J. Nannoplankton Res. 29 (1), 2007, pp.67-69 © 2007 International Nannoplankton AssociationISSN 1210-8049 Printed by Cambridge University Press, UK67

A simple weighing and dilution technique for determining
absolute abundances of coccoliths from sediment
samples
Craig Koch*, Jeremy R. Young
Palaeontology Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK; *c.koch@nhm.ac.uk
Manuscript received 22nd February, 2007; revised manuscript accepted 8th March, 2007

Abstract An easy to use, quantitative technique is described for preparing nannofossils from sediment samples
for examination in light-microscopes. Crucially, this method keeps fractionation and dissolution of small coccoliths
to an absolute minimum and uses few consumables or expensive equipment. Comparisons between independently
made samples show limited statistical difference between nannofossil abundances.

Keywords Quantitative preparation technique, calcareous nannofossils
1. Introduction
Coccolithophore abundance counts per gram of sedimentare important for determining nannofossil accumulation
rates and have potential value in the development of proxies for sea-surface temperatures and nutrient levels.
However, such measurements are prone to irregularities
caused by the very methods that are used to prepare thenannofossils for study. Problems with unequal settling,
unevenness of cover, ease of preparation and study haveprompted authors to publish many different methods forquantifying nannofossil abundances, including methods
based on random settling, filtration or spiking withmicrobeads (Bown & Young, 1998).
The method described in this paper has been developed for routine application during palaeoceanographic
research, and applied to several cores of Late Quaternarymuds and calcareous oozes from the NE Atlantic. The
high abundances of small coccoliths from the Family
Noelaerhabdaceae, such as Emiliania huxleyi,
Gephyrocapsa oceanica and G. ericsonii, require a preparation technique that will cause minimal selectivity
between size-fractions. Almost equally important, is tominimise the possibility of alteration to the coccoliths.
Any dissolution of smaller members of theNoelaerhabdaceae has the potential to seriously distortspecies counts (Gibbs et al., 2004), and to make identification of small species very difficult.
Random settling techniques (Beaufort, 1991; Okada,1992; Flores & Sierro, 1997) have been successfullyapplied to many samples of the type described above.
However, they always had the possibility of altering thefiner fractions, no matter how carefully the water/sediment mixture was mixed, or how carefully the water wassiphoned off. The prolonged immersion in water thatthese methods require is also undesirable, given the possibility of altering the coccolith preservation.
Preparing samples using filtration techniques(McIntyre & Bé, 1967; Andruleit, 1996; Herrle &Bollman, 2004) has also been used successfully in thepast, especially for quantitative SEM studies.

Unfortunately, filters are less useful under the lightmicroscope, where their undesirable characteristics present problems. Polycarbonate filters are very unsatisfactory for light-microscopy, since the membrane is not completely transparent, the pores remain highly visible, andthe membrane acts as a single crystal unit under crosspolarised light. Cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate filters have much better optical properties; they are nearlytransparent in mounting media and are non-birefringent.
However, they still do cause slight image degradation,
especially in phase-contrast and at focal depths within 12µm of the filter surface. Also, they have uneven surfaces
and, in consequence, a substantial proportion of specimens are tilted, which reduces the reliability of morphometric measurements. For preparation of large numbers ofsamples, the time required for filtration, and the cost ofthese filters, can also be an issue. Other methods, the spiking with microbeads and spraying method (Bollman et al.,1999) for instance, require expensive equipment, such asprecision microbalances and microbeads.
What is needed, ideally, is a method that avoids any
size-separation effects, but that also can be prepared on aglass slide for the best possible optics with minimalequipment. The methods discussed above have adopted
relatively elaborate preparation procedures in order toproduce homogeneous particle distributions. This seemeda relatively labour-intensive solution to the problem, sowe undertook some experimentation, with variations on
pipetting techniques and an analysis of the problems. We
found that the main cause of uneven distribution was themovement of suspension during drying, resulting, inextreme circumstances, in multiple concentric dryingrings on the slide. This problem, however, can be minimised by rapid drying on a flat hot-plate and by taking
care to count specimens from fields of view distributed
across the slide.
Following from this, we developed a modified versionof the classic pipette strew technique, as described forinstance by Bown & Young (1998), with incorporation ofsteps to allow reliable quantitative nannofossil data.

68Koch, Young

2. Procedure
This method basically involves pipetting a known quantity of sample onto a known surface area. It is easily scaled
up and is more efficient if many samples are prepared at
the same time. Once proficient in the method, it typicallytakes 45 minutes to complete a batch of 24 samples. The
only consumables are the slides themselves. Test-tubes,pipette-tips and test-tube caps can be cleaned and reused,
if needed. Entering data into a spreadsheet while working
helps keep track of the data and perform the simple calculations required for later stages, an example of this isshown in Figure 1. Each step is carried out on all samples
in the batch before proceeding to the next step.
1. Oven dry, or better freeze dry, the sediment. NB This isnecessary to allow accurate weighing of the sample andgreatly aids the disaggregation of clay-rich samples.
2. Remove a subsample of about 0.1-0.2g of dry sediment; weigh using a microbalance with precision of0.001g, and transfer into a 10ml test-tube. Using a
micropipettor, add 10ml of buffered, distilled water anddisperse by shaking. NB Achieving complete disaggregation of the sample at this stage is essential for the results
to be meaningful. Some samples require more severe
treatment than simple shaking, such as ultrasonication or
use of dilute hydrogen peroxide (for organic-rich sediments), but beware of damaging the nannofossils. For
buffering, we use a few drops per litre of ammonia andtest the water using a pH strip.
3. Calculate the volume of suspension which contains
0.008g of sediment and after mixing thoroughly, use amicropipettor to transfer this volume to a second test-tube(0.08/weight of dry mud x 1000 = millilitres of suspension into second test-tube). Fill this test-tube up to 10mlwith buffered, distilled water. NB The value of 0.008g was
found to be ideal for clay-rich sediments; for calcareous
oozes, a lower volume (about 0.002g) was used. Dilute
suspensions are more vulnerable to dissolution, so it isimportant to avoid delay before proceeding to Step 4.
4. Pipette 100µl of the well-mixed second solution onto a
coverslip, ensuring it covers the entire surface. We use
32x22mm coverslips. Dry quickly on a flat hot-plate. NB
The heat setting of the hot-plate needs to be adjusted topromote rapid drying without boiling, as sediment can belost by spitting.
5. Mount the coverslip onto a slide using your preferred
method; we use Norland Optical Adhesive.

be converted into numbers of specimens per gram of sediment and, potentially, into flux rates. The number ofspecimens can be calculated as follows:
Number of specimens/gram of sediment =A*N
f*n*W
where A = coverslip area; f = area of one field of view; n= number of fields of view counted; W = weight of sediment on coverslip; and N = number of specimens counted.
3. Reproducibility and accuracy
This method was developed and applied during the studyof two cores from the same location in the Porcupine
Bight area of the NE Atlantic Ocean, OMEX 2K andMD04 2819 (49˚5’N, 13˚26’W), both containing highresolution records of the Late Quaternary. Nannofossil
abundances vary considerably in these cores, from interglacial foram-nannofossil oozes, to near barren samplesfrom Heinrich Layers (3.5x1011 to 2.6x107 nannofossils
per gram of sediment). Samples are dominated by small
Noelaerhabdaceae (Emiliania huxleyi and various members of the genus Gephyrocapsa).
Eighteen samples from OMEX 2K were prepared
twice (the entire method was repeated, including freshsediment), and full counts of each slide performed; 50
randomly selected fields of view were counted and at least
200 coccoliths per sample counted. Samples at 77, 83 and89cm had extremely low abundances (related to Heinrich
Event 1), so as many coccoliths were counted as practically possible on these slides. One-hundred-and-ten single
samples from MD04 2819 were prepared and counted in
the manner described above and successfully used in thestudy of this core (Koch, unpub. data). Abundance comparisons between the pairs of samples from OMEX 2K
show a correlation coefficient of 0.9432 (Figure 2).
4. Conclusions
This method ensures that little or no fractionation occurs,
which is critical when analysing samples with high abundances of small placoliths. It scales up well, so processing
many samples is very easy and, since this method does
not require settling in a stable environment, it is suitablefor preparation aboard ships. The
reproducibility results show that themethod provides minimal margin oferror when calculating absoluteabundances of calcareous nannofossils.

Figure 1: Summary spreadsheet table used during this method, with the example of OMEX 2K,107cm. Entering the data while working helps with the simple calculations required in Step 3

Since the weight of sediment transferred to the slide isknown, counts of coccoliths per field of view can readily,Technique for determining absolute abundances

69Figure 2: Abundance comparisons for the two rounds of sample preparation, from 18 OMEX 2K samples. Left-hand graph: Down-core variationin coccolith abundance, with test one and test two count series plotted separately. Right-hand graph: Cross-plot of counts from the two series. Theyshow minimal scatter in values across the abundance range of the samples (R=0.9432)

Acknowledgements
We thank Clive Jones from the NHM micropalaeontology laboratory, and Drs Harald Andruleit, Luc Beaufort and Jackie Lees
for their valuable comments and suggestions. This work wassupported by a NERC tied PhD studentship.

5. References
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