area. Indeed, the end of the Cold

relations, the increase of economic capabilities, and theWar, the economic development of the East Asian re-

improvement of sovereign inequality, which in turn weregion, and globalization, all have encouraged the forma-

triggered by the dismantling of the Cold War system thattion of an international society in the region. The end of

had functioned as a security umbrella over the region.

the Cold War mitigated the regulations wielded by non-

Nonetheless, their rivalries are effectively placed under

Asian powers over the area and accelerated structuralcontrol and do not escalate into fatal collisions. This sug-changes within the area. Economic development has al-gests that the regional actors have reached a stage where

lowed the East Asian countries to become independent

they start to form social relations by enhancing interac-actors capable of forming their own regional commu-

tions and communication. The post-Cold War and glob-

nity. It has enhanced their autonomy and improved thealization call for escaping from “the fetters of theregional balance and mutual recognition among them-system” and rediscovering modern rationality, not un-selves. And globalization promotes various economic

shackling of “the fetters of modernity” in pursuit of post-

activities within the region. Loosened restrictions frommodernity.

the outer-regional powers have improved regional balance, while growing economic activities have madeThe Social Construction of an East Asian Community

ample room for building an international society in East

International society, according to Hedley Bull, ex-Asia. Economic and cultural interactions (trade and cul-

ists “when a group of states, conscious of certain com-tural exchanges) within the region are also increasing.

mon interests and common values, form a society in the

As the societies strengthen their independence as a result

sense that they conceive themselves to be bound by aof social development (i.e. democratization), and as thecommon set of rules in their relations with one another,non-state actors expand their regional activities, state-and share in the working of common institutions.”8 In-

centered and ethnocentric thinking appears to be in de-ternational society appears when there are common in-cline. Interstate co-operations and transnationalterests and values, shared understanding of legal andactivities of non-state actors have not only multiplied,

moral rules, and when international law functions as

but both the states and non-state actors have begun tonorms. Also worth noting is Bull’s argument that a groupjoin hands in the process of cooperation and exchange.

of states must be conscious of these factors and conceive

Of course, there still exist confrontations and con-themselves to be bound by them, and share them. Inter-

8

Hedley Bull, The anarchical society: a study of order in world politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), p.13.

17

The Social Construction of an East Asian Community and Regional Culture

national society appears when the states share their in-plies more cohesive social relationships and holds moreterests, values and institutions with each other. Under-

demarcated boundaries than the word “society”. The

standing is a kind of empathy with reality. The wider

boundary of a community is delineated by closed mem-and the deeper it gets, the more comprehensive and co-bership and common interests. To become a member ofhesive international society becomes. One can equate

a community one needs to share values and norms withthe social construction of an international society withother members. The term “East Asian community” is no

the building of an understanding system by sharing com-different.

mon interests and values and forming rules and institu-

To build an East Asian community, we need totions. Social construction presupposes socialitychange the nature of the East Asian region from “soci-formation. By sociality, I mean the degree of under-ety” to “community.” However, as the building of “in-standing, cohesion, and communication conducted in a

ternational society” itself is still an on-going process in

specific range of society, and the nature of social rela-

the region, any vision of an “East Asian community”

tions depending on the characteristics of the actors andmust take the formation of an “East Asian international

the power relations among them. Thus, sociality

society” into consideration. Put otherwise, it requires se-

emerges out of social relations, but it also conditions so-rious thinking on the logical process of constructing ancial relations. Changes in the international system bring“East Asian community” from the view of “international

about the transformation of sociality, but despite suchsociety.” To comprehend this process, we need to thinkchanges sociality remains largely intact. This makes aabout not only the historical experience and the logicalregional international society more tangible and intimate

composition of the region, but more importantly the nat-than an abstract (world) international society.

ural and artificial construction of the society.

The social construction of an international society

Social relations in the international society dependin East Asia can be achieved by enhancing communica-

on the commitment of the actors to their region and theirtion and strengthening sociality through forming norms

activities withinit.9 Behaviors of the states in pursuit ofthat will keep a tight rein on self-destructive competi-

national interests will necessitate regional cooperations.

tions between the selfish actors and making values to

There will be more opportunities to sign agreements

moderate them. Geographical proximity, economical in-(contracts) and form institutions, as well as to produce

terdependence and cultural similarities all contribute topractices, while swinging between competition andthe forging of suitable conditions to make efficient social

communication. The transnational commitment of non-relations and drawing the boundary of social interac-state actors and their activities will also change sociality

tions. Boundaries of a society depend on the degree toand enhance cooperative relationship in the area. Just as

which its members share interests, values, and norms,

civil societies have emerged and prospered as a result ofand its membership is open to everyone. In the East

economic and social developments (modernization andAsian languages, however, the word “community” im-democratization), and thereby changed the nature of the9Both the concepts of “commitment” and “activity” are borrowed from Ross Poole. He argues that liberal and democratic culture is required
for the formation of liberal and democratic institutions, and citizens’ “commitment” to and “activity” in a community is a condition forsuch a culture. Ross Poole, “Patriotism and nationalism,” Igor Primoratz and Aleksandar Pavkovic, eds., Patriotism: philosophical andpolitical perspectives (Hampshire: Ashgate, 2002), pp.134-135.

18

JANG In-Sungstates, the institutionalization of cooperation can harness

on historical rationality by experience.

the egoism of the states and increase their commitments
to the region as well as their activities within the region.

The “Construction” or “Creation” of Regional Norms

An “East Asian community” may naturally be gener-

If because of the difficulties inherent in the region

ated, when an international society exhibits a high level

the evolutionary formation (historical generation) of anof institutionalization, and when the actors in the region

East Asian community is impossible, and if building ashare a strong sense of solidarity. Boundary is naturally

regional community is the only way to the future, we

determined by the range of interactions in the area. This

need to consider the possibility of deliberately construct-regional community is an object of evolution. It is en-ing (teleological creation) of an East Asian community

visaged in the temporal context of the formation of thewhich will prevent the fragmentation of the region andregion. More importantly, it is based not on abstract rea-enhance the cohesion of the region. This means that wesoning but on historical rationality attained through his-need to create norms or institutions. Creating norms istorical experience.

an act of lessening the gap between the existing inter-

The East Asian region, however, is not a complete,national society and the ideal of an international com-self-fulfilled “world” or “the regional world” as in “themunity. Created norms can harness interests and also

East Asian World.” As far as “the globe” is accepted asfunction as a catalyst for creating ideas to encourage so-“the world,” both East Asian states and non-state actors

cial construction in which interests, ideas and norms

are involved in global capitalism, moving beyond their

may work together.

national boundaries. The East Asian region now holds

If one accepts that common interests are shared bymulti-centered and multi-layered networks. But it isagreed norms, it is possible to adjust interests and con-highly unlikely that the East Asian international society

trol the egoistic desires of each actor which disturbs theirwill evolve naturally toward an international community

own yearning for a regional community. If the Eastsimilar to a village community or the European commu-

Asian community does not exist, the concept of it must

nity possessed with a demarcated boundary, shared

be weak and remain only as an idea. Such a communal-

norms, and cohesive social relations. The spontaneous

ist perspective appears to be ineffective, and hence theformation of a regional community cannot be expecteddiscourse on East Asian identity remains idealistic. Ideas

because overlapping networks and transnational behav-

or identities can bear practical meanings only wheniors of the actors make it difficult to draw a boundary.

norms are perceived as important for the regional life of

Besides, globalism has instigated regional transforma-

the actors. By the mediation of norms, the conception

tions, and the states within the region continue to cherishof community can work as a regulatory idea harnessing

their selfish interests. Some intentional decisions mustthe egoistic desire of the actors beyond merely being an

be made to construct an East Asian community, if it

ideal reference. Norms or institutions can be a catalyst

should be a historical and logical consequence and a task

for mediating the workings of egoism (interest) andof some urgency. Here an East Asian community is ancommunalism (idea). Regional norms can serve as aobject of deliberate creation. That is, it is imagined inmechanism for regulating state egoism and guarding thethe spatial context of creating the region employing ab-region from excessive intrusions of globalism.

stract rationality by reason, while at the same time based

By deliberately creating norms it may be possible

19

The Social Construction of an East Asian Community and Regional Culture

to bridge the gap between policy and discourse, one ofcial relationships in the East Asian region. In otherthe greatest weaknesses lurking behind the idea of an

words, diffusion or to be spread out means “preponder-

East Asian community. There has always been a deep

ance,” that is, preponderant influence a certain issue area

disparity between East Asian policies of decision makers

has over other issue areas like an umbrella. Whereas

and the regionalism of intellectuals. For the latter, theunder the Chinese and Japanese Empires the preponder-

idea of an East Asian community often circulates as anant dominance of state power determined social rela-item for sale. For the former, however, it works as ations within the system, imposing their own ideologies,

camouflage to conceal their intention of promoting thethe creation of norms controlling the individual statesinterests of their own nations. Norms can function as aand societies in the twenty-first century East Asian re-mediator to project an idea of community into nationalgion, where sovereign equality works, will be possible

policy, and the idea of community reflected in foreign

through the preponderance of a specific field as the in-policies can in turn serve as a regulatory idea, preventing

stitutionalization of it can be extended to cover the total

political leaders from exploiting it as a strategy or rhet-

issue areas.

oric.
Such concepts as Gesellschaft and diffusion may“East Asian Culture”

be useful in discussing the creation of norms. Insofar as
the egoistic states struggle for their own national inter-“Regional Culture”

ests, and there exists no community or Gemeinschaft,

Creating regional norms, as hinted above, is closely

where the individual good may be realized through theassociated with forming “regional culture.” Under thecommon good, norms can be created by a rational con-situation that modern civilization acts as global civiliza-

struction based on contractual agreements between thetion, the perspective of setting up East Asian civilization

actors. If there were no common culture for shared un-

as a unit of analysis will be of no use. It is better to con-derstanding, the creation of institutions invigorating thesider “international culture” or “regional culture” at acommitment of the actors and their activities within theregional level where global civilization functions as anregion would give rise to the process of accommodatingumbrella. In general, “culture” means either traditional

the individual interests toward the common good. When

culture or national culture. It is regarded as one of many

creating norms the role of states must not be disregarded

issue areas such as politics, economy and security. This

since the non-state actors are not powerful enough toconcept of culture is found in such expressions as “cul-make norms.

tural exchange” and “cultural community”. While the

The creation of international norms can be put into

goal of “cultural exchange” is mutual understanding be-practice by its concentrative formation in a specific issue

tween national cultures or intercultural conversations toarea and its “diffusion” to the other areas. Here, diffu-

ease the friction and seek symbiosis, that of “culturesion means “spread out,” and not “spillover” as func-

community” is to make a common cultural basis by ex-tionalists would describe it. Neither cooperation nor

tracting common cultural elements from East Asian na-

institutionalization in low politics naturally spills overtional cultures.

to high politics, for issue areas are fragmented, andAny reflection on East Asian “regional culture”

power relations in politics and security areas control so-

must, therefore, start with distinguishing between “civ-20

JANG In-Sungilization” and “culture.” When dealing with East Asianthe Western intrusion into East Asia, imperial rule and“regional culture”, the viewpoint that sees civilization

hegemonic influence. Culture is interfered with by civ-

as a collection of culture or a common denominator isilization as shown in East Asian traditional or modern

not very helpful. An anthropological perspective which

cultures being delivered under the umbrella of civiliza-

regards culture as a way of life of social members cantion like Chinese and Japanese imperial civilizations or

be useful in conceptualizing international or regionalmodern civilization. “East Asian Culture” was conveyed

10

culture. “Regional culture” is neither a total sum nor aunder the umbrella of Confucian civilization, “Oriental

common denominator of national or civil cultures. It is

Culture” under Japanese imperial civilization, and mod-a culture that exists at a regional level, in which state

ern cultures in the East Asian societies under emerging

and non-state actors are constructed through their re-modern East Asian civilization, which took shape undergional life, and their regional life is shaped. Regional

the umbrella of Western modern civilization.12 This im-

culture can be defined as “a set of devices for regional

plies that regional culture must be considered in relation

life.” It can be reduced neither to national culture nor toto modern civilization.

global culture, even though it is positioned between the

Two implications can be drawn here for “regional

two. Regional culture emerges when the actors withinculture.” First, regional culture in East Asia is consid-

the region find some of their identities and lives in theirered as creating a common regional identity and promot-

regional life, that is, while sharing the universal values

ing the formation of a regional community whileof global culture and keeping the values of national cul-preserving the structural balance among the East Asiantures. In other words, it emerges when the region ac-societies or cultures and mediating communication. Sec-quires a practical meaning by their commitments to East

ond, East Asian regional culture, the emergence ofAsia and their activities within the area.

which was influenced by global civilization, endows

Regional culture must be considered in relation tosome universality to the individual national cultures. Re-

global civilization. Civilization is defined as material

gional culture can be a springboard to boost communi-

tools and institutions that facilitate human life, or thatcation between the regional actors and cultivate

are useful to it. Culture means a particular way of life

public-mindedness without hampering the national iden-

acquired through learning or socialization. It is a systemtities within the region. The “regional life” in East Asia,

of understanding that yields common identities among

which depends on the commitment of the regional actors

the members of the society. Thus, culture preserves theand their activities, shows “East Asian international so-

structural equilibrium between the elements of the social

ciety” as it exists at the moment. In short, the “Eastsystem and facilitates communications.11 Civilization

Asian community” can act as a regulatory concept pro-thus defines a way of life or culture as exemplified bymoting the formation of regional life.

10

Clyde Kluckhon defines culture as “a set of devices for human life.” Kenichiro Hirano discusses international cultural relations employing
Kluckhon’s definition of culture. Kenichiro Hirano, International Culture (Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, 2000 in Japanese).
11
Hirano Kenichiro, International Culture, pp.28-33.
12
The term umbrella is borrowed from Masakazu Yamazaki. He argues that East Asian civilization was formed under the umbrella of Westernmodern civilization. Masakazu Yamazaki, The Structure of Civilization (Tokyo: Bungeishunjusha, 1997 in Japanese); Masakazu Yamazaki,“Asia, a Civilization in the Making,” Foreign Affairs 75:4 (1996).

21

The Social Construction of an East Asian Community and Regional Culture

The Generative Concept of Culturethat global culture or society offers, on the one hand, andWhen studying regional culture in its infancy, it

by breeding universal human sensibility found in popu-

may be useful to employ both the perspective of gener-lar culture like pop music, movies, and drama, on theation and the proactive concept of culture. The conser-

other. Common sensibility will come into existence invative concept of culture, which holds the particularity

the course of social relations, sharing and discussing is-

and unchangeability of culture, seems unsuitable for ex-sues concerning regional life, while oscillating between

plaining the formation of international culture or re-the centrifugal force expanding toward global univer-gional culture. Nor does it seem to explain the creation

sality (human rights and environmental issues), on theof a regional community. Regional culture may arise as

one hand, and the centripetal force contracting to na-

a result of the natural evolvement of communication be-tional particularity (the pursuit of national interests andtween the East Asian countries. However, the deliberate

nationalism), on the other. What confines these two con-or artificial creation of regional norms can be a catalyst

flicting forces to the region is the way of being a region

for generating regional culture - a culture which is above

cannot but inevitably exist as a “security complex”,13

national cultures, but not reducible to global culture -which comprises all issue areas between the world andmore effectively.

the state, and which is founded in consideration of geo-

Globalism can also promote the formation of re-graphical proximity, economic efficiency and cultural

gional culture. Generating dynamism can be acquired

similarity. When all the actors sense their common des-when global capitalism gives rise to changes in the po-tiny in the region as a “security complex”, we may belitical sphere as well as in the spheres of economy andable to cultivate common sensibility or regional identity

culture, stimulating the international societalization ofthat is conducive to regional culture.

the East Asian region toward the creation of a regional

The generation of regional culture cultivating com-

community. In particular, East Asian regional culture

mon sensibility of regional life presumes two kinds ofcan be said to have been generated by the workings ofautonomy, (1) the autonomy of the cultural sphere fromglobal capitalism and the region’s reaction to it. It canother issue areas, and (2) the autonomy of society

also be created by the mutual workings of “culture as aagainst the state. First, increasing the autonomy of theway of life,” “culture as an issue area,” and “culture

cultural sphere over the political sphere will make more

linked to global capitalism”, on the other.

room for respecting the differences between national

The East Asian region can have a practical meaning

cultures by mitigating “the fetters of national culture”

in the daily life of the people, if the actors in the region

that are likely to be bound to political power. By pre-build their social relations and deepen their common

serving the relative balance of power between the states,

sensibility by constructing regional norms through their

this will strengthen mutual equality and recognition. The

commitments and activities. Regional common sensibil-

concept of multiculturalism, that is, the idea of recog-

ity can be cultivated by enlarging universal human val-nizing the differences of minority cultures and mitigat-

ues such as human rights, freedom, peace, and justiceing prejudices and discriminations against them by

13

Barry Buzan, People, states, and fear: the national security problem in international relations (Brighton: Wheatsheaf Books, 1983).

22

JANG In-Sungcommunicating with them, is applicable to the interna-“order.” A new regional order not only requires a rela-tional realm. Second, elevating the independence of so-tive balance of power, but it needs regional norms as aciety vis-à-vis the state will make it possible to weaken

device for ensuring such a balance. “Fairness” can be an

the dependency of the former to the egoistic state andethical condition for creating norms to preserve order,

boost the commitment of the non-state actors to andmaking grounds for justice. When understanding

their activity in international society. In consequence,“shared interests, values and norms” from the viewpoint

the people in East Asia will cherish a vision that willof maintaining the order of international society, Hedley

help them to develop their regional life, while weaken-

Bull supposed that justice can be achieved by maintain-

ing the nation-state paradigm, a vision that will

ing the existing order, the basic objectives of which in-strengthen regional identity, while softening national

clude survival, faith and rights of the states.14 He refused

identity.

to acknowledge that justice threatens the international
order, and hence had no chance to argue fairness for re-

Epilogue: “Fairness” in East AsianInternational Society

alizing the societal common good. Unlike Bull, his student R. J. Vincent felt the need to discuss distributive
justice as international fairness, recognizing the exis-

In a multicultural society, justice embodies univer-tence of a world international society, wherein thesal values such as human rights and equality. It aims at

newly-born states have been allowed full membership

abolishing any existing cultural prejudice and discrimi-

and begun to ask for a new international order.15 In cre-nation by making the majority recognize minority cul-ating an international and regional society fairness cantures and communicate with them. If one views an

be a reference (justice) for establishing a new order ofinternational society as a multicultural society composedinternational society.

of different cultural systems, and if the need to create an

In East Asia, where the community is not yet

international community is agreed upon, “justice” will

formed, justice can accelerate the formation of a re-act as a point of reference for realizing human values

gional order, and not threaten or hamper it. Fairness canand achieving both sovereign and economic equality.

work as a reference for justice when the regional actors

The creation of rules and institutions wherein universal

attempt to improve the differences embedded in theirvalues are embedded will be the implementation of jus-similarities, and to redress the realities of political andtice, and the reference of justice in turn would promoteeconomic inequality, and to make universal values andthe creation of norms.

distributive justice function as regulatory ideas. In a nut-

In short, society or community needs an order, andshell, “East Asian community as fairness” or “East Asianthe formation or alteration of an order requires justicecommunity as justice” is a declaration of a point of ref-as a principle or logic for justification. The formation of

erence and a catalyst for boosting the formation of order.

an international society and the creation of a regional

An “East Asian community” can serve as a regulatorycommunity are tantamount to the formation of a new

idea that enables the people in East Asia to reinforce

14
15

Hedley Bull, The anarchical society, pp.82-86.
R. J. Vincent, Human rights and international relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

23

The Social Construction of an East Asian Community and Regional Culture

their will to the common good when harbored with real

the other. In so doing, it should reveal the Eastern re-

feelings for regional life. For an “East Asian commu-

gional life that exists between global civilization and thenity” to be a reference for fairness, it needs to be accom-

nation-states. The goal of creating a regional community

panied by a process of practice that aims at both interest

will make the East Asian public be more sensitive to theand symbiosis at the same time. And this process oscil-common good and practice, and this will be achieved bylates between the realism of national interests, on thecreating regional norms.

one extreme, and the idealism of the common good, on

24