P

Symposium 3 “Migration of People and Intercultural Studies”

anelistThe Filipinos’ Culture ofMulti-step Migration and
Their Retention as
Careworkers in Japan
Maria Reinaruth D. Carlos
Associate Professor, Ryukoku University

Introduction

cupationhasbeengainingmorerelevanceinthelightofaginghostsocieties.

Theobjectivesofthispresentationaretwo-fold.

Afteralongperiodoftediousnegotiations,JapanFirst,itattemptstoexplaintheinternationalmigration

andthePhilippinesfinallysignedJPEPAinSeptember,behaviorofFilipinoworkers1,withspecialconsideration

2009.IttookeffectinDecemberthefollowingyear.OneontheFilipinos’“cultureofmigration.”Second,basedofthemainagendaswasregardingtheacceptanceofFil-onsuchbehavior,wethenexaminewhethertheFilipino

ipinonursesandcareworkersinJapan.Suchissuere-candidate2 careworkers under the Philippines-Japan

ceivedenormousattentionnotonlyamongacademic

EconomicPartnershipAgreement(JPEPA)willstay(beresearchersbutalsoadministratorsandworkersineld-

retained)intheJapaneselabormarket.Inthispresenta-

erlycareandnursinginstitutions,governmentagencies

tion,wefocusonFilipinocareworkers,sincesuchoc-

andotherstakeholders3 – whichhadwideandvaried

1

InthePhilippines,thosewhomainlyworkinelderlycareservicesareofficiallycalled“caregivers,”whileinJapan,theyarecalled“careworkers.”ThiskindofprofessiondidnotexistinthePhilippinesuntilthe1990sasFilipinofamiliestakeontheresponsibilityoftaking
careoftheirelderlymembers.However,withtheincreaseinthenumberofpotentialreceivingcountrieshavingagingpopulation,thePhilippines’TechnicalEducationandSkillsDevelopmentAuthority(TESDA)createdthe“caregivercourse”curriculuminlate1990sandimposedanaccreditationsystem.Today,therearemorethan1000caregiverandrelatedcoursesbeingofferedinthecountry.

2

ThosewhocameunderJPEPAarecalled“candidatecareworkers”untilthetimetheypasstheNationalLicensureExamination.

3

Thestakeholdersintheissuearegovernmentagencies(MinistryofHealth,LaborandWelfare,MinistryofJusticeImmigrationBureau),laborunions,professionalorganizations(ex.JapanNursesAssociation),businessgroups(ex.Keidanren)amongothers.Initially,thosewhowereinfavoroftheiracceptancecitedtheseriouslaborshortage;whilethosewhowereagainstitwerearguingaboutthenegative
impactoftheiracceptanceonthewagesandworkingconditionsoftheJapanesecareworkers,thedifficultiesinbridginggapsincommunicationsandcaregivingskills,andalsohumanrightsissues.

97

The Filipinos’ Culture of Multistep Migration and Their Retention as Careworkers in Japan

viewseitherinfavororagainstthescheme.Evenwith-(seeforexample,Carlos(2008),Carlos(2010),Takeno

outgainingnationalconsensus,theagreementwasrati-andSato(2010)andKobeUniversity(2010)).Theprob-

fiedandthefirstbatchofcandidatecareworkersandlemscitedinthesearticlescanbesummarizedintothree

nursescameinMay,2009.Lateron,issuesonthework-

maingroupsasfollows:ingandlivingconditionsoftheseforeignworkersandThefirstgroupinvolvestheproblemsintheprovi-

theiradaptabilityintheJapaneseworkplacehavegained

sionsoftherecruitment,deploymentandemployment

greaterconcernandbecamethefocusofnationalde-itself,suchasresidencestatus,4 educationandtraining
system(contentsandperiodofstudyofJapaneselan-bates.
BasedontheEPAscheme,thequotaforFilipino

guageandtechnicalvocabulary),andmatchingprob-

careworkerswassetto600personsinthefirst2years

lems(screeningofapplicantsandsharingofinformationofitsimplementation.However,in2009,only190cameabouttheworkerandtheinstitution).

astraineesininstitutions,while27cameasstudents.In

Thesecondgroupinvolvesdifficultiesonintercul-

thefollowingyear,72and10arrivedrespectively,withturalcommunication,notmainlybetweentheforeignatotalnumberof299persons(seeTable1)forthefirstcareworkerandtheelderlyresident,butmoreoftenbe-2 years. Moreover, of those who came in 2009, 18

tweenhim/herandhis/herJapanesecoworkers.These(about10%ofthebatch)havealreadyterminatedtheirproblemsareconsideredtobearesultnotonlyoflackcontractandleftJapan.ThesefiguressuggestthatthereofJapaneselanguageproficiency,butalso(andmoreso)areflawsintheschemethathadpreventeditsfullim-thelackofunderstandingofeachother’sculture.These

plementation.

problemsintheworkplaceareaggravatedbythefact

Reportsandarticlesabouttheschemeandsugges-thatthecaregivingprofessionstilllacksinternationaltionsonhowtoimproveithavebeenwidelypublishedstandard(unlikeinnursing)sothatsomeoftheskills

Table 1. Filipino Candidate Careworkers in Japan under EPA (as of April 20, 2011)

No. of arrivals

No. of stayers

No. of those
who have left

217
(27)

199

18

2010 (Batch 2)(no. of students)

82
(10)

82

0

Total (for 2 years)(no. of students)

299
(37)

281

18

No. of EPA candidate
careworkers
2009 (Batch 1)(no. of students)

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare

4Inthecurrentscheme,theFilipinocandidatecareworkersareinitiallygivena4-yearvisa,whichwillberenewedsubjecttohis/herpassingoftheNationalLicensureExaminationthatcanonlybetakenonceafter3yearsoftraining.Theforeignworkerwillberepatriatedifhe/she
failstopasssuchexamination.

98

Maria Reinaruth D. Carlos

andpracticesarebasedonculture.5a strong propensity to work and live overseas and a

Thirdly,theheavyburdenimposedonthereceiving

weakfeelingofuneasinessandresentmenttowardsmi-

institutionbythescheme,intermsoffinancialexpenses,

grationtoanothercountry.InthePhilippines,theperen-

educationandtrainingandmanagement,thatareper-nialwidegapbetweentherichandthepoorhasresulted

ceivedtobenotcompensatedenoughbyitsexpectedre-inmanyFilipinosconsideringworkingoverseasastheturns(intermsoftheforeignworker’sretentionandonlywaytoeconomicallyandsociallymoveupwards.

contributioninalleviatinglaborshortage),hasalsopre-Someoftheobservedexpressionsofsuchcultureareventedmanyinstitutionstoavailofthescheme.

(1)havingabout10%ofitspopulationlivingoverseas,Itmustbenoted,however,thatmanyoftheprob-(2)consideringworkingabroadasthedreamofyounglemsidentifiedsofarhavebeenlargelybasedontheper-andoldFilipinosalike,(3)havingagovernmentthatspective of the Japanese stakeholders. Thus, theconsidersoverseasdeploymentasaneconomicstrategy

solutionssuggestedhadalsobeenfromtheirperspective

andactivelypromotingit,withthenationsupportingit.

andoftenimpliedthattheschemecouldbeimproved

Also,inthiscountry,internationalmigrationhasdevel-

andtheworkersretainedifonlytheJapan-sideproblems

opedandgrownintooneprominentserviceindustryin

couldhavebeenaddressed.Thispresentationtakesthethecountry,comprisingofuniversitiesandvocational

positionthatsuchisnotthecase.Wearguethattheymay

institutionsofferingcoursesthatareindemandoverseas,notstayinJapanforlongandweshallshowthisbelow

recruitmentagencies,banksandotherremittancecen-bybringinguptheFilipinoworker’sperspective– theirters– allundertheregularmonitoringandregulationofcultureofmigration-mostspeciallytheirmulti-stepin-governmentagenciessuchastheDepartmentofEduca-

ternationalmigrationbehaviorpattern.Byconsideringtion, Culture and Sports (DECS) and the Technicalthisperspective,whichuptonowhadonlybeenmini-

SkillsDevelopmentAuthority(TESDA)foreducation

mallycitedintheliterature,wegainmoreunderstanding

andtraining,PhilippineOverseasEmploymentAdmin-andbetterinsightsregardingmoreeffectivewaystoad-

istration(POEA)forrecruitersandtheCentralBankofdresstheseriousproblemoflaborshortageinJapaninthePhilippinesforremittanceagents.(Fordetailsonthethelong-run.

international migration industry for Filipino nurses,
pleaserefertoCarlosandSato(2008).)
Oneemergingtrendinthe“cultureofmigration”

1. The Filipinos’ “Culture of Migration”– The Multi-step International Migration Patternthatthispresentationwouldliketofocusonisthestrong

Beforewefocusourdiscussiononthemulti-stepcountry (the stepping stone) to the next until he/sheinternationalmigrationpattern,wefirstexplaintheFil-

reachesthefinaldestination.Wecallthisthemulti-steptendencyformigrantworkerstomovefromonetransit

ipinos’“cultureofmigration.”TheFilipinos’“cultureofinternationalmigrationpattern,whichisdifferentfrom

migration”canbedefinedasacultureinwhichthereisthosethathadbeenwidelystudiedandreported,i.e.,sin-

5

Someexamplesidentifiedwerethedifferencesintheextentofassistancetotheelderlyvis-à-vispromotingindependenceoftheelderly;
andalsothe“ideal”watertemperatureduringbathing(Carlos,2010).

99

The Filipinos’ Culture of Multistep Migration and Their Retention as Careworkers in Japan

gularmigration(movementfromtheorigintothefinal

Canada.ThebottomofFigure1showsthecircularmi-

destinationsuchasthecaseofpermanentemigrants)andgrationasinthecaseofFilipinoNikkeijinworkersmov-

circularmigration(returnmigrationbetweenoneorigin

ingbetweenthePhilippinesandJapan.InthemiddleofcountryandonedestinationsuchastheNikkeiBrazil-

Figure1,wecanseethemulti-stepinternationalmigra-ians).Inthecaseofmulti-stepmigration,thenumberoftionpattern,withseveraltransitdestinationsandone

transitcountriesuntilonereachesthefinaldestination,

finaldestination.Basedonaseriesoffieldstudiesintheandwherethefinaldestinationwillbe,arenotpredeter-

Philippines (2008～2010), Singapore (2009~2010),

mined.Rather,theyaredecidedduringthemigration

UnitedKingdom(2008),UnitedArabEmirates-Dubai

process.

(2009)andU.S.A.(2008),wefoundoutthatforFilipino

Here,weonlydiscussaboutthemigrantduringhis

caregivers,thepreferredtransitpointsareSingapore,Is-

workinglife.Itisnoteworthy,however,tolookintotherael,UAEandUK.Ontheotherhand,mostFilipinos

migrationpatternoftheseworkersintheirentirelife,

surveyedmentionedtheUnitedStatesandCanadaasparticularlyafterretirement.Thisbecomesrelevantfor

theirmostdesiredfinaldestinations.

Filipinos,whosefirstwaveofmigrationwas40years
ago.Soon,manyofthemwillretire,anddetermining
whethertheywillreturntothePhilippinesorstayinthelastdestinationwillbeimportantespeciallyinthelightofdrawingpoliciesregardingtheirwelfareandelderly

2. Ambiguous and Unpredictable (“Whimsical”)
Policies of Receiving Countries andMulti-step International MigrationWhydoFilipinocareworkersbehaveinsuchmulti-

care.
Figure1showsthethreepatternsmentionedabove.

stepinternationalmigrationfashion?Thefirstreasonde-Singularmigrationisdepictedatthetopofthefigureas

rivesfromthewayinternationalmigrationisgenerallyaone-wayarrow,likeforexample,migrationofFil-

determined.Internationalmigrationismostoftende-ipinos as live-in caregivers from the Philippines tomand-led,withthepoliciesofthereceivingcountries

Multi-step Migration

Figure 1. Patterns of International Labor Migration
Source: Author’s compilation based on field studies.

100

Maria Reinaruth D. Carlos

largelydeterminingthevolumeandnatureofmigration.

Figure2,whichshowsthenumberofnewly-de-Withtheworseningoftheeconomyandseriousprob-

ployedcaregiverstomainreceivingcountriesfromthelemsregardingsocialintegrationofmigrants,regula-period2001to2009,providessomeevidenceonthetionsonmigrationhavenotonlybeenstricterinrecent“whimsical”policiesofreceivingcountries.Wenotice

years.Theyhavealsoshownatendencytoberevised

the “spikes,” representing the abrupt changes in theunpredictably and frequently. Such policies at thenumberofFilipinocaregiversdeployed.Forexample,“whims” or “dictates” of the receiving country have

Canada’sintakeofFilipinocareworkerswasreducedtolargelypreventedthesmoothandimmediatemigration

halffrom2007to2008.WhileTaiwantookin14,000ofworkerstothemostdesireddestination.Inresponse

careworkersfromthePhilippinesatitspeak,thenumbertosuchkindsofpolicies,manyFilipinocareworkersgohasalsogonedowntohalfinthepast5years.Certainly,

to“wheretheycandefinitelybedeployedeasily”atthethisisnotcausedbytheshortageofFilipinocaregivers

timewhenthedecisionismade,althoughthisisnotnec-

who are ready to take up the job, but by the unpre-

essarilytheirfinaldestination.Then,whileinthecurrent

dictableopeningandclosingofdoorstoforeigncare-

destination,theydecideonthenextone.Certainly,withgiversinthesereceivingcountries.

the“whimsical”natureofreceivingcountries’labormi-Theambiguousandunpredictablemigrationandgrationpolicies,itisdifficultforthemigrantworkertodeploymentpoliciesofpotentialdestinationcountries

decideonhislabormigration“route”whileinthePhilip-

forFilipinonurseshavealsoaffectedthemigrationofpines.

Filipinocareworkers.7 Withtheextremedifficultyin

Figure 2 Number of Newly Deployed Filipino Caregivers Per Main Destination (2001-2009)
Source: “2009 Overseas Employment Statistics” p. 24 Philippine Overseas Employment Administration
Website Date accessed: June 15, 2011. (http://www.poea.gov.ph/stats/2009_OFW%20Statistics.pdf)

7Forexample,theUnitedStatesimplementstheretrogressionpolicyinwhichworkingvisasarerationedannuallybasedonnationalityandprofession.Underthispolicy,applicationsforandgrantingofsuchvisasareatthediscretionoftheUSgovernment.InthecaseofUK,it
activelyrecruitedFilipinonursesintheearly2000s.Thenumberofnewly-deployednursesreacheditspeakin2005,butdivedtoalmost
zerointhefollowingyears(CarlosandSato,2010).

101

The Filipinos’ Culture of Multistep Migration and Their Retention as Careworkers in JapanleavingthePhilippinesasanursebecauseofthesepoli-Themeritofchoosingthedestinationwhereitiscies,manynursinggraduateschoosetomigrateinitially“easiest”togoisnotonlyduetoitimposingtheleastasacareworker.Afterobtainingexperienceandanurs-

burden(intermsoftimeandmoney)totheworker,but

inglicense,he/shethenplansandleavesforthenext

alsobecauseinthisdestination,he/shecanaccumulate

destination.SingaporealsohasapolicyofacceptingFil-

“resources”thatarenecessaryorofadvantageinmov-

ipinosasacaregiverfirst,thenallowinghim/hertotrain

ingtothenextdestination.First,sincethesalaryforandtaketheSingaporeNursingLicensureexamination.

careworkersisgenerallyhigherinanydestinationthanWithsuchpolicy,manyPhilippine-licensednursesleaveinthePhilippines,he/shecansavepartofittopayforthePhilippinesforSingaporeandthenproceedtoUK,themigrationexpenses(airfare,recruitmentfees,settle-

UAEandAustralia.

mentcost)tothenextdestination.Second,byworking
inthedestination,he/shecangainthenecessaryexperi-

3. Resource Accumulation and theMulti-step International Migrationenceandtraining,andperhapsobtaintherequiredlicensetoworkinthenextdestination.
Moreover,workinginonedestinationratherthanOneofthemorerecenttrendsinthemigrationofwaitinthePhilippinesaffordstheworkertogetmore

Filipinocareworkersistheincreasingnumberofpoten-

andbetterinformationaboutotherpotentialdestinations.

tialdestinations,whichreflectstheincreasingnumber

WiththeFilipinonetworkinthedestination,he/shecanofagingsocieties.Giventhistrend,howdoFilipino

obtainjobandrecruitmentinformationeasily.Moreim-careworkersdecideonwheretogoandatwhatstageofportantly,manyrecruitmentagencieshavechosentobehis/hermulti-stepmigration?

basedinadestinationratherthaninthePhilippines,pro-First,whilestillinthePhilippines,the“whimsical”

vidinggreateraccesstojobsinotherdestinations.For

migrationpoliciesofmanyreceivingcountries(asmen-

example,wecanfindagenciesandtheirbranchesinSin-tionedabove)putgreatlimitstothechoicesfordestina-

gaporeandHongKongthatrecruitFilipinocaregivers

tion of the Filipino careworker, more so to the bestandnursestoCanadaandAustralia.Beingbasedinone

desireddestination.Thus,thereisatendencyforhim/her

destinationcountryratherthaninthePhilippinesisalso

togofirsttowhereitisthe“easiest”togo;specificallyadvantageousfortheagenciesbecausebydoingso,they

basedonthefollowingcriteriaofthedestination:(1)thecanrecruitFilipinoswhohave,tosomeextent,alreadytimerequiredfromlodgingtheapplicationtodeploy-beenscreenedandwhopossessinternationalexperience

mentisshort;(2)thecostofdeploymentischeap;(3)oralicense.Moreover,theseagenciesarenotsubjectedthedeploymentprocess/procedureissimple;and(4)theto the strict monitoring and regulation of Philippine

requirements are easy to comply with (for example,

agencies.

therearedestinationsthatdonotputsomuchweightonInchoosingthetransitandfinaldestinations,Fil-

workingexperienceandvalidlicense,makingiteasieripinocareworkersalsoputheavyweightonthepossi-

forfreshgraduatestoapply).Forexample,in2010,itisbilityofobtainingnationalityornaturalization.Thisisperceivedthatgiventhecurrentpolicies,itwouldtakebecausenaturalizationwillnotonlyallowhim/herto4-5yearstowaitfordeploymenttoCanadaortheUS,enjoythesametreatmentasthelocals(intermsofworkbutonlyafewmonthsinSingaporeorJapanunderEPA.

andwelfareprivileges)butwillalsoenablehim/herto102

Maria Reinaruth D. Carlos

petitionthefamily.He/shepreferstoobtainnationality

Undoubtedly,Japanwillbechosenasoneofthedes-of some destinations because it will be beneficial intinations.Infact,duringthefirstrecruitmentin2009,

movingtothenextdestination.Thisisbecauseinmany

therewereabout5,000applicants,reflectingthiscoun-destinations,workingconditions(salary,careerdevel-

try’spopularityamongFilipinocareworkers.Basedon

opment)differdependingontheforeignworker’sna-

surveyofsuccessfulapplicants,theychoseJapanasades-tionality.Forexample,aFilipinolive-incaregiverintinationfor2mainreasons:(1)Therecruitmentwasbased

Canadacantakeupitscitizenship,thengotheUnitedonagovernment-to-governmentagreement.ItwouldbeStatesasaCanadianandworkthereasacaregiver.

agoodopportunityforthemtoleavethecountrybecauseInthisway,theFilipinocareworkermovesfromthecosttheyhadtobearwassmall,theprocessingtimeonedestinationtoanother– andthenextquestionis-wasshortandtheirrightsandwelfarewouldbeprotecteduntilwhendoeshedoso,andwherewillhisfinaldes-bythegovernment.Thisimpliesthatindeed,theyputtinationbe?WefoundoutfromsurveysinthePhilip-

weightonthecurrentandtemporarypolicyofthereceiv-

pines,UK,UAE(Dubai),SingaporeandtheUSthattheingcountry.(2)TheyhadtheperceptionsthatJapanese

US,AustraliaandCanadaarethemosthighlypreferredcareinstitutionsofferedhighsalaryandhighlevelofcare

finaldestinations.Amongthereasonsgivenwere(1)skills.Therefore,theycouldsavemoneyandaccumulate

easyliving(salarycommensuratetocostofliving,Eng-skills.

lishlanguageusedindailyliving,familiaritywithcul-

However, if we consider the multi-step interna-ture); (2) provisions for family reintegration andtionalmigrationbehaviorpatternofFilipinocarework-

naturalization;and(3)careerdevelopmentopportunities

ers,wecaninferthatmostprobably,theywouldnotstaybasedonone’scapabilityandnotraceorcolor.Easyliv-

longinthiscountry.Thereasonsaretwo-fold.Ontheingmeans,forexample,inCanadaandAustralia,familysideofJapan,problemsregardingthesystemandintheofmigrantsareevenprovidedwithsupportprograms

workplace“push”theforeignworkertolookforthenext

suchasjobtraining,Englishlanguagecoursesandjob

destination.Moreover,therearealsothe“pull”factors

placement.Grantingofnationalitytofamilymembers

suchasbetterworkingandlivingconditionsinotheralso guarantees the future of the next generation, inpreferreddestinationssuchastheUSA,UKandAus-

termsofwork,welfare,andotherbenefits.Bycareerde-tralia,speciallyintermsofavailabilityofmigrantwork-velopment,wemeanopportunitynotonlyforpromo-

ers’ programs such as family reintegration andtions within the carework profession but also jobnaturalization.WecansaythatforFilipinocareworkers,

switchingtonursing.

Japancanbemoreofaninitialtransitdestinationrather
thanthefinalone.Intheyearstocome,Japancouldnot

4. Retention of Filipino Careworkers in Japan
Basedonthediscussionsabove,wenowaskthemost vital question for Japan: will foreign (Filipino)
careworkersstay,evenafterpassingthenationallicen-evenbechosenasatransitdestinationunlessamendmentstothecurrentsystemandchangesinthewayforeign workers are treated in the workplace areimplemented.
HowcantheJapanesegovernmentandthoseonthesureexamandbeyondtheinitial4-yearcontractundergrounddealwiththecurrentissuesandconcernsregard-

EPA?

ingtheretentionofforeigncareworkers?Undoubtedly,

103The Filipinos’ Culture of Multistep Migration and Their Retention as Careworkers in Japantakinganationalconsensusastohowthiscountrywill

search/researchseries8.pdf

receiveandtreatforeignworkersingeneralholdsthe———,RubenCaragayandAysunUyar(2009)「第 2keyinansweringourquestion.Forwithoutsuch,itwill

回日本―フィリピン間 の人の移動に関する

bedifficulttogainsupportonthegroundandamongthe

会議報告書 日比経済連携協定によるフィリ

Japanese,thusmakinganyeffortsthroughEPAsless

ピ ン 人 看 護 ・介 護 労 働 者 の 日 本 へ の 移 動

productiveandlesseffective.

（2009年 3月 30日）」『研究シリーズ 10』、龍谷
大学アフラシア平 和開発研究センター。

Selected References（2010/11/10最終 アクセス）http://www.afrasia.

Carlos,MariaReinaruthD.andChizukoSato(2008)

ryukoku.ac.jp/jp/research/researchseries10.pdf

“SendingSociety’sResponsestoInternationalMi-

神戸大学経済学部石黒馨研究会（2010）「日本・フ

grationofNursesandItsPolicyImplications:Theィリピン EPAの改善～1万人のフィリピン人

CaseofthePhilippines”,Ritsumeikan International介 護 福 祉 士 受 入 れ 政 策 ～」http://www.west-

Affairs,Vol.6（立命館大学国際地域研究所、

univ.net/library/2010/10_kok1.pdf

2008）。
———,ChizukoSatoandRubenCaragay(2008)「日Suzuki,Nobue(2008)“CareworkandMigration:Japanese Perspectives on the Japan-Philippines Eco-

本-フィリピン 間の人の移動に関する会議報

nomicPartnershipAgreement,”Asia and Pacific

告書 フィリピン人看護師・介護士の国際移Migration Journal,Vol.16,No.3,pp.357-381.

動‐日本への 送出しの可能性（2008年 3月 25

竹野ユキコ・佐藤誠（2010）「日本における看護移日）」『研究シリーズ 8』、龍谷大学アフラシア

民労働導入の現状と課題」『越境するケア労平和開発 研究センター。
（2010/11/10最終アク働:日本・アジア・アフリカ』佐藤誠編

セ ス ） http://www.afrasia.ryukoku.ac.jp/jp/re-

経済評論社 pp.21-38.

104

日本