The Japanese Industrial
Waste Experience:

United Nations Environment Programme

Lessons for rapidly
industrializing countries

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The Japanese Industrial
Waste Experience:
Lessons for rapidly
industrializing countries

Contents
Acknowledgements

3

Acronyms and abbreviations

4

Foreword

6

Executive Summary

7

Chapter 1: Background and Approach

14

Chapter 2:	The Japanese experience: Japan’s industrial waste
situation in the late 20th century

21

2.1 The national policy framework34

2.2 The Japanese industrial waste management industry

50

2.3 Japanese industry’s voluntary action plan on the environment60

2.4 Osaka City’s experience and initiatives

70

2.5 Kitakyushu’s experience and initiatives

78

2.6 Kawasaki’s experience and initiatives

86

Chapter 3: The international context

294

3.1 The waste sector as a contributor to Green Economy objectives

94

3.2 Sustainable waste management in the context ofGreen Industry

104

Chapter 4:	Concluding observations on the potential relevanceof Japan’s experience for rapidly industrializing countries

108

Glossary

116

References

124

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Acknowledgements
Authors: Yuko Sakita (Independent Journalist,

Information Center), Hajime Tozaki (Waseda

Japan), Masanobu Kimura (Ministry of the

University), Koichiro Tsuchihashi (JapaneseEnvironment of Japan), Environmental

International Waste Information Center), Naoya

Policy Bureau of Keidanren (Japan), Masao

Tsukamoto (Ministry of the Environment ofNii (National Federation of Industrial Waste

Japan), Katsuhiko Yoshikawa (Urban System

Management Associations, Japan), Takashi

Integration, Inc., Japan)

Arikado (Osaka City, Japan), Hiroshi Tanino(Osaka City, Japan), Reiji Hitsumoto (City ofSupervision: Matthew Gubb (UNEP), Surendra

Kitakyushu, Japan), Yuichi Kitamura (City of

Shrestha (UNEP)

Kawasaki, Japan), Shiho Kasamatsu (City of
Kawasaki, Japan), Carolin Sanz Noriega (UNEP),

Project coordination: Carolin Sanz Noriega

Ferda Gelegen (UNIDO)(UNEP), Ryuichi Fukuhara (UNEP)

Contributors and reviewers: Yoshiaki Arai

Thanks to our IETC and DTIE colleagues, in(Panasonic Corporation, Japan), Ryuichi

particular to: Utako Aoike, Ainhoa Carpintero,

Fukuhara (UNEP), Takeshi Furutani (UNIDO),Surya Chandak, Garrette Clark, Arab Hoballah,

Keishiro Hara (Osaka University), Yoichi

Tomoko Ishii, Mushtaq Memon, Solange

Kodera (National Institute of Advanced

Montillaud-Joyel, Mayumi Morita, Moira

Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)),

O’Brien-Malone, John Peter Oosterhoff andMasaru Konishi (Panasonic Corporation,

Michiko Ota

Japan), Yohko Maki (City of Kawasaki, Japan),
Makoto Mihara (Global Environment Centre

Editor: Tara Cannon

Foundation, Japan), Masaru Mizuguchi (City of
Kitakyushu, Japan), Masaru Moriya (National

Cover photo sources: City of Kawasaki andFederation of Industrial Waste Management

Shutterstock

Associations, Japan), Shigehiko Nakayama(Panasonic Corporation, Japan), So Nishimura

Design/Layout: bounford.com(Urban System Integration, Inc., Japan),
Koji Sakakibara (Global Environment Centre

The report should be referenced as follows:Foundation, Japan), Maki Sugimori (Global

UNEP (2013), The Japanese industrial waste

Environment Centre Foundation, Japan),experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing

Noboru Tanikawa (Japanese International Waste

countries.

Acknowledgements3

Acronyms and abbreviations

4

3Rs

Reduce, reuse, recycle

CO2

Carbon dioxide

COP

Conference of the parties

DLCs

Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds

EPR

Extended producer responsibility

GDP

Gross domestic product

GHG

Greenhouse gas(es)

IETC

International Environmental Technology Centre

ISO

International Organization for Standardization

ITPO

Investment and Technology Promotion Office

Keidanren

Japanese Business Federation (formerly, Japan Federation of Economic Organizations)

MBIs

Market-based instruments

METI

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan

MHLW

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan

MHW

Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan

MOE

Ministry of the Environment of Japan

NOx

Nitrogen oxide

OECD

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PCBs

Polychlorinated biphenyls

PDCA

Plan, Do, Check, Act

PETPolyethylene terephthalate

POPs

Persistent organic pollutants

PPP

Polluter pays principle

PVC

Polyvinyl chloride

R&D

Research and development

RECP

Resource efficient and cleaner production

Rio+20

United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development

SO3

Sulphur trioxide

SOx

Sulphur oxide

UNCED

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNIDO

United Nations Industrial Development Organization

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

List of Japanese waste management laws
Short title

Original title

Air Pollution Control Law

Air Pollution Control Law

Basic Act on Establishing a Sound
Material-Cycle Society

Basic Act on Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society

Basic Environment Act

Basic Environment Act

Basic Law for Environmental
Pollution Control

Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control

Construction Material Recycling Law

Law on Recycling of Construction-related Materials

Containers and Packaging Recycling Law

Law for the Promotion of Selective Collection and Recyclingof Containers and Packaging

End-of-Life Vehicle Recycling Law

Law for the Recycling of End-of-Life Vehicles

Factory Effluent Control Law

Factory Effluent Control Law

Food Waste Recycling Law

Law for Promotion of Recycling and Related Activities for
the Treatment of Cyclical Food ResourcesHome Appliance Recycling Law

Law for the Recycling of Specified Kinds of Home Appliances

Law Concerning Special Measuresagainst Dioxins

Law Concerning Special Measures against Dioxins

Law for Promotion ofEnvironmental Consideration

Law Concerning the Promotion of Business Activities withEnvironmental Consideration by Specified Corporations,etc. by Facilitating Access to Environmental Information,
and Other Measures

Law for the Control of Export, Importand Others of Specified Hazardous
Wastes and Other Wastes

Law for the Control of Export, Import and Others ofSpecified Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes

Law for the Promotion of Effective
Utilization of Resources

Law for the Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources

Law on Promoting Green Purchasing

Law Concerning the Promotion of Procurement of Ecofriendly Goods and Services by the State and Other Entities

Law on Special Measures Concerning
Removal of Environmental Problems
Caused by Specified Industrial Wastes

Law on Special Measures Concerning Removalof Environmental Problems Caused by Specified
Industrial Wastes

PCB Special Measures Law

Law Concerning Special Measures for Promotion of
Proper Treatment of PCB Wastes

Public Cleansing Law

Public Cleansing Law

Sewage Disposal Law

Sewage Disposal Law

Small Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment Recycling Law

Law on Promotion of Recycling of Small Waste Electrical andElectronic Equipment

Smoke and Soot Control Law

Law Concerning Controls on the Emission of Smokeand Soot

Waste Management Law

Waste Management and Public Cleansing Law

Acronyms and abbreviations

5Foreword
Many developing countries areexperience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing

currently experiencing rapid

countries, developed with the financial support ofindustrial growth, the pace of which

the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, reviews

is unprecedented. While this growth

and analyses the Japanese case and highlights thehas lifted millions out of poverty, it

potential relevance for sustainable development

has also been accompanied by serious

in rapidly industrializing countries.

challenges linked to industrial pollution
and, in particular, industrial waste.

The country’s experience shows that a mixof policies helped it turn challenges into

But for some of these problems, we alreadyopportunities. Regulations to hold waste

know some of the solutions. This is because

generators responsible, voluntary measuresthe challenges associated with industrial waste

for industries, market-based instruments tobeing faced by rapidly industrializing countries –subsidize city-level action, and awareness-raising

air, soil, and water pollution and the resulting

programmes were all part of the mix that helped

negative impacts on public health and economicchange attitudes and practices in industrial waste

development – are similar to those that countries

management. The results were soon apparent:such as the United States, Germany, Japan andbetween 1990 and 2010, landfill of industrial

others had to deal with in the second half of thewaste decreased by 84 per cent, while the resource

20th century.

productivity rate between 2000 and 2010
increased by 51 per cent. In sharing the Japanese

By the 1960s, industrial waste in Japan had

experience, this publication aims to contribute to

begun to have serious negative impacts on the

more effective policy responses to industrial waste

national quality of life. A period of ‘miracle

issues around the world, and ultimately to assist

growth’ in the 1950s and 1960s and further

in the transition to an inclusive Green Economy.

intensive industrialization had led to a series ofenvironmental crises, including poisonings fromThe future scale of environmental problems

industrial discharges, such as those caused byfrom industrialization in developing countries

mercury pollution in the city of Minamata. These

will depend greatly on actions taken today. If

challenges, and the increasing public concern,

current patterns of consumption and production

prompted the national government, cities andremain the norm, pollution, and in particularindustry to adopt preventive and remedialwaste from industrial production, is likely tomeasures. Increasingly, the economic impetus forincrease. The Japanese experience will be useful

more efficient use of resources through reduced

to rapidly industrializing countries, which now

waste, reuse and recycling (the “3Rs” approach),have an unparalleled opportunity to leapfrog

and a desire to minimize the impacts of industrial

unsustainable paths of industrial development,

processes on climate change, became driving

and in so doing, to provide models that otherfactors in improved waste management.

countries can follow.

Japan’s efforts to improve its managementof industrial waste have been recognized

Achim Steinerinternationally, and useful lessons can be

UN Under Secretary Generaldrawn from them. The Japanese industrial waste

6

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Executive Director UNEP

Executive Summary
The challenges andopportunities presented
by industrial waste in the
21st century

place by rethinking the value chain from theIn the latter half of the 20th century, many

converting it to other uses or recycling it. As

OECD countries experienced rapid economic

resources become scarcer, the waste market,

growth and industrial development. This led toincluding the market for recycled products,

an increase in waste from all sectors of society.

is emerging as an important part of the

In particular, the increased amount of bothgreen economy. A preventive and integrated

waste and pollution from industry seriously

approach to industrial waste management

impacted human health, the environment andcan help rapidly industrializing countries

the economy. In many developed countries, ato avoid the negative impacts of improperly

range of measures to control environmental

treated industrial waste and reap significant

pollution reduced the release of hazardous

environmental, economic and social benefits.

substances and the generation of waste from

This in turn will enable them to decouple

industry. However, as industries started

economic growth from environmental damage

relocating to developing countries, so did theand improve their businesses’ competitivenesspollution they cause.

over the longer term.

While the problems that industrializing

This document analyses the translation ofcountries currently confront are similar to thethis preventive and integrated approach into

ones OECD countries faced in the past, the scaleconcrete actions. It discusses a number ofand pace of industrial growth in industrializing

measures and policy instruments that could

countries present a major challenge. Coping

be useful by drawing upon Japan’s successful

with the increasing volume of waste is itself

industrial waste management measures froman arduous task, but the growing complexity

the late 20th century. Japan has dealt withand hazardousness of the waste is the mostindustrial waste through different stakeholders

formidable difficulty. Industrializing countries

taking measures cooperatively. This document

have not yet developed appropriate systems

analyses the Japanese policy mix and its

to prevent, collect, segregate and further treat

effectiveness with a view to sharing lessons

complex and increasing volumes of waste.

that can be learned from Japan’s example.

Inappropriate waste treatment seriously

Significant attention is given to how Japan’s

harms the environment and public health andpolicies were developed and implemented.

precipitates long-term economic impacts.

This analysis is expected to stimulate more

perspective of product design. Where waste
cannot be prevented completely, opportunities
arise from treating it as a resource, by

effective policy responses to industrial waste
The biggest opportunity in dealing withissues and expand the menu of potential policy

industrial waste is found in integrated

options in other countries. The optimal mix ofapproaches that take both consumption andpolicy instruments is dependent on local andproduction into account and apply a life-cycle

national conditions. Nonetheless, the Japaneseperspective. Managing waste from industrial

experience is still expected to be instructive

production processes starts with preventing

to other countries, particularly to those

waste from being generated in the firstindustrializing rapidly.

Executive Summary

7

The Japanese experience:
Japan’s industrial waste
situation in the late 20th
century

concentrated period of time. One of these wasEnvironmental policy instruments available“industrial waste” and “municipal solid waste”,

to decision-makers can be divided into fourand strict standards were applied to industrial

categories: regulatory instruments, voluntary

waste in order to ensure appropriate treatment.

instruments, economic instruments andDespite this, illegal dumping occurred on a

information-based instruments. The optimallarge scale at this time. It became obvious thattype must be determined on a case-by-caseefforts to address the ever-increasing amounts

basis. Solving complex industrial waste issuesof waste would not solve the problem unless theoften requires the use of more than one of thesesocial structure based on mass production, mass

types of policy instruments.

consumption and mass disposal was changed.

Japan improved its industrial waste

The third phase is the 1990s and the 2000s,

management significantly by introducing

when efforts to implement the 3Rs (reduce,

different types of policies combined withreuse, recycle) were made in order to establish

appropriate implementation systems. Itsa sound material-cycle society and reducetransition to its current system can be betterthe amount of waste that was landfilled.

examined by looking at the transition that

Global environmental problems gained inoccurred across three phases historically.

prominence, and alongside this there was an

the Waste Management and Public Cleansing
Law (Waste Management Law). Under the Waste
Management Law, waste was separated into

increasing emphasis on cooperation between
The first phase includes the 1950s and thevarious parties. Japan began to focus more on

1960s, which were characterized by increases

the quality of its waste, as opposed to earlier

in both pollution and waste generation.

emphasis mainly on the quantity of waste. Strict

Although technological innovations bystandards were established for dioxins andindustry led to robust economic growth,

dioxin-like compounds (DLCs), polychlorinatedenvironmental considerations were neglected.

biphenyl (PCB) waste and other toxic types.

Industrial wastewater, soot and smoke caused

The Japanese government’s policy on waste

pollution, affecting the environment andmanagement changed course dramatically after

damaging the health of residents. The amountlegislation was enacted to work towards a soundof waste generated by industry increasedmaterial-cycle society through the promotion

dramatically. Along with this, in an increasingof the 3Rs. However, the creation of legal andnumber of cases, industrial waste was not

regulatory frameworks has been only one part

treated appropriately, due to a shortageof Japan’s overall endeavors. Other social actorsof space at landfill sites and other factors.

have been actively engaged in establishing a

Inappropriate treatment of industrial waste ledsound material-cycle society, as can be seen in

to environmental pollution and posed major

the voluntary actions of industry, in Eco-town

problems for society.

projects, and in the activities of consumer andnonprofit organizations (NPOs) working on

The second historical phase was the 1970s andenvironmental issues.

the 1980s, when various problems arose, notably

8

illegal dumping. Intense efforts were launched toJapanese legislation for waste management

treat industrial waste appropriately, and various

developed in accordance with the needs of theenvironmental laws were formulated within atime. The Waste Management Law was enacted

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countriesand 1980s. It stipulated the regulations and

The waste sector andeconomic activities in Japansystems for treating the waste generated by

In Japan, the basic system for industrial

households and business operators. In thewaste treatment businesses was created

Waste Management Law, 20 types of waste

through the enforcement of the Waste

generated through business activities that could

Management Law. Private companies provide

cause environmental pollution were definedwaste treatment services in exchange foras “industrial waste” for the first time. Basedmonetary compensation. Under this system,on the polluter pays principle (PPP), businessbusiness operators who generate waste

operators in Japan are required to either treat

only need to hand over their waste andindustrial waste themselves or outsource

their payment for waste treatment services.

treatment to appropriate contractors. The law

One consequence of the system was that

stipulates the waste treatment responsibilities ofwaste generators typically focused on thebusiness operators generating industrial waste.

treatment costs rather than the quality of

It also addresses the licensing of industrial

treatment services. This situation enabledwaste treatment businesses, standards for theillegal dumping to proliferate, as some waste

treatment of industrial waste and the licensing

treatment businesses contracted for waste

of industrial waste treatment facilities. The law

treatment services at low prices but then failed

also stipulates the collection of reports, on-site

to treat the waste as stipulated by law. Suchinspections, orders for improvement, orders tomalpractice risked undermining the businesstake measures and penal provisions.

model for the waste treatment industry as aduring the second historical phase, the 1970s

whole, because it destroyed confidence in the
The Basic Act on Establishing a Sound Material-

entire industry and because the low pricing

Cycle Society was enacted later, during the thirdfor improper treatment made it difficult forhistorical phase, the 1990s and the 2000s. Thisbusinesses conducting proper treatment to

Basic Act establishes a hierarchy of methods

charge enough to make a profit. In response

to manage industrial waste, prioritized into this situation, the national government

the following order: reducing the generation

revised the law, tightening the regulationsof waste; reuse; recycling; heat recovery; andsubstantially. Local governments implemented

then disposal in an appropriate manner. It also

the law rigorously and business operators

clarifies the responsibility of waste generators,

who generate waste also started to consider

including business operators and citizens, andtheir contractors carefully. Thus the revision

established the general principle of extendedof the law created a framework that facilitatedproducer responsibility (EPR). The Law for

appropriate competition.

Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources
was also enacted during the third phase withIn recent years, industrial waste has come toa view to promoting recycling. Individual laws

be viewed increasingly as a resource, leading togoverning the recycling of six categories of goods

more recycling and less landfilling. Industrial

were also passed. Other systems were introduced

waste generators, industrial waste treatment

to promote the development of industrial waste

businesses and the government have beentreatment facilities and to support technologicalengaged in united efforts to promote recycling.

development. Eco-town projects were launched

Through these efforts, the percentage ofwith the aim of fostering the development ofindustrial waste recycled out of the total

environmentally friendly towns.

amount generated increased from 37 per centin fiscal 1996 to 53 per cent in fiscal 2010.

Executive Summary

9

The percentage of waste landfilled during thistechnologies and the results of cost-benefit

period correspondingly declined, from 17 peranalyses. Under the Keidanren plan, eachcent to 4 per cent.

business category and each industrialorganization set specific numerical targets for

Effective treatment of industrial waste can be

the amount of industrial waste to be landfilled,

implemented by the government exclusively

the recycling rate and so on. The results

providing the treatment services or by theare disclosed later as a way of maintaining

government granting licenses to particular

accountability to society. This method has

companies that then exclusively provide

proven to be successful, as reflected in theservices in specific areas. However, these non-86 per cent reduction in the amount of waste

competitive methods would be expected tolandfilled in fiscal 2010 compared with the

inhibit the introduction of new recycling

amount landfilled in fiscal 1990.

methods and also hamper recycling rate
improvements. Although the optimal method
individual country, if the Japanese method is

Waste management by local
governments in Japan

to be used as a model, clear, transparent andOsaka City began treating industrial waste

appropriate regulations should be establishedthrough public sector involvement fromand implemented as the minimum conditions

a relatively early stage. When the Waste

for the model to work.

Management Law was enacted in 1970, private

depends on the particular circumstances of eachsector treatment facilities were insufficient to
Another feature of the Japanese experience

deal with the city’s waste, and there was concern

is the voluntary measures taken by Japanesethat hazardous industrial waste would result inindustry. Keidanren (Japan Federation ofserious environmental impacts. Consequently

1

Economic Organizations) , an organization

the Osaka City government established a public

comprised of leading Japanese companies,

corporation to set up facilities for neutralizing

national organizations for individual industries

hazardous sludge. The city government was also

and local business organizations, formulated

actively involved in the development of facilities

the Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan on

to treat PCB waste.

the Environment in 1997. In accordancewith this plan, it promotes voluntary efforts

The experience from Osaka City shows thatby industry to work for a sound material-

long-term public sector involvement prevents

cycle society, including efforts to reduce

private waste treatment businesses fromthe amount of industrial waste. Compared

entering the market and it also prevents waste

to regulatory instruments and economic

generators from having economic incentives

instruments, voluntary instruments are

to reduce the amount of waste they generate.

typically efficient ways to tackle environmental

Hence, the government needs to decide on

problems, because each business can takethe conditions under which it will withdraw

measures after comprehensively assessing

from the waste treatment market before it

its own characteristics, trends in available

enters the market. The government must also
give appropriate guidance to waste generating
business operators before withdrawing from1

10

Keidanren (Japan Federation of Economic Organizations)and Nikkeiren (Japan Federation of Employers’
Associations) amalgamated in 2002 to become
Keidanren (Japan Business Federation).

the waste treatment market, in order to ensure
a smooth transfer from public sector to private
sector treatment.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

When deciding on public sector involvement

technologies, human resources, industrial

in, or withdrawal from, the industrial waste

infrastructure and a network that links

treatment business, it is important to consider

industry, government, academia and citizens.

public benefits as well as economic viability.

It also shares its experience and technologies

Governments should therefore consider afor waste management and environmental

package of comprehensive industrial waste

improvement with Asian cities and othermanagement measures that cover education andcities around the world through international

training as well as facility development. These

inter-city environmental cooperation andmeasures would include regulatory guidance toutilizes the knowledge and technologies in

relevant parties.

cooperation projects.

The cities of Kitakyushu and Kawasaki are

Kawasaki was the first city in Japan that wasleading manufacturing cities in Japan. They

approved to become an Eco-town projectboth experienced air, water and other pollution

area. The city aims to achieve zero emissions.

in the 1950s and the 1960s. However, throughAccordingly, waste generated in urban

the development of environmentally friendly

districts is utilized as raw materials in thetechnologies and systems, these cities overcame

Eco-town project area situated in the coastal

these problems and they have become wellarea of the city, and raw material residues

known as local governments that succeeded inand surplus energy released by factories andcreating environmentally friendly cities throughother facilities are shared amongst them andtheir Eco-town projects.

utilized efficiently. The city has worked toachieve zero emissions in four stages, namely,

In Kitakyushu, a key element in the successful

greening companies; greening the area throughimplementation of various environmental

cooperation between companies; conducting

measures in recent years has been a partnershipresearch with the aim of creating an area

between industry, government, academia andwhich could develop sustainably through thecitizens that has evolved through discussion.

utilization of environmental technologies;

This partnership also played a critical role in theand sharing the results achieved by the area’s

successful implementation of pollution control

companies and the community while alsomeasures in the past. The Kitakyushu city

contributing to the sustainable development ofgovernment introduced into its industrial waste

developing countries and other societies.

management the cleaner production approach
proposed by the United Nations Environment

When working to cultivate an eco-town in a

Programme (UNEP). In fact, it had alreadydeveloping country, as a first step it is important

used an extremely similar approach earlier

to identify the current priority issues in theduring its struggle to overcome pollution.

area and then decide on the policies needed toThrough the cleaner production approach,resolve those issues. The necessary technologies

the city succeeded in reducing the amount ofmust also be accumulated and the international

industrial waste generated by encouraging

community may assist in this area. It would

industries to revise and improve entire

be difficult to introduce eco-town projects

production systems, including raw materials,

at a large scale from the very beginning. It is

production processes and manufacturingrecommended that projects start small, withequipment. The city implements an Eco-town

the scope expanded later after trial projects areproject by utilizing the resources accumulated

conducted in model areas.

through past experience, including

Executive Summary

11

The international context:
the potential to contributeto Green Economy objectives

damaging impacts associated with pollution and

The increasing volume and complexity of waste

As a sector strategy for achieving the overallpose threats to ecosystems and human health,goals of a Green Economy in the manufacturing

but opportunities do exist to manage industrial

and associated sectors, the UNIDO Green

waste in sustainable ways. Transitioning toIndustries Initiative promotes industrial

sustainable industrial systems by decouplingproduction and development that does not comeeconomic growth from the use and consumption

at the expense of the health of natural systemsof natural resources and energy and providing

or lead to adverse human health outcomes.

more value with less environmental impact andGreen Industry is aimed at mainstreaming

better economic and ecological efficiency canenvironmental, climate and social considerations

offer significant opportunities for conventional,

into the operations of enterprises. It provides

material-intensive and highly polluting

a platform for addressing global, interrelatedindustries. Prevention thus presents the greatest

challenges through a set of immediately

opportunity, but resource and energy recovery

actionable cross-cutting approaches andcan also hold significant opportunities if waste

strategies that take advantage of emerging

cannot be completely avoided.

industry and market forces.

Applying sustainable waste management

Promoting Green Industry is poised to create

strategies to industrial processes can offer a

new jobs while protecting the environment,

number of opportunities in terms of avoided

and assists developing countries move to clean

environmental pollution, reduced costs intechnologies and implement environmental

managing industrial waste, profits fromagreements, including initiatives and projects inpreventive approaches which reduce resource use

waste management.

unsustainable resource use are universal.

and enhanced market opportunities for reusing
and selling used products or scrap materials. In

Specific programmes implemented byaddition to this, there are many more benefits

international organizations tackling waste

resulting from dealing with industrial waste

management issues in developing countries

in an integrated way, such as energy savings,

and emerging economies include, for example:

creation of new businesses and jobs, energy

the joint UNIDO UNEP Resource Efficiency andproduction from waste, reduced greenhouse gas

Cleaner Production (RECP) Programme and the(GHG) emissions and contributions to equity and

UNIDO Network of Investment and Technology

poverty eradication. Improved health, avoided

Promotion Offices (ITPOs). These programmes

health costs, avoided water contamination

contribute to cleaner and more competitive

and the consequent cost of alternative waterindustrial development and help reduce

supply are also important streams of benefits.

pollution and reliance on unsustainable use of

Rethinking industrial processes and applying

natural resources.

approaches to prevent, reduce, reuse and recycle
industrial waste can thus help in contributing to

12Green Economy objectives.

Sharing Japan’s experience
globally

Each country will need to consider its appropriate

Since the 1990s when government policy

policy mix to make the transition happen,

underwent a radical change, Japan has been

mindful that the basic physical processes andworking towards the establishment of a sound

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

material-cycle society, with a focus on preventive

success in Japan include active efforts by

and integrated approaches. The formulationindustry itself to introduce ISO 14001 and otherof government regulations and standards

environmental management systems, combined

and the development of systems for society-with the use of supply chain management towide involvement were key to Japan achieving

assess the degree of environmental friendlinesssignificant positive results. One example of thisof business partners. The engagement of small-participation by the society as a whole is theand medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) as wellinvolvement of industry and local government

as local governments was another major factor

in town development, tempered by citizen andin Japan’s success. As of 2010, Japan had more

NGO scrutiny and cooperation.

then 20,000 ISO 14001-registered organizations
and approximately 5,600 companies registered

Japan’s experience suggests that appropriate

under Eco Action 21, a Japanese domestic

industrial waste management can be facilitatedenvironmental management system for SMEs

by developing systems that facilitate cooperation

modelled on ISO 14001. A substantial number

among various parties; by formulating andof companies also formulate environmental

implementing a system that clarifies wherereports and publicly release information on their

responsibility for waste treatment lies and whoenvironmental efforts, including efforts to reducemust bear the costs; by establishing standards

waste generation and carbon dioxide emissions.

for recycling and treatment; by thoroughly
enforcing regulations; by prioritizing the 3Rs

In conclusion, it is likely that the efforts

and heat recovery in waste management;of a wide range of social actors to change

by providing government support for waste

their approach and take coordinated action

treatment system development; and by fostering

contributed greatly to improving industrial

human resources.

waste management in Japan. Japan’s experienceand the lessons learned from the Japanese

In Japan, business operators generating industrial

example have the potential to be useful for

waste made internal efforts to change theirrapidly industrializing countries as they work

approach and took voluntary actions to improveto improve their management of industrial

waste management. This example of voluntary

waste. This in turn will translate into enhanced

efforts by industry may prove instructive whensustainability in developing countries in Asia

other countries try to work towards a soundand around the world.

material-cycle society. Major forces that drove

Executive Summary13

1 chapter

Background and Approach

1.0.1 The challenges andopportunities presented
by industrial waste in the
21st century

pollution, including waste generated by

In the latter half of the 20th century, many

In many countries, they helped in reducing theOECD countries experienced rapid economic

release of pollutants from industries. However,growth and industrial development, leading toas production patterns changed, industries

increasing levels of prosperity and consumption.

started migrating to developing countries, thus

This, in turn, set the stage for unprecedented

often mitigating pollution in one country byincreases in waste in all sectors of society. Most

shifting it to another.

industries. Initial measures were typicallyreactive, end-of-pipe and focused primarily on asingle pollutant or a specific site (UNEP, 2011a).

noticeable in many locations was the pollution,
particularly the waste, generated by industries.

While the problems with industrial pollution –In a number of countries, industrial waste

and waste, in particular – faced by many OECD

generation reached alarming levels in the 1960s

countries in the latter half of the 20th century

and 1970s. Air pollution, contaminated sites,

are similar to those confronting the majority of

tainted water, unrestrained use of space inindustrializing countries at the beginning of thelandfills and the discarding of reusable resources

21st century, new challenges have also arisen.

were seriously affecting human health, theIn particular, the scale and pace of industrial

environment and the economy.

growth in rapidly industrializing countries
present serious challenges.

With environmental quality deteriorating, public

14

awareness and concern escalating as a result of

Against a backdrop of global populationindustrial accidents, and civil society movements

growth, emerging economies are expandingon the rise in many countries, the need to takeand industrializing, lifestyles are rising andaction became evident. Governments took a

the associated consumption patterns demandrange of measures to control local environmental

the use of greater amounts of resources. In

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countriesthis way, society is exceeding the capacity of

In comparison to the measures taken in thenatural systems to absorb and recycle waste

1960s and 1970s, today, approaches tend to

products. While the increasing volume of waste

be preventive and precautionary. They are

constitutes a major challenge in itself, it isoften more encompassing in that they takethe growing complexity and hazardousness

into account multiple pollutants and entireof the waste that is the most problematic.

supply chains and material cycles. In addition,

This is largely because highly polluting

they typically address not only the productionindustries – primary industries dealing with

but also the consumption side, considering

the transformation of raw materials into

consumers as agents who can bring aboutindustrial products such as steel, paper, andchanges in demand (UNEP, 2011a).

chemicals – account for a substantial portion of
growth in rapidly industrializing countries.

The biggest opportunity in dealing withindustrial waste can be found in applying

Often, rapidly industrializing countries havea preventive and integrated approach thatnot yet developed the appropriate systems andaddresses both consumption and production

infrastructure to prevent, collect, segregate

and applies a life-cycle perspective. Thisand treat the complex and increasing volumes

includes pursuing both supply and demandof waste. Less stringent environmentalside strategies to use fewer resources andlegislation or enforcement and capacity gaps

generate less waste and hazardous substances,in dealing with waste products from industrial

and to ultimately close the resource use cycle

production processes result, for example, in

in industrial production. The aim is thus

industrial, often hazardous wastes being mixed

to decouple economic growth and current

with other wastes. In rapidly industrializing

consumption and production patterns fromcountries, densities in cities, where much ofenvironmental pollution, in this case caused by

the industrial production is located, far exceedindustrial waste.

the densities found in developed countries, so
the number of people exposed to pollutants is

In other words, managing waste from industrial

potentially much greater. Serious consequences

production processes begins with preventing

to environmental quality and public health andwaste from being generated by rethinking thelong-term economic impacts ensue: local air,value chain from the stage of product design.

water and soil pollution can put the provision ofThis will mitigate negative impacts of industrial

basic necessities such as drinking water and foodwaste on the environment while also reducing

at risk; workers in the manufacturing sector

costs for end-of-pipe waste management.

suffer exposure to high levels of pollutants, as

Where waste cannot be prevented completely,

do adjacent communities and informal waste

opportunities exist to treat it as a resource.

workers; greenhouse gas emissions from waste

Products and parts can be reused and scrap

contribute to global climate change; and thematerials from industrial production processes

loss of valuable resources further aggravates thecan be recovered and converted to other uses

depletion of virgin materials.

or be recycled. Using waste as a resource canyield profits and at the same time save virgin

Challenging as the situation might seem,materials. As resources become scarcer, thethe management of industrial waste, if done

waste market, and, in particular, the market

properly, also holds some opportunities, which

for recycled products, will grow, offering

can mainly be attributed to a shift in approach

opportunities for businesses to sell and purchasein dealing with industrial pollution issues.

recycled products (UNEP, 2013b).

Chapter 1: Background and Approach15

In this way, proper waste management results in

The sharing of experiences and lessons learned

less environmental pollution, reduced costs infrom the Japanese case is intended to expand

managing industrial waste, profits from reusing

the menu of policy options for considerationand selling used products or scrap materials,

by decision-makers in rapidly industrializing

and savings of natural resources. Yet evencountries. The analysis in this document ismore benefits can be derived from dealing withintended to facilitate the development ofindustrial waste in a preventive and integrated

more effective policy responses to industrial

way, such as energy savings; creation of newwaste issues around the world and, ultimately,

businesses and jobs; energy production fromto promote more effective use of resources,

waste; reduced greenhouse gas emissions; andreduced pollution and greenhouse gas emissions,contributions to equity and poverty alleviation.

improved public health and environmental

Improved health, health costs that are avoided,

quality, lower operational costs and enhanced

water contamination that is prevented, and thecorporate social responsibility. To assist rapidly

ensuing cost of alternative water supply are also

industrializing developing countries in finding

important benefits (UNEP, 2010b).

solutions to the environmental challenges
associated with rapid economic growth is critical

By applying a preventive and integrated

on the path to sustainable development.

approach to industrial waste management,
rapidly industrializing countries can avoid theThere is, however, no universally applicablenegative impacts associated with industrial waste

policy mix to address industrial waste

and reap significant environmental, economic

management. The specific mix of policy

and social benefits, which will enable them to

instruments that worked in Japan might notdecouple economic growth from environmental

necessarily apply in other countries. The optimal

damage and improve their businesses’ longer

mix of policy instruments depends on local andterm competitiveness (UNEP, 2012).

national conditions. However, the Japaneseexperience is still expected to be instructive toThis document will analyse how this integrated

other countries, particularly to those that areapproach to industrial waste management can

rapidly industrializing. The dissemination of

be translated into concrete actions and what

Japan’s multifaceted experience with industrial

kind of measures and policy instruments canwaste management will thus meet the need of

be applied to turn the challenge of dealing with

developing countries faced with unprecedented

industrial waste into opportunities.

rapid industrialization to find a mix of policy
solutions that can best address the resulting

1.0.2 Objectives
The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons

16

environmental challenges.

for rapidly industrializing countries, developed with

1.0.3 Approach

the financial support of the Ministry of Foreign

The Japanese industrial waste experience provides

Affairs of Japan, reviews the development ofa range of perspectives on the Japanese

the approach Japanese stakeholders took toapproach to deal with industrial waste. Several

deal with waste generated by industries. Moreentities were invited to contribute chapters or

precisely, The Japanese industrial waste experience

expertise to review chapters. UNEP developed

analyses the policy mix that was applied andthe analytical framework to guide collaborating

shares the lessons to be learned through theentities in their analysis. Emphasis was placed

Japanese example.

on the analysis of policy developments taking a

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

particular view regarding the question of what

Chapter 3: ‘The international context’

could be learned from the Japanese experience.

provides information about initiatives at theinternational level that relate to industrial

The Japanese industrial waste experience is available

waste management. UNEP’s Green Economy

in both English and Japanese. The document is

Initiative has shown that the waste sector canstructured into four main chapters.

be an important contributor to green economy
objectives (3.1). In turn, sustainable waste

Chapter 1: ‘Background and Approach’ outlines

management also plays a role in UNIDO’s

challenges and opportunities presented by

Green Industry Initiative (3.2). Both sectionsindustrial waste in the 21st century. It also

provide linkages with the preceding chapterspresents the objectives of the document andand show examples of how Japan’s approaches

depicts the approach used to develop it. In

to industrial waste management are echoed inaddition, it provides an overview of policy

these initiatives.

instruments to address industrial waste
management. This establishes a basis for the

Chapter 4: ‘Concluding observations’analysis of the Japanese case that will follow insummarizes the Japanese experience and also

chapter 2.

reflects on the potential relevance of the lessons
learned from the Japanese case for rapidly

Chapter 2: ‘The Japanese experience’ gives anindustrializing countries.

overview of the industrial waste situation in
Japan in the late 20th century. The sectionsindustrial waste. They give insight into the

1.0.4 Policy instruments toaddress industrial waste
management

historical developments and processes that

To address the challenges and harness theled to the transition to dealing with industrial

opportunities presented by industrial waste

waste in a more sustainable way. The chapter

in the 21st century, adequate policies need to

overviews the triggers that started the debate,

be put into place. A number of different policy

the main drivers, the policy instruments that

instruments are available that promote resource

were applied, and the changes that ensued.

efficiency measures across the entire productionthat follow cover different perspectives on
the Japanese approach towards dealing withand consumption system.
Following the introductory section on theindustrial waste situation in Japan, the JapaneseWhile traditional approaches in environmental

policy framework is then covered in section 2.1.

policymaking mostly took the form of command-

In section 2.2, the industrial waste management

and control regulations, countries have expanded

industry contributes its perspective as service

their menu of policy instruments in more recent

providers. Section 2.3 examines waste generatorstimes, including economic incentives and/or

and how they have taken voluntary actions to

disincentives, information provision, and more

address industrial waste challenges. Finally, three

flexible regulatory approaches.

success stories illustrate how industrial waste
was dealt with in different cities. While Osaka

A mix of different policy approaches, as will

City (2.4) shows a more conventional approach

be shown in subsequent chapters of thisto industrial waste management, the cities ofpublication, has led Japan to significantly

Kitakyushu (2.5) and Kawasaki (2.6) draw on

improve its industrial waste management.

their experience as eco-towns.

As with other environmental problems,

Chapter 1: Background and Approach17

instrument mixes, if well-designed, have been

the licensing of new industrial operations.

found to be effective to address “multi-aspect”

Regulatory and control mechanisms can also

environmental challenges (OECD, 2007b).

promote principles such as the 3Rs (reduce,

Analysing the multifaceted Japanese experience

reuse, recycle), the Polluter Pays Principle

in industrial waste management shows thatand Extended Producer Responsibility

it is critical to bring together a suitable mix of(EPR) to encourage large industries withmeasures. To set the analytical background forcomplicated supply chains to favour closed-

the chapters to follow, an overview of common

cycle manufacturing and more efficient take-policy instruments used to address industrial

back systems for remanufacturing and recycling.

waste management is provided below.

Regulations on sustainable public procurement
can enable governments to lead by example, as

The spectrum of instruments available tothey stimulate demand for products that use

decision-makers in environmental policy can be

fewer resources and support cleaner production

classified into four broad categories: regulatory,

processes (UNEP/CSCP, 2011).

voluntary, economic and information-based(UNIDO, 2011). Monitoring and enforcement

Other regulatory instruments include bans. Most

regimes are needed to make these instruments

common are bans on particular toxic substances.

most effective.

Internationally, the Stockholm Convention, forexample, focuses on eliminating or reducing theRegulatory instruments

release of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

In developed and developing countries alike,

into the environment. However, other types

regulatory instruments, also referred to asof bans also exist, such as, for example, bans“command-and-control” approaches, usuallyon untreated waste going to landfill or bans on

constitute the basis of environmental policy

landfilling waste that can be incinerated.

frameworks. While they address a broad range
of environmental problems, they were initially

The efficacy of regulatory instruments

developed to regulate large industrial polluters,

depends largely on their design. Well-designed

and are still useful in addressing point sources

regulations can effectively address industrialof pollution (UNEP, 2010b).

pollution, particularly when they are monitored
and enforced adequately. However, whilst

Regulatory instruments introduced in many

they might be easy to introduce, regulatory

countries since the 1970s have tended to be

instruments can be costly to administer. Theireither technology-based or performance-

traditional focus on end-of-pipe solutions

based. While technology-based instruments

has in the past often left limited incentive forrequire industries to use specific equipment

industries to continually and fundamentallyand processes, performance-based standards

improve standards (dynamic efficiency). If

establish levels of emissions allowed. For

poorly designed, regulations may even inhibit

example, legislation with clearly definedtechnological innovation, locking in certain

standards of technology and/or performancetechnologies that are soon outperformed bycan drive investments in environmentallynew, more environmentally sound technologies.

sound technologies, encouraging industries18

to use natural resources more efficiently andVoluntary instruments

create markets for sustainable products andVoluntary instruments or agreements areproduction. Regulatory requirements caninitiatives, driven primarily by the private

incorporate cleaner technology standards insector, that encourage businesses, industries

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

or sectors to improve their environmental

MBIs, such as environmental taxes and charges,

performance beyond the minimum levels set

tradable permits and subsidies, are thus able

forth under regulatory measures. Industries

to mitigate market failures in a cost-effective

have been involved in a range of voluntary

way. They can provide powerful incentives

initiatives since the 1990s, often as a reactionthat alter the basic cost-benefit calculation of

to disturbing events such as industrial

producers and consumers, thus driving changes

accidents during the 1980s. Voluntaryin behaviour (UNEP, 2010b). In addition, MBIs

agreements can take a variety of forms ranging

provide incentives to use new, more efficient andfrom legally binding covenants to moreenvironmentally sound technologies.

informal expressions of intent. Depending on
the form of agreement and the parties involved,

Environmental taxes force polluters to pay forvoluntary agreements can either be seen as

emissions that are within the allowed emission

measures of private sector self-regulation or,

limits set by regulation. Taxes thus ensure thatwhen there is government involvement, as a

prices account for the negative environmental

measure of public policy.

impact the product is causing, particularly
during the production process. While taxes

Voluntary agreements may provide more flexible

can incite behavioural changes in polluters andand more ambitious approaches in comparison

encourage more efficient production methods

to traditional regulatory approaches. They may

over the long term, it is often difficult to forecast

thus lower administrative and enforcement

accurately the degree of pollution reduction thatcosts. However, while these agreements can help

will result from a given tax. A critical challenge

to raise awareness and facilitate a shift towards

is thus determining the proper level of taxation.

more innovative and proactive behaviours in

Closely linked to taxes are fees and charges forbusinesses, their environmental effectivenessenvironmental services such as wastewaterneeds to be assessed on a case-by-case basis.

treatment and waste collection, water andFree riding or poor performance can occur

energy supply. Taxes can also be raised onwhen monitoring and enforcement are weak.

incineration or landfilling of waste.

In the area of industrial waste, an example ofa voluntary instrument can be an agreement

As with environmental taxes, tradable permits

with industry on waste prevention, on extended

also use the price mechanism to internalize

producer responsibility, e.g. through take-backthe cost of pollution. Under an emissions

obligations, or an initiative such as a cleaner

trading system, limits for emissions in an

production award (UNEP/CSCP, 2011).

area or country are set (as caps) and permits
representing shares of the total emissions target

Economic instruments

are allocated to each company participating.

Economic or market-based instruments (MBIs)

These permits can then be traded, allowing

are policy approaches that, according to thecompanies to sell surplus permits or buy more

OECD, “seek to address the market failure

permits if they exceed their allowed emissionof ‘environmental externalities’ either bytargets. Trading schemes can combine a highincorporating the external cost of production

degree of environmental certainty with a degree

or consumption activities through taxes

of flexibility that helps businesses to reduce theor charges on processes or products, or bycosts of reducing pollution. However, trading

creating property rights and facilitating theschemes can also be difficult to set up. In

establishment of a proxy market for the use

addition, the initial allocation of permits mightof environmental services” (OECD, 2007a).

prove challenging.

Chapter 1: Background and Approach19

Subsidies are another type of economic

harmonization of information mechanisms,

instrument that are used primarily to stimulate

such as eco-labelling schemes, and establish

investment in technologies. If ill-designed,

consumer awareness and education programmes

subsidies can result in negative environmental

to ensure consumers are able to make informed

impacts, such as locking in certain technologies

decisions and recognize newly introduced

or processes. An example of this would belabelling and product information schemes

charges for public services, such as water, waste(UNEP, 2010b). Other tools to raise awarenessor energy that are below actual cost. Subsidies

can be waste prevention campaigns, educationcan, however, be important instruments inon recycling and guides on waste separation

expanding the adoption of cleaner industrial(UNEP/CSCP, 2011).

technologies and sustainable products andhelp promote waste prevention and recycling

Monitoring and enforcement

schemes, such as deposit and return systems

Monitoring and enforcement are needed to(UNEP/CSCP, 2011).

ensure that environmental policy goals areachieved. It is both complex and expensive

Information-based instruments

to monitor compliance with regulations andA range of activities and initiatives can betake appropriate action to address cases oftermed information-based instruments,

non-compliance. Successful execution also

including audits, eco-labelling and certification

requires strong institutions that are capable ofschemes, information disclosure, education,

withstanding political pressure and corruption.

and data collection and dissemination. These
measures can help raise public awareness and

The right mix of instruments

thus complement and underpin other policy

Which instruments work best in a given context

instruments. In particular, information sharingneeds to be assessed on a case-by-case basis.

and disclosure, which is important at local,

Often, it is not a single instrument that resolves

national and international levels, has become

the complex challenge of dealing with industrial

an increasingly recognized tool for encouraging

waste, but a mix. A mix of policy instruments

environmental practices amongst businesses andhas enabled Japan to realize an integrated

for helping consumers make informed productapproach to industrial waste management,

choices (UNIDO, 2011). Public institutions

as will be shown throughout this document.

can, for example, support the validation andReferences
OECD (2007a). Business and the Environment: Policy Incentives and Corporate Responses. OECD, Paris.
__________ (2007b). Instrument mixes for environmental policy. OECD, Paris.
UNEP (2010b). Green Economy Developing Countries Success Stories. UNEP, Geneva.
__________ (2011a). Global Outlook on SCP Policies: Taking action together. UNEP, Paris.
__________ (2012). The Business Case for the Green Economy: Sustainable Return on Investment. UNEP, Paris.
__________ (2013b). GEO-5 for Business: Impacts of a Changing Environment on the Corporate Sector. UNEP, Nairobi.
UNEP/Wuppertal Institute Collaborating Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production (CSCP) (2011). Sustainable
Consumption and Production Policies - The SCP Policy Toolbox. UNEP/CSCP, Wuppertal.
UNIDO (2011). Green Industry Policies for Supporting Green Industries. UNIDO, Vienna.

20

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countrieschapter 2

The Japanese experience:

Japan’s industrial waste situationin the late 20th century
Yuko Sakita, Journalist and Environmental Counselor

2.0.1 The definition ofwaste in Japanare ash, sludge, waste oil, waste acid, waste

In Japan, waste is defined in the Waste

scraps, waste glass and ceramics, animal

Management and Public Cleansing Law (Wasteand plant residue, paper scraps, wood chips,

Management Law) of 1970 as “refuse, bulky

waste textiles, slag, debris, livestock excreta,

refuse, ash, sludge, excreta, waste oil, waste

livestock carcasses, dust, discarded solid matteracid and alkali, carcasses and other unsanitaryderived from animals, and matter resulting

and unneeded matter, which are in a solid orfrom the treatment of the above-mentioned

liquid state (excluding radioactive waste andindustrial waste before disposal. Industrial

waste polluted by radioactivity).” Waste iswaste is subject to the polluter pays principleclassified as “industrial waste” or “municipal(PPP), under which the entity generating thesolid waste,” with separate regulations andwaste has responsibility for treating it. The

systems stipulated for the two categories inlaw stipulates that the business operatorsorder to ensure appropriate treatment formust either treat the waste themselves or

each (see Figure 2-0-1).

outsource treatment to industrial waste

alkali, waste plastics, waste rubber, metal

treatment businesses licensed by the
Twenty types of waste that are generated

prefectural governor.

through business activities and have thepotential to cause environmental pollution

Waste other than industrial waste is defined as

are designated as “industrial waste”. These“municipal solid waste”, which the law stipulates

Chapter 2: The Japanese experience: Japan’s industrial waste situation in the late 20th century

21

Figure 2-0-1 Waste as Defined in Japan
Waste

Industrial waste

Specially
controlledindustrial waste

Industrial waste(20 types)

Specially
designated industrial
waste

Waste generated
through businessactivities as
specified by law
and Cabinet Order

Municipal solid waste

Specially
controlledmunicipal
solid waste
Specially
designatedmunicipal solid
waste

Domesticmunicipal
solid waste

Commercial
municipal
solid waste

General waste
generated byhouseholds

Non-industrial
waste generated
through businessactivities

Source: Based on the Waste Management Law (1970)classified as industrial waste that is generated

2.0.2 Japan’s experiencein the management ofindustrial waste

through business activities, and this is referred

In this section, the latter half of the 20thto as “commercial municipal solid waste”.

century is divided into three phases, with

While this waste is also treated by municipal

the history of each phase explained ingovernments, the responsibility for treatment

brief to promote understanding of Japan’s

remains with the business operators who

industrial waste management experiences

generated the waste, and thus they must assumeduring this period.

must be treated by municipal governments.
Municipal solid waste includes waste notthe costs of treatment.
In the 1950s and 1960s, while technologicalIndustrial waste and municipal solid waste that

innovations by industry led to high economic

is explosive, toxic, infectious or of a nature

growth, the environment was not taken into

otherwise harmful to human health or theconsideration until considerable damage hadliving environment is classified as “speciallyalready been done. Pollution from industrial

controlled industrial waste” and “speciallywastewater, soot and smoke degraded thecontrolled municipal solid waste”, and is subject

environment and harmed human health.

to stricter controls.

The pollution incidents that occurred in thisperiod are characterized by the fact that bothThis chapter focuses on industrial waste andthe companies causing the pollution anddiscusses how the national government,

the victims of the pollution could be clearly

local governments, industry and waste

identified. The amount of waste started totreatment businesses in Japan manage

increase dramatically during this periodindustrial waste and what they have learned

and most waste was dumped untreated intofrom their experience over the years. It thenlandfill sites. Hazardous substances that were

overviews lessons that can be utilized by

not appropriately treated negatively impacted

developing countries.

the natural environment and posed majorsocial problems.

22

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

In the 1970s and 1980s, the waste andmore effectively, reduce the amount of wasteenvironmental pollution generated by thegenerated and promote recycling. It placed

affluent Japanese population became extremely

emphasis on the 3Rs of “reduce,” “reuse” andproblematic. For example, the amount of waste“recycle,” in that order of priority. Various

increased because of production systems andpublic and private sector entities worked

lifestyles based on mass production, masscollaboratively to solve problems, and theirconsumption and mass disposal that had alreadyactivities steadily produced positive results.

become established in Japanese society. The

Their undertakings included legislation at the

rapidly increasing number of vehicles on thenational level, voluntary efforts by industry,roads was also a factor in the nation’s worsening

technological innovations for resource

air pollution.

recycling, efforts made by local governments
and efforts to raise the level of awareness andIn order to address the rapidly increasing

understanding among consumers and theamounts of waste, waste was separated

general public.

into “industrial waste” and “municipal solid
waste,” and particularly strict standards were

The following section discusses Japan’s

applied to industrial waste in order to ensureexperience in the latter half of the 20th century

appropriate treatment.

in greater detail. It identifies a first phase (the1950s and 1960s), when pollution and theJapan’s limited land area made it difficult

amount of waste increased; a second phase

to secure new landfill sites where impacts(the 1970s and 1980s), when various problemson the natural environment and the livingsuch as illegal dumping arose and efforts wereenvironment could be mitigated, while themade to treat waste appropriately; and a third

space in existing landfill sites was decreasing.

phase (the 1990s and 2000s), when efforts to

In addition, there arose a number of problems,

implement the 3Rs were made with the aim ofincluding large-scale illegal dumping and air

establishing a sound material-cycle society andpollution, offensive odours and noise resulting

reducing the amount of landfilled waste to thefrom industrial waste treatment, which could

greatest possible extent.

not be solved solely through efforts to address
the escalating volume of waste.

Phase 1: The 1950s and 1960s
Pollution and waste increase alongside rapid

The manifestation of global environmental

industrialization and high economic growth

problems in the 1990s and 2000s set in motion

a. The initial problem: Rapidly-increasing

efforts to mitigate climate change, establish

amounts of municipal waste (post-war

a sound material-cycle society and protect

reconstruction period)

biodiversity. These efforts were made throughAfter World War II ended in 1945, a

the participation and collaboration of alldevastated Japan began its economic

stakeholders in society, including the national

reconstruction. The working population

government, industry, local governments,

migrated from agricultural zones to cities,

citizens and business operators. Japan’s wastewith the rapid rise in population causing

management strategy changed distinctly tomajor difficulties for cities in terms offocus on the creation of a sound material-

treating waste. Most municipal waste wascycle society. The government went beyond

dumped on vacant land, creating breeding

preparing waste treatment and disposalsites for mosquitos and flies, resulting in a

facilities and began efforts to utilize resources

health hazard.

Chapter 2: The Japanese experience: Japan’s industrial waste situation in the late 20th century

23This situation led to the enactment ofactivities. At the time, industrial waste

the Public Cleansing Law in 1954, which

was handled by individual companies,

stipulated that in urban areas, municipal

which would, for example, store waste bothgovernments must implement cleanup

inside and outside their factories. Cases

projects to improve public hygiene. The

of inappropriate treatment arose with

underlying principle, namely that householdincreasing frequency as the available spacewaste and human waste must be collected andat landfill sites decreased and urbanization

treated by municipal governments in orderprogressed. This led to such social problems

to maintain public hygiene, was originallyas water pollution caused by the discharge

stipulated in the 1900 Sewage Disposal Law,of untreated waste oil. It soon became

Japan’s first law on waste, which was enacted

clear that the Public Cleansing Law wasin the aftermath of plague epidemics.

insufficient for dealing with a problem ofthis magnitude.

In order to maintain public hygiene anddeal with the increasing amount of waste,

The amount of industrial waste generated

in 1963 the national government began

in 1967 is estimated at 1,116,000 tons perproviding subsidies for waste incineration

day, a figure more than 20 times the roughlyplants. The first incineration plant in Japan

50,000 tons per day of household waste

to operate around the clock was also built ingenerated that year (Japan, MHW, 1970).

that year, and Japan introduced the methodof incinerating combustible municipal

c. Pollution resulting from the prioritization

waste, thereby reducing it to ash, beforeof industrial development

landfilling it.

Although various technological innovations
led to miraculous industrial growth, scantb. Increasing amounts of industrial waste

attention was typically paid to the treatment(high economic growth period)of waste, factory wastewater and flue gases,

In the mid-1950s, the post-war

which required the investment of large sumsreconstruction period ended and Japanof money. Priority was instead given toentered a period of high economic growth.

developing businesses.

From 1955 to around 1973, the Japanese
economy experienced real growth of overIndustrial development degraded local

8 per cent per annum. The expanding

environments. For example, hazardous

economy resulted in Japan’s gross national

effluent from paper mills was discharged

product (GNP) becoming the second largest

into rivers untreated. This in turn led toin the world in 1968. People’s lifestyles

conflicts between fishermen and the paperchanged and an increasing number of homemills. Thick soot and dust filled the skies

appliances came into popular use, including

above cities with heavy concentrations of

televisions, electric refrigerators andindustries, due to the burning of coal toelectric washing machines. These changes

power factories. In the 1950s and 1960s,

resulted in a considerable increase in bulky

four major pollution induced diseases

waste and waste plastics.

seriously impacted the health of local
residents and became major problems for24

Japan faced another challenge in coping

society. These were Minamata disease,with the industrial waste generated throughNiigata Minamata disease, itai-itai diseasebusiness operators’ robust production

and Yokkaichi asthma (see Box 1).

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Box 1: The four major pollution-induced diseases■■ Minamata disease (Japan, Environment Agency,
1973; Japan, MOE, 2006; Japan, MOE 2011a)
In April 1956, a girl in the city of Minamata in Kumamoto
Prefecture was admitted to the hospital with serious
symptoms that included paralysis of the limbs andthe inability to talk or eat. Other patients presented
identical symptoms and the situation developed intoa major social problem. The symptoms were caused bymethylmercury compounds contained in the effluent
from a factory producing acetaldehyde, a raw material
for plasticizers used to make plastics and othermaterials. The methylmercury compounds released
into the sea bioaccumulated in fish and shellfish, andresidents who ate the contaminated seafood developed
nervous system disorders.
The main symptoms include sensory disturbances,ataxia, concentric contraction of the visual field andhearing impairment. Some victims of fetal Minamata
disease, contracted through exposure to methylmercury
during the mother’s pregnancy, experience symptoms
different from those of adult victims.
Some victims sued for damages against the company
that caused the pollution. It was finally decided thatthose certified as having Minamata disease would
be compensated in accordance with compensationagreements. There were 2,271 certified patients as ofthe end of July 2010.
■■ Niigata Minamata disease (also referred to as“second Minamata disease”) (Japan, Environment
Agency, 1973; Japan, MOE, 2006; Japan, MOE,
2011a)In 1965, people living around the Agano River areain Niigata Prefecture began to experience similar
symptoms to Minamata disease, and this came to becalled Niigata Minamata disease. This was again causedby methylmercury compounds contained in effluent
discharged from a factory producing acetaldehyde.
Similarly to the earlier instances of Minamata disease,those certified to be the victims of methylmercury
poisoning are compensated based on compensationagreements. As of the end of July 2010, 698 people
were certified (in Niigata Prefecture).

■■ Itai-itai disease (Japan, Environment Agency, 1973)
In 1955, the outbreak of a disease of unknown cause
was reported in the areas around the Jinzu River inToyama Prefecture. It came to be called itai-itai diseasebecause the patients cried out, “Itai! Itai!” meaning,“It hurts! It hurts!” Later, surveys revealed that, inthe process of producing zinc from mined ores, watercontaining ore-derived cadmium and other heavy metals
was discharged into the river, contaminating rice paddies
and well water downstream. Residents who ingested
the contaminated rice and water contracted the disease.
Chronic cadmium poisoning affected the kidneys
first, then caused osteomalacia, and further caused
abnormalities in pregnancy, lactation and internal
secretion while also accelerating aging and depleting
calcium as a nutrient, which in turn caused the particularsymptoms seen in itai-itai disease.
Some patients filed lawsuits for damages against thecompany that caused the pollution and won damages.
The company compensates those certified as itai-itaidisease patients based on a written pledge. As of theend of 2011, there were 196 certified patients.
■■ Yokkaichi asthma (Japan, Environment Agency,
1973)
Construction began on a large-scale petrochemicalcomplex in the city of Yokkaichi in Mie Prefecture in
1956. The complex sold gasoline, paraffin oil and lightoil, and it also sold the heavy oil that collected at thebottom of the tanks cheaply for industrial purposes.
Factories that used this heavy oil emitted flue gases
containing sulfur, heavy metals and nitrogen oxides(NOx), causing air pollution. The pollution caused asthma
among local residents, which came to be known as
Yokkaichi asthma.
Some of the affected residents filed lawsuits in 1967
for damages against the six companies that caused thepollution. It was finally agreed that the companies would
compensate the patients. Prompted by this incident
and others, the Environment Agency radically revised
the Law Concerning Controls on the Emission of Smokeand Soot (Smoke and Soot Control Law) to enact the Air
Pollution Control Law in 1968.
Similar health problems occurred in the area around theindustrial zone in the city of Kawasaki in Kanagawa
Prefecture and elsewhere.

Chapter 2: The Japanese experience: Japan’s industrial waste situation in the late 20th century

25

Phase 2: The 1970s and 1980s

in contrast to the Public Cleansing Law,

Faced with the consequences of mass

which focused on public hygiene. Waste

production, mass consumption and mass

was divided into “industrial waste” anddisposal, Japan begins working towards the“municipal solid waste”, with both terms

appropriate treatment of waste

defined in the law. The results of the firsta. The enactment of the Waste Management

nationwide survey conducted by the Water

Law leads to appropriate waste treatment

Supply and Environment Department inby emitters1975 showed that about 236 million tons

In the 1970s, society came to realize theof industrial waste had been generated

importance of the appropriate treatment ofthat year (Japan, MHW, 1979). This waswaste, wastewater, flue gases and hazardous

five times the amount of municipal solid

substances, which had been overlooked

waste generated the same year (aboutas Japan started to enjoy the benefits of

42 million tons).

economic growth.
b. Tightening the regulations for the
Various laws for environmental measurestreatment of hazardous waste and landfill

were enacted in the Diet session convened

sites

in 1970, which is still referred to as “theThis 1970 Waste Management Law strictly

Pollution Diet” today. It was a major turning

regulated the treatment of hazardous waste

point for Japan’s environmental policies.

from the standpoint of protecting human

The Pollution Diet also resulted in thehealth. For example, it stipulated that sludge

establishment of the Environment Agency

and slag containing hazardous substancesin 1971 as the administrative agency

such as mercury or cadmium must be

responsible for planning and coordinating

solidified in cement before being landfilled.

the implementation of environmental

However, it was discovered in 1975 that aprotection policies, including policies tolarge volume of hexavalent chromium slag

prevent pollution and conserve the natural

had been buried in the Edogawa and Koto

environment. It was also responsible forwards of Tokyo (see Box 2). This major

the comprehensive implementation ofscandal led to a series of amendments

related measures.

to the standards in order to tighten theregulations. A 1977 amendment tightened

In the Diet session, the Public Cleansing

regulations on landfill sites. It divided

Law was also radically revised to enablelandfill sites for industrial waste into three

an appropriate response to water area

types and stipulated the structure of eachpollution caused by the illegal dumping

type of landfill site, thereby clarifying theof waste oil. The law was renamed thestandards governing them.

Waste Management and Public Cleansing
Law (Waste Management Law). The basic

Various standards were developed throughframework for the current waste treatment

the enactment of the Waste Management

system was created through this revision

Law in 1970 and its amendments, including(see 2.1.3 (2) for an outline).

standards for waste treatment, technicalstandards for treatment facilities and26

The Waste Management Law clarified in its

the criteria for hazardous industrial

provisions that treatment shall have thewaste. Subsidy programmes, financing

aim of preserving the living environment,

and preferential tax systems were also

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countriesimplemented to help develop waste
treatment facilities.
c. Illegal dumping
The oil crisis in 1973 caused an economic
slowdown in Japan, with industrial waste
generation decreasing somewhat as aconsequence. The amount of waste later
jumped during the bubble economy years
from 1985 to 1990. About 395 million
tons of industrial waste were generated in
1990. This amount exceeded 400 million
tons in 1992 and it has remained at aroundthat level since then (Japan, Environment
Agency, 1994).
The enactment of the Waste Management

Box 2: Contamination of soil inTokyo with hexavalent chromium
It was discovered that a large volume of hexavalent chromiumslag was buried in land purchased by the Tokyo Metropolitan
Government in 1973 for the development of a subway andthe redevelopment of the urban district. In 1975, the Tokyo
Metropolitan Government filed a lawsuit for damages against
the chemical company which caused the pollution and thecase was settled in 1986. For other pieces of contaminatedprivate land, the company signed an “agreement on thetreatment of slag-contaminated soil” in 1979 and carried out
the permanent containment of slag under the supervision of
the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. The treatment was paid
for by the company.
The containment of the slag was completed for 86,000 m3
based on the settlement and 347,000 m 3 based on theagreement. The pieces of land are currently used as parks andother such areas.

Source: Bureau of Environment, Tokyo Metropolitan Government (2012)

Law and the tightening of standards andregulations began to improve the treatment

Phase 3: The 1990s and 2000sof industrial waste, including hazardous

Collaboration towards the establishment of awaste. However, the Japanese population

sound material-cycle society with a view tobegan to recognize that arranging a greater

protecting the global environment

number of waste treatment and landfill

a. The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro andfacilities for ever-increasing volumes ofthe enactment of the Basic Environment

waste would not solve the problem andAct, facilitating participation by variousthat the social structure based on mass

parties

production, mass consumption and mass

The United Nations Conference on

disposal would have to change.

Environment and Development (UNCED,or the Earth Summit) was held in Rio

The need for a change from the massde Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. There, theproduction, mass consumption and mass

importance of efforts by each country indisposal system became more obvious after

solving global environmental problems

cases of large-scale illegal dumping camewas discussed and the rules for measures

to light one after another, including on theto curb global warming and for protecting

island of Teshima in Kagawa Prefecture andbiodiversity began to be developed.

in the city of Iwaki in Fukushima Prefecture,
to name just two examples (see Boxes 1 andJapanese industry also began taking

2 in 2.3). Illegal dumping is a major social

environmental measures at this time.

issue because taxpayers have to pay for theCompanies which had expanded theirrestoration of the original environment andbusinesses overseas were the first to takethe costs involved are multiple times theenvironmental measures, as they were

cost of treating the waste appropriately inmore sensitive to global trends. Many

the first place.

energy efficient home appliances weredeveloped and the words “environmentallyfriendly” were frequently used in TV

Chapter 2: The Japanese experience: Japan’s industrial waste situation in the late 20th century

27commercials. The message “think globally,

than ever, and the Waste Management Law

act locally” sent by the Earth Summit took

was significantly revised in 1991 to include

root in Japanese society.

provisions on reducing waste generation andon segregating and recycling waste. A “solid

The Japanese government enacted thewaste treatment centre system” (see 2.1.3

Basic Environment Act in 1993. The(3) for an outline) was established, thereby

government emphasized cooperation

creating a framework for local governments

between various parties in society-wide

to become proactively involved in the partefforts for the protection of the globalof the industrial waste management processenvironment, emphasizing the four key

that starts with reducing waste generated,concepts of “material cycles”, “symbiosis”,

then segregates and recycles waste and“participation” and “international efforts”.

ultimately applies appropriate treatment to

It was at this time that environmental

the remaining waste.

considerations became an importantelement of social activities.

Japan exported industrial waste overseas,
but these exports were restricted after

As part of the reorganization of central

Japan enacted the Basic Environment Act

government ministries and agencies in 2001,

and ratified the Basel Convention on thethe Waste Department of the Ministry ofControl of Transboundary Movements ofHealth and Welfare (MHW) was merged into

Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (thethe Environment Agency and the Ministry

Basel Convention) in 1993. However, evenof the Environment (MOE) was created.

before 1993, most industrial waste that was

Administration of waste management

sent to other locations was moved within

was clearly defined as part of the national

Japan from one prefecture to another,government’s environmental administration

rather than from Japan to other countries.

system and was centrally controlled by the
Ministry of the Environment.

Concerns began to intensify about thequality of waste in addition to the quantity

b. Strengthening measures to control the28

of waste. For example, there were strong

quantity and quality of waste, including

concerns about dioxins. In Japan, thecontrols on waste generation and measuresincineration of waste before it was landfilled

to control dioxins

became the typical treatment method in

Although there was increasing interest inorder to ensure both hygienic management

global environmental problems, the annual

and a reduction in volume. Many plans

generation of industrial waste remained at

to construct waste incineration plants

the high level of 400 million tons as vigorousnear residential areas were announced,

economic activity continued, accompaniedand protests against the construction

by the tremendous material flows associatedof waste incineration plants intensified

with mass production, mass consumption

in various parts of Japan. There was an

and mass disposal. Various issues surfaced,

increasing concern among residents that

including changes in the quality of waste,

the incineration of waste containing plastic,a lack of incineration plant capacity,

particularly vinyl chloride, would produce

diminishing space at landfill sites and large-

dioxins and the flue gases from plants

scale illegal dumping. Reducing waste andwould harm the health of nearby residents.

recycling resources became more important

This transformed into a problem recognized

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

by society as a whole when consumer
organizations launched a boycott of vinyl
chloride products.

Box 3: Minamata today: Plentiful natural
resources and a beautiful countryside
A family paddles a sea kayak with smiles on their faces.
People visit this place for camping in the summer. In winter,

Japanese society already had a deep
distrust of waste treatment because ofpeople come to walk around the forest by the beach.
The Minamata Nature School is a place where people gather
to fully experience the reincarnated beach through theirillegal dumping incidents from the 1980s

five senses.

and dioxin problems. Bold measures were

The city of Minamata aims to revitalize the nature of the sea,

introduced to respond to the situation in

once contaminated in the 1950s by industrial wastewater

1997 and 2000, including increasing the
responsibility of business operators who

containing mercury, and create an “Environmental ModelCity” where responsible companies, businesses, citizens andgovernment work cooperatively and energetically towards

generate waste, strengthening the waste

better urban planning.

manifest system, introducing penalties

The city is working to improve more than just the sea.

of up to 100 million yen (approximately

The people here have taken into account the lessons

US$1 million) for illegal dumping, andstrengthening measures to control dioxins

learned from Minamata disease, including lessons about
the appropriate management of household waste. Theyprioritize preservation of the environment and modify theirat incineration plants. As a result, illegal

behaviour accordingly.

dumping started to decline after peaking in

Most cities in Japan dispose of household waste through1999. The Law Concerning Special Measureseither incineration or direct landfill disposal. In the early

against Dioxins was enacted in 1999. This

1990s, the city of Minamata began segregating waste touse it as a resource. The Minamata city government achieved

led to the introduction of comprehensive

resource classification collection by creating base locations

measures, including tightened regulations

for collection in each community, and then collecting theon flue gases from incineration plants,

sorted waste in containers, with the categories to becollected depending on the day of the week. Minamata isgovernment support systems for

known for having cultivated an advanced system of 21

technological development by businessclassifications from 1993 (24 classifications since 2000),

operators, and support for the improvementof incineration plants by local governments.

using a structure based on cooperation by the citizens. Butthat was not all. There was a realization that unless waste
was also reduced, they would continue to battle the issues

Of particular note, the emissions of dioxinsof resource consumption and securing final disposal sites.

and dioxin-like compounds (DLCs) in JapanIn 1997, the city office called on sixteen women’s groups

were successfully reduced from 5,000 grams

and created the Minamata Women’s Council for Waste

in 1997 to 64 grams in 2004, a 98 per centreduction (Japan, MOE, 2006).

Reduction. Three thousand five hundred women in the city
would reduce as much excessive potential waste as possible
such as by carrying around reusable shopping bags andpurchasing minimally packaged items. The stores would also

The Law Concerning Special Measures for
Promotion of Proper Treatment of PCB

cooperate by curbing the excessive use of food trays whenputting food up for sale. In this way, the 3R (reduce, reuse
and recycle) relationship would be established.

Wastes (PCB Special Measures Law) was

The city of Minamata, Kumamoto prefecture, with theenacted in 2001 for PCB waste, which

beautiful sunset that falls on Shiranui bay, is known for its

until then had been handled by individual

seafood, citrus growing in the woodlands, and abundantbusiness operators even though it is agreenery and food, making it a city attractive to all. The
citizens have cooperated in community building, butparticularly hazardous and difficult-to-treat

there should also be some focus on how environmental

type of industrial waste. The law paved thereclamation and the rebuilding of trust was not an easy

way for the national government to develop
five treatment centres nationwide androad taken, and that these experiences should be avoided inother countries to the greatest extent possible.

centrally treat PCB waste (see 2.4.4 (3) fora specific example).

Chapter 2: The Japanese experience: Japan’s industrial waste situation in the late 20th century

29

c. Accelerating the creation of a soundresponsibility (EPR), in which producers

material-cycle society based on the idea oftake a certain level of responsibility forextended producer responsibility

their products not only at the production

When light and easy-to-carry PET bottles

stage but also at the utilization and post-

became popular among consumers, there

consumer stages.

was a backlash from environmentalorganizations against the use of the

The Fundamental Plan for Establishingdisposable bottles. This increased thea Sound Material-Cycle Society, a plan

public’s interest in the importance of thefor implementing relevant measures in a

3Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle), which takecomprehensive and systematic manner,

into consideration the reduction of waste

sets three targets for the “entrance”,

generation in addition to recycling.

“material-cycle” and “exit” stages of thematerial flow in Japan (see 2.1.3 (1) c. for

Against this social backdrop, the government

an outline). These serve as indicators forcreated the Basic Act on Establishing a Sound

achieving a sound material-cycle society

Material-Cycle Society in 2000 (see 2.1.3 (1) b.

when implementing the above-mentioned

for an outline), which establishes the 3Rs as alegislation as a whole. Japanese society

foundation. Other recycling laws formulated

is taking steady steps towards reducing

before and after 2000 stipulate the roles

natural resource consumption, using aof producers, consumers and government.

greater amount of recycled materials andThese include the Law for the Promotion ofminimizing the amount of landfilled waste.

Effective Utilization of Resources (1991); theAs a result, the expected number of years

Law for the Promotion of Sorted Collection

before industrial waste landfill sites become

and Recycling of Containers and Packaging

full increased from 3.9 years in 2000 to(Container and Packaging Recycling Law;more than 10 years in 2010.

1995); the Law for the Recycling of Specified
Kinds of Home Appliances (Home Applianced. Society-level efforts to create a sound

Recycling Law; 1998); the Law on Recycling ofmaterial-cycle society

Construction-Related Materials (Construction

In addition to the implementation ofMaterial Recycling Law; 2000); the Law forlegislation, initiatives by industry are

Promotion of Recycling and Related Activities

important for transitioning to a soundfor the Treatment of Cyclical Food Resourcesmaterial-cycle society. Keidanren (Japan(Food Waste Recycling Law; 2000); and theBusiness Federation), which is comprised

Law for the Recycling of End-of-Life Vehiclesof leading Japanese companies, national(End-of-Life Vehicle Recycling Law; 2002). In

organizations for individual industries

addition, the Law on Promotion of Recycling

and regional economic organizations,of Small Waste Electrical and Electronic

announced the Keidanren Global

Equipment (Small Waste Electrical andEnvironment Charter in 1991, when it was

Electronic Equipment Recycling Law) was

known as Keidanren (Japan Federation ofenacted in 2012.

Economic Organizations)1. Its aim was to

Producers’ responsibility for recycling andrelated activities was established in theserecycling laws (see 2.1.3 (4) for an outline),
based on the idea of extended producer

30

1Keidanren (Japan Federation of Economic Organizations)and Nikkeiren (Japan Federation of Employers’
Associations) amalgamated in 2002 to become
Keidanren (Japan Business Federation).

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countriesexpress domestically and internationally

years, consumer organizations andthe principles and specific guidelines for

local organizations nationwide haveaction that industry should use to tackle

cooperated with each other through theenvironmental problems. In order to put

National Liaison Committee of Consumer

the principles into action, Keidanren

Organizations (Shodanren) established informulated the Keidanren Voluntary

1956 and the National Liaison Council of

Action Plan on the Environment in 1997

Life-Focused Schools,2 through which theyand it is now also working towards the

conduct awareness-raising activities anddevelopment of a sound material-cycle

advocacy activities. In 2010, nationwide

society (see 2.2).

networks of citizen organizations
interested in the 3Rs jointly launchedWith the aim of establishing a soundthe Asia 3R Citizens Forum, throughmaterial-cycle society, the Ministry of thewhich they share among themselves andEnvironment and the Ministry of Economy,

with others advanced examples of 3R

Trade and Industry (METI) institutionalized

activities in Japan while cooperating withthe “Eco-Town Project” initiative in 1997.

organizations promoting the 3Rs in otherThrough this initiative, environmentallyparts of Asia.

friendly cities are developed based on theconcept of zero emissions (see 2.1.3 (5) for
an outline and 2.5.4 and 2.6.4 for specific2.0.3 Conclusion

examples). “Zero emissions” is a state

Table 2-0-1 summarizes in chronological orderin which all the waste generated by one

Japan’s experiences regarding industrial waste.

industry is used by another industry as raw

This chapter has so far discussed the challenges

materials so that waste is reduced to zero.

that arose in industrial waste management in thecontext of historical developments in Japan and

These efforts of business operators, local

the measures taken to tackle the challenges. Latergovernments and the national government

sections will detail specific activities conducted

to create a sound material-cycle societyby the national government, industry, local

are motivated by an increasing awarenessgovernments and others. They will also overview

of residents about the environment.

the results achieved through the activities andCurrently, many consumer organizations

the lessons learned by each stakeholder group. An

and environmental NPOs are engaged inoutline of national policies on waste management

environmental activities. Women, moreis given in 2.1. The history of industrial waste

so than men, generally have standpoints

treatment businesses in Japan is explained in 2.2.

rooted in the essentials of life, with strong

The voluntary actions of industry are explained

concerns about pollution and the illegal

in 2.3. The experiences and activities of Osaka

dumping of industrial waste and hazardous

City and the cities of Kitakyushu and Kawasaki

substances such as dioxins and dioxin-

are explained in 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6, as specific local

like compounds from the standpoint ofgovernment examples.

protecting the health of their families.
Therefore, women play critical roles

Since 2010, Japan has faced many new

in scrutinizing the responses taken bychallenges that came one after another. As

business operators, local governments
and the national government towards
environmental problems. For many

2

Zenkoku Seikatsu Gakko Renraku Kyougikai inJapanese

Chapter 2: The Japanese experience: Japan’s industrial waste situation in the late 20th century

31

Table 2-0-1 Japan’s Experience regarding Industrial Waste in the Latter Half of the 20th Century

Years
1950s
and
1960s

1970s
and
1980s

Int’l (▲) and domestic(◆) events related to theenvironment and economy◆   1955-1973: Higheconomic growth period◆   1955: Itai-itai disease◆   1956: Minamata disease◆   1958: Factory Effluent
Control Law◆   1962: Smoke and Soot
Control Law enacted◆   1964: Tokyo Olympics◆   1967: Basic Law forEnvironmental Pollution
Control enacted◆   1970: “Pollution Diet”◆   1970: Japan World
Exposition in Osaka City◆   1971: Environment Agencyof Japan established▲  1972: United Nations
Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm◆  1986-1991: Bubble
economyLaws related to waste
management and activities related
to industrial waste management

Industrial waste emissions
Industrial waste
Recycled amountAmount landfilled
0
FY
1971

million tons
150
300

450

1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988

1990s,
2000s,
andbeyond▲  1992: United Nations
Conference on Environmentand Development (UNCED)
in Rio de Janeiro (Agenda
21 agreed; Framework
Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) andConvention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) opened forsignature)◆   1993: Basic Environment
Act enacted◆   1996: Keidanren Appeal on
the Environment adopted;
industry-wide Voluntary
Action Plans developed in
response▲  1997: Third session of theConference of the Parties
to the UNFCCC (COP3) heldin Kyoto (Kyoto Protocol to
the UNFCCC adopted)◆   2001: Environment Agency
reorganized as Ministry of
the Environment◆   2008-2012: First
commitment period of
Kyoto Protocol■   1900: Sewage Disposal Law◆   Municipal governments must
treat household waste and humanwaste in order to maintain publichygiene.
■   1954: Public Cleansing Law◆   Municipal governments must
implement cleaning projects
in urban areas with the aim of
improving public hygiene.

1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007

■   1970: Waste Management
Law aims to preserve living
environment and maintainpublic hygiene. Defines“municipal solid waste” ashousehold waste to be treatedby municipal governments, and“industrial waste”, for which
the responsibility for treatmentlies with the business operators
generating the waste.
▲  1989: Basel Convention on
the Control of Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and Their Disposal■   1991: Law for the Promotion of
Effective Utilization of Resources■   1995: Containers and Packaging
Recycling Law■   1997: Eco-town system launched
to foster environmentally friendly
cities■   1998: Home Appliance RecyclingLaw■   1999: Law Concerning Special
Measures against Dioxins■   2000: Basic Act on Establishing aSound Material-Cycle Society■   2000: Construction Material
Recycling Law■   2000: Food Waste Recycling Law■   2001: PCB Special Measures Law■   2002: End-of-Life Vehicle
Recycling Law■   2012: Small Waste Electrical andElectronic Equipment Recycling
Law

2008
2009
All figures and tables refer to the Japanese fiscal year,
running from 1 April of a given year to 31 March of
the next year.

Source: Based on Japan, MOE (2011b)

32

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

industrialization progresses globally and theJapan’s efforts to develop a sound material-cycle

scarcity of resources such as rare earth elementssociety have entered a new stage.

increases their value, the 2Rs (reduce andreuse) are becoming increasingly important.

Japan’s experiences and the lessons it learned in

Aggressive efforts are also needed to upgrade

the latter half of the 20th century can contributethe quality of recycling technologies. The space

to global efforts for the establishment of soundin industrial waste landfill sites is declining

material-cycle societies. They can be particularly

and it is estimated that these sites will be full

instructive as examples of the sustainableapproximately 10 years from now. The focus has

and effective use of resources, thoroughshifted to the recovery of energy as heat andimplementation of the 3Rs and appropriate

electricity, with the aim of reducing the waste

waste treatment and the recovery of heat andto be landfilled as much as possible. Therefore,

other forms of energy from waste. 		

References
Japan, Environment Agency (1973). Annual Report on the Environment in Japan 1973 [in Japanese]. Tokyo.
__________ (1994). Annual Report on the Environment in Japan 1994 [in Japanese]. Tokyo.
Japan, METI (2004). Material-Cycle Business Strategy: How to Support Businesses for the Establishment of a Sound Material-Cycle
Society. Tokyo.
Japan, MHW (1970). Annual Report on Health and Welfare 1970 [in Japanese]. Tokyo.
__________ (1979). Annual Report on Health and Welfare 1979 [in Japanese]. Tokyo.
Japan, MOE (2006). Sweeping Policy Reform towards a “Sound Material-cycle Society” Starting from Japan and Spreading over the
Entire Globe: The 3-R Loop Connecting Japan with Other Countries 2006. Tokyo.
__________ (2011a). The History of Minamata Disease and Japan’s Measures to Control Mercury. Tokyo.
__________ (2011b). Illustrated Annual Report on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and the Biodiversity in Japan
2011 [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/zu/h23/html/hj11010402.html__________ (2013). The Third Fundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society. Tokyo.
Japan Society of Waste Management (1995). Readings on Garbage Management. Tokyo: Chuohoki Publishing Co., Ltd.
Tanaka, M. (2005). New Introduction to Waste Management Studies. Tokyo: Chuohoki Publishing Co., Ltd.
Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Bureau of Environment (2012). Countermeasures to soil contaminated with hexavalent chromium[in Japanese]. Available from http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/chemical/soil/information/cr6.html

Chapter 2: The Japanese experience: Japan’s industrial waste situation in the late 20th century

33

2.1 The national policy framework
Ministry of the Environment of Japan

2.1.1 Introduction
Waste Management Engineering approximated

2.1.2 Industrial waste
issues in Japan and thedevelopment of policies

waste generation worldwide at 10.47 billion

Japan’s legal framework for waste management

tons in 2010. It also estimated future waste

began with the Sewage Disposal Law enacted

generation of about 14.87 billion tons in 2025

in 1900. This law was wholly revised in 1954

and 22.31 billion tons in 2050, representing

with the enactment of the Public Cleansing

increases of 45.0 per cent and 113.2 per centLaw, which aimed at maintaining cleanliness

respectively compared to the 2010 figure. As

and improving public health. Based on the newmore waste is generated, waste management

law, municipalities disposed of most household

issues are expected to become increasingly

and human waste generated in the daily lives

acute all around the globe (RISWME, 2011).

of the general population. However, for waste

A study by the Research Institute of Solidfrom industry, although there was a provision
The state of waste generation and managementthat municipal mayors could order proper

varies according to the economic and social

disposal of special wastes or wastes in massive

circumstances found in countries’ local areas.

amounts, as a matter of practice, it was the

Therefore, there is a need to tailor waste

waste generators themselves who were tasked

policies to each local area’s particular set ofwith the disposal of most industrial waste.

circumstances. Nevertheless, this chapter

How the waste was actually disposed of wasintroduces outlines of Japan’s past industrial

usually unclear.

waste policies with the aim of providing areference for policy making.

Japan achieved high economic growth fromthe mid-1950s through the early 1970s. This

Section 2.1.2 overviews the industrial waste

period saw a worsening of pollution problems,issue in Japan over time and the development

including air pollution and water contamination.

of policies to address it. Section 2.1.3

No nationwide statistical data exist on thehighlights key elements of Japan’s current

amount of industrial waste generated in Japan

industrial waste policies, namely the Basic Act

during this era, but there are estimates of abouton Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society,a million tons per day. This led to pollution

regulations based on the Waste Management

problems attributable to the disposal methods

Law, the construction of and improvements tofor industrial waste, such as the contaminationindustrial waste disposal facilities and supportof water for public use as a result of the illegal

for technological development, recycling

dumping of such waste.

laws, and the Eco-town project. Section 2.1.4
discusses aspects of Japan’s experience that

Because pollution had grown into a serious

are expected to be particularly relevant tosocietal problem and because of mounting public

developing countries.

opinion nationwide calling for pollution control,
14 pollution-related laws were newly enacted
or revised in the Diet session that convened in
November 1970 (called the “Pollution Diet”),

34

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

with the Public Cleansing Law wholly revised

Convention) was adopted in March 1989. In 1993

into the Waste Management Law.

Japan ratified this law and brought into force theLaw for the Control of Export, Import and Others

This Waste Management Law established theof Specified Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes

basic frameworks of regulations and systems

to strictly control export and import of hazardous

concerning industrial waste management thatwastes specified in the Convention.

still exist today. The systems introduced were
(1) classifying waste into industrial waste andIn the 1990s, Japan came to recognize

municipal solid waste and establishing a system

structural changes in environmental issues. The

to manage each, (2) establishing the principle

existing pollution problems caused by industry

of industrial waste generators disposing of

had been remedied, but environmental

industrial waste appropriately on their own

pollution and increases in waste generation

responsibility, (3) setting standards concerningcaused by economic and social activities rooted

the collection, transport and disposal ofin “mass production, mass consumption, andindustrial waste, and (4) introducing a license

mass disposal” came to be an issue. Global

system for industrial waste disposers.

warming and other global environmental
problems also received prominent attention.

However, after the Pollution Diet in 1970,

Against this backdrop, deliberations were heldsuch problems as air pollution and wateron the modalities of Japan’s environmental

contamination gradually came to be remedied,policies based on the results of the United

whereas the industrial waste issue was not solved

Nations Conference on Environment andby the enactment of the Waste Management Law.

Development held in Rio de Janeiro inAs economic growth continued, the generation

1992 (UNCED, or the Earth Summit). Thisof waste increased and greater diversity wasculminated in the enactment of the Basic

seen in the types of waste generated. In theEnvironment Act in 1993.

early 1990s, the industrial waste issue, including
illegal dumping, a shortage of landfills andThis law provides for the basic principles ofdisputes between local communities over theenvironment conservation, the responsibilities

establishment of landfills or incineration facilities

of various entities, fundamental policies forbecame more acute.

environment conservation, and other suchmatters. As the responsibilities of businessAccordingly, the Law was revised significantly

operators, the Basic Environment Act requires

in 1991 and 1997. This revision considerablybusinesses to take necessary measures tostrengthened penalties for illegal dumping andensure proper disposal when products andenabled a transition into a permission systemother items and materials related to businessfor the establishment of waste disposal facilities.

activities become waste. It also requires

This revision also introduced and expandedbusinesses to make efforts to reduce thethe system governing waste subject to special

environmental burden during the stages ofcontrol and the system of industrial waste

product use and disposal and to make efforts tocontrol manifests.

use recycled resources.

In addition, concerning cross-border movement

In the First Basic Environment Plan, basedof hazardous wastes, the Basel Convention on

on the Act and formulated in 1994, an

the Control of Transboundary Movements of“environmentally sound material cycle” was theHazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Baselfirst of four long-term objectives. It advocated

Chapter 2.1: The national policy framework

35

“minimizing the environmental burden andof waste generated, promoting recycling, andrealizing a socioeconomic system based on an

setting waste reduction targets.

environmentally sound material cycle. These will
be achieved through reducing the occurrence ofAgainst this backdrop, the three ruling parties

waste, conducting proper disposal, and otherreached a policy agreement in October 1999

means, thereby securing to the greatest extent

that “fiscal 2000 should be positioned as thepossible sound material cycles in social andyear to launch a sound material-cycle society,economic systems.”

and that the legislation that will serve as thebasic framework will be formulated” (Japan,

Thus, for solving serious waste problems, justMOE, 2000). After this policy agreement, thethe conventional approach of properly disposing

parties and government departments heldof waste through incineration or landfilling wasdeliberations on and then enacted the Basic

inadequate. Japan recognized the importance of

Act on Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle

reducing the amount of waste generated in theSociety in 2000. That same year, the Diet

first place and of recycling any waste that still

also newly enacted the Law on Recycling ofended up being generated. Concrete policies forConstruction-Related Materials (Construction

both gradually came to be introduced. When the

Material Recycling Law), the Law for Promotion

Waste Management Law was revised in 1991,

of Recycling and Related Activities for thethe purpose of the law was amended to include

Treatment of Cyclical Food Resources (Foodreducing the amount of waste generated and also

Waste Recycling Law), and the Law Concerning

recycling waste. In 1995, the Law for Promotion

the Promotion of Procurement of Eco-Friendlyof Selective Collection and Recycling of Containers

Goods and Services by the State and Other

and Packaging (Containers and Packaging

Entities (Law on Promoting Green Purchasing)

Recycling Law) was enacted, and in 1998, theand revised the Waste Management Law

Law for the Recycling of Specified Kinds of Homeand the Law for the Promotion of Effective

Appliances (Home Appliance Recycling Law) was

Utilization of Resources. In this way, the legal

enacted. Various measures were promoted underframework advanced in a way that makes it

laws addressing individual categories of waste,entirely fitting to call the year 2000 the year

yet waste discharge still increased. Therefore,

in which Japan’s sound material-cycle society

comprehensive and systematic waste controls

began. Japan then reorganized its ministries

were deliberated at the Central Environmental

and agencies in 2001. The Environment Agency

1Council and other meetings.

was promoted in status to become the Ministryof the Environment and waste management,

In the late 1990s, dioxin emissions from waste

which had historically been administered by theincineration facilities became a major issue. In

Ministry of Health and Welfare, was transferred

1999, the Law Concerning Special Measures

to the remit of the Ministry of the Environment.

against Dioxins was enacted, and the councilof ministers for dioxin countermeasures set

After that, multiple recycling-related laws

forth further measures for waste disposal andcame to be enacted, including the Law for therecycling. These included reducing the amount

Recycling of End-of-life Vehicles (End-of-life
Vehicle Recycling Law) in 2002 and the Law on
Promotion of Recycling of Small Waste Electrical

1

36

The Central Environmental Council is tasked withexamining environmental issues and providing its views
to the Prime Minister, the Environment Minister andother relevant ministers.

and Electronic Equipment (Small Waste
Electrical and Electronic Equipment RecyclingLaw) in 2012.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Figure 2-1-1 Changes in the amount of industrial waste generated and final disposal amount
Discharge amount (million tons)

Amount generated

Final disposal amount (million tons)

Final disposal amount

180

450
400

395

398

403

397

405

394

405

415

408

400

406

400

412

417

422

418

419

160

404

393

390

386

350

140

300

120

250

89

91

89

100
84

80

200

69

80

68

67
58

150

50

60
45

100

42

40
30

40
26

24

50

22

20

17

14

14

10

09

20

08

20

20

07
20

06

05

20

04

20

03

20

20

02

01

20

00

20

99

20

19

98
19

97

96

19

95

19

94

19

19

93
19

92
19

19

FY
19

91

0

90

0

20

Source: Ministry of the Environment

Meanwhile, improvements were made to theby industrial waste generators and disposal

legal framework to ensure proper disposal ofcompanies were promoted. As a result, althoughindustrial wastes. The Law Concerning Special

the amount of industrial waste generated

Measures for Promotion of Proper Treatment

remained unchanged, the landfill amount wasof PCB Wastes (PCB Special Measures Law) was

reduced dramatically, from 89 million tons inenacted in 2001 to promote processing of PCB

fiscal 1990 to 14 million tons in fiscal 2010 (seewastes, an area of waste management which

Figure 2-1-1). This reflected progress in bothfor many years had seen hardly any progress.

recycling and proper disposal. Illegal dumping

In addition, the Law on Special Measures

has been also decreasing in terms of both the

Cconcerning Removal of Environmental

number of cases and the total amount of waste.

Problems Caused by Specified Industrial
Wastes Law was enacted in 2003 to eliminate
caused by illegal dumping.

2.1.3 Policies related
to industrial waste
management in Japan

The Waste Management Law was revised(1) Establishing a sound material-cycle society

repeatedly in 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2010

a. Legal structure of waste policies in Japanto further strengthen regulations for proper

Japan’s legal system governing waste

disposal of industrial waste while introducing

is shown in Figure 2-1-2. The Basicsystems to promote recycling and heat recovery.

Environment Act provides for the basic

obstacles to environmental conservation

principles underlying not only waste policies
In parallel with these changes introduced by

but also environmental policies in general. It

the national government, local governments

also lays out the modalities of fundamental

strengthened their enforcement of regulations

policies and measures. The Basic Act on

and systems. Measures to advance the 3Rs

Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society(reduce, reuse, recycle) and proper disposal

was enacted in 2000.

Chapter 2.1: The national policy framework

37

Figure 2-1-2 Legal structure for establishing a sound material-cycle society
Basic Environment Act
Basic framework law
Basic Act on Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society
Fundamental plan for establishing a sound material-cycle society
Proper waste disposal

Promotion of cyclic use

Waste management law

Law for the promotion of effective utilization of resources

Regulations based on the properties of individual articles
Construction material recycling law

Container and packaging recycling law

Home appliance recycling law
Food waste recycling law

End-of-life vehicle recycling law
Small waste electrical and electronicequipment recycling law

Promotion of procurement of recycled products led by the national government

Law on promoting green purchasing
Source: Ministry of the EnvironmentMore concrete regulations and systems

The Act also establishes a hierarchy forare specified by individual laws. The Waste

waste management. The order of priority inManagement Law stipulates regulations

managing waste begins with reducing theand systems for the disposal of waste fromamount generated. This is followed by reuse,households and those from businesses.

then recycling, then heat recovery. Proper
disposal is the final option for waste that is

In order to promote recycling, Japan also

unable to undergo any of these.

enacted the Law for Promotion of Effective
Utilization of Resources. Moreover, there

The Act also specifies the responsibilities

are six individual laws that prescribe theof individual entities such as the national

recycling systems for six categories ofgovernment, local governments, businessarticles, namely containers and packaging,

operators and citizens. Notably, it clarifies

home appliances, food, construction

the “responsibility of the waste generator”

materials, automobiles and small appliances.

for both businesses and citizens, and it
establishes the general principle of extended

b. Outline of the Basic Act on Establishing a

producer responsibility (EPR), whereby

Sound Material-Cycle Society

producers take unambiguous responsibility

This law first defines “a sound material-cycle

for their products and other such articles

society” as a society where the consumption

until after they are used and become waste.

of natural resources can be reduced so as to38

lower burdens on the environment as far as

In addition, the Act sets forth thepossible by securing reduction in generation

modalities for the fundamental policies andof waste and cyclic use and proper disposal

measures related to establishing a soundof recyclable resources.

material-cycle society. It also stipulates that

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

the national government shall formulate a

These material flows are calculated on a

Fundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound

continuing basis for each fiscal year.

Material-Cycle Society.
In addition, as the indicators for the “entry”,
c. Fundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound“material cycle” and “exit” of the material

Material-Cycle Society

flows in economic activities, their numerical

The First Fundamental Plan for Establishingtargets are set. In the base year (FY2000),

a Sound Material-Cycle Society was

the resource productivity was 248,000 yen/formulated in 2003, grounded in the Basic

ton, the recycling ratio was 10.0 per cent,

Act on Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle

and the final disposal amount was 56 million

Society. This plan analysed the status quo

tons. In fiscal 2010, however, the resource

and the challenges for establishing such a

productivity was 374,000 yen/ton (+51%),

society and presented a vision for an ideal

the recycling ratio was 15.3 per cent, andsound material-cycle society. It set forth thethe final disposal amount was 19 million

indicators and numerical targets involved intons (-67%), as shown in Table 2-1-1.

establishing such a society and outlined theEvery indicator shows a trend toward

efforts that the government should advance

improvement. In particular, a marked

and the roles that citizens, NGOs, business

improvement has been evident since theoperators and local governments should play.

enactment of the Basic Act on Establishing a

In order to ensure effective implementation

Sound Material-Cycle Society in 2000.

of the plan, it prescribed that the progressof the plan shall be evaluated and reviewed“Entry” indicator: Resource productivity

by the Central Environment Council, which

Resource productivity = GDP/Natural

serves in an advisory capacity to the Minister

resources inputof the Environment. The Second Plan was

Indicator representing comprehensively

formulated in 2008 and the Third Plan was

how effectively materials are used

formulated in 2013. Both of these follow theby industry or in people’s lives (thebasic organization of the First Plan.

amount of wealth created by using
smaller amounts of resources)

With regard to the indicators in theFundamental Plan, the methods for“Material cycle” indicator: Recycling ratio

calculating the flow of materials within

Recycling ratio = Recycling amount/economic activities are established on the(Natural resources input + Recycling

basis of various types of statistical data.

amount)Table 2-1-1 Degree of achievement of numerical targets in theFundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society

Resource productivity(yen/ton)
Recycling ratio (%)
Final disposal amount(million tons)

FY2000(Base year)

FY2010(Compared to FY2000)

FY2015(Target year for Second Plan)

248,000

374,000 (+51%)

420,000

10.0

15.3 (+5.3 points)

14-15

56

19 (-67%)

23

Source: Ministry of the Environment

Chapter 2.1: The national policy framework

39

Indicator representing the extent toan effective system because it reviews thewhich much cyclical resources (reused

degree of progress on a continual basis andor recycled) resources have been

the results can be reflected in policymaking

utilized, as a percentage of the total

swiftly. It is also a way to inform society

amount of resources input into society

broadly about these matters and encourage
the private sector to make efforts.

“Exit” indicator: Final disposal amountAmount of waste landfilled (total of(2) Regulations concerning industrial

municipal solid waste and industrial

waste management, based on the Waste

waste) and indicator directly linked to theManagement Law

issue of shortages of final disposal sites
for wastea. Purpose of the Waste Management Law
The Waste Management Law is intended tomaintain people’s living environment and

The Fundamental Plan establishes otherimprove public health through reductions

types of indicators beyond these three

in waste generation and through propermaterial flow indicators, with numericalwaste disposal. It establishes regulations

targets set for some of them. First, theand systems concerning the disposal of

Fundamental Plan establishes supporting

waste in general from households andindicators related to material flows. Among

businesses. Although the regulations andthese are indicators with relevance tosystems based on the Waste Management

establishing both a low carbon society and

Law are stipulated by the national

a sound material-cycle society. Examples

government, most of them are enforcedof these indicators are the “resourceby local governments, such as prefectural

productivity of fossil resources” and thegovernments and municipalities.

“greenhouse gas emissions originating in
the waste management sector”. Second, theb. Definition and classification of waste

Fundamental Plan contains indicators for

The Waste Management Law defines

efforts underway. These measure the degree

20 types of waste generated by businessof progress in efforts being undertaken to

activities as “industrial waste” and otherestablish a sound material-cycle society.

types of waste as “municipal solid waste”.
Waste that does not fall under the definition

The Sound Material-Cycle Society Panelof industrial waste falls into the category

within the Central Environment Council isof municipal solid waste, even if that waste

charged with evaluating and reviewing theis generated through business activities

progress of the Fundamental Plan. Every(more specifically, such waste would befiscal year, a report compiling the results ofclassified as ‘municipal solid waste fromthe Panel’s review is published. The reportbusiness activities’). In addition, waste with

provides an update on the indicators set forthproperties that may harm human health orin the Plan, assesses efforts by the national

damage the living environment is classified

government and other entities and overviews

as “specially controlled industrial waste”

the challenges still being faced, and indicatesand “specially controlled municipal solid

the direction of future policy development.

waste”. This separate classification enables
the government to regulate them more

This process of evaluation and review at thestrictly (see chapter 2).

Central Environment Council is considered

40

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

c. Responsibilities of business operators andrequire that waste be commissioned toresponsibility for industrial waste disposal

disposers. Alternatively, if the municipality

The Waste Management Law sets forth

itself conducts the disposal, it may collect

the responsibilities of business operators.

fees for this. The system in use varies

Specifically, it says that businesses shallwith the content of the local ordinances

appropriately manage the waste left asaddressing municipal solid waste froma result of their business activities. The

business activities.

law also specifies other responsibilities ofbusiness operators. These include making

d. Licensing for industrial waste handlingefforts to reduce waste generated throughbusinesses

recycling and other means; ensuring that,

An entity that will provide industrial

for all products manufactured, processed orwaste handling (collection, transport andsold by a company, at the time of disposal of

disposal) as a business service must be

the products and the products’ packaging,

licensed by the governor of the prefecture

proper disposal will not be a burden, by giving(or the mayor of the government ordinance-

consideration to such matters at the time

designated city) where the entity willof product development and by providing

conduct the business. However, this license

information on appropriate disposal methods;

is not required when waste generatorsand cooperating with policies and measuresdispose of wastes on their own and forby the national government and local public

other entities designated by ordinance ofauthorities for reducing the volume of waste

the Ministry of the Environment. There are

and conducting proper disposal.

four types of licenses, categorized by thewaste’s classification as either industrial

To make such provisions more concrete,

waste or industrial waste subject to special

this law says “Businesses shall be required

control, and also by the type of services to

to manage their industrial waste by

be provided, either collection and transport

themselves.” clarifying that the responsibility

services or disposal services. In principle,

for disposing of industrial waste is to be

this license needs to be renewed every fivetaken by the waste generators. It should beyears. In addition, the license designates

noted that such responsibility may be carried

the scope of services able to be performed,out by commissioning the waste properly to

specifying the disposal processes and thethird parties.

types of industrial wastes able to be handled.
This designation is determined based on the

The law specifies that for municipal solid

contents of the application submitted andwaste, including waste from people’s daily

the results of a screening.

lives, municipalities shall provide disposal
service. For municipal solid waste fromThe law stipulates that prefectural governors

business activities, in light of the above-

must not grant a license when the applicant’s

mentioned provisions for the responsibility

competence (knowledge, expertise and basicof business operators, the law states thatskills in accounting) cannot be confirmed orbusiness operators are to make efforts towhen the facility used for the business fails to

dispose of such waste on their own as muchmeet the established standards. Furthermore,as possible, and that they are to cooperate

the applicant must not fall under conditions

in disposal undertaken by municipalities.

for disqualification (cases in which the entity

Under these provisions, municipalities may

was subject to disciplinary action for certain

Chapter 2.1: The national policy framework

41

types of unlawful behaviour, regarding thise. Disposal standards for industrial waste

law or any other laws and regulations, cases

Whether waste generators dispose of theirin which less than five full years have passed

industrial wastes on their own or commission

since the entity had its license for waste

third parties to do it, disposal must be inhandling revoked, and other such cases).

accordance with the standards established.

The licensing requirements for this businesshave been made stricter in stages in order

During the stages of collection and transport,

to remove disposers who engage in illegal

intermediate processing, and landfill, thedumping or otherwise engage in the improper

disposal standards require prevention of

disposal of waste.

scatters and spills, strong odours, noise or
vibration and the labelling of the vehicles

In addition, disposers that had no adverse

used in collection and transport and of thedispositions, including no orders forstorage facilities. They also stipulate theimprovement, during the validity period

processes to be used when incinerating orof the previous licensing timeframe andlandfilling the waste.

that also satisfy requirements in the areasof information disclosure, environmental

There are stricter disposal standards

friendliness, and so on can now be certified asthat have been established separately forindustrial waste disposers of excellence. These

industrial wastes subject to special control.

disposers are granted licenses that are valid
for seven years, and the government promotes

f. Permission for industrial waste disposal

information disclosure about such businesses

facilities

in order to assist waste generators in selecting

Prior permission from the prefecturalindustrial waste disposers of excellence.

government is required to establish certain
types of disposal facilities for industrial

In addition, there are some exceptions for

waste, as the living environment inwhich a license for engaging in an industrial

surrounding areas must be maintained andwaste disposal business is not required.

surrounding facilities must also be taken into

The main ones, for which the Environment

consideration. Facilities requiring this prior

Minister authorizes businesses handling

permission include incineration facilities

wastes, are permits for entities that recycle

and landfills. This provision is applicablespecific industrial wastes (recycling permit),

regardless of what entity is conducting

permits for entities that are manufacturers

the disposal (the waste generator or aand conduct waste management over acommissioned entity).

wide area for industrial waste resulting

42

from their products (national permit

To apply for this permission, the entity

system) and permits for those who

seeking to establish such a facility must

render industrial wastes including PCBs

conduct a survey on the impacts on theand asbestos harmless (detoxification

surrounding living environment andpermit). The requirements for r eceiving

attach the results to the application form.

such authorization have been establishedIn addition, for some facilities requiring

separately for each category. Businesses

permission, the procedure is designed tohaving such authorization are not required

ensure transparency in the permission

to have the regular license for engaging inprocess. The process includes giving public

an industrial waste disposal business.

notice and allowing public inspection of the

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

application. The process also includes theindustrial wastes to disposers, they may

opportunity for the municipalities concerned

commission only licensed disposers or

and relevant parties to submit their views.

others that are able to dispose of theindustrial wastes in accordance with the

It is required that the structure andWaste Management Law.

maintenance plan of the facility as well as
the competence of the applicant meet the

When doing so, the standards forstandards and that the applicant does notcommissioning must be followed. These

fall under conditions for disqualification.

standards specify that commission

After permission is granted for a facility,

contracts must be made in writing andthe entity establishing the facility must

itemize what must be included in theperform maintenance in accordance with

contracts as well as the documents to be

the maintenance standards and also theattached to the contracts. It prescribes

maintenance plan submitted as part of thethat waste generators shall include theapplication.

properties of their industrial waste
and handling precautions within the

In addition, final disposal sites for wastes

contracts.

are designated as sites having underground
waste even after removal of the facility. If

Those who are entrusted with disposal

earthwork or other changes are to be madeof industrial waste are in principle

to the configuration of a site, the facility

prohibited from recommissioning it,

must confirm that these changes will not

excluding cases that satisfy establishednegatively impact the living environment.

standards, which include the priorapproval of the waste generators.

g. Regulations concerning waste generators’Moreover, additional recommissioning

responsibility for disposal

is prohibited without exception. This is

As mentioned above, the Waste Management

because recommissioning may lead to

Law states that “Businesses shall be required to

improper disposal by making it unclear

manage their industrial waste by themselves”,

where responsibility for the disposal lies.

with the provision that such responsibility
may be carried out by commissioning thewaste properly to third parties.

g-2. Manifest
When waste generators commission
disposal to third parties, they must

The Waste Management Law has been

provide a manifest upon transferral ofrevised repeatedly to reinforce waste

their industrial wastes. The manifest

generators’ responsibility for industrial

is a collection of slips containing

waste disposal. The regulations below haveinformation such as the names of the

been established to ensure proper disposal

waste generator and disposal company,

whether disposal is undertaken by the waste

the mode of packing the industrial

generator or commissioned to a third party.

waste and the addresses of the waste
generator and the sites for intermediateg-1.	Regulations on commissioning

processing and final disposal. The waste

disposal

generators provide this manifest while

When waste generators commission

handing over their industrial wastes tothe collection, transport or disposal ofcollectors, transporters or disposers.

Chapter 2.1: The national policy framework

43

The contractors receiving the waste send

when there are no violations of theone slip of the manifest back to the waste

commissioning standards, either ingenerator upon completion of disposal.

the case that the disposal company is

In this way, the waste generators canlacking in sufficient funds and the waste

understand how the disposal progressed.

generators did not pay a proper disposal
charge, or in the case that the waste

In addition, when waste generators

generator knew that disposal would becommission industrial waste disposal,

conducted improperly.

they are obliged to make efforts to takerequired measures for proper disposal

h. Collection of reports, on-site inspection,

after checking the status of disposal,

orders to improve operations,by conducting site investigations oradministrative orders and penalties

utilizing information disclosed by the

In order to ensure the effectivenessdisposer.

of regulations based on the Waste
Management Law, provisions forJapan also operates a system ofcollecting reports, on-site inspections,“electronic manifests” in addition toorders to improve operations,the paper manifest system. This systemadministrative orders and penalties haveelectronically delivers, returns, andbeen established. These provisions stipulate

stores manifest information through athat waste generators are also subject tosingle information processing centre.

administrative orders as mentioned above

This enables waste generators toin specific cases. With regard to penalties,

understand or check the disposal status

they also established rules on corporate

quickly and reduce the amount of work

exposure. For the most serious infractions

associated with manifest management.

of the law, such as in cases of illegal

It has been becoming increasingly

dumping, penalties of up to 300 million yen

popular, with electronic manifests(approximately US$3 million) are imposed

accounting for about 30% of manifests

on corporations involved.

in fiscal 2012.
(3) Promotion of maintenance of disposal
g-3. 	Addition of waste generators as thefacilities for industrial waste and support

subject of administrative orders

for technology development

When disposers illegally dump or

Since disposal of industrial wastes in

improperly dispose of wastes, waste

Japan must be done either by the waste

generators are also the subject ofgenerators themselves or by commissioned

administrative orders, including

licensed disposers, in principle, private

an order of “removal of … thebusinesses should maintain disposaldifficulty [for conservation of the

facilities on their own.

living environment]” (Japan, Waste

44

Management and Public Cleansing Law,

However, in the early 1990s, there was1970, Article 19). A waste generator isan increase in the amount of industrial

subject to receiving such an order whenwastes that were difficult to dispose of,it commissions disposal in violationand simultaneously it was becoming moreof commissioning standards. It is alsodifficult to develop disposal facilities. As asubject to receiving such an order evenresult, the need arose for local governments

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

to be involved and exercise the faith placedand have offered equipment and services inin them by the public while utilizing thewhich such technologies are utilized.2

technologies and know-how of the private
sector to construct and improve disposal(4) Recycling laws

facilities. Accordingly, local governments

As mentioned in section 2.1.3 (1) a., Japan

invest or contribute funds and designate

has enacted the Law for Promotion of

corporations engaging in industrial waste

Effective Utilization of Resources as welldisposal as “waste disposal centres”. The

as six recycling laws addressing certain

Ministry of the Environment subsidizes

categories of articles.3

a portion of such corporations’ expenses(up to one-fourth) for constructing and

The Law for Promotion of Effective

maintaining disposal facilities.

Utilization of Resources is designed topromote efforts by product manufacturers to

In terms of countermeasures for climate

implement the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle).

change, the Ministry of the Environment

The law designates target industries andalso subsidizes part (up to one-third)

products. Within these voluntary efforts,of the expense of waste disposers thatthe law states that 3R measures should beconstruct or maintain facilities recovering

used during the stages of product design

electric or thermal energy (generationand manufacturing, that companies should

through waste incineration) in the course ofuse identification labeling to enable thewaste disposal.

classification of waste for collection, andthat business operators should voluntarily
formulate collection and recycling systems.

Other measures to promote the maintenanceof such facilities have been introduced,
including a low-interest loan system by

The six individual recycling laws target

the Japan Finance Corporation and a debt

articles for which there is a particularguarantee system by the Japan Industrial

need for recycling. They were designed in

Waste Management Foundation.

a way that promotes recycling according
to the articles’ properties or state of waste

There is also a system for providing

generation. The details of these systems vary

assistance for the research and developmentwith the individual laws.

of waste disposal technologies. The Ministryof the Environment has created a competitive

These laws clarify the role sharing,

research fund called the “comprehensive

obligations, and cost burdens of relevant

promotion fund for environmental
research”. This fund publicly invites research
institutions and private companies to submit

2

applications for research and development
topics. Research expenses are subsidized
based on the results of a screening.
In addition, Japanese companies havedeveloped a variety of technologies for the
3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle), heat recovery,
and proper disposal in waste management

3

For more information on these technologies, see“The Project for Supporting the Incubation of Firms
in the Field of Venous Industry and Promoting the
Spread of Japanese Waste Management and Recycling
Technologies Overseas”. Information is available inJapanese, English and Chinese at http://www.env.go.jp/
recycle/circul/venous_industry/en/index.html
These are the Containers and Packaging Recycling Law,
Home Appliance Recycling Law, Construction Material
Recycling Law, Food Waste Recycling Law, End-of-Life
Vehicle Recycling Law, and Small Waste Electrical andElectronic Equipment Recycling Law.

Chapter 2.1: The national policy framework

45

parties, such as the manufacturers,

plans, they support programmes for facility

retailers, consumers, waste generators,

improvement and construction that aredisposers and local governments. They also

implemented by local governments andset targets for recycling. The laws include

private organizations.

special exceptions for those who disposeof wastes in accordance with the Waste

Eco-town plans have been approved forManagement Law.

26 communities in Japan. Efforts are now
underway to develop communities with

The enactment and enforcement of these

integrated recycling facilities (examples willlaws has significantly increased the rate of

be introduced in sections 2.5 and 2.6).

recycling of the articles they target.

The Eco-town project was launched in

2.1.4 Key messages arisingfrom Japan’s experience

fiscal 1997. It aims to promote advanced

Various points are expected to be useful forenvironmentally conscious community

developing countries and others in the world

development, based on a “zero emission

as they address industrial waste, taking into

vision” (a vision aiming at zero emissions ofaccount Japan’s experience with the industrial

waste by utilizing all waste from any given

waste issue and policies to address this issue.

(5) Eco-town projectindustry as materials in other fields).
Firstly, the degree of priority of the industrial
Specifically, Japan’s Ministry of thewaste issue should be raised within theEnvironment (MOE) and Ministry of

government and this issue should be addressed

Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)

through cooperation among various entities suchjointly approve plans formulated by local

as the government, local governments, industry,

governments according to the characteristics

academia and citizens. Changing the way ofof their communities. Based on thesethinking by these stakeholders is expected to be

Figure 2-1-3 Scheme of the Eco-town project
MOE

METI

Joint approval

Eco-town plans formulated by local governments
Assistance from local governments

Programme implementation by local governments‘Hardware’ undertakings‘Software’ undertakings• Developing leading recycling facilities• Popularizing the concept, providing information• Constructing and improving bases for R&D and other facilities
Programme implementation and investment

Local companies

Participation in programmes

Citizens

Source: Based on eco-town project materials

46

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

particularly important in bringing about tangible

way in which economic rationality exceeds thechanges. That said, engendering changes incosts, then a certain amount of recycling andpeople’s way of thinking is in fact quite difficult,heat recovery will take place even in a market

and it happens over the course of time.

economy. In actuality, most industrial wastes
have homogenous and stable properties and areJapan has a limited amount of land. This meant

generated continuously. Consequently, mostthat illegal dumping, improper disposal, andof this waste becomes recycled under a market

the shortage of disposal facilities became quite

economy. However, if there is a cost burden on

prominent as social problems, particularly fromwaste generators or disposers for recycling or forthe 1990s onward. There was also a striking needproper disposal, the inducement to improperly

for policies that included the 3Rs (reduce, reuse,dispose of wastes, such as through illegal

recycle) and proper disposal of industrial waste.

dumping, in an effort to avoid the cost burden

In light of this, dialogue between stakeholders

can arise in a market economy where regulations

was promoted at various councils within theare not in place. Improving this situation

national and local governments, and theserequires clarifying which entity holds thefunctioned as opportunities for deliberating the

responsibility for disposal and the cost burden

merits and the modalities of such policies.

of waste. In terms of the polluter-pays principle,
the system should incorporate the responsibility

In parallel with this, industry, academia, andof waste generators and the extended producer

citizens became increasingly active in making

responsibility for products that became waste.

policy recommendations, pursuing technology
development and pioneering practical activities.

Thirdly, standards for proper recycling and

These came to be reflected in policies. As a result,disposal should be set. Lower disposal costs are

the industrial waste issue has been remedied toalways better from the vantage point of waste

reach the current state of affairs.

generators and disposers of industrial wastes.
Therefore, even if the disposal responsibility andOn the basis of Japan’s experience, it seems thatthe cost burden are clarified, a failure to establish

the most fitting path forward for other countries

standards for proper disposal will result in someas well is to raise the priority of industrial waste

businesses opting for low-cost, improper disposal

policies and change people’s way of thinking

regardless of any potential harm to society. Thisby repeating the process in which first thein turn may cause problems in maintaining

industrial waste issue is shared through dialogue

the living environment. Preventing such a

between stakeholders, and then concrete policies

situation requires setting standards for properand actions to solve the issue are agreed uponrecycling and disposal and then enforcing them.

and implemented.

Nevertheless, considering that industrial waste
is diverse and that disposal technologies will

Secondly, an appropriate system clarifying

improve, it is desirable to require that disposal

disposal responsibility and cost burden formeet a certain standard while ensuring flexibility

industrial waste management should bewith regard to disposal processes.

formulated and implemented. This tends tobe taken for granted but in fact the process

A fourth key point is that regulations should

is quite difficult. Wastes including industrial

be thoroughly implemented to eliminate illegal

wastes involve costs both for recycling anddumping and improper disposal. Even if thefor proper disposal. If recycled resources andregulatory system and standards mentioned

recovered electricity or heat can be sold in aearlier are established, it will all be meaningless

Chapter 2.1: The national policy framework47

if they are not followed. Also, Japan’s experience

framework. Because of the diversity ofdemonstrates that supervision and control toindustrial wastes, it is difficult to dispose of

prevent improper disposal, including illegal

them uniformly through services provided bydumping, are quite difficult and cost-consuming.

the public sector. Once the standards for proper

At the same time, it should be recognized that

disposal are set, it will be critical to foster

a tremendous cost will be incurred to resolve

private businesses so that the ingenuity of the

any environmental pollution that results fromprivate sector can be fully utilized.

improper disposal, such as illegal dumping. In
addition, if businesses that improperly dispose

The importance of human resourceof wastes through illegal dumping or otherdevelopment can be offered as a seventhmeans are not controlled, these businesses

critical point. Even though addressing the issue

will ultimately prevail in the market, as theyof industrial waste is a difficult but important

are the cheapest for waste generators to use.

matter, desirable disposal technologies, know-

High quality businesses that properly dispose

how and policies are not always organizedof wastes cannot easily succeed under such

systematically. Also, Japan arrived at its

conditions and they will be forced to withdraw

responses through the accumulation of various

from the market, resulting in increasingly

types of experience in response to numerous

severe circumstances. In light of this, the costproblems. Therefore, it will be desirable forfor supervision and control by the government

academia, industry and the national and local

and the police can be regarded as the smaller

governments to each establish an organization

ultimate cost burden under the two scenarios,or department for handling the issue ofand therefore the costs of supervision andindustrial waste management and cultivating

control should be readily borne.

personnel who are well-versed in this field.

The fifth item of note is that the 3Rs (reduce,

An eighth point is that it is possible thatreuse, recycle) and heat recovery should receive

industrial waste problems may not be addressed

priority in industrial waste policies. In Japan,

in a timely way if the diverse processes of policy

incineration facilities were introduced early on

formulation and implementation, frameworkand the 3Rs have been promoted from the 1990s

development, and human resource development

onward. However, in developing countries whereare implemented while countries accumulate

the amount of waste generated is expected toexperience from scratch. Given this, there isincrease dramatically in the future, it is possible

a pressing need to implement these processes

to create a system that introduces the 3Rs andthrough international cooperation, thereby

heat recovery preferentially. Through effective

accelerating the process. The role for Japan andresource utilization and efficient production

other developed countries is expected to be

activities, both the 3Rs and heat recovery can belarge. Japan has assisted developing countries

incorporated in a manner that is consistent withbased upon its experience through bilateral

economic development.

cooperation and also through the Regional 3R
Forum in Asia, a strategic/knowledge platform

A sixth important point is that consideration

launched in 2009 for sharing and disseminating

should be given to developing a management

best practices, policy instruments, tools andframework. This is because even if policies, laws

technologies.4

and regulations on industrial waste management
are all in place, proper recycling and disposal
cannot take place without a management48

4For further information on the Regional 3R Forum in Asia,
see http://www.uncrd.or.jp/env/spc/regional_3r_forum.htm

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries2.1.5 Conclusion

Improper disposal of industrial wastes

In the context of many pressing

contributes to other environmental problems

environmental issues, it is difficult to takesuch as climate change and water contamination

policy measures for the industrial waste issue.

and wastes valuable resources. Conversely, theAlthough about 40 years have passed since

promotion of proper recycling and disposal

the Waste Management Law was enacted,

of industrial wastes can create opportunities

Japan has faced various problems and it

to solve both the industrial waste issue andhas improved its policies through repeatedother environmental or resource problems.

revisions to its legal framework and other

The formulation of good policies will facilitatemeans. However, it can be expected that there

early consensus-building by stakeholders andis still plenty of room for Japan to develop its

early policy implementation. It is desirable topolicies still further.

take an approach that also integrates otherenvironmental or societal problems.

Meanwhile, the industrial waste issue indeveloping countries is quite serious, and it

In light of the highly localized nature of waste

must be solved in less time than Japan required

issues, Japan’s policies are not necessarily

during its own journey. For that reason, it isapplicable to other countries. Nevertheless,necessary to build consensus among various

Japan hopes that a study of its policies andstakeholders and work out effective policies.

experiences will assist other countries as they

However, this consensus-building process often

work to formulate and implement effective

takes time. This is true in Japan as well.

industrial waste policies in their journey tocreate a sustainable society.

References
Editorial Committee for the Waste Management Law (2012). Commentary on the Waste Management Law (FY2012 Edition) [inJapanese]. Kawasaki, Japan: Japan Environmental Sanitation Center.
Japan, Central Environment Council (2012). Results of the fourth checkup on progress under the Second Basic Plan to Promote
Formation of a Recycling-oriented Society [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/circul/keikaku/tenken06.pdf
Japan Industrial Waste Information Center (2013). Textbook for Lectures on Applying for Permission for Industrial Waste orSpecially Managed Industrial Waste Disposal Business [in Japanese]. Tokyo: Japan Industrial Waste Information Center.
Japan, MHW (1971). White Paper on Pollution 1971 [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/hakusyo.
php3?kid=146
Japan, MOE (2000). About the Basic Act on Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.
env.go.jp/recycle/circul/recycle.html
Japan, MOE, Environmental Policy Bureau, Policy Planning Division (2002). Commentary on the Basic Environment Law (Revised
Edition) [in Japanese]. Tokyo: Gyosei Corp.
Japan, MOE (2012). The Situation of Illegal Dumping of Industrial Waste, Etc. (FY2011) [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.
env.go.jp/press/press.php?serial=16150
Japan, MOE, Waste Management and Recycling Department, Minister’s Secretariat (2013). Report on the surveys of discharge anddisposal of industrial waste: FY2010 results (Summary) [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/waste/sangyo/
sangyo_h22a.pdf
Japan, Waste Management and Public Cleansing Law (1970). Available from http://www.env.go.jp/en/laws/recycle/01.pdf
Research Institute of Solid Waste Management Engineering (2011). Estimates and forecasts of the volume of waste generated in
the world (2011 revised edition) [in Japanese]. Available from www.riswme.co.jp/cgi-image/news/14/file1.pdf
Study Group for Legal Systems of a Recycling-oriented Society (2000). Commentary on the Basic Act on Establishing a Sound
Material-Cycle Society [in Japanese]. Tokyo: Gyosei Corp.

Chapter 2.1: The national policy framework49

2.2 The Japanese industrial waste
management industry
National Federation of Industrial Waste Management Associations

2.2.1 The history of theJapanese industrial waste
management industry

Therefore, each municipal government—(1) Before the Waste Management Law

treatment in principle, rather than thethe fundamental local governmental
authority—was responsible for waste

Japanese industrial waste management

entity that generated the waste. The Waste

businesses began in 1971 when the Waste

Management Law inherited the principle

Management Law came into force (seeof municipal government responsibility

chapters 2 and 2.1 for outlines), because

for treating municipal solid waste. In thethis law legally defined the category

Public Cleansing Law era, unsanitary matter“industrial waste” for the first time. The law

was treated in accordance with detailed

established the basic principle that businessstandards with which both municipal

operators who generate industrial waste aregovernments and treatment businesses alike

responsible for the treatment of that waste,

were obliged to comply. However, the scope

and therefore they are required to treat theof these standards was limited essentially towaste themselves or outsource the treatment

household waste and human waste generated

to licensed waste treatment businesses. In

by households. There were virtually nothis way, the law clearly indicates that inframeworks or standards for the treatment ofprinciple, industrial waste should be treatedwaste generated in large quantities throughas a private sector business activity.

business and industrial activities (thewaste now classified as “industrial waste”).

Before the enactment of the Waste

Therefore, the treatment of industrial waste

Management Law, waste-related legislation

was left essentially uncontrolled.

was grounded in the Public Cleansing Law.

50

The “unsanitary matter” mentioned in the

At the time, Japan was in the midst of its

Public Cleansing Law included waste thathigh economic growth period and various

is currently categorized as either “general

types of industrial waste were being

waste” (municipal solid waste) or “industrial

generated in large quantities. In spite of thiswaste” as a single classification, but the basic

situation, industrial waste was left to private

scope of the law was, for practical purposes,

businesses specializing in “cleaning up”

the management of municipal solid waste.

waste, rather than being treated by municipal

Municipal governments were responsible

cleaning services stipulated in the Public

for the treatment of unsanitary matter

Cleansing Law. However, industrial waste

and the basic principle was that municipal

is a negative asset, and with virtually nogovernments should provide “cleansing”

regulation or treatment standards, “cleaning(cleanup) services directly for citizens or use

services” only removed the waste from areas

contractors to provide the services. Licensed

where daily activities took place or simply

businesses existed as supplemental cleansing“got rid of it”. No businesses conductedservice providers.

specialized treatment of industrial waste.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

(2) After the Waste Management Law

waste disposal business” is an independent

The Waste Management Law establishedcategory, signifying that industrial waste

the principle that responsibility for thetreatment businesses have become a moretreatment of industrial waste lies with theimportant industry in the waste sector.

business operators who generate the waste.
Business operators generating industrial

Although the category of “industrial

waste have the options of either treating

waste” was first defined in the Waste

the waste appropriately themselves orManagement Law, which entered into force

outsourcing the treatment to businesses

as the Public Cleansing Law was repealed,specializing in industrial waste treatment.

the government’s administration of waste

The law requires those in the treatment

management initially tended to focus on

business to obtain a license from the relevant

municipal solid waste, largely as a carry-overauthority. The applicant’s capacity to handle

from the days of the Public Cleansing Law.

industrial waste is confirmed before theAnother major reason for the emphasis on

license is issued. The law also stipulates

the treatment of municipal solid waste maythat treatment should comply with specifichave been that Japan was dealing with manytreatment standards for each type ofimportant challenges concerning municipal

industrial waste. This created for the firstsolid waste at the time. There was a needtime an institutional framework for private

to deal with pollution problems that hadbusinesses to provide treatment services

rapidly become the focus of public attention

through the market, in contrast to the(such as the introduction of pollution

handling of municipal solid waste, a service

mitigation equipment at municipal garbage

which the public sector provides.

incineration plants) as well as the newproblem of hydrogen chloride released fromThe Japan Standard Industrial Classification

garbage incineration plants. There were also

published in 1972 had a “health and publicdifficulties in finding new sites for municipal

cleaning business” category, with a “public

waste treatment plants.

cleaning business” sub-category and a“garbage disposal business” as a further sub-With regard to the industrial waste sector,

category under that. This indicates thatas the Waste Management Law began

services to treat industrial waste had not yet

to be implemented, various standards

been recognized as an industrial sector. It

were also developed and consensus began

was only in the 1976 version that industrial

to form concerning how the law shouldwaste treatment services were included in

be interpreted. Support measures werethe classification. This version had “healthintroduced for industrial waste treatment

and waste disposal business” as a category,businesses and for industrial waste

under which there appeared a sub-category

treatment facilities. However, these wereof “industrial waste disposal business”. Under

limited to government-backed financing

that, there was a further breakdown intoand preferential tax measures for the“industrial waste collection and transport”

development of facilities, and many of theseand “industrial waste disposal (other than

measures were in fact aimed at mitigatingcollection and transport)”. This demonstrates

pollution. It can therefore be said that thesethat industrial waste treatment businesses

support measures were not designed to

had become recognized as an industrial sector

support the development of industrial waste

in government statistics. Currently, “industrial

treatment businesses per se.

Chapter 2.2: The Japanese industrial waste management industry

51

The lack of measures for industrial waste

not seem to have fully grasped what private

management at the time is likely to becompanies needed in order to establish

because government agencies still relied

profitable waste treatment businesses.

on the mindset that existed under the
Public Cleansing Law, which focused on(3) The growth of the industrial wastemunicipal solid waste, rather than because

management industry

the government had deliberately decided to

The Waste Management Law establishedfocus on municipal solid waste. In fact, thethe basic institutional framework for thedevelopment of industrial waste treatment

industrial waste management industry

facilities through public-sector involvement

when it came into force in 1971. However,

was a major political issue at the time.

the system for operating industrial waste

The business community, as the generator

treatment businesses took some time toof industrial waste, was also continuallydevelop. When the Waste Management

asking for public-sector involvement in the

Law came into force, the two categories

development of industrial waste treatmentof “municipal solid waste” and “industrial

facilities. Despite these circumstances,waste” were created within the waste sector,

emphasis appears to have been too heavily

with totally different waste treatment

weighted towards establishing smooth andprinciples applied to the two categories. As

appropriate treatment systems for municipal

mentioned above, municipal governments

solid waste.

were responsible for municipal solid waste
treatment, and treatment services were

In the case of municipal solid waste, which

undertaken using public money in principle.

is treated by the public sector, many

For industrial waste, the business operators

problems can likely be solved once thegenerating the waste were responsible forfacilities for the appropriate treatment ofwaste treatment, and treatment services

the waste have been put in place. In contrast

were provided by the private sector into this, treatment systems for industrial

principle. While the principles underlying thewaste work only when private companies

treatment of municipal solid waste remained

provide treatment services and receive

unchanged from the Public Cleansing Law

compensation from their customers. Even if

era, industrial waste treatment was a totally

appropriate facilities are in place, a profitable

new area to be considered. Both the public

treatment business cannot be establishedand the private sector individually began tounless waste generating businesses choosedevelop systems that corresponded to thetreatment methods that make use of those

new institutional framework.

facilities. That is to say, incentivizing the52

development of appropriate waste treatment

Industrial waste management was afacilities is important. However, such

new industry, and business operators

incentives lead nowhere unless they also

from various existing industries enteredfacilitate the establishment of profitable

the market. Relatively large numbers

businesses. Without the ability to confirmof businesses entered the market fromthe feasibility of a line of business, mostindustries already experienced at handlingentrepreneurs would hesitate to invest in theunsanitary matter, including from thedevelopment of related facilities. During themunicipal solid waste treatment industry,

initial implementation stage of the Waste

the construction industry, the resource

Management Law, government agencies didcollection industry and the freight industry.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Table 2-2-1 Changes in the number of licenses issued for industrial waste treatment businesses
Collection,
Collection,transport,
transport
Collection, Intermediate intermediate
Collection
andtransport
processing
processing
andIntermediate
intermediate
and
and
and
transport processing Landfilling processing landfilling
landfilling
landfilling

Total

August 1973

1,709

35

60

142

254

11

70

2,281

March 1974

2,731

53

73

221

358

18

71

3,525

February
1976

9,113

122

101

548

626

28

144

10,682

May 197817,752

188

142

1,052

839

34

228

20,235

April 1979

20,526

232

169

1,209

873

34

238

23,281

April 1980

23,226

264

171

1,393

843

41

250

26,188

April 1982

28,012

353

228

1,701

1,069

30

286

31,679April 1983

32,106

393

254

1,846

1,173

33

301

36,106

April 1984

36,150

420

275

1,971

1,238

36

327

40,417

April 1985

42,665

473

294

2,165

1,383

38

370

47,388Source: Japan, MHW (1974-1986)

Organizational structures were also

services. Table 2-2-1 summarizes the changes

gradually developed within the relevantin the number of licenses issued for industrial

authorities. Licenses were issued for

waste treatment businesses since then.

industrial waste treatment businesses
under the new system. Education and

The table shows that a considerable number

training programmes were launched inof new businesses obtained licenses. As the1974 for those who wished to be licensed

number of licensed businesses increased,

as industrial waste treatment businesses.

licensed waste treatment businesses startedThose applying for a license as an industrial

to organize themselves into groups in orderwaste treatment business were in effectto attain recognition in society and to gain

required to take courses on waste treatment

social status as experts on waste treatment.

legislation, industrial waste treatment

In 1978, the National Federation oftechnologies, standards for industrial waste

Industrial Waste Management Associations

treatment and other such matters.

was established as a voluntary associationand it launched its activities to organize
1

The Annual Report on Health and Welfare

industrial waste treatment businesses

1973 published by the Ministry of Health andnationwide. The federation became an

Welfare states that there were 873 licensed

incorporated association in 1985 after

industrial waste treatment businesses as ofobtaining permission from the Minister

1 December 1972, of which nearly 80 per centfor Health and Welfare. It is a national

only provided collection and transportation

organization with prefectural organizations
with industrial waste treatment

1

Waste management was under the remit of the
Ministry of Health and Welfare until the January 2001
reorganization of Japan’s ministries and agencies. As
part of that reorganization, waste management came tobe under the remit of the newly-formed Ministry of theEnvironment (previously the Environment Agency).

businesses as members. At the time of its
establishment, the federation covered 35 ofJapan’s 47 prefectures with a membershipof 35 organizations (4 incorporated
associations, 13 business cooperatives andChapter 2.2: The Japanese industrial waste management industry53

18 voluntary associations). By 1991, it

major senses. The first is that illegal

became a truly nation-wide organization

dumping degrades the environment andin the sense that it had members in all 47

threatens human health. The other is that

prefectures. All the member organizations

it undermines the business environment

have become incorporated associations.

for waste treatment companies conducting
appropriate treatment. It negatively impacts

In this way, systems to implement industrial

the entire industrial waste management

waste treatment had been established while

industry because illegal dumping destroys

industrial waste treatment businesses had

confidence in the industry. It also makes it

increased in number and become organized

impossible for businesses engaged in proper

into associations. However, in reality thetreatment to set profitable prices because

quality of the industrial treatment businesses

businesses that inappropriately treat waste

varied significantly. Some businesses madeundermine market prices by setting prices

efforts to conduct appropriate treatment

lower than what is necessary to treat thewhile others did not, and illegal dumping andwaste properly. It is also possible that waste

inappropriate treatment were widespread.

treatment businesses which unknowinglyThis reflected not only the low quality oftransact with companies that illegally dump

some industrial treatment businesses, butwaste could lose some business contracts

also the low degree of awareness of thewith waste generators after the illegal

business operators generating the industrial

dumping comes to light.

waste concerning their responsibilities.
Outsourcing waste treatment is the trading
The standards applied at the time wereof a negative asset. In normal transactions,considerably more lax than the current

money flows in the opposite direction from

regulations. Differing interpretations of

the flow of goods and services. However,the standards also resulted in difficulties

in the case of waste treatment contracts,

when trying to determine whether or notmoney flows in the same direction as thea business satisfied the standards. Adding

flow of goods (waste). Therefore, nothing

to this was the fact that governmentis left in the hands of entity paying formonitoring was less rigorous than it

the service. This tends to result in waste

is currently, allowing waste generating

generators concentrating on the differencesbusiness operators and waste treatmentin the cost of treatment rather than thebusinesses to choose cheaper options. The

quality of the treatment services provided.

fact that waste is a negative asset was not

Due to these characteristics, appropriate

accounted for within the legislation, nor wastreatment levels cannot be maintained if

it factored into the way the legislation was

quality control is left to private companies,

implemented. The low level of awarenessunlike in typical business transactions.

among waste generating business operators

Both waste generating businesses and waste

and waste treatment businesses about theirtreatment businesses may find it more

responsibilities was perhaps a reflection

tempting to reduce costs than to treat theof these insufficient regulations and theirwaste appropriately. In addition, underinadequate implementation.

lax regulations, inappropriate treatment
damages public goods including the natural

54

Allowing illegal dumping to continue

environment and the living environment of

unchecked has negative impacts in two

nearby residents, while those who caused the

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countriessituation do not suffer any negative effects.
Therefore, adequate control standards andappropriate enforcement of the standards
are preconditions for appropriate waste
treatment businesses to function.
(4) The tightening of regulations and revisionof the law
After the Waste Management Law enteredinto force in 1971, it underwent revisions in
1976 and 1991 in order to meet the needsof the times. However, when large-scale
illegal dumping incidents were revealed invarious parts of Japan (see Boxes 1 and 2), it
became clear that government agencies had
not been able to control illegal dumping anddeep concerns and distrust of the industrial
waste treatment system immediately became
widespread nationwide. It was in this context
that the law underwent a major revisionBox 1: Illegal dumping on theisland of Teshima, Kagawa Prefecture
In November 1990, the police uncovered a case of illegal
dumping of industrial waste on the island of Teshima (20 km
in circumference, with a population of 1,300) in Kagawa
Prefecture, as a result of a compulsory investigation ona charge of violation of the Waste Management Law. An
industrial waste treatment business based on the island had
accumulated about 622,000 m3 of industrial waste including
shredder dust (such as waste plastics), waste oil and sludge
since around 1983. The company brought a large volume ofwaste onto its business premises and repeatedly burned it in
the open. The company called the shredder dust “valuables”
and attempted to have it composted using earthworms inorder to turn it into a soil improvement agent.
The company’s business license for industrial waste
treatment was revoked and an order to remove the industrial
waste was issued. However, the company effectively
discontinued its business and Teshima residents were left
with an enormous quantity of industrial waste. The residents
took the case to mediation and a mediation plan was agreed
upon in June 2000. The plan was that the Kagawa Prefectural
Government would conduct intermediate processing of theindustrial waste, with the industrial waste to be neutralized
by melting it down into slag.

in 1997 in order to tighten regulations for
Source: Kagawa (2003)

industrial waste treatment in particular.
Under the 1997 revision, before establishingan industrial waste treatment facility such asa landfill site, an impact assessment on theliving environment became compulsory andthe assessment process began to require theopportunity for other stakeholders to voice
their views. The conditions for obtaining alicense became stricter and a waste manifest
system became compulsory for all contracts
for treating industrial waste. Alongside therevision of the law, various standards having
their grounding in the law were also revised.
It became necessary to obtain permission
to construct any landfill, regardless of size.
The standards became more detailed, andambiguous standards were revised into
numerical standards wherever possible toenable objective judgments. Measures tocontrol dioxins, which had been the focal
point of public attention at the time, wereBox 2: Illegal dumping in the city of Iwaki,
Fukushima Prefecture
In areas around an industrial waste treatment facility in thecity of Iwaki in Fukushima Prefecture, a total of about 55,000
drums of waste oil had been brought in and kept since around1985. After many years of exposure to the elements, thecontent dispersed or spilled as a result of damaged andcorroded drums, and there was a concern that the spilled
oil may impact on the local residents’ living environment.
The problem was caused by an industrial waste treatment
business operator based in the city that signed a contract
to treat large volumes of waste oil. The company stored thewaste oil that it could not treat out in the open. Similar illegal
dumping problems also occurred in other areas because theabove-mentioned business outsourced the treatment of someof this waste oil to unlicensed businesses.
An order to restore the area to its original state was issued inJune 1998, but it was confirmed that there was no prospectof the business operator in question carrying out the order.
Therefore, the Fukushima Prefectural Government began
executing the necessary restoration measures as a substitutefor the company that caused the situation. These measures
included the removal of the drums and the contaminated soil
as well as the purification of contaminated water, at a total
cost of 3.6 billion yen (approximately US$36 million).

also included within the standards forincineration plants, and waste treatment

Source: Fukushima (n.d.)

Chapter 2.2: The Japanese industrial waste management industry

55

facilities that did not meet the criteria wereemission source is relatively homogeneous.

forced to close down.

Therefore, the recycling rate for industrial
waste had been relatively high from theIn addition to the revision of laws andstart. The recycling rate for industrial waste

regulations, there were changes in thefurther increased as recycling became a social

attitudes of the local governments, which

trend. In addition, the standards for theare responsible for implementing the laws

establishment of landfill sites were tightened

and regulations. They began to enforce thein the revision of the Waste Management Law

laws and regulations more rigorously since it

in 1997 and the diminishing space in landfill

became clear that removing illegally dumped

sites became a well-known problem. This

waste and contamination and restoring

further accelerated the recycling trend andthe living environment is costly for local

reduced the amount of waste to be landfilled.

governments that fail to prevent illegal
dumping or other illegal acts. The attitudes

Figure 2-2-1 shows the estimated flow ofof business operators generating waste

industrial waste treatment nationwide inalso changed significantly and it became

1996 and 2010. There was no dramatic changecommon practice for business operators toin the total amount of waste generated

consider their contractors carefully based

between 1996 and 2010 (405 million tons inon the quality of their services. Thus a1996 and 386 million tons in 2010).

framework which facilitated appropriatecompetition among private companies was

By 2010, the amount of waste landfilled had

finally established for the industrial waste

been reduced dramatically to about one-management industry.

fifth of the 1996 level, from 68 million tons
in 1996 to about 14 million tons in 2010.

Up to the end of the 1980s, the focus had

The amount recycled increased by morebeen on treating waste appropriately, butthan 30 per cent, from 150 million tons

recycling efforts began gaining momentum

in 1996 to 200 million tons in 2010. This

from the beginning of the 1990s. The

contributed to a reduction in the amountrevision of the Waste Management Law inof waste landfilled. In 1996, 37 per cent of1991 added the restriction of waste discharge

the industrial waste generated was alreadyas a purpose of the law and “recycling” wasbeing recycled because much of industrial

added to the treatment methods. With

waste is easier to recycle than municipal

recycling now being specified in the law,solid waste. The recycling rate had further

recycling laws for individual items came toincreased to 53 per cent by 2010.

be formulated one after another (see section
2.1.3 (4) for an outline).

The numbers in the above flowchart also
indicate a major change in the intermediate

56

Although the main scope of many of theseprocessing trend. Some of the figures related

laws was municipal solid waste, the laws

to intermediate processing did not change

became the driving force for promoting thesignificantly. The amount of waste thatrecycling of waste in general by creating

underwent intermediate processing wasa recycling trend in society. Compared to

310 million tons in 1996 and 300 million

municipal solid waste, industrial waste is

tons in 2010. The amount reduced bygenerated in large volumes at each emissionintermediate processing and the amountsource and the quality of the waste from eachof processing residue also remained at

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Figure 2-2-1 The estimated flow of industrial waste treatment nationwide in 1996 and 2010
Industrial waste generated

1996

405.00
million tons
(100%)

2010

Note: sums may not match due to rounding

Directly landfilled
33.00
million tons
(8%)

385.99million tons
(100%)

Intermediate processing
318.00
million tons
(79%)

6.3
million tons
(2%)

53.00
million tons
(13%)

295.86
million tons
(77%)

Reduced
187.00
million tons
(46%)

Directly recycled

Processing residue
132.00
million tons
(33%)

167.00
million tons
(43%)

Landfilled after processing
34.00
million tons
(9%)

7.96
million tons
(2%)

128.86
million tons
(33%)

Recycled after processing
97.00
million tons
(24%)

Landfilled
68.00
million tons
(17%)

83.83
million tons
(22%)

120.90
million tons
(31%)

Recycled
150.00
million tons
(37%)

14.26
million tons
(4%)

204.73
million tons
(53%)

Source: Based on Japan, MHW (1999); Japan, MOE (2012)

similar levels between 1996 and 2010.

occurring over this 14-year period are likely

However, the recycling rate for processing

to be the results of concerted efforts toresidue increased significantly. A quarter ofpromote recycling that have been conducted

processing residue was landfilled in 1996

by business operators generating waste,(34 million tons landfilled out of 132 million

industrial waste treatment businesses andtons of processing residue), but only 6 pergovernment agencies.

cent was landfilled in 2010 (7.96 million(5) Future challenges

tons landfilled out of 128.86 million tonsof processing residue) and 94 per cent was

While the framework for fair businessrecycled. This indicates that intermediate

competition has been established andprocessing methods had changed fromrecycling has progressed since industrial

processing for appropriate disposal towaste treatment began in Japan, there areprocessing for recycling. The major changes

still many challenges for the treatment of

Chapter 2.2: The Japanese industrial waste management industry

57

industrial waste and for the industrial waste

applied at the regional level, as well as bymanagement industry.

identifying unneeded regulations.

Unfortunately, the problems of illegal

From the standpoint of businesses engaged

dumping and the inappropriate treatment of

in industrial waste treatment, undertaking

waste still persist, although the number anda review of the waste management system

the scale of such incidents have significantly

found within the Waste Management Law—

decreased. Japan is approaching the limits

specifically, the classification of waste intoof further regulation tightening, having“general waste” (municipal solid waste) andalready revised its laws and regulations“industrial waste”—may also be a positive

repeatedly. Many collateral effects arisingchange that would promote appropriate

from regulations have also come to betreatment and recycling.

felt by the industrial waste management
industry. Therefore, further improvements

For these businesses, a major challenge will

should be made through raising awarenesslie in maintaining or increasing the vitality

among waste generators, providing supportof the industrial waste management industry

to industrial waste treatment businesses

even though the industries generating largeof excellence and providing training involumes of industrial waste, such as theorder to improve the quality of industrial

manufacturing industry and the constructionwaste treatment businesses and ensuringindustry, are expected to see little growth inthat government agencies enforce laws andJapan in the future.

regulations properly.
The fact that the implementation of laws

2.2.2 Conclusion

related to industrial waste is left to each

Japan’s industrial waste treatment system

local government contributes to inefficient

was launched in 1971. Within the system,

implementation of laws. The ways that theprivate-sector business operators who generatelaws are implemented vary slightly amongindustrial waste are responsible for treatingareas, and individual local governments havethe waste and private-sector waste treatment

also established their own regulations. The

businesses treat most industrial waste throughways that these regulations are implemented

business competition. After about 40 years,

are not always transparent. In order toalthough some inappropriate treatment cases

increase the recycling rate, it is necessary

have been seen, the system seems to have taken

to collect large amounts of the same types

hold in Japanese society.

of waste, and this generally requires theestablishment of a regional recycling system.

The most important thing in this sort of systemis that appropriate regulations be formulated

58

The existence of different regulations

and properly implemented in order to ensure

in different areas could inhibit thethat the trading of waste, which is a negative

establishment of a regional system.

asset, is viable as a profitable business. If

Therefore, benefits can be expected toregulations are unclear or enforcement isarise through streamlining the rules now

lax, waste generating businesses will try to

existing at different levels by identifying theoutsource the treatment of the waste as cheaply

minimum regulations needed at the local

as possible and contractors will try to reducearea level and the regulations that can becosts by providing inappropriate treatment.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

This makes it impossible for the market to

It is difficult to determine exactly whatestablish an appropriate price and businesses

type of system is most suitable for rapidly

conducting appropriately rigorous and moreindustrializing countries. If the Japanese

costly treatment will not be profitable.

system in which private companies provide
treatment services through competition is to be

As an alternative to Japan’s private sector-based

used as a model, it should be emphasized thatsystem, it would also have been possible to haveclear, transparent and appropriate regulationsa system in which the government exclusively

should be formulated and implemented asprovided industrial waste treatment services,

the minimum and essential conditions foror in which the government granted licenses tosuccess. To ensure regulatory compliance, thespecific companies that would then exclusively

government in each local area should establish

provide services in specific areas. However,administrative frameworks and secure adequate

such non-competitive methods would not havehuman resources. In addition, the technologicalresulted in the diverse new methods of recycling

infrastructure must be developed in order toor the improvement in the recycling rate thatenable appropriate treatment.

has in fact come about.

References
Fukushima Prefectural Government (n.d.). Substitute execution of measures by the government and claiming compensation in
Fukushima Prefecture [in Japanese]. Available fromhttp://www.pref.fukushima.jp/recycle/huhoutouki/huhoutouki08.htm
Japan, MOE, Waste Management and Recycling Department, Industrial Waste Management Division (2012). The emissions andtreatment of industrial waste (Results for FY2010) [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/waste/sangyo.html
Japan, MHW (1974-1986). Annual Report on Health and Welfare 1974-1986 [in Japanese]. Available from http://wwwhakusyo.
mhlw.go.jp/wp/index.htm
Japan, MHW, Water Supply and Environment Department, Industrial Waste Management Office (1999). The emissions andtreatment of industrial waste (Results for FY1996) [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/waste/sangyo.html
Kagawa Prefectural Government (2003). The Website on the Teshima Problem [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.pref.
kagawa.jp/haitai/teshima/TESHI-1.HTM

Chapter 2.2: The Japanese industrial waste management industry

592.3 Japanese industry’s voluntaryaction plan on the environment
Keidanren (Japan Business Federation)

2.3.1 Introduction

resolution of such problems is essential for the

Keidanren, also known as the Japan Businessexistence of companies and for their activities.

1

Federation , is an economic organization withThis section gives an outline of the Keidanren

a membership comprised of 1,300 leading

Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment, aJapanese companies, 121 national associations ofvoluntary effort by the business community to

manufacturing industries, service industries andsolve environmental problems.

other major industries and 47 regional economic
organizations (as of July 2013). Keidanren’sand local communities in order to support

2.3.2 Keidanren Voluntary
Action Plan on theEnvironment

corporate activities that contribute to the self-(1) Developing the plansustaining development of the Japanese economy

a. Formulating the Keidanren Global

and enhance the quality of life for the JapaneseEnvironment Charter (1991)

people. For this purpose, Keidanren builds

Recent efforts by Keidanren to solve

consensus within the industrial community on aenvironmental problems are based on thevariety of important domestic and international

Keidanren Global Environment Charter

issues and communicates with a wide range

formulated in April 1991, which preceded theof stakeholders including political leaders,

United Nations Conference on Environment

administrators, labour unions and citizens inand Development (UNCED), also known as theorder to achieve steady and prompt resolution

Earth Summit, held in June 1992. In the run-of problems. Keidanren also strives to establish

up to the Earth Summit when public awarenessand maintain public confidence in the business

about global environmental issues wascommunity while working to resolve international

increasing both within Japan and overseas,

issues and foster closer economic relations withthis charter was compiled with the aim ofvarious countries through policy dialogues withexpressing domestically and internationally

governments, the economic associations of

the principles and specific guidelines forvarious countries and international organizations.

actions which Japanese industry should takemission as a general economic organization is todraw upon the vitality of corporations, individuals

to address environmental problems.
In particular, Keidanren promotes efforts tosolve environmental problems grounded in theJapan found itself facing major waste

view that solving environmental problems is amanagement challenges at the time.

common challenge for humanity and that theIndustrial waste was increasing in volume
and becoming increasingly diverse evenas space in landfill sites was decreasing.

1

60

Prior to its 2002 amalgamation with Nikkeiren (Japan
Federation of Employers’ Associations), Keidanren was
known in English as the Japan Federation of Economic
Organizations.

Documents compiled by the Environment
Agency of Japan at that time estimated thatJapan’s landfills would be full after about

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

two years. The commitment of all members

companies as shown in Figure 2-3-1 andof society would be needed to solve theseadopted the position that companies should

problems at their core.

always follow the guidelines. For example,
in item 3, “Concern for the environment”,

The charter outlined Keidanren’s basic

the charter stipulates that companies should

philosophy that working to solve“endeavor to use resources efficiently andenvironmental problems is essential to the

reduce waste products through recycling”.

existence of companies and to their activities.

In item 7, “Public relations and education”,

It also stated that Keidanren would promote

it states that companies should “provide

companies’ voluntary and proactive efforts tousers with information on the appropriate

protect the environment. More specifically,

use and disposal, including recycling, of

it set 11 guidelines for the actions of

their products”.

Figure 2-3-1 Outline of the Keidanren Global Environment Charter
Basic philosophy■■ In carrying on its activities, each company must maintain respect forhuman dignity, and strive toward a future society where the global
environment is protected. Each company must recognize that grapplingwith environmental problems is essential to its own existence and its
activities.

Ten-Point Environmental
Guidelines for Japanese Enterprises
Operating Abroad

Guidelines for corporate action(2)	Abide by the environmental standardsof the host country and make further
environmental conservation efforts.

1. The establishment and thorough implementation of generalmanagement policies
Companies should always consult the guidelines below whencarrying out their activities. They must work to protect the global
environment and improve the local living environment, takecare to protect ecosystems and conserve resources, ensure theenvironmental soundness of products and protect the health andsafety of employees and citizens.
2.

Development of the corporate organization

3.

Concern for the environment
Care shall be taken in the research, design, and development
stages of making a product to lessen the possible burden on theenvironment at each stage of its production, distribution, appropriateuse, and disposal.

4.

Promoting technology development

5.

Active technology transfers

6.

Emergency measures

7.

Public relations and education

8.

Community relations

9.

Environmental considerations for overseas operations

10.

Contribution to public policies (the government, political parties, etc.)

11.

Response to global problems(1)	Establish a constructive attitude
toward environmental protection.

(3)	Conduct an environmental
assessment and also take measures
based on an assessment conducted
after the activities have started.
(4)	Facilitate the transfer ofenvironment-related technologies
and know-how.
(5)	Establish an environmental
management system.
(6)	Provide information on environmental
measures.
(7)	Deal with environment-related issues
in an appropriate manner.
(8)	Cooperate in the promotion of thehost country's scientific and rational
environmental measures.
(9)	Actively publicize the activities
of overseas businesses regarding
environmental considerations.
(10)	Ensure that head office understands
the importance of environmental
measures and establishes a support
system.

Source: Keidanren (1991)

Chapter 2.3: Japanese industry’s voluntary action plan on the environment

61

b. Formulating the Keidanren Voluntary

Keidanren also strongly promotes measures

Action Plan on the Environment (1997)

to mitigate climate change based on the

In 1991, Keidanren began surveying

Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan on thethe waste management efforts taken

Environment (Section on Measures toby industry with the cooperation of 15

Combat Global Warming) (see Box 1) andindustries. It publishes the results of each

Keidanren’s Commitment to a Low Carbon

survey. In order to put the principles of theSociety (see Box 2).

Keidanren Global Environment Charter
into action, in June 1997, Keidanren(2) Characteristics of the Keidanren

formulated the “Keidanren Voluntary

Voluntary Action Plan on the

Action Plan on the Environment (Section

Environment

on Waste Disposal Measures)” with the

The Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan oncooperation of 36 industries. The scope has

the Environment is characterized by thesince then expanded to 41 industries andfollowing three points:

the section has been renamed the “Section
on the Establishment of a Sound Material-

Firstly, the Plan is a voluntary instrument.

Cycle Society”. The plan encourages

Encouraging the voluntary efforts

voluntary actions by industry towards

of industry is a very effective way ofthe establishment of a sound material-

promoting environmental solutions because

cycle society, including the reduction ofbusiness operators, who best understandindustrial waste. It also states that each

their operations, can formulate and takeindustry should implement the PDCA (Plan,

measures by comprehensively taking

Do, Check, Act) cycle.

into consideration the trends in available

Box 1: Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment(Section on Measures to Combat Global Warming)(1)	Keidanren formulated the Voluntary Action Plan on theEnvironment (Section on Measures to Combat Global
Warming] in June 1997, before the Kyoto Protocol was
adopted at COP3. Currently, companies and organizations
from 61 business categories participate in the plan (theindustrial and energy-conversion sectors account for
34 of these business categories).
Results from implementing the Voluntary
Action Plan on the Environment
Actualemissionsmillion tons-CO2

Target level
505.3445015.53
450.74

12.66

13.65

7.31

443.10454.26420.12

400

11
20

10
20

09
20

08
20

19

90

350

FY

Factors that contributed to changes in
CO2 emissions from the industrial andenergy-conversion sectors in the period
between FY1990 and FY2011

Reduction via
redemption of credits

550
500

(2)	The uniform target for the industrial and energyconversion sectors is to “strive to reduce the annual
average amount of CO2 emissions in the period between
the 2008 and 2012 fiscal years to the 1990 fiscal year
level or less”.

10.1%
reductioncompared
to FY1990

Change in amount offactory output+1.1%

Change in CO2 emission
coefficient+1.7%

Change in CO2 emissions
per unit of output-13.0%

Total-10.1%

Reductions in the CO2 emissions
per unit of output were the driving
force for emissions reductions

Source: Keidanren (2012)

62

Comparison
with FY1990

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

technologies, cost-benefit analysis results,
and other relevant factors. This, as wellas the fact that it does not require thegovernment to bear any administrative
costs, makes it possible for society as awhole to tackle environmental problems
more efficiently than through regulatory
instruments or economic instruments suchas environmental taxes.
Secondly, the plan sets numerical targets.
The reduction target for the amount ofindustrial waste to be landfilled was set asa target for industry as a whole. As shownin Figure 2-3-2, the targets have been

Box 2: Implementation of Keidanren’s
Commitment to a Low Carbon Society
The time span for the Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan on
the Environment (Section on Measures to Combat Global
Warming) ended in fiscal 2012 when the first commitment
period of the Kyoto Protocol (2008-2012) ended. However,Keidanren will continue its efforts from fiscal 2013 onwards
and it is implementing a plan called Keidanren’s Commitment
to a Low Carbon Society, which contains four key pillars. As of
August 2013, 39 business categories are participating in theplan and 8 more have expressed their intention to participate.
The four key pillars are:(1)	The establishment of CO2 reduction targets for domestic
business operations for the year 2020;(2)	Strengthened cooperation with consumers, customers,
and other interested groups (the reduction of CO2
throughout product lifecycles);had already been achieved by industry.

(3)	Contributions on the international level, including
the promotion of technology transfers to developing
countries; andWhen individual industries have set their(4) The development of innovative technologies.

revised twice because previously-set targets

own targets in light of their businesscharacteristics and other circumstances,
those targets are also set as targets within
the plan. Examples of this include a higher

are disclosed to the public to demonstrate

recycling rate for industrial waste, greater

accountability to society. This also enables

amounts of waste collected from otherindustry to review its activities periodicallyindustries, or reductions in commercial

and improve efforts being made towards

municipal solid waste.

environmental solutions.

Thirdly, follow-up surveys for the plan are(3) Specific efforts by individual industries

conducted every fiscal year and their results

As shown in Table 2-3-1, companies

Figure 2-3-2 Targets for industry as a whole set out in the
Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment
First target (set in 1999)
Reduce by FY2010 the amount of industrial waste that is landfilled by 75% compared with the level in FY1990
Target revised upon being achieved early

Second target (set in 2007)
Reduce by FY2010 the amount of industrial waste that is landfilled by 86% compared with the level in FY1990
Target revised upon being achieved early

New target (set in 2010)
Reduce by FY2015 the amount of industrial waste that is landfilled by about 65% compared with the level in FY2000
Source: Keidanren

Chapter 2.3: Japanese industry’s voluntary action plan on the environment63

also work to achieve industry-specific

Table 2-3-1 Specific efforts
within individual industries■■ Thoroughly segregatingwaste■■ Turning waste and byproducts into products
through technology
development andthrough finding newuses■■ Reducing waste volume
through intermediate
processing■■ Maintaining or improving
thermal power plant
efficiency■■ Recycling partsfor manufacturing
equipment, etc.
■■ Identifying recycling
businesses with superior
services■■ Reducing the numberof returned goods
through strict demand
managementtargets in addition to the target set forindustry as a whole. Even if something is■■ Accepting and utilizing
waste from otherindustries■■ Thermal recycling■■ Developing andmarketing productswith environmentallyconscious designs■■ Recovering useful
metals from postconsumer home
appliances, etc.
■■ Reducing the amountof commercial municipal
solid waste■■ Composting food scraps■■ Conducting recycling
projects overseas■■ Implementing the 3Rs inoverseas factories■■ Other efforts

merely “waste” if left in its current form,
companies are actively working to develop
new technologies and find new uses inorder to utilize that waste as a resource.
One example of this is the cement industry
accepting and utilizing waste generated byother industries into its operations.
(4) Progress in the achievement of
numerical targets
Through the industry-specific efforts outlined
above, industry has been working to achieve
the numerical targets set out in the Keidanren
Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment.
The progress is overviewed below.
a. Targets for industry as a whole (seeFigure 2-3-3)

Source: Keidanren (2013b)

In fiscal 2011, the amount of industrial

Figure 2-3-3 The amount of industrial waste landfilled by industry as a whole
million tons
60
58.41

50
40
30
20

8.80

07

(64.0%)(66.8%)(66.1%)(67.4%)

6.53

6.03

6.15

5.92

11

(51.5%)

8.73

10(51.9%)

8.91

09(50.9%)

9.35

08(48.5%)

06

10

05

18.15
(▲65%)

15
20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

04
20

00
20

FY
19
9

0

0
GOAL

The numbers in brackets indicate the percentage reduction in the amount of industrial waste landfilled compared to the base year (FY2000).
Industries participating in the Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment (Section on the Establishment of a Sound Material-Cycle Society)(41 industries): Power, gas, petroleum, iron and steel, nonferrous metal manufacturing, aluminum, copper and brass, electric wire, rubber, flat glass,cement, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, papermaking, electric and electronic equipment, industrial machinery, bearings, automobiles, auto parts,
auto-bodies, industrial vehicles, rolling stock, shipbuilding, flour milling, sugar refining, dairy products, soft drinks, beer, construction, airlines,
communications, printing (the 32 industries listed above are included in the calculation for the amount of industrial waste landfilled by industry as
a whole), housing (the housing industry overlaps the construction industry and its waste is already included in the figures from the constructionindustry; therefore, the waste from the housing industry is not included in the calculation), real estate, machine tools, trade, department stores,
railways, maritime transport, banks, general insurance.
The amount of landfilled industrial waste that is covered in the follow-up surveys by Keidanren account for about 40 per cent of the total amountof Japan’s landfilled industrial waste, as calculated by the Ministry of the Environment (as of FY2010).
Source: Keidanren (2013b)

64

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countrieswaste landfilled was about 5.92 million

own particular sets of circumstances,

tons, in marked contrast to the roughly

and the industries themselves are

58.41 million tons landfilled in fiscal

most adept at creating targets suitable

1990. Therefore, the amount of landfilled

for those circumstances. In addition,industrial waste was reduced to about one-this arrangement makes it possible fortenth over approximately 20 years. This is a

the individual efforts of industries tosignificant achievement for the Keidanren

be highlighted.

Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment,
although the reduction from fiscal 2008
onwards has resulted partly from the

2.3.3 Conclusion

economic slump and other factors. ThroughJapan is a country poor in natural resources.

these efforts, the estimated number of years

Japan needs to establish a sound material-

before landfill sites nationwide become

cycle society as a strategy to ensure adequate

full increased from about two years at theresources. It will also serve as a strategy to

beginning of the 1990s to about 14 years

resolve the issues of diminishing space in landfill

recently, according to estimates released bysites for industrial waste and the need to treat

the Ministry of the Environment.

waste appropriately. Therefore, industry willcontinue to promote the 3Rs (reduce, reuse,With regard to Keidanren’s new target,

recycle), including working to reduce the amountwhich is to reduce by fiscal 2015 the amountof industrial waste to be landfilled.

of industrial waste to be landfilled by about
65 per cent compared with the fiscal 2000

In order to move further towards a soundlevel, the amount for fiscal 2011 alreadymaterial-cycle society, it is important forshowed a reduction of about 67.4 per centindividual parties in society, including thecompared to the amount that had beennational government, local governments,

landfilled in the fiscal 2000 base year (about

citizens and industry, each to play its part18.15 million tons). The target has therefore

while also cooperating with other parties.

already been surpassed.

Keidanren will continue to promote the 3Rs,
provide information and conduct awareness-b. Individual industries’ own targets

raising activities for consumers.

(see Table 2-3-2)
Currently, 35 out of the 41 industries

The Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan on theparticipating in the Keidanren Voluntary

Environment can serve as a reference when

Action Plan on the Environment establish

industries in rapidly industrializing countries

their own targets. Setting targets forwork to curb environmental problems.

individual industries helps to accelerate

Keidanren actively cooperates with developing

the speed at which a sound material-

countries to the greatest possible extent bycycle society can take root. This is

sharing its know-how on utilizing resources

because individual industries have theireffectively and reducing industrial waste.

Chapter 2.3: Japanese industry’s voluntary action plan on the environment

65

Table 2-3-2 Targets established by individual industries

Target indicators

Level ofachievement
as of FY2011

Targetyear(FY)

Target set

Power (Federationof Electric Power
Companies of Japan)

Recycling rate

97%

2015

Work to achieve about 95%.

Gas (Japan Gas
Association)(1) Amount of waste generated(2) Recycling rate for municipal solidwaste(3) Amount of new soil brought in, asa per cent of expected amount ofsoil excavated(1) 1,000 tons
(2) 75.8%(3) 16.2%

2015(1) Reduce to 1,000 tons orless (about 79% reduction
from the FY2000 level).
(2) Achieve 82% or more.
(3) Reduce to 17%.

Petroleum (Petroleum
Association of Japan)

Percentage of waste landfilled

0.4%

2015

Achieve a landfilled waste rateof 1% or less.

Iron and steel(Japan Iron and SteelFederation)(1) Steel can recycling rate(2) Amount of waste plastic, etc.
used(1) 90.4%(2) 400,000
tons(1)-(2)
2020(1) Achieve 85% or more.
(2) Use 1 million tons per year.*

Aluminium (Japan
Aluminium Association)

Aluminium dross recycling rate

99.8%

2015

Maintain 99% or above.

Copper and brass(Japan Copper and Brass
Association)

Amount of waste landfilled per unitof production

9.0%

2015

Reduce by 8.4% or more fromthe FY1990 level.

Rubber (Japan Rubber
Manufacturers
Association)

Amount of waste landfilled per unitof production

60 tons/
10,000 tons

2015

Strive to maintain 40
tons/10,000 tons or below.

Flat glass (FlatGlass Manufacturers
Association of Japan)

Recycling rate

94.5%

2015

Achieve 95% or more.

Electric and electronicequipment (Fourelectric and electronicorganizations)

Percentage of waste landfilled

1.0%

2015

Achieve 2% or less.

Industrial machinery(Japan Society ofIndustrial Machinery
Manufacturers)

Recycling rate

90.6%

2015

Achieve 84% or more.

Bearings (Japan Bearing
Industry Association)

Recycling rate

97.0%

2015

Strive to achieve 95%.

Automobiles(Japan Automobile
Manufacturers
Association, Inc.)

Recycling rate

99.9%

2015

Maintain 99% or above.

Auto parts (Japan
Auto Parts Industries
Association)

Recycling rate

86.1%

2015

Achieve 85% or more.

Auto-bodies (Japan
Auto-Body Industries
Association Inc.)

Coverage ratio of sales volume

98.2%

2015

Achieve 95% or more.

Business category(organization name)66* Assumes preconditions such as
legislation for further promoting
the establishment of a soundmaterial-cycle society and amaterial collection system are inplace.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Table 2-3-2 Targets established by individual industries continued

Target indicators

Level ofachievement
as of FY2011

Targetyear(FY)

Target set

Industrial vehicles(Japan Industrial
Vehicles Association)

Recycling rate

99.6%

2015

Work to maintain 90% or above.

Rolling stock (Japan
Association of Rolling
Stock Industries)

Recycling rate

99.4%

2015

Achieve 99% or more.

Shipbuilding(Shipbuilders’
Association of Japan)

Recycling rate

88.0%

2015

Achieve about 86%.

Flour milling (Flour
Millers Association ofJapan)

Recycling rate

94.3%

2015

Achieve 90% or more.

Sugar refining (Japan
Sugar Refiners’
Association)

Recycling rate

90.9%

2015

Achieve 90% or more.

Dairy products(Japan Dairy Industry
Association)

Recycling rate

95.8%

2015

Achieve 96% or more.

Soft drinks (Japan Soft
Drink Association)

Recycling rate

99.1%

2015

Maintain 99% or above.

Beer (Brewers
Association of Japan)

Recycling rate

100%

2015

Maintain 100%.

Construction(Japan Federationof Construction
Contractors)(1) Recycling rate for construction
sludge(2) Amount of mixed waste
generated through constructionwork(1) 93.7%(estimated)(2) 1.62
million tons
(estimated)2015(1) Achieve 85%.
(2) Reduce to 1.75 million tonsor less (reduce by 64%
compared to the FY2000
level).

Airlines (Scheduled
Airlines Associationof Japan)

Percentage of waste landfilled

4.5%

2015

Aim to achieve 3.6% or less.

Communications (NTTGroup)(1) Percentage of waste landfilled for
all types of waste(2) Percentage of communications
equipment waste that is landfilled(1) 1.8%(2) 0.04%

2020(1) Achieve 2% or less.
(2) Continue zero emissions(1% or less).

Printing (Japan
Federation of Printing
Industries)

Recycling rate

96.6%

2015

Maintain 90% or more.

Housing (Japan
Federation of Housing
Organizations)

Recycling rate

86.1%

2015

Achieve 90.4% (96% forconcrete, 70% for timber,
92% for iron).

Real estate (Real
Estate Companies
Association of Japan)

Recycling rate

Paper: 82.6%
Glass bottles
and jars: 99.4%
Cans: 99.8%

2015(1) Aim to achieve 85% for
paper. Work to maintain
100% for glass bottles andjars, cans and PET bottles.
(2) Increase the percentage ofrecycled paper purchased.
(3) Increase the percentage ofgreen procurement.

Business category(organization name)

Chapter 2.3: Japanese industry’s voluntary action plan on the environment

67

Table 2-3-2 Targets established by individual industries continued
Business category(organization name)

Target indicators

Level ofachievement
as of FY2011

Targetyear(FY)

Target set

Machine tools (Japan
Machine Tool Builders’
Association)

Recycling rates for the main types
of waste

Paper: 77.9%
Lubricants andcutting oil:
83.4%
Iron: 97.8%
Copper: 95.0%
Aluminium:
96.6%

2010

Reduce the non-recycling rateby 10% from the FY1997 level.
Achieve the following recycling
rates: 32.7% for paper,
33.7% for lubricants andcutting oil, 86.7% for iron,
83.1% for copper and 86.6%
for aluminium.

Trade (Japan Foreign
Trade Council, Inc.)(1) Amount of commercial municipal
solid waste disposed of(2) Recycling rate for commercial
municipal solid waste(1) 1,150 tons
(2) 80%2015(1) Reduce by 67% from the
FY2000 level (reduce to1,128 tons or less).
(2) Achieve 80%.

Department stores(Japan Department
Stores Association)(1) Percentage of waste landfilled
out of the waste generated atshops (per 1 m2)(1) 39.6%(2) 40.7%(1) 2020(2) 2020(4) 2012(1) Aim for 50% reduction fromthe FY2000 level.
(2) Aim for 45% reduction fromthe FY2000 level.
(3) Minimize.
(4) Achieve 45%.

(2) A mount of paper containers
and packaging (wrapping paper,
paper tote bags, paper bags andcartons) used per unit of sales(3) A mount of plastic containers andpackaging used(4) R ate of recycling, etc. forcommercial food waste generated
at shops
Railways (East Japan
Railway Company
Group)(1) Recycling rate for waste collectedfrom stations and trains(2) Recycling rate for waste
generated at general rolling stock
centres, etc.
(3) Recycling rate for waste
generated through equipment
installation(1) 93%(2) 95%(3) 95%2013(1) 90%(2) 95%(3) 95%

Maritime transport(Japanese Shipowners’
Association)

–

–

–

Continue to conduct
appropriate waste disposal inaccordance with international
standards and work to control
the generation of waste.

Banks (Japanese
Bankers Association)

Percentage of recycled orenvironmentally friendly paper
purchased

69.9%

2015

Achieve 75% or more.

General insurance(General Insurance
Association of Japan)(1) Amount of waste landfilled andthe recycling rate for commercial
municipal solid waste(2) Percentage of environmentallyfriendly products used(3) Amount of photocopy and printerpaper used(4) Utilization of recycled auto parts––

Each insurance company should
develop improvement systems
and work to improve eachindicator through its business
operations.

Source: Keidanren (2013b)

68

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countriesReferences
Keidanren (1991). Keidanren Global Environment Charter. Available from http://www.keidanren.or.jp/english/speech/spe001/
s01001/s01b.html
Keidanren (1997). Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment. Available from www.keidanren.or.jp/english/policy/pol058/
Keidanren (2012). Results of the Fiscal 2012 Follow-up to the Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment (Section on Global
Warming Measures). Available from http://www.keidanren.or.jp/en/policy/2012/084.pdf
Keidanren (2013a). Keidanren’s Commitment to a Low Carbon Society. Available from http://www.keidanren.or.jp/en/
policy/2013/003.html
Keidanren (2013b). Results of the Fiscal 2012 Follow-up to the Voluntary Action Plan on the Environment (Section on the
Establishment of a Sound Material-Cycle Society) [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.keidanren.or.jp/policy/2013/021.html

Chapter 2.3: Japanese industry’s voluntary action plan on the environment69

2.4 Osaka City’s experience andinitiatives
2.4.1 Overview of Osaka City
Location: See Figure 2-4-1.
Population: 2,683,417 (as of August 1, 2013)
Gross municipal product: About 19.65 trillion yen(approximately US$196.5 billion) (FY 2009)
Key industries: Wholesaling, retailing, and services.
Wholesaling and retailing account for 30% of its economy.
Sources: Osaka City (2013a), Osaka City (2013b),
Osaka City Economic Bureau (2013).

Osaka City

2.4.2 History of waste
measures in Osaka City
Beginning in the early Meiji period (1868-

Figure 2-4-1

1912), Osaka City maintained a cleaningsystem under which firefighting organizations

and fuel, and power generation through theundertook waste disposal on a contract basis,incineration of waste. By 1934, the city was

but in 1889, it placed cleaning services under its

capable of burning up to 800 tons of waste daily,

direct control.

but the amount of waste generated exceeded
the city’s capabilities. Later, with no additional

In the early 19th century, waste was disposed ofincinerators constructed, the government madeby returning it to agricultural land or dumping

all-out efforts to sort out waste when collecting

it on reclaimed land or into the sea. But init and made efforts to reuse the waste collected.

1900, because of various problems such as the70

outbreak of contagious diseases, decreasing

After World War II, the city government

amounts of reclaimed land, and the floating ofresumed waste collection in 1946. However, thewaste on the sea surface, the city government

incineration plants had been heavily damaged

started research into reasonable waste disposal

during the war, so the waste collected was

methods and built an incinerator in Nezumijima,landfilled in areas that had become sunken

a small island located within the city, on a trial

hollows as a result of damage during thebasis for experiments. At that time, the amountwar. In 1948, incineration plants began to beof waste generated annually was about 110,000

restored, with the plants gradually recovering

tons, or about 350 grams of garbage discarded

their functions by 1957. This enabled part ofper person per day. Later, population growth

the collected waste to be incinerated. However,increased the amount of waste generated, so thethe amount of waste generated continued togovernment built a large incinerator and began

increase each year, making it difficult to securewaste disposal through incineration. In 1919,

tracts of land that could be used for landfills.

it gathered information on waste disposal in

In 1959, pressed by the need to reinforce its

Western countries and conducted research on

incineration capabilities, the city government

sorted collection, the use of waste for fertilizers

built an incineration plant (a batch-type

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

furnace1) with four times the treatment capacity

One regional characteristic of Osaka City wasof the previous plants.

that the number of business sites, the numberof business sites per unit of population, andSmoke from chimneys had also become athe daytime population (the rate of rise in theserious issue for the city government to address.

daytime population) were all the highest among

As a result there were urgent calls for otherthe ordinance-designated cities3 in Japan andincineration plants built to actively include

as a result, commercial municipal solid waste

pollution countermeasures. In 1956, theaccounted for about 60 per cent of the total

government started to consider introducing

disposal amount for the city, far exceeding the2

an L. de Roll furnace —the latest model innational average of about 40 per cent. Reducing

Europe—from Switzerland, and completed its

commercial municipal solid waste was therefore

construction in 1965.

a major issue to be addressed in improving thecity’s waste administration. In particular, after

2.4.3 Osaka City’s initiatives
for commercial municipal
solid waste

1985, as copiers and personal computers spreadbecause of office automation, wastepaper fromoffices increased rapidly, exceeding 40 per centof total waste disposal volume.

In 1970, the Waste Management Law wasestablished to require business operators to

Therefore, the city government set up an Osakatake responsibility for disposing of industrial

waste reduction council to rouse the interest

waste generated from their business activities,of citizens and private enterprises in waste

but particular types of business waste such asproblems and encourage citizens, businesses,

paper scraps and wood chips were considered

and administrative agencies to work together

commercial municipal solid waste and disposed

and rack their brains to reduce waste in the city.

of in the city’s disposal facilities (as outlined in

In 1993, it proposed initiatives for offices to

2.1.3 (2) c.).

implement to reduce scrap paper.

After the 1970s, the amount of waste needing

In addition, the city worked to provide guidance

disposal continued to grow significantly,

in reducing business waste to business operatorsreflecting citizens’ brisk consumption anddischarging large amounts of commercial

companies’ lively business activities. In fiscal

municipal solid waste such as office wastepaper.

1991, the amount of waste requiring disposal

In 1993, the government revised the Osakareached 2.176 million tons, a record high. As

City Ordinance Concerning Promotion of Waste

part of its measures for increasing commercial

Reduction, Appropriate Disposal of Waste, andmunicipal solid waste disposal capabilities, theMaintenance of Clean Living Environments.

city government had concentrated its efforts

This ordinance requiring the owners andon developing facilities, such as constructing

administrators of buildings of a certain size or

incineration plants, but as the lack of capacity

larger to appoint waste managers and submit

at incineration plants and landfills had becomea plan for promoting waste reduction. The city

critically serious, the top priority issue to beaddressed became how to promote measures toreduce the amount of waste generated.

1
2

A heat-treatment furnace
A mechanical furnace with a continuous feed3

A city with a population greater than 500,000 that has
been designated by government ordinance. Such cities
perform many of the administrative functions normally
performed by prefectural governments. Also known as“designated cities” or “government ordinance cities”.

Chapter 2.4: Osaka City’s experience and initiatives

71also began providing on-site guidance and giving

in subsequent years, various initiatives wereadvice and consultation on how to promotecarried out to take countermeasures against

waste reduction. Initially, such guidance wasenvironmental pollution.

provided to offices, stores and other structureswith a total floor area of 3,000 m2 or more, but

After the post-war reconstruction, Osaka

the range of guidance given was expanded later,

City started to achieve rapid economic

and today, it includes buildings with offices

growth around 1955. At the same time, lively

2

having a total floor area of 1,000 m and thoseindustrial production brought air pollution,with manufacturing plants and warehouses

water contamination and increased waste2

having a total floor area of 3,000 m . While thealong with it, posing serious environmental

city government provides business operators

problems. The city government tookwith guidance in waste reduction, it has

measures to cope with pollution issues, but inestablished a system to officially commend thethose days, industrial pollution was typicallyowners and administrators of buildings with

air pollution and water contamination,

excellent performance in initiatives for waste

and the measures taken to cope with these

reduction and appropriate disposal. In thisproblems gave rise to new problems.

way, the city encourages business operators toundertake efforts for waste reduction.

The installation of dust collectors as ameasure to tackle air pollution and also

As a result of these initiatives, the amount ofwastewater treatment equipment as acommercial municipal solid waste for disposal

measure to prevent water contamination

was reduced to about 690,000 tons in fiscal 2011

caused business operators to become stumped

from its peak of approximately 1.3 million tons

regarding how to dispose of the dust, sootin fiscal 1991.

and particulate matter that had been within
the smoke and captured by the collectors

2.4.4 Disposal of industrial
waste

and the sludge resulting from the treatmentof wastewater. These residual substanceswere not accepted by the municipal cleaning(1) From pollution control measures tobureau’s waste treatment plants, and there

industrial waste disposal measures

was no established method of disposing of

Osaka City’s response to industrial waste

them. They consequently filled factories,

started with countermeasures against

affecting their continuous operation.

environmental pollution. After the Meiji period

Working out countermeasures against them

(1868-1912), the city saw commerce andbecame an urgent issue, because failure toindustry develop dramatically, playing a role indispose of them appropriately would cause

the modernization of the country. However,secondary pollution, but no existing law had

the economic development was underpinned

any provisions for their disposal, making itby the use of large amounts of groundwatera prickly question to consider a counterplan

and fuel such as coal, and its negative aspects

for disposal.

such as land subsidence and air pollution

72

became major problems. The smoke problem

In 1967, before the establishment of thewith spinning mills led to the introduction ofWaste Management Law, Osaka Prefecture

an Osaka Prefectural ordinance to regulate

and Osaka City worked together to set up

the construction of plants emitting smoke

a liaison meeting to discuss a wide range ofand rules to control manufacturing sites, andmeasures for pollution administration. As

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

a result, the two governments decided todisposing of industrial waste lies with theseparate waste generated in the course ofbusiness operators that generate it. This

industrial activities from “general waste”

legislation therefore anticipated the Polluter(municipal solid waste) as stipulated in the

Pays Principle (PPP), which was put forward

Public Cleansing Law in effect at the time.

in the OECD’s 1972 Recommendation on

The former was labelled “industrial waste”

Guiding Principles Concerning International

and its appropriate disposal came to be

Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies.

handled as part of their measures to cope

However, Osaka City had a considerablewith environmental pollution.

number of small and medium enterprises
in its small area. Thus, leaving the disposal

In order to push forward measures forof industrial waste to individual businessappropriate disposal of industrial waste, it

operators in accordance with the principle of

was necessary first to grasp the amount of“polluters’ responsibility” might detract fromindustrial waste generated and related data.

a favorable living environment, and the city

The city government conducted its firstgovernment decided that public involvement,

survey of industrial waste in 1968. The city

particularly in securing final disposal sites,

government came to realize that some of thewas necessary from a long-term perspective.

dust, soot and particulate matter caught by
dust collectors contained iron and valuable

In this way, the government determinedmetals such as zinc. Therefore, industrialthat unless it used a system in which a public

waste, a byproduct of production activities,

corporation disposed of industrial waste withheld the potential to be a valuable resource

the cooperation of businesses, as a practicalthat could be recycled, even though it was

matter, the feasibility of disposal was low.

useless to the factories that discharged it. In

Thus, it examined providing industrial waste

fact, the collected dust, soot and particulate

disposal service through public involvement.

matter were mixed and kneaded using a mixer

In February 1971, in order to ensure

and turned into pellets of waste. Nearby

appropriate disposal of industrial waste,casters purchased these as items of value,

maintain a comfortable living environment,

thereby providing a precedent for resource

and contribute to the maintenance andrecycling. Meanwhile, the city government

facilitation of urban functions, Osaka City

carried out a survey of businesses in theworked with Osaka Prefecture to foundcity to find what they thought of public

the Osaka Industrial Waste Disposal

involvement in the disposal of industrial

Corporation, after which it developed

waste, and the results of the survey indicatedlandfills and intermediate treatmentthat many of the businesses wanted the city

facilities for industrial waste. Specifically, it

government to dispose of all industrial waste

implemented the projects described below,

together and that the feasibility of disposing

which were difficult for private enterprises toof industrial waste through business to

implement on their own in those days.

business cooperation was extremely low.
[1]	Coastal reclamation using industrial(2) Establishment of Osaka Industrial Waste

waste

Disposal Corporation

Earth from construction sites, debris,

In the Waste Management Law enacted

harmless sludge, dust, cinders andin 1970, the national government statedother types of industrial waste wereexpressly that the responsibility forburied in the Sakai 7-3 area

Chapter 2.4: Osaka City’s experience and initiatives73

[2]	Intermediate treatment of industrial

original mission, dissolved itself at the end ofwaste

March 2006, terminating its industrial waste

Incineration of waste oil, oil

treatment and disposal services.

sediments and organic sludge as away of intermediate treatment prior

When it closed the Clean Osaka Center,to coastal reclamation in the Sakai

the Corporation gathered and organized

7-3 area

information on disposers, both in Osaka[3] Other projects

Prefecture and in neighboring prefectures,

Received dredged earth and sand,that were capable of disposing of hazardous

as well as earth and sand generated

sludge and other types of industrial waste.

in the course of Osaka City’s publicThis is because it was necessary to guide its

works concerning reclaimed land inclients to private industrial waste disposers.

the city’s port and harbor area

It then provided such information to the
Osakafu Mekki Industrial Association and

The Osakafu Mekki Industrial Association, aother organizations and gave them advice onunion of platers, and other organizations in

how to gather and transport industrial waste

the city strongly urged the city government

efficiently in order to reduce disposal costs.

to build waste disposal facilities. The

Thus, the Corporation tried to take carefully

government obtained a project site andthought-out measures in order to ensure a

dispatched personnel. It built the Cleansmooth transition.

Osaka Center, a facility that rendered waste
harmless and disposed of it through concrete(3) Initiatives for ensuring early andsolidification, and launched operations. Thus,

appropriate disposal of waste PCBs

this Center provided the service of rendering

Because of its characteristics thathazardous sludge, slag, dust, and cinders

include incombustibility, a high degree ofharmless and disposed of them.

electrical insulation and thermal stability,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) used

In this way, through public involvement,

to be used in a wide range of applications

Osaka City developed final disposal sites

such as thermal media and insulating

and intermediate treatment facilities foroil for transformers and condensers. In

industrial waste earlier than any otherJapan, however, the Kanemi rice bran oil

municipality in the country, thereby playing

disease incident (see Box 1) led to thea major role in preventing inappropriate

discontinuation of PCB use in 1972, anddisposal such as large-scale illegal dumping

the national government required its users

of industrial waste, which would constituteto store them appropriately. By 1974,

a serious obstacle to the maintenance of atheir import, manufacture, and use had

comfortable living environment.

been prohibited. On the other hand, therevised Waste Management Law, which

74

Subsequently, while various laws were enacted

came into force in 1976, allowed holders

to ensure appropriate disposal of industrialof PCBs to dispose of them through high-waste, the private sector made progress

temperature incineration, and a portionin developing industrial waste disposalof the waste PCBs and similar substances

facilities on its own. For this reason, Osaka

was incinerated at high temperatures from

Industrial Waste Disposal Corporation,

1987 to 1989. Later, however, waste PCBs

which determined that it had fulfilled its

were left untreated, because the general

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

public failed to reach an agreement onwhether they should be disposed of throughincineration, and business operators holding
waste PCBs were obliged to keep them forabout 30 years. Since they were kept for long
periods, it was confirmed on a nationwide
scale that some waste PCBs were unable
to be accounted for, and there arose grave
concern about growing environmental
risks such as air pollution and soil and rivercontamination. Under these circumstances,
the revised Waste Management Law of 1997
authorized a new method of disposing of

Box 1: Kanemi rice bran oil disease incident
In 1968, in western Japan, particularly in and around thecity of Kitakyushu, a rapidly increasing number of people
complained about various symptoms such as serious rashes
and purulent swellings, deformed or discolored nails, large
amounts of eye mucus, paralysis of the hands and feet, andthe tendency to become easily tired.
This incident occurred because PCBs and other hazardous
substances used as thermal media during deodorization
within the rice bran oil production process had leaked throughholes in eroded piping to contaminate rice bran oil producedby the Kanemi Company in Kyushu. People using this oil forcooking suffered from acute poisoning and developed these
symptoms. Some 14,000 people reported harm to theirhealth, with just over 1,900 of them becoming certified as
victims in the Kanemi rice bran oil disease incident.

PCBs using chemical degradation.
Source: Japan, Environment Agency (1972); City of Goto (n.d.)There was a great quantity of waste PCBs
in Osaka City, because about one-fourthof waste PCBs in the six prefectures of the
Kinki region4 in PCB oil equivalent was

Table 2-4-1 Storage of Waste PCBs
(as of March 1999)
Number ofbusinesssites storing
waste PCBs

stored there. The Osaka City Office, a large
storer of waste PCBs, kept about half of thewaste PCBs present in the city. Since modern
industry developed in Osaka from early on,
waste PCBs kept in the city are often foundin transformers and condensers used infactories, fluorescent lamps and stabilizers
from office buildings and factories, as well aslarge transformers employed for railway andother services (see Table 2-4-1).
Disposing of waste PCBs in Osaka early
and appropriately was an urgent issue to be

Electric equipment

Quantities ofdevices containing
PCBs

1,927

High-voltage
condensers

7,313 units

High-voltage
transformers

760 units

Other high-voltage
equipment

758 units

Low-voltage
equipment
Waste pressuresensitive copy paper

8About 220,000 units

8

About 171 tons

Source: Osaka City

addressed by the city, which was aiming tobecome an environmentally advanced city.

Initially, the discussions at the committee

The city government aimed to complete thecovered only waste PCBs in Osaka City, butdisposal of all waste PCBs there by 2007, inthe national government enacted the new Law

part because it had made a bid to host theConcerning Special Measures for Promotion

Olympic Games in 2008. Therefore, in 2000,

of Proper Treatment of PCB Wastes (PCB

it established a committee to examine theSpecial Measures Law), which came into force

appropriate disposal of its PCBs.

in July 2001, and this prompted moves topromote wide-area disposal at key bases ofoperation and develop disposal facilities via

4

The Kinki region is in west-central Honshu and iscomprised of Osaka, Kyoto, Hyogo, Nara, Wakayama, andShiga prefectures.

the Japan Environment Corporation. The city
government decided to cooperate with thenational government in locating these key

Chapter 2.4: Osaka City’s experience and initiatives

75

wide-area disposal facilities in the city (such2.4.5 Summaryas the dispatch of personnel to the Japan

Japan has long taken the stance that waste

Environment Corporation and the provision

should be disposed of by the public sector in

of information related to the selection of aorder to ensure public health. Against thisproject site) on the assumption that thesebackground, local governments have incinerated

facilities would dispose of the city’s waste

waste and sent incinerated waste to landfills

PCBs first (see Box 2). It also decided to use

in a sanitary way. However, rapid economic

this wide-area disposal scheme using key

development was accompanied by an increasingbases to ensure early and appropriate disposal

volume and diversity of waste, making itof waste PCBs in the city (Osaka City’s basic

impossible for local governments to dispose of it

waste PCB disposal plan of June 2001).

in the same way as before.

After Osaka City’s basic plan was publicly

The Waste Management Law enacted in 1970 wasannounced, some people around the site

groundbreaking. It clarified that the responsibility

where disposal facilities were planned tofor the disposal of waste generated throughbe built voiced their opposition to thebusiness activities lies with the businesses that

construction plan, but starting from thegenerate the waste. This legislation precisely

phase of site selection, the city, the national

met the demand of the times when industrial

government and the corporation worked

pollution was a major societal issue.

together to explain the plan to various localorganizations such as district associations

At first, immediately after the law came into

carefully and persistently at important points

force, however, there were not sufficientsuch as the announcement of the basic designs

industrial waste disposal facilities run byof the facilities and the implementation ofprivate enterprises, and in addition, the system

environmental assessments.

allowed businesses to outsource the disposal

Box 2: Regional wide-area facilities that dispose of waste PCBs in Osaka City
Project name: Osaka Waste PCB Disposal Service
Project promoter: Japan Environmental Safety Corporation(JESCO) (which took over the project from the Japan
Environment Corporation)
Location of the disposal facilities: Konohana Ward, Osaka
City (waterfront area)
Items disposed of: High-voltage transformers, high-voltage
condensers, waste PCBs, etc. (Excluding fluorescent lamp
stabilizers and contaminated items such as waste cloth)
Areas covered: The six prefectures of the Kinki region(Osaka, Kyoto, Hyogo, Nara, Wakayama), in which Osaka Cityis locatedMethod of disposal: Chemical degradation
Completion of the project: March 2016
Around March 2002: Select a project site
Within fiscal 2003: Conduct environmental fact-finding
surveysJanuary 2005: Start construction work
March 2006: Start trial operation
October 2006: Start full-scale operation
The facilities started by disposing of waste PCBs in Osaka
City and they are still in operation even today.

Table 2-4-2 Disposal of Waste PCBs in Osaka City (as of March 2013)
Types of items disposed of

Disposal amount

Progress rate

High-voltage transformers

994 units

76%

10,820 units

87%

392 drums

80%

High-voltage condensers
Waste PCBs, etc.

Source: Osaka City (2013)76

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

of industrial waste to external disposers, evenforced to keep them for more than 30 years,

though the entities that generated the industrial

as business operators did not make progress

waste retained primarily responsibility for its

in developing disposal facilities because it wasdisposal. Some businesses did not pay attention

extremely difficult to do so on their own.

to how their industrial waste was actuallydisposed of once it was consigned to external

While public involvement plays an importantdisposers, allowing inappropriate disposal topart in waste disposal, if public involvement

become widespread. Some industrial waste

continues for a long time, it fails to give private

disposal companies, for example, contracted forenterprises an incentive for initiatives to prevent

waste disposal at prices lower than the actualor reduce the generation of industrial waste.

cost of appropriate disposal and simply burned

Therefore, it is necessary to set the conditions

it in fields or dumped it illegally.

in advance for public organizations to withdraw
from waste disposal projects. When theyIn the early stages after the legislation, partly

withdraw from such projects, it is importantbecause the private sector did not make muchto take carefully thought-out measures. Suchprogress in developing disposal facilities, andmeasures would include giving appropriate

partly because hazardous industrial waste was

guidance to dischargers at an appropriate timing

disposed of inappropriately, imparting serious

to ensure a smooth transition to disposal byeffects on the environment, the public sector

private industrial waste disposers.

had to involve itself in the development ofmodel industrial waste disposal facilities in

In Japan, both the national and local

order to ensure the safe and reliable disposal ofgovernments have recently discontinued orindustrial waste.

reviewed various public works in an effort toput their finances on a sound footing. However,

There have been several cases that required public

when they consider whether they should enter

involvement in waste disposal. One example wasor withdraw from industrial waste disposalthat the Osaka City government took leadershipservice, important factors to consider include

in developing facilities to dispose of hazardous

not only economic viability but also the publicsludge and other types of industrial waste after

interest, such as protecting local environments

rendering them harmless. Another is recent

and preventing inappropriate disposal. It isprojects such as waste PCB disposal, for which thenecessary to work out comprehensive measuresnational government had to take responsibility

to cope with industrial waste, including methods

for implementation; holders of waste PCBs wereof regulation and guidance.

References
Goto, City of; Nagasaki Prefecture (n.d.). Overcoming misfortune: The Kanemi rice bran oil disease incident [in Japanese]. Available
from http://www3.city.goto.nagasaki.jp/gotowebbook/3/3_5.html
Japan, Environment Agency (1972). Annual Report on the Environment in Japan 1972 [in Japanese]. Tokyo.
Osaka City (2013a). Estimated population (as of the first of every month) and population movement [in Japanese]. Available fromhttp://www.city.osaka.lg.jp/toshikeikaku/page/0000014987.html
Osaka City (2013b). Total gross product of Osaka City: Nominal expenditures [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.city.osaka.
lg.jp/toshikeikaku/page/0000097394.html
Osaka City Economic Bureau (2013). 2013 Edition of Economy in Osaka [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.city.osaka.lg.jp/
keizaisenryaku/page/0000003793.html

Chapter 2.4: Osaka City’s experience and initiatives

77

2.5 Kitakyushu’s experience andinitiatives
2.5.1 Overview of Kitakyushu
Location: See Figure 2-5-1.
Population: 968,544 (as of August 1, 2013)
Gross municipal product: Approximately 3.43 trillion yen (approximately
US$34.3 billion) (FY 2010)
Key industries: Services, manufacturing (iron and steel, generalmachinery and tools, metal products, and chemicals)
Sources: City of Kitakyushu (2013a, 2013b).

2.5.2 Overcoming
environmental pollution

Kitakyushu City

Kitakyushu has developed as an industrial
city while supporting the economic growth

Figure 2-5-1

of Japan. At the same time, the city
experienced air pollution and other types of

to rise up against environmental problems wereserious environmental pollution. It was widely

its ordinary citizens. A group of women called

known that Kitakyushu suffered from thethe Tobata Women’s Association had realized

largest amount of dust, soot and particulate

through their daily lives that the environment

matter falling anywhere in Japan. Its water

was being degraded, because their laundry

contamination was so severe that even coliform

had become terribly dirty. This Women’s

1bacteria were unable to grow in the sea.

Association undertook investigations on its

However, through the efforts of its citizens

own initiative while receiving guidance fromand other parties concerned, the city regained

university professors. Based on the results of its

its blue sky from what had been known as

investigations, the Association asked the city

the “smoke of seven colors”, and it restored ahall (the local government) to take measures toblue sea, vibrant with life, from what had beenaddress environmental pollution.

called the “sea of death”. Kitakyushu overcame
its environmental pollution so successfully

In order to protect the health and lives ofthat it was even praised around the world as

its citizens, the local government requested

transforming “from a gray city to a green city”

businesses causing pollution to take appropriate(OECD, 1985). It was through the tirelessenvironmental measures. It also establishedefforts of a great many people that made today’s

regulations, gave instructions to companies

Kitakyushu possible.

and provided support. For their part, private
enterprises introduced cleaner production,

Kitakyushu suffered from severe environmental

including energy conservation, resource recycling,pollution as its industries developed. The firstand pollution reduction through technologicalinnovation and capital investment. Through their

1

78

Coliform bacteria are a commonly used indicator ofsanitary quality of foods and water.

efforts they aimed to reduce substantially thepollutants discharged into the environment.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Photos 2-5-1 The sky over Kitakyushu in 1960 (inset) and today (above)

As a result, the city was able to improve its

to about 2.55 trillion yen while the sulfur

environment even as it enjoyed economic

oxide concentration fell to about 0.25 mg-

development. In 1968, the value ofSO3 per 100 cm2 per day. These figures clearly

manufactured goods shipped was about

indicate the environment was improving

750 billion yen (approximately US$7.5 billion)

even as the economy grew (see Figure 2-5-

and the sulfur oxide concentration in the2) (World Bank, 1996). In addition, looking

atmosphere was about 1.7 mg-SO3 per 100 cm

2

per day, but by 1980, the value had risen

at greenhouse gas emissions, CO2 emissions
per unit net municipal product in 2009 had

Figure 2-5-2 Simultaneous achievement of economic development andenvironmental improvement
Environmental pollution (mg-SO3/100 cm2/day)
2.0
1968
1.5

1969
Environmental improvements progressed as economic
development advanced.

1970
1967
1965
1966
1963
1964
1962
1961
1960

1.0

0.5

1971
1972

1973

1974
1975

1976

1977
1980

1979

1978
(Figures indicate fiscal years (FY))

0

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Economic development (value of products shipped: in hundred billions of yen)
Source: World Bank (1996)

Chapter 2.5: Kitakyushu’s experience and initiatives

79

Figure 2-5-3 Changes in CO2 emissions per unit net municipal product in Kitakyushu
Percentage of CO2 emissions per net municipal product: 100 in 1963
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

FY
19
63
19
65
19
67
19
69
19
71
19
73
19
75
19
77
19
79
19
81
19
83
19
85
19
87
19
89
19
91
19
93
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
20
05
20
07
20
09

0

Source: City of Kitakyushu (2011)

been reduced to about 2 per cent of the 1963

from petroleum to petroleum fuel with lowlevel through businesses’ all-out efforts tosulfur content and more refined burners,

conserve energy (see Figure 2-5-3) (City ofand from petroleum to gas. As part of theKitakyushu, 2012).

city’s cleaner production systems, scrubberbased desulfurization facilities were installed

Kitakyushu succeeded in improving the

as a measure that addressed sulfur oxides byenvironment through the initiatives of local

removing the pollutants in the exhaust gas

residents and cooperation among the parties

emitted as the final effluent. Electric dust

concerned, environmental technology andcollectors were also installed as a means ofinvestments, education and participation

removing dust, soot and particulate matter.

by citizens, and effective environmental

These were later replaced by high-efficient bag

governance (UNESCAP, 2000). In particular,filters. In addition, exhaust gas facilities were

citizens, businesses, universities and the local

consolidated to make disposal highly efficient

government were not antagonistic to eachand collective chimneys were built, among

other. Instead, they successfully establishedother necessary measures taken. The amounta dialogue-based partnership amongof dust, soot and particulate matter thatthemselves. This was used effectively to takefell over the city in 1967 was about 17 tons

measures to address environmental pollution

per km2 per month, while the sulfur dioxideduring the initial years of their efforts, andconcentration in the atmosphere was about

this partnership has continued to assist as

0.042 ppm. However, as a result of the city’s

the city undertakes diverse environmental

measures, by 2003 these figures had fallen tomeasures today.

about 2.5 tons per km2 per month and about
0.008 ppm, respectively. In this way, air quality

Fuel conversion played a major role within

improved dramatically (see Figure 2-5-4)

the city’s efforts to mitigate air pollution.

(City of Kitakyushu, various years).

The city advanced from coal to petroleum,

80

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Figure 2-5-4 Changes in the amount of dust, soot and particulate matter falling over the cityand changes in sulfur dioxide concentrations
Dust falls (t/km2/month)

Dust falls (t/km2/month)Sulfur dioxide (ppm)

Sulfur dioxide (ppm)

20
03

20
01

19
99

19
97

19
95

19
93

19
91

19
89

0.00

19
87

0.0

19
85

0.01

19
83

5.0

19
81

0.02

19
79

10.0

19
77

0.03

19
75

15.0

19
73

0.04

19
71

20.0

19
69

0.05

FY
19
67

25.0

Source: City of Kitakyushu (various years)

Measures to address water contamination

sludge—a type of industrial waste— being

consist mainly of three methods: control

generated at wastewater treatment facilities.

of plant wastewater, development of public

In Kitakyushu, as a fundamental principle, thesewerage (for domestic wastewater), andcity’s industrial waste is treated and disposed

dredging and removal of bottom sedimentsof within the city, while this sludge is sent tocontaining hazardous substances (City oflandfills after it is dehydrated, although part ofKitakyushu, 1998). These measures result inthis sludge is able to find use.

Photos 2-5-2 The sea in Kitakyushu: The “sea of death” in the 1960s (inset) and today (above)

Chapter 2.5: Kitakyushu’s experience and initiatives

812.5.3 Management ofindustrial wasteslag, scrap metal and dust (City of Kitakyushu,

Industrial waste is generated in each industrial

recycling. Blast furnace slag, which accounts

process, including manufacturing, processing,for a large percentage of total slag, is directly

and the disposal of exhaust gases andsold as raw materials for cement and roadbed

wastewater, and it will continue to be generated

materials, while scrap metal is sold as raw

so long as there are industrial activities. This factmaterials for iron making. Furthermore, almost

notwithstanding, the amount of industrial waste

all of the dust, generated primarily in the steel

can be reduced by reviewing and improving theindustry, is directly returned to steelmakers’

production system as a whole. Improvements

own production lines for reuse. The amount ofwould therefore be made through changes

slag generated is the largest category withinin raw materials, production processes andKitakyushu’s industrial waste, but almost all of

production equipment. This is known as “cleaner

it is sold, making the amount discharged muchproduction”. The concept of cleaner production

smaller than the amount generated.

2011). This is a result of effective use andwas first put forward by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1992.

Ultimately, it is the amount of sludge discharged
that is the largest, representing over 60 per

Kitakyushu had essentially been incorporatingcent of the total amount of industrial waste

the idea of, and initiatives for, cleaner

discharged. A comparison of Kitakyushu withproduction ever since it launched its efforts tothe national average in terms of the amountovercome environmental pollution in the 1960s.

of industrial waste discharged by type shows

It also integrated cleaner production into itsthat in Kitakyushu, it is the amount of sludge

approach to industrial waste management.

discharged that is the largest, a situation
similar to other cities nationwide. However, in

One notable point is that although large

Kitakyushu, slag comes next, whereas livestock

amounts of industrial waste are generated in

excretions come next in other cities. This is

Kitakyushu, an extremely high percentage of itprobably because Kitakyushu has fewer breeders

is effectively used or recycled.

of domesticated animals.

By type, the amount of industrial waste

Figure 2-5-5 indicates the final disposal ofgenerated in Kitakyushu in fiscal 2010 was

industrial waste generated in the city (City of

2.46 million tons of slag (38 per cent), theKitakyushu, 2011). In fiscal 2000, the final

largest category of all, followed by 1.98 million

disposal volume declined remarkably, while

tons of sludge (30 per cent), 670,000 tons offrom fiscal 2003 to fiscal 2006, it remained at

scrap metal (10 per cent), 470,000 tons of dust

more or less the same level, at about 650,000(7 per cent), 390,000 tons of debris (6 per cent),

tons. However, in recent years, it has continued

and 230,000 tons of refuse glass (4 per cent).

to decrease. In fiscal 2009, the final disposal

These six types of waste account for about 90 per

volume was about 300,000 tons, although incent of the total amount of industrial waste

fiscal 2010, it rose somewhat, to 360,000 tons.

generated (City of Kitakyushu, 2011). While82

the difference between the generated amountThe conspicuous decrease in final disposal

and discharged amount (that is, the difference

volume from 2000 to 2001 is perhaps explained

between the generated amount and the total ofby the enactment of the Construction Material

the valuable amount and the stored amount)

Recycling Law in 2000 (see 2.1.3 (4) for an

is small for sludge and debris, it is large foroutline). Up until fiscal 2000, large amounts of

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

earth and sand were sent to landfills together
with debris, but starting in fiscal 2001, theclassifications of debris and of earth and sandFigure 2-5-5 Final disposal amount ofindustrial waste generated in the cityThousands of tons

were legally clarified, and earth and sand was

1,000

no longer sent to landfills. In addition, starting

900

in fiscal 2001, large-scale dischargers havebeen required to submit disposal plans under
the Waste Management Law, and efforts are

904

800

795

700

underway to reduce final disposal volumes in

600

accordance with these disposal plans. This too

500

may have contributed to the decrease in final

400

disposal amount.

300

644

648

644

665
587
526

357
296

200

10

09

20

08

20

07

20

20

06

05

20

04

20

03

20

02

20

20

law. The purpose was to establish a continuous

001

an object tax not stipulated in the local tax

100

20

introduced an “environmental future tax” as

FYIn addition, in 2003, the city governmentand stable source of revenue in order topush forward with environmental measures

Source: Kitakyushu City

actively, including appropriate waste disposal
and eco-town measures. Currently, 1,000 yen

established in the process of overcoming(approximately US$10) is assessed in taxes forenvironmental pollution (see 2.1.3 (5) for aneach ton of industrial waste sent to landfills

outline of the Kitakyushu Eco-town project).

within the city. This environmental future tax
helps curb the amount of industrial waste sent

Kitakyushu Eco-town contributes to regional

to landfills and supports future measures, suchdevelopment by industrializing environmental

as a system for subsidizing the development ofactivities in the form of waste recycling. Its

future environmental technology.

economic effects include reducing CO2 emissions
by about 380,000 tons annually, generating

2.5.4 Kitakyushu EcoTown and international
cooperation

investments worth 66 billion yen (approximately
US$ 660 million), and creating more than 1,300
jobs (Figure 2-5-6) (City of Kitakyushu, 2012).

Kitakyushu is implementing the Kitakyushu

Through inter-city international environmental

Eco-Town project as a unique regional

cooperation, Kitakyushu shares its experience

policy that combines industrial promotion

in, and technology for, waste management andand environmental protection measures.

environmental improvement with other cities

It has been designed to make the most ofworldwide, particularly those in Asia, so that

Kitakyushu’s particular characteristics, such as

they can be put to effective use there. Regarding

the technological capabilities it accumulated

measures to mitigate environmental pollution,

as a major manufacturing city over the past

the city has cooperated with its friendship city,

century; its human resource and industrial

Dalian, China, in formulating an environmental

infrastructures, which enjoy a broad foundation;model district development plan and in taking

and the networks of people in industry,measures to make it successful. Meanwhile,academia and government that came to be

regarding cooperation in waste management,

Chapter 2.5: Kitakyushu’s experience and initiatives

83

Kitakyushu succeeded in reducing waste sent

and knowledge gained in Kitakyushu Eco-to landfills by 30 per cent in its environmental

Town is being used effectively to construct eco-sister city, Surabaya, Indonesia, by introducing

towns in the Chinese cities of Qingdao, Tianjin,

a compost system into Surabaya’s communities

and Dalian. Furthermore, the recovery of rare(see Figure 2-5-7). In addition, the experience

metals is gaining importance, and Kitakyushu

Figure 2-5-6 Life cycle assessment (LCA) associated with
Kitakyushu Eco-Town and reductions in environmental impacts

Demonstrative research area
Number of research facilities: 16
Number of research projects: 56

Comprehensive Environmental Complex andthe Hibiki Recycling Complex
Number of business facilities: 29

Project results
Environmental: Reduction in CO2 emissions of 380,000 tons/year, as well as resource and energy conservation
Economic: Investments total approximately 66 billion yen (approximately US$ 660 million) (71.7% by the private sector,
18.2% by the national government and others, and 10.1% by the City of Kitakyushu)
The number of employees is about 1,340 (including part-time workers).
The cumulative number of visitors from 1998 to December 2011 is one million.
Source: City of Kitakyushu (2011)

Figure 2-5-7 Producing compost; reductions in the waste
sent to landfills in Surabaya, Indonesia
Average reductions in the waste sent to landfills per day (in tons)
2,000
1,750
1,500
1,250
1,000
750
500
250

Source: Kitakyushu City

84

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

10
20

09
20

08
20

07
20

06
20

20

FY

05

0

is currently implementing a programme aimed

and the city’s engagement in international

at importing waste electronic substrates fromenvironmental cooperation. As Kitakyushu

India and disposing of them together with thoseworks towards green growth into the future,collected in Japan.

it is also making proposals for, among otherthings, more active participation by citizens,2.5.5 Summary

utilization of local assets such as green
innovation technology, and contributions to

In 2011, Kitakyushu was chosen by thegreen growth through closer international

Organization for Economic Cooperation andcooperation with Asia and other regions.

Development (OECD) under its green city
programme as a “green growth city”, together

Environmental problems such as industrial

with Paris, Chicago, and Stockholm. Recently,

waste management should now be solved

the OECD issued a report on Kitakyushu that

not only by each country and region but also,

includes its analysis and evaluation of thefrom the perspective of resource recycling andcity’s green growth (OECD, 2013). The reportconservation, at a global scale. Kitakyushu will

presents advanced examples of environmental

further bring its environmental policy into

initiatives such as Kitakyushu Eco-Townservice at both the local and global levels.

References
Kitakyushu, City of (multiple years). The State of the Environment.
Kitakyushu, City of (1998). History of Kitakyushu City’s Measures to Cope with Environmental Pollution [in Japanese].
Kitakyushu, Japan.
Kitakyushu, City of (2011). FY2010 Report on the Amount of Industrial Waste Generated and its Disposal in Kitakyushu [inJapanese]. Available at www.city.kitakyushu.lg.jp/files/000076648.pdf
Kitakyushu, City of (2012). Background Paper on the City of Kitakyushu – OECD Green Cities Programme [internal document].
Kitakyushu, Japan.
Kitakyushu, City of (2013a). Economic accounting regarding Kitakyushu residents [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.city.
kitakyushu.lg.jp/soumu/file_0312.html
Kitakyushu, City of (2013b). Estimated population and estimated population movement [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.
city.kitakyushu.lg.jp/soumu/file_0373.html
OECD (1985). The State of the Environment 1985. Paris.
OECD (2013). Green Growth in Kitakyushu, Japan. Available from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regionaldevelopment/green-growth-in-kitakyushu-japan_9789264195134-en
UNESCAP (2000). Kitakyushu Initiative for a Clean Environment. Available from www.unescap.org/mced2000/kitakyushu.pdf
World Bank (1996). Japan’s Experience in Urban Environmental Management: Kitakyushu—A Case Study. Washington, D.C.:
World Bank.

Chapter 2.5: Kitakyushu’s experience and initiatives

85

2.6 Kawasaki’s experience andinitiatives
2.6.1 Overview of Kawasaki
Location: See Figure 2-6-1.
Population: 1,446,579 (as of August 1, 2013)
Gross municipal product: Approximately 4.83 trillion yen(approximately US$48.3 billion) (FY 2009)
Key industries: Manufacturing (steel, electronics,
communications, precision machinery, petroleum,chemicals), information and services

Kawasaki City

Growing industries: New manufacturing
technology, information and communications,environment, welfare and life sciences, lifestyles
and culture
Special note: Manufacturing accounts for a
Figure 2-6-1
larger portion of Kawasaki’s economic base thanit does in any other major city in Japan.
Leading information and communications firms have core research facilities there. Large corporations
developing business globally have also located key operational bases there. Small- and medium-sizedenterprises with a high level of platform technological strength are concentrated there.

2.6.2 Technology andknow-how developed
through measures tomitigate environmental
pollution

the environment, characterized by serious

The Kawasaki waterfront area developedaround the year 1970 Kawasaki instituted athrough building what is known as the Keihin

system to relieve pollution victims and also

industrial zone, which was created throughentered into agreements with 39 factories

land reclamation and by locating plants

to mitigate air pollution, thereby taking

and other industrial facilities there. After

stronger measures to address the problem at

the 1950s, large factories were increasingly

its source. At around this same time, the city

concentrated there as exemplified by thegovernment enacted an ordinance to mitigate

establishment of petrochemical complexes,

pollution, urging all factories to take stricter

and prominent companies in all industries

environmental measures and establishing a

including steel, electric machinery, food andmonitoring system, primarily by installing

petrochemicals located their headquarters inpollution monitoring centres and by founding

the area. Thus, Kawasaki became one of thepollution research institutes.

environmental pollution such as air pollution
and water contamination (see Photo 2-6-1).
In order to solve these pollution problems,

major production bases that supported, and86

indeed drove, Japan’s rapid economic growth.

In response to these measures taken by

One negative aspect of the city’s development,

the government, businesses actively madehowever, was the rapid deterioration of

investments to mitigate pollution. These

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Photos 2-6-1 The sky over Kawasaki (inset photo: 1960s; centre photo: 2013)

investments have allowed them to develop
various technologies and know-how to prevent
pollution and meet rigorous emission standards.

2.6.3 The hollowing out
of industry and thedeclaration of a state of
emergency regarding waste

In addition, the oil crisis, which arose at the same

With the two oil crises in the 1970s, thetime, provided an acute stimulus for businesses

collapse of the bubble economy in the 1990s,

to conserve energy, and these efforts gave

the changes in industrial structure spurred byrise to a substantial amount of environmental

the shift of the economy to information andtechnologies and know-how that Japan canservices, and the emergence of Asian countries,

pride itself on internationally. Examples

Kawasaki saw manufacturers, mainly those ininclude dust collection, desulfurization, andits waterfront area, lose their competitiveness

denitrification equipment for exhaust gas;

rapidly and relocate their factories overseas.

equipment to remove nitrogen, phosphorus,

As the hollowing out of industry progressed,and hazardous substances from wastewater;

the amount of idle land increased in the city’s

reduction of sulfur in heavy oil; improvement ofwaterfront industrial district.

fuel used such as conversion to liquefied naturalgas; improvement of manufacturing processes;

In years past, Kawasaki had been praised as a cityand energy conservation technology. The

with an advanced waste disposal system because

sizeable quantity of innovations and the depth

it had established a system for daily wasteof experience in Kawasaki are among the city’scollection and complete waste incineration.

strengths today.

However, the amount of waste collected started

Chapter 2.6: Kawasaki’s experience and initiatives87to grow by nearly 5 per cent annually because

Eco-Town Plan), which aims at forming aof population growth and the ongoing bubble

recycling-oriented society and reconstructing

economy, putting strain on the city’s landfills.

the city’s waterfront area actively utilizing

In 1990, the city government declared a state

the characteristics of the waterfront areaof emergency for waste. In order to promote

and the experience it had gained throughwaste reduction and recycling, it took various

its past measures to mitigate pollution.

measures such as expanding the range of items

One notable characteristic of the area

subject to sorted collection, supporting group-is that a wide range of businesses withbased collection of resources, creating a waste

manufacturing technologies exist in places

reduction instructor system and providing

adjacent to existing urban districts and thatenvironmental education with the cooperation

they established close cooperation amongstof citizens and businesses. In 1993, it formulated

themselves as they developed into a major

the Kawasaki New Era 2010 Plan, which led toindustrial complex. In July 1997, Kawasaki

the Kawasaki Eco-Town Plan later on.

was recognized by the national governmentas Japan’s first Eco-Town area.

The city government also decided to further
develop these initiatives and push forward with

(2) Overview of Kawasaki Eco-Town

the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) programme to

The Kawasaki Eco-Town Plan covers thedeal with waste, thus helping build a recycling-entire industrial zone of about 2,800

oriented, environmentally friendly, andhectares in the city’s waterfront area, where

sustainable society.

industry has prospered throughout thecity’s history (see Figure 2-6-2). It aims at

2.6.4 Kawasaki Eco-Town(1) Formulating the Eco-Town Plan

shifting all production by businesses locatedin this area to a resource recycling type while
encouraging the construction of advanced

The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry

recycling facilities that have new production

and the Ministry of the Environment areprocesses built in. Furthermore, it hopes

promoting eco-town projects. These projects

to combine the two to transform the city’s

aim at promoting environmental industries,

entire waterfront area into an area boasting

utilizing the industries and other assets

the greatest amount of energy saving andalready existing in local communities andresource recycling that also maintains lively

building a recycling-oriented society byindustrial activities.

reducing the amount of waste generated
based on regional characteristics as well as

The ultimate goal of this plan is zeroby moving forward assertively with resource

emissions, whereby waste generated inrecycling (see 2.1.3 (5) for more information

urban districts will be effectively used as raw

about eco-town projects).

materials for production at the waterfront
eco-town area and residual raw materials

In the Kawasaki New Era 2010 Plan, aand excess energy from facilities or factories

comprehensive programme developed inwill be circulated to others for effective

1993, the city government decided to work

utilization. The plan envisages four phases of

to create a recycling-oriented society, anddevelopment to achieve the goal.

in 1997, it formulated the Basic Concept

88

for the Project to Make Kawasaki City

The first step is to promote businesses’

Environmentally Harmonious (Kawasaki

efforts to enable them to become more

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

environmentally conscious. The plan
will help businesses make their factories
environmentally friendly, mainly by

Figure 2-6-2 Waterfront area participatingin the Kawasaki Eco-Town Plan
Kawasaki Zero-Emission Industrial Complex

establishing environmental management
systems, reducing plant waste to zero,and building environmentally friendly
transport systems.
The second step is to make thewaterfront area more environmentallyconscious through inter-company
cooperation. Businesses aiming to be
more environmentally friendly will work
together to make the area more compatible
with the environment.
The third step involves conducting
research to realize a waterfront area thatdevelops continuously while focusing on
environmental initiatives. In order tofurther develop the eco-town, research

Source: City of Kawasaki

to better enable sustainable development
will be advanced, along with efforts to

The resource recycling facilities built in the

promote the cascading utilization of waste

project area based on the Kawasaki Eco-

factory heat as an effective use of energy,

Town Plan are facilities to turn waste plastics

efforts to recycle residual materials in theinto raw materials for blast furnaces (2000),

area, and endeavors to establish producthousehold electric appliance recycling

recycling systems to develop such efforts

facilities (2001), facilities to produce concrete

into viable businesses.

frame panels from waste plastics (2002),
facilities to recycle difficult-to-recycle used

The fourth step is communicating

paper (2002), facilities to turn waste plastics

information on the results obtained byinto raw materials for ammonia (2003), andbusinesses and the waterfront area to the

PET-to-PET recycling facilities (2004).

rest of the world and contributing to society
in general and to developing countries.

Many of these facilities were constructedThis means compiling into a collection theusing subsidies, which in each case amounted

results of ongoing research aimed at making

to no more than half the cost. These helped

businesses and the area environmentallyto cover the recycling facility development

friendly and then communicating thosecosts for private operators in the area

results throughout Japan as well as overseas.

certified as an eco-town. Such subsidies have

It also means transferring the environmental

been on the list of the national government’s

protection and pollution prevention

support measures.

technologies developed in Kawasaki todeveloping countries worldwide, particularly

In addition to these facilities, which havethose in Asia.

been positioned as part of the Kawasaki Eco-

Chapter 2.6: Kawasaki’s experience and initiatives

89

Town Plan, the area has facilities to produce

is the manufacture of chemical products,

recycled cement and facilities to recycle

and it runs facilities to turn waste plastics

non-ferrous metal products. With these

into raw materials for ammonia. Likewise,

facilities as its core, the Kawasaki Eco-Town

San-Ei Regulator, a manufacturer whose

is promoting recycling and the effective

core business is papermaking, operates

use of resources on a town-wide scale while

facilities to recycle difficult-to-recycle

establishing organic cooperation between

used paper. Also indispensable in promoting

these facilities and neighboring ones.

resource recycling are cement companies,
which recycle considerable amounts ofIn the Eco-Town area, Kawasaki brought thewaste resources into raw materials forfirst phase of the Kawasaki Zero-Emission

cement. Steel, cement, and chemicals give

Industrial Complex into service in October

the impression that they are old industries,

2001 as a pioneering model of its Eco-Town

but these manufacturing industries are

Plan. At this time it launched its initiatives

essential when forming a recycling-oriented

for reducing environmental impacts

society in the 21st century. The following

through inter-company cooperation as thesection introduces some of the resource

second step of the Plan. In this industrial

recycling businesses within the Kawasaki

complex, companies aim to reduce waste

Zero-Emission Industrial Complex.

materials from their individual factories andother business sites. They also reuse onea. Turning end-of-life plastics into raw

another’s waste materials as raw materials

materials for blast furnaces

through cross-industrial cooperation

The JFE Group (JFE Kankyo Corp. and(including nearby factories), thereby

JFE Plastic Resource Corp.) molds end-

achieving zero waste emissions. In Marchof-life plastics discharged by consumers

2005, the entire industrial park acquired

into boards. These boards are then soldISO 14001 certification. These companies

as forming panels for concrete under theheld aloft the banner of their environmental

product name “NF boards”. NF boards can begoals in their business activities, withused about 20 times, which is twice as many

these goals shared by all members of thetimes as wooden boards. End-of-life NF

Industrial Complex.

boards are collected and completely recycled
into reducing agents for iron making.

(3) Specific initiatives in the Kawasaki
Eco-Town

90

b. Turning waste plastics into raw materials

One characteristic of resource recycling infor ammonia

the Kawasaki waterfront area is that it isShowa Denko K.K. collects and decomposes

directly connected to existing materials andwaste plastics and also uses decomposed

the production processes of energy-related

plastics as a raw material for producing

companies. For example, the core businessammonia. The company produces 175

areas of the JFE Group are steelmaking

tons of chemical products from 195 tons

and engineering. Within the Kawasaki Eco-of plastics. The ammonia thus produced

Town, the JFE Group operates facilities tois sold as the environmental brand “Eco-turn waste materials into raw materials

Am”. In addition, this ammonia is used as

for blast furnaces and facilities to produce

a denitrifying agent at local governments’concrete frame panels from waste plastics.

clean centres and other facilities. Part ofSimilarly, the core business of Showa Denko

the ammonia gas thus produced is supplied

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Figure 2-6-3 Resource recycling flow in the Kawasaki Eco-Town area
SewagesludgeWaste PET
bottles

Construction
sludgeWaste home
appliances

Used
paper

Waste
plastics

Sewagetreatment centre

Nonferrous
metal scrap
Iron
scrap

Home appliancerecycling facility

Recycled paper
production
facilities

Highly treatedsewageFacilities forrecycling waste
plastics and PET
bottles into
raw ammonia
materials
PET to PET
facilities

Cement production
facilities

CementFacilities forrecycling waste
plastics and PET
bottles into raw
materials forblast furnaces

Facilities forrecycling waste
plastics and PET
bottles into
construction
boardsNonferrous
metal making
facility (circulating
furnace)

Iron making
facility (circulating
furnace)Ammonia production
facilities

Toiletpaper

PETbottlesAmmonia

Casting
formwork

Steel

Nonferrous
metals

Source: City of Kawasaki

through pipelines to neighboring companies

Ei Regulator’s factory. This makes it an

as industrial ammonia.

example of recycling undertaken throughcooperation between government andc. Recycling used paper

business. Papermaking uses large amounts

San-Ei Regulator Co., Ltd. produces toilet

of water in its production process, but

paper using 100 per cent used paper as raw

the factory effectively uses water that has

materials. Its used paper recycling system isundergone advanced wastewater treatment

characterized by its ability to recycle special

at the city’s sewage treatment plant.

printing products and those laminatedwith resin or similar material, which are

d. PET bottle recycling

normally quite difficult to recycle. The

In general, PET bottle recycling involves

Kawasaki city government collects mixed

cleaning and then crushing bottles, removing

paper discharged from general households

impurities from the crushed bottles, andand then sorts it and supplies it to San-

then using them as raw materials for

Chapter 2.6: Kawasaki’s experience and initiatives

91

fleece and other products. PET Refining

2.6.5 Summary

Technology Co., Ltd. chemically decomposes

Since the national government launched its

end-of-life PET bottles and recycles the

Eco-Town Project in 1997, Kawasaki’s eco-town

decomposed material into PET bottles that

initiatives have attracted attention both within

are comparable in quality to those made fromJapan and overseas, with many visiting the city

virgin materials. It is one of the few PET

each year to observe and learn from its example.

bottle recyclers that can execute the high-Many visitors come from Asian countries inlevel technology and quality control required

particular. Their purpose in visiting is often to

for PET-to-PET recycling.

investigate potential responses to environmental
problems that have arisen as their countries

e. Recycling in cement production
If primarily limestone or clay is blended toindustrialize, or to find inspiration for new
business models.

attain a certain chemical composition, firingthat raw material at a high temperature will

In order for a country or city to create achange it to a mineral whose nature is torecycling-oriented society, it is essential tosolidify in reaction to water. If the mineral isdevise the model most suitable for the particular

finely crushed and mixed with gypsum, thatcharacteristics of that country or city. The

mixture is cement.

model must take into account the policies
in place; collaboration and division of roles

As materials for recycling, DC Co., Ltd. uses

among citizens, businesses, and governments;

soil supplied from construction sites andand the introduction of environmental

ashes obtained from incinerated sewage

technology appropriate for the country or

sludge instead of natural materials suchcity comprehensively. Even if a country or

as limestone, clay and iron raw materials.

city introduces excellent technology, thisOrdinary incinerators generate incinerated

may be ultimately meaningless if it ends as

ash in the form of cinders through theira one-off project. The country or city has tooperations. Typically, this ash is sent tocontinue its initiatives to create a recycling-

landfills. However, when it is recycled

oriented society—and ultimately, a sustainable

into cement, it becomes incorporated into

community—using the technology introduced.

the mineral as part of the raw materials
for cement. Therefore, one distinctive

The example of the Kawasaki Eco-Town initiative

feature of this recycling is no generation ofshows that not only the mere concentration of

secondary waste.

technology but also long years of environmental
efforts and technological accumulation,

In the resource recycling flow in theadministrative policy (by both the national and

Kawasaki Eco-Town area (see Figure

municipal governments), corporate efforts,

2-6-3), manufacturers incorporate what

cooperation from the general public, and thewould otherwise be discarded into thelocational advantage of the city have combined

manufacturing process as raw materials

to bring the initiative to success.

and form a network of recycling throughcooperation with government. As described

In light of this fortuitous amalgamation ofabove, Kawasaki Eco-Town is steadily

circumstances, rapidly industrializing developing

carrying out concrete initiatives to attain its

countries will not be able to successfully imitate

vision of zero emissions.

the Kawasaki Eco-Town initiative in its entirety,
and in fact such attempts may not even generate

92

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

very positive results. It is important for such

Kawasaki will make use of these initiatives

countries first to analyse their present situation

to communicate relevant information bothto identify critical issues, formulate policies

within Japan and overseas. It will also transfer

to resolve those issues, and accumulate theenvironmental technologies that will improve

technologies needed for implementing thosethe environment in recipient communities,

policies. It is difficult to implement policies

thereby contributing to the international

extensively right from the beginning. It cancommunity. Kawasaki’s initiatives are expected

be expected that a shortcut to success will beto help other countries and cities as they take

implementing policies on a trial basis. This will

steps to become recycling-oriented, sustainable

involve formulating models suitable for that

communities.

particular country and then expanding themacross wider areas.

References
Kawasaki, City of (1993). Kawasaki New Era 2010 Plan: First Medium-Term Plan (1993-1997) [in Japanese]. Kawasaki: City of
Kawasaki.
Kawasaki, City of (2012). What is the Kawasaki Eco-Town? [in Japanese]. Available from http://www.city.kawasaki.jp/280/
page/0000033344.html
Toyo Keizai Inc. (2006). A Complete Guide to Foreign-Affiliated Companies 2006 [in Japanese]. Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Inc.

Chapter 2.6: Kawasaki’s experience and initiatives93

3 chapter

The international context

Japan’s efforts to improve industrial

Green Industry Initiative. For example,

waste management have been recognized

UNEP’s Green Economy Initiative points to theinternationally. Best practices and lessons learned

waste sector as an important contributor tohave been drawn from the Japanese experiencegreen economy objectives. Sustainable waste

and echoed in international initiatives, including

management is also instrumental in UNIDO’s

UNEP’s Green Economy Initiative and UNIDO’s

Green Industry Initiative.

3.1 The waste sector as acontributor to Green Economy
objectives
United Nations Environment Programme

94

3.1.1 Introduction

Two of the 10 sectors analysed in the report –In 2011, UNEP launched its report “Towards

waste and manufacturing – are closely linked

a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable

to the topic of this publication. This chapter

Development and Poverty Eradication”,

takes a closer look at opportunities for thecommonly referred to as the Green Economy

industrial sector in managing waste more

Report (UNEP, 2011b). The report confirmed

sustainably, and thus in facilitating thethat an investment of 2 per cent of global GDP

transition to a green economy. The Japaneseacross 10 key sectors is what is required toexperience, as analysed in the previoustransition to a green economy.

chapters, serves as an example of how the shift

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

to a green economy is already underway inenvironmental degradation. This requires

some countries.

utilization of effective and appropriate
information and the implementationof incentives, institutions, investments

3.1.2 What is a green
economy?

and infrastructure. Third, there must be
interdisciplinary research on the potential long-

UNEP defines a green economy as one thatterm impacts of environmental degradation.

results in “improved human well-being andIncreasing collaboration among environmentalsocial equity, while significantly reducing

scientists, ecologists and economists will beenvironmental risks and ecological scarcities”.

necessary in assessing and monitoring these

Put another way, a green economy is low-

impacts. Interdisciplinary research is alsocarbon, resource efficient, and socially inclusive.

needed to help identify solutions during the

In a green economy, growth in both income

transition to a green economy, particularlyand employment is driven by public and private

research related to setting thresholds of how

investments that reduce carbon emissions

much natural capital can be used within theand pollution, enhance energy and resource

carrying capacity of the earth and researchefficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity

related to new technologies that reduce theand ecosystem services (UNEP, 2011b).

amount of natural capital used.

Rising ecological scarcity associated with

Measures – research, policies and investments –unsustainable use and overexploitation of

aimed at reducing environmental risks andbiological resources and ecosystems is usuallyscarcities also need to be compatible withnot reflected in market prices. This leads

alleviating global poverty and remediating

to further depletion of natural resources

social inequality. As the majority of theresulting in irrevocable loss of ecosystems andpopulation in developing countries directly

biodiversity. In addition, the design of policies

depends on natural resources, an importantand institutions fails to adequately incorporatechallenge in the transition to a green economy

costs associated with worsening ecologicallies in identifying ways to protect global

scarcity globally. Moreover, policy distortions

ecosystems while simultaneously improving

and failures often further aggravate resource

the livelihoods of the poor.

scarcity by encouraging wasteful use of natural
resources and environmental degradation. To

Transitioning to a green economy will

face this challenge, society needs to overcome

vary among countries, depending on eachthese market, policy and institutional failurescountry’s specific preconditions with regard

that prevent recognition of the economic

to natural and human capital as well as thesignificance of environmental degradation.

country’s relative level of development.
Countries with a high level of industrial

Three steps are suggested in the Greendevelopment have often achieved that level

Economy Report to reverse this progression

at the expense of their natural resource base.

towards unsustainable development. First,

The challenge for these countries is to reduce

environmental valuation and policy analysis

their per capita ecological footprint without

must be improved to ensure that markets

diminishing their quality of life. For otherand policies take the full costs and benefits ofcountries with lower ecological footprints, theenvironmental impacts into account. Second,

challenge will be to deliver improved levels

policy must play a major role in mitigatingof services and material well-being to their

Chapter 3.1: The waste sector as a contributor to Green Economy objectives

95

burden on their natural resource base.

3.1.3 The waste sector’s
contribution to green
economy objectives

A successful transition to a green economy

Challenges

will require specific enabling conditions –Population growth, urbanization and economic

conditions that do not, as currently prevailing,development have resulted in changing resource

encourage a brown economy. These consist

consumption patterns and have led to a rapidof legislative and regulatory infrastructure,

increase in waste volumes and types of wastes.

policies, subsidies and incentives, as well as

Increases in the quantity and complexity ofinternational market and legal infrastructure,

wastes accompanying economic growth posetrade and technical assistance. At the nationalrisks to ecosystems and human health. Whilelevel, examples of such enabling conditions are:the increasing volume of waste generated ischanges to fiscal policy, reform and reduction of

one challenge for controlling the impact onenvironmentally harmful subsidies; employing

human health and ecosystems, it is the growing

new market-based instruments; targeting

hazardous component of all waste streams thatpublic investments to green key sectors;

is most problematic. Unless action is taken to

greening public procurement; and improving

properly prevent, collect and segregate wasteenvironmental rules and regulations andmaterials, many developing countries face theenhancing their enforcement (see 1.4 Policy

challenge of mixed and growing waste streams

approaches to address industrial waste). At anthat exceed their capacities. This holds true forinternational level, there are also opportunities

all kinds of waste streams. The case of industrial

to add to market infrastructure, improve flows

waste presents particular challenges, as countriesof trade and aid and foster greater international

undergoing rapid industrialization typically havecooperation. These interventions also need

not yet developed appropriate systems to deal

to take into account the broader context ofwith hazardous and special wastes.

citizens without drastically increasing thepolicies to address innovation, which will, as
the histories of many economies such as Japan

Industries have a large material impact

confirm, foster resource efficiency, long-termon the economy, environment and humancompetitiveness and social welfare.

health. Industrial processes leave polluted
and sometimes toxic waste streams that need

Strong environmental policies that include

treatment and whose costs in many instances

resource pricing help drive inefficiencies out

are not reflected in the cost of production.

of the economy by removing those firms andMost industrial processes cause, to varying

industries that only exist because of implicit

degrees, air, water and soil pollution – costs

subsidies in under-priced resources. Resource

to society and the environment that need topricing drives investment into research andbe accounted for, internalized and reduced.

development (R&D) and innovation, as it

The impacts from hazardous substances andprovides incentives to avoid costly resources andwaste constitute a significant environmental

to find new production methods. Investments

externality at a global scale.

in R&D may then generate innovation rents andstrong environmental policies may anticipate

While releases of toxic emissions fromfuture resource scarcities, thus addressing

industries in developed countries have decreased

market failures and ecological scarcities

as a result of substitution, emission reducing(UNEP, 2011b).

measures and changes in production patterns,
these releases have increased in developing

96

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

countries. In many cases this can be attributed

is paramount in realizing these opportunities.

to the fact that heavily polluting industries have

The waste management hierarchy emphasizes

been migrating to developing countries, where

1) prevention of waste in the first place;regulatory frameworks are lacking and where

2) minimization in the generation of waste;costs for the sound management of industrial

where waste is inevitable, 3) recycling waste into

(hazardous) waste are rarely internalized. Moreusable products and 4) recovery of materials

generally, this transition process has resulted

and energy from waste and remanufacturing;in significant capacity gaps in developing andand 5) treating and disposing of any remaining

transition economies in managing the structural

unusable waste in an environmentally friendly

transformation of their economy on a moreor in the least damaging way.

sustainable basis.
In the area of prevention, several strategies
In addition to posing significant risks to

can be applied. Resource efficient and cleaner

ecosystems and human health, current

production (RECP) (see 3.2), for example, canconsumption and production patterns

help mitigate negative impacts of industrial

significantly impact the economy as they canwaste on the environment while reducing

lead to further depletion of virgin materials

costs for end-of-pipe waste management.

and thus might cause supply risks. Metals

Resource efficiency achieves environmental

are a case in point (UNEP, 2013a). Resource

management through the minimization of

scarcities will thus affect industrial production,

waste and pollution. Production efficiency

unless the full value chain is reconsidered andmakes good business sense as it foregoes themore sustainable consumption and productionuse of unnecessary materials and reduces

patterns are pursued.

energy use in producing goods and services.
Lastly, humans benefit from the efficient

Opportunities

and cleaner processes because of the more

Despite the challenges, the management of

judicious use of resources. Measures include

industrial waste can also present opportunities

adopting environmentally sound technologies,

as described in previous chapters.

introducing process modification andsubstituting raw materials.

Generally speaking, transitioning to sustainableindustrial systems by decoupling economic
growth from the use and consumption ofnatural resources and energy and providing

Figure 3-1-1 Waste management hierarchy
Most
preferred

more value with less environmental impact andbetter economic and ecological efficiency canPrevention

offer significant opportunities for conventional,
material-intensive and highly polluting

Reductionindustries. In other words, if industries use
their potential to prevent waste and reduce the

Recyclingmaterial, energy and pollution intensity per
Recoveryunit of industrial output, they can reduce theiroverall ecological footprint (in terms of carbon,
water, etc.) while at the same time improving
productivity and competitiveness. In the area ofwaste, applying the waste management hierarchy

Least
preferred

Disposal

Source: UNEP (2011b)

Chapter 3.1: The waste sector as a contributor to Green Economy objectives

97

There is also growing evidence that systemic

approaches, resource efficiency and productivity

innovation offers a historic opportunity to

improvements can provide opportunities

put decoupling into practice. Innovation is afor industries and reduce the environmental

recognized driver of sustainable development.

burden of industrial processes. This requires

It addresses the three pillars of sustainablesupply- and demand-side approaches, ranging

development (environmental, economic andfrom resource efficient and cleaner production,social pillars) on a national (macro) level andsustainable product innovation and the re-serves as a driver for business success anddesign of products to cleaner technologies andcompetitive advantage at the firm (micro) level.

closed-cycle manufacturing. The costs of end-of-

1

Such innovation – namely eco-innovation –pipe pollution control can be reduced by cleaner

allows for new ways of addressing current andproduction approaches in management, cleaner

future environmental problems and decreasing

raw material selection, and cleaner technologies

energy and resource consumption, whilethat reduce emissions and integrate by-products

promoting sustainable economic activity. Eco-

into the production value chain (UNEP, 2011b).

innovation in companies involves creating andSubstituting virgin materials with recovered

implementing novel solutions to engenderresources from waste streams also contributes

significant improvement of a combination of theto resource and energy conservation. Energy

2

product (throughout its value chain ), production
3

4

process, organization and business model ofsavings in turn bring reductions in greenhousegas emissions.

a company. This improvement enhances thecompany’s sustainability performance.

When prevention and minimization efforts
result in residual waste, then opportunities

Where waste cannot be avoided completely,

are to be found in treating industrial waste

it can at least be minimized. Life-cycle

as a resource by reusing products, recycling
waste and recovering materials and energy.

1

2

3

4

98

Eco-innovation is the development and application ofa new business strategy that entails a combination ofa new or significantly improved product (good/service),
production process, organization and business modelthat will lead to better sustainability performance.
The value chain describes the full range of activities
required to bring a product or service from conception
through the different phases of production (involving a
combination of physical transformation and the input ofvarious producer services), delivery to final consumers,
and final disposal after use. The value chain therefore
refers to activities within a company as well as those
involving its supply chain. The supply chain refers toa set of entities (organizations or individuals) directly
involved in the upstream and downstream flows of
products, services, finances and/or information, from asource to a customer.
An organization model refers to company services
beyond those related to production, such as humanresources (number, skills and responsibilities/structure),procurement processes, marketing and communication.
A business model describes the rationale of how anorganization creates, delivers and captures value(economic, social, cultural or other forms of value). The
process of business model construction is part of thebusiness strategy.

Using waste as a resource can be profitable forindustries, while at the same time easing thepressure on virgin materials. With resource
scarcity increasing, the market for recycled
products will grow, offering opportunities forindustries to sell waste materials and purchaserecycled products (UNEP, 2013a).
Residual waste can also be used for energy
recovery purposes. This can have significant
climate benefits as it helps reducing
greenhouse gas emissions from landfills. Waste
to energy, using either renewable (biomass
residues) or non-renewable (municipal waste,plastics) sources, is of particular importanceto industrial waste management. By avoiding
emissions, waste to energy projects canalso earn carbon credits under the Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) created under
the Kyoto Protocol.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Similarly, using organic waste generated by

Strategic options for the industrial sector

industrial processes to produce compost can

Consideration of the full value chain and aalso help to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.

rethinking of industrial systems can identify

In addition, compost can be used as a fertilizer

a range of areas for eco-innovation and green

and soil conditioner, which can bring economic

investment in industries and contribute

benefits to small-scale farmers and reduce

meaningfully to the ultimate aim of enhancing

nutrient run-off and nitrogen leaching. It canresource efficiency while preventing, reducing,also increase carbon management properties ofand recycling industrial waste and treating it in

the soil and enhance crop yields.

an environmentally friendly way. At each stageof the waste management hierarchy, there are

In addition to their economic and environmental

opportunities to improve resource efficiency

benefits, recycling and recovery of industrial

within industrial processes. Approaches canwaste also has great potential to create decent

include systemic, long-term strategies, productjobs that offer training, health protection anddesign and development (PD), material andfair compensation (UNEP, 2011b).

energy substitution (MES), process modificationand control (PM) and new, cleaner technologies

Finally, for residual waste that is unusable in any

and processes (CT).

manner, industries should ensure it undergoes
proper treatment to make it least damaging toMore concretely, approaches may include thethe environment and human health.

following:

Applying the waste management hierarchy to■■ Developing and applying eco-innovationindustrial processes can result in a number ofapproaches, e.g. new business strategies

benefits in terms of environmental pollutionthat entail a combination of a new orthat is avoided, reduced costs in managing

significantly improved product (good/industrial waste, increased profitability

service), production process, organization

through reductions in resource use, enhanced

and business model that will lead to better

market opportunities to reuse and sellsustainability performance;

second-hand products or scrap materials, and■■ Changing the composition of demandconservation of natural resources. Numerous

within both industry and the final

other benefits can also be expected fromconsumption stage, including strategies

dealing with industrial waste in a preventivethat promote sustainable procurement by

and integrated way, such as energy savings,

major consumers such as the public sector;

creation of new businesses and jobs, energy■■ Introducing resource efficient and cleaner

production from waste, reduced greenhouseproduction and new, cleaner technologies

gas emissions, and contributions to equity andto improve the efficiency of existing

poverty alleviation. Improved health, healthprocesses to leapfrog and establish new

costs that are avoided, water contamination

modes of production having fundamentallythat is prevented, and the consequent costs

higher material and energy efficiencies. Inof an alternative water supply are also among

manufacturing, major savings potential

the many other types of benefits that can

can result from improving the resource

be expected (UNEP, 2010b). Some concrete

efficiency of existing processes;

options for the industrial sector in dealing■■ Re-designing products and/or businesswith industrial waste, along with anticipatedmodels so that the same functionality canbenefits, are discussed below.

be delivered with fundamentally less use

Chapter 3.1: The waste sector as a contributor to Green Economy objectives

99

Box 1: Japanese companies pursuing zero waste goals
To pursue reductions in industrial waste, many Japanesecompanies have been using the “zero emissions” concept,
a concept originally introduced as an approach for creating
sustainable economies through the clustering of industries.
In 1994, the United Nations University launched the Zero
Emissions Research Initiative (ZERI), which promoted andfurther developed the concept. A number of companies andmunicipalities later developed a series of efforts in line withthe concept. Japan’s increasing shortage of space within
landfills, especially for industrial waste, and growing waste
disposal costs prompted many Japanese companies to focus

on zero waste emissions in particular. For example, Panasonichas continuously improved its recycling rate to over 99
per cent in 2012. This has been achieved by introducing
resource-saving product designs and production processes.
In order to also enhance recycling rates in its factories
outside Japan, Panasonic also conducts reviews to identify
tailored solutions in line with the local recycling and waste
management infrastructure. In addition, regular professional
training on waste management is held to enhance thecapacity of the company’s employees.

Source: Based on http://panasonic.net/sustainability/en/eco/resources_recycling/zero_emission/of materials and energy. This also requiresof automotive vehicles requiring liquid

extending the effective lifetime of complex

fuels in comparison to rail-based mass

products and improving quality, bytransportation, bus rapid transit andincorporating repair and remanufacturing

bicycles.

into a closed-loop system;■■ Substituting green inputs for brown

Closed-loop industrial systems

inputs wherever possible. For example,

Drawing on the principles of industrial ecology,

biomass can be introduced as a source

closed-cycle manufacturing is a particularlyof chemical feedstocks, and companies

ambitious approach. This concept refers to an

can emphasize process integration andideal manufacturing system that maximizes thethe upgrading of process auxiliaries

useful life of products and minimizes the waste

such as lighting, boilers, electric motors,

and loss of valuable and scarce metals. At acompressors and pumps, while practicing

broader systems level, another version of closed-

good housekeeping and employing

cycle manufacturing is industrial symbiosis or

professional management;

eco-industrial parks. They are modeled on the■■ Recycling internal process wastes,

Kalundborg (Denmark) example, within which

including wastewater, high temperature

wastes from certain manufacturing operations

heat and back pressure. Companies cancan be used as raw materials for others. As theintroduce combined heat and power (CHP)

success stories of Kitakyushu and Kawasaki

if there is a local market for surplus electric

illustrate, similar approaches have been applied

power and use materials and energy thatin Japan (see 2.5 and 2.6).

have less environmental impact, such as
by using renewables or waste as inputs

It is not easy to reproduce these synergies

for production processes. Companies canelsewhere, as some specific conditions need to bealso choose materials with a higher level ofmet: an eco-park needs to grow around a fairly

recyclability and find or create markets forlarge basic industry that generates predictableprocess wastes such as organics; andwastes, with usable elements or components■■ Redesigning systems, especially100that smaller operations nearby can utilize. Attransportation systems and urban

the product level, closed-cycle manufacturing

infrastructure downstream, to utilize lessachieves life-cycle efficiency by facilitating

resource-intensive inputs. The first target

maintenance and repair, reconditioning

must be to reduce the need for and use

and remanufacturing, with dismantling and

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

recycling at the end, in contrast to today’s linear

Significant job creation opportunities arethrow-away paradigm. The usual one-way flow

expected from the use and recycling of valuableof products from the factory to the salesroom

by-products and scraps. Remanufacturing andis changed to a two-way flow. However, therecycling of scarce metals provide primary

lifetime extension of a product through repair,

opportunities in the manufacturing sector.

recycling and innovation may lead to inabilities

Significant opportunities may also lie in the area

to make the best possible use of technologicalof industrial symbiosis (new products from old

progress, which, in turn, might result in higher

processes), which also highlights the importanceenergy consumption for some products. Lifeof broader systemic (cross-sectoral) impacts.

cycle assessments are needed to determine
which phase of the life cycle causes the most

One important (and under-exploited) near-term

environmental pressure.

opportunity for improving energy efficiency
in industrial processes lies in recycling high-Remanufacturing is also becoming increasingly

temperature waste heat from processes suchimportant, particularly in areas such as motor

as coke ovens, blast furnaces, electric furnaces

vehicle components, aircraft parts, compressors

and cement kilns, especially for electric powerand electrical and data communications

generation using combined heat and power

equipment. Japanese companies like Canon,(decentralized CHP). Virtually all of thesewhich began remanufacturing photocopiers

examples are technically suitable for small

in 1992, are among the companies that havecombined heat and power plants with paybacks

advanced this concept.

of approximately four years, providing that thepower can be utilized locally. The pulp and paper

The major obstacle to re-manufacturing is

industry has reported heavy investment in CHP

that the strategies for extending the usefultechnology to reduce energy consumption,

life of manufactured products depend uponnoting that CHP installations allow savings ofactive cooperation from original equipment

30 to 35 per cent of primary energy. Where

manufacturers (OEM). Many manufacturers

CHP is not an option, the next example of input

have resisted this approach historically andsubstitution is the use of waste as fuel, such aseven taken steps in the opposite direction

biomass or municipal waste.

by intentionally making their products
increasingly difficult to repair. Unless

Numerous measures can also be taken to reduce

legislation is enacted or pricing differentials

absolute water use through efficiency andare introduced, consumer product companies

recycling measures. Recycling wastewater fromwill tend to view repaired, renovated ora variety of industrial processes is increasingly

remanufactured products as being in direct

important because of the scarcity of fresh watercompetition with their new products.

alongside a growing demand for water in many
parts of the developing world, such as northern

Following repair and remanufacturing to

China and India (UNEP, 2011b).

enable the reuse of products, recycling is a key
step within the closed manufacturing system.

The economic case for investing inThis can facilitate the use of the by-products

managing industrial wasteof production processes whilst also providing

In the past, environmental and health-related

solutions in the substitution of inputs inreasons have motivated investments in

manufacturing, e.g. the use of scrap metals inmanaging waste from industrial processes, based

place of ore.

on costs that can be avoided through proper

Chapter 3.1: The waste sector as a contributor to Green Economy objectives

101

collection and disposal. While these arguments

3.1.4 Conclusion

continue to be important for policy actions,

Real opportunities for industries to manage

the economic case needs to be emphasized

waste in a more sustainable way lie in taking

more prominently in order for policy-makers toa preventive approach. Such an approachchannel significant resources towards decoupling

can enable rapidly industrializing economies

current production and consumption patterns

to decouple environmental damage fromand managing resource efficiency in, and waste

economic growth and improve their longer-term

from, industrial processes.

competitiveness.

There are no established international

Preventive efforts to promote resource

targets for managing waste from industrial

efficiency and cleaner production at the product,

processes, apart from the control of specificproduction process and company level needhazardous substances as governed by

to be complemented by improvements at theinternational conventions, such as the Baselindustrial cluster and systems level. At theConvention on the Control of Transboundary

company level, this starts with approaches such

Movements of Hazardous Wastes and theiras eco-innovation, including novel solutions

Disposal. Most goals are established nationallyto bring about significant improvement in aor even locally, as seen in section 2.1 of thiscombination of the product (throughout its

publication dealing with the Japanese national

value chain), production process, organization

policy framework. It is therefore difficult toand business model, which will in turn lead

have universally applicable goals for making

to better sustainability performance. At theindustrial processes more resource efficientindustry and systems level, this implies theand industrial waste management more

greening of supply chains and clustering ofsustainable. As outlined before, however, allindustries in a given economic zone to becomecountries should follow the waste managementa platform for resource efficiency throughhierarchy in this regard.

optimized resource flows between industries.

Increased investment is necessary for

The industrial parks of the future could be eco-managing resource efficiency in and wasteparks that maximize industrial symbiosis andfrom industrial processes. Preventing andsecure decent jobs. The move toward closed-

minimizing industrial waste generation

cycle manufacturing through remanufacturing

requires innovation and changes to system

and reprocessing of post-consumption products

and product design and production processes

and materials that are currently thrown away

upstream. Downstream recovering,as waste represents an important opportunity

remanufacturing, recycling, and final treatment

for transitioning to a green economy. Resource

require either new facilities or the upgrading

scarcities and the growth of the waste market

of existing facilities. Investment is also needed

will generate demand for recycled products,

to train the labour force in the industrial

offering opportunities for industries to sell

and waste management sectors as well as towaste materials and purchase recycled products

formalize the informal sector. It is important(UNEP, 2013a).

to note that the appropriateness of different

102

approaches and technologies in enhancing

Public policies, such as extended producer

resource efficiency in and waste management

responsibility or returnable deposits, can help tofrom industrial processes is mainly determinedpromote closed cycle manufacturing and extend

by local conditions (UNEP, 2011b).

product life cycles, thereby saving resources

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countriesand creating more jobs in maintenance, repair,

mindful that the basic physical processes andremanufacturing and recycling. New areas ofdamaging impacts associated with pollution

employment might include the collecting andand unsustainable resource use are universal. As

sorting of used or end-of-life products (reverse

major point sources of pollution, industries havelogistics). Shifting taxes away from labour on

traditionally been easy targets of command-

to waste emissions and/or materials extraction

and-control regulations. In some cases these

could also be an effective way of creating moreregulations need reform, while in others, newjobs by reducing labour costs vis-à-vis direct

regulations will be required to facilitate theenergy costs or capital costs.

transition to sustainability. Command-andcontrol regulations need however to be better

Indeed, there are multiple benefits fromcombined with market-based approaches,enhancing resource efficiency in industrial

allowing appropriately structured markets

processes and managing industrial waste in ato reflect the real price of energy and othermore sustainable way, such as waste prevention,

resources and allowing industries to innovate

resources recovered from waste and theand compete on a fair basis. Recent history

consequent extraction of fewer raw materials,

shows that the introduction of taxes can be a

new products such as compost and energy derived

strong driver for technology innovation, withfrom waste, lower costs associated with reducing

petrol taxes and vehicle engine technology as

greenhouse gas emissions, carbon credits, healthexamples. The use of economic instruments cancosts that are avoided, and job creation.

also reduce monitoring costs for regulators, butthere needs to be the willingness to undertake a

Each country will need to examine its own

thorough economic analysis on their likely costs,

appropriate policy mix in order to transition

benefits and effectiveness in order to design

to more sustainable industrial systems,

them correctly (UNEP, 2011b).

References
UNEP (2010b). Green Economy: Developing Countries Success Stories. UNEP, Geneva.
__________ (2011b). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication. UNEP, Geneva.
__________ (2013a). Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles: A Report of the Working
Group on the Global Metal Flows to the International Resource Panel. Van der Voet, E.; Salminen, R.; Eckelman, M.; Mudd, G.; Norgate,T.; Hischier, R. UNEP, Paris.

Chapter 3.1: The waste sector as a contributor to Green Economy objectives

1033.2 Sustainable waste
management in the context ofGreen Industry
United Nations Industrial Development Organization

3.2.1 Sustainable waste
management approaches
as part of UNIDO’s Green
Industry Initiative

The greening of industries is a method to attain

What is the Green Industry Initiative?

location, to green their operations, processes

Conscious of the industrial, environmental

and products by using resources more efficiently;

and energy policy challenges developing andtransforming industrial energy systems towards

emerging countries face, UNIDO launched its

greater sustainability by expanding renewable

Green Industry Initiative in 2009. Its objective isenergy sources; phasing out toxic substances;the mainstreaming of social and environmental

and improving occupational health and safety at

considerations into the operations of enterprises

the industrial level.

sustainable economic growth and promotesustainable economies. It will enable and support
all industries regardless of their sector, size orin all countries and regions through the more
efficient use of energy and raw materials,

Creating green industries involves establishinginnovative practices and applications of new green

and expanding (new) green industries thattechnologies. The Green Industries Initiative

deliver environmental goods and services.

can be seen as a sector strategy for achieving theGreen industry is a rapidly expanding

overall goals of green growth and green economy

and diverse sector that covers all types ofin the manufacturing and associated sectors. In

services and technologies that help to reduceother words, UNIDO promotes Green Industry

negative environmental impacts and resource

for a sustainable and economically viable future

consumption. This includes material recovery,

with an aim to ensure that industry does notrecycling, waste treatment and management,

harm the environment in developing andas well as the provision of environmental andemerging countries. Specifically, UNIDO helps

energy consulting and services, such as energy

developing countries to secure resource-efficient,

service companies and companies that provide

low-carbon growth. Promoting Green Industry

monitoring, measuring and analysis services.

is poised to create new jobs while protecting the104

environment, and assists developing countries

Benefits of Green Industry

move to clean technologies and implement

There are multiple benefits from pursuing aenvironmental agreements, including initiatives

Green Industry approach. These may include

and projects in waste management. Green

reduced raw material (i.e. commodity) costs,

Industry involves a two-pronged strategy toincreased security of supply, reduced pollution

create an industrial system that does not requirerisks and costs, lower cost of capital, increased

the ever-growing use of natural resources andemployee appeal and engagement, increased

pollution for growth and expansion. These twoawareness of emerging smart technologies,

components are the greening of industries andenhanced innovation capacity and skills, andcreating green industries.

improved brand recognition and competitive

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countriesposition in markets. At enterprise, national andsound ways. They are also assisted in

global public policy levels, Green Industry offers

developing and delivering technologies,

a practical pathway to long-term economic

equipment, products, management systems,

growth and sustainable development.

know-how and/or services that collect, manage
and dispose of (hazardous) wastes and/or

Waste management approaches

emissions in environmentally sound ways,

Approaches to sustainable waste management

including, for example chemical and medical

are covered under both components of thewastes, electronic waste, etc.

Green Industry Initiative.

as improvements in process operation,

3.2.2 Japan’s proven trackrecord and technologies
in sustainable waste
managementmonitoring and maintenance, application ofJapan has a proven track record in sustainableadvanced process technologies with higher

waste management and a number of advanced

efficiency and specificity, and recycling,

waste management technologies have beenreuse and recovery of process wastes. In

developed in Japan. While the previous section

addition, minimizing the risks associated withhighlighted the importance of sustainable waste

chemicals and (hazardous) wastes throughmanagement approaches as part of the Greensound management of chemicals, phasing out

Industry Initiative, this section will focus onof toxic and other environmentally harmful

transfers of Japanese technologies in the field of

substances (including those contributing towaste management.

Greening of industries involves preventing
and minimizing the generation of wastes
and emissions through such approachesozone layer depletion and/or climate change),
application of Best Environmental Practices

UNIDO’s Investment and Technology

and Best Available Techniques to prevent

Promotion Office (ITPO) in Tokyo, Japan isunintended formation and emissions of POPs

promoting direct investment and technology

and other hazardous pollutants, replacement oftransfers from Japan to developing countries

chemical processes by non-chemical processes

through foreign direct investment, joint(biological, physical, etc.), and substitution ofventures, licensing of technologies, and otherchemicals with safer, more specific and/or more

efforts. As part of its vital role in transferring

effective alternative ones.

environmentally-friendly technologies todeveloping countries and economies in

Waste management approaches are also parttransition, UNIDO ITPO Tokyo gathersof creating green industries. Industries are

information on environmental technologies

encouraged to develop and deliver advanced

developed by Japanese companies. It processes

integrated waste management, to use recycling

and edits the technical information and feeds it

and resource recovery technologies, services

into an easily navigable database. UNIDO ITPO

and systems for municipal, commercial,

Tokyo disseminates this information to support

industrial, construction, demolition and otherits mandate to promote these technologies in

specific waste streams, and to produce reliable

developing countries.

supplies of recycled materials and products.
Industries are also supported in their efforts

Japanese technologies that have received

to collect, manage and dispose of (hazardous)

considerable interest in developing countries

wastes and/or emissions in environmentally

are water-related technologies, such as for

Chapter 3.2: Sustainable waste management in the context of Green Industry

105

Box 1: Transfer of Japanese technologies for Green Industries
The transfer of technologies to developing countries
needs to take into account local conditions, such as thetechnological potential within a particular country andinfrastructure-related conditions, such as the availability andsteadiness of power supply, water and sewage infrastructure,and the ease with which parts for the technology can beprocured. UNIDO ITPO Tokyo reliably takes these and otherlocal conditions into account when selecting and promoting
Japanese technologies. The technologies in its database areusually low-cost, low in electricity consumption, and do not
require special training.

In the area of water technologies, Japanese companies
developed technologies to treat wastewater and to store
and purify rainwater. For example, the Japanese company
Aquatech Inc. uses clumps of gravel bound together by
resin, which are called “jarikkos”. These can purify watercontaminated with organic matter, such as organic waste
or sludge. Jarikkos are used to purify water bodies suchas rivers and lakes and to treat industrial wastewatercontaminated with organic matter. The technology is low
cost in comparison to other purification methods and has no
maintenance cost accompanying it.

For example, in the field of waste prevention and emissions
from industries, Japanese companies have technologies
that can help in recovering fluorocarbons for either reuseor destruction. These technologies can help in preventing
releases of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) into theatmosphere. The Japanese company Asada Corporation
uses, for example, electrostatic and plasma technologies torecover and destroy refrigerants from air conditioners andother appliances. Technologies are easy to transport andeasy to maintain.

In the area of rainwater harvesting, the Japanese company
Totetsu Mfg. Co., Ltd has developed a rainwater storage andusage system that collects, purifies and stores the rainwaterin specifically designated underground plastic storage tanks.
The purified water is suitable for daily life needs, agriculture,and industry, but needs to undergo additional filtration andsterilization to attain drinking water quality.

Source: UNIDO ITPO Tokyo

piping, pumping water after floods and water-

and creating human and institutional

proofing. Developing countries have also shown

capacity. In addition, UNIDO supports

interest in technologies for metal processing

knowledge transfer, including know-how,

and waste management.

good practices and technology information
through multilateral environmental

3.2.3 Approaches, policies
and/or technologies
applicable in industrializing
countries

agreements, such as the Montreal Protocol andthe Stockholm Convention.
The UNIDO Montreal Protocol-related
activities include the phasing-out of methyl-

In order to disseminate know-how, best

bromide, conversion of technologies used bypractices and technology transfer on industrial

refrigerator manufacturers, identification

waste management in developing countries andand application of non-ODS production

countries with economies in transition, UNIDO

technologies, assistance to local authorities

promotes several approaches.

in institutional strengthening for the
preparation of regulations, codes of good

To promote an enabling environment, UNIDO

production and maintenance practices,

encourages businesses individually andand provision of capacity building services

collectively to adapt and adopt Green Industry.

to strengthen SMEs. With regard to the

It assists businesses in mainstreaming andStockholm Convention, UNIDO cooperates

embedding Green Industry in industrial andwith technology providers to promote

related policies and strategies, fostering accesstechnologies that can mitigate persistent

to appropriate and affordable technologies,

organic pollutants in developing countries.

enabling access to affordable financing

106

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Through a number of programmes, UNIDO

qualified institutions since the 1990s. NCPCs areis promoting Green Industry and sustainableprofessional centres that deliver and coordinate

industrial waste management.

services in regard to cleaner production
methods, policies, practices and technologies.

Green Industry Platform

The RECP Programme works through its 55

The Green Industry Platform is a global high-

RECP network (RECPnet) members from almost

level, multi-stakeholder partnership intended

40 countries with like-minded institutions, theto act as a forum to catalyse, mobilize andprivate sector (particularly small- and medium-mainstream action on Green Industry aroundsized enterprises), policy makers and otherthe world. It is jointly convened by UNEP andstakeholders at the national level to promote a

UNIDO and provides a framework to bringmore resource efficient and Green Economy.

together governmental, business and civil society
leaders to secure concrete commitments andInvestment and Technology

mobilize action in support of the Green Industry

Promotion Offices

agenda. By encouraging the more efficient use

UNIDO’s network of investment andof energy and raw materials in manufacturing

technology promotion offices (ITPOs)

processes and services, the Platform will

was established to broker investment andcontribute both to cleaner and more competitivetechnology agreements between developed,

industrial development, and will help reduce

developing countries and countries with

pollution and reliance on unsustainable use of

economies in transition. UNIDO ITPO Tokyo’s

1natural resources.

mandate is to promote Japanesetechnologies. In the field of waste

National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs)

management, recent cooperation focused on

To support mainstreaming of resource efficiency

e-waste technology promotion in the Russianand cleaner production (RECP), the joint UNIDO

Federation and the promotion of waste tracking

UNEP RECP Programme has supported national

systems in India.

capacity building through NCPCs and other1

More information on the Green Industry Platform can befound at: http://www.greenindustryplatform.org/

Chapter 3.2: Sustainable waste management in the context of Green Industry

107

4 chapter

Concluding observations
on the potential relevance ofJapan’s experience for rapidly
industrializing countries
Yuko Sakita, Journalist and Environmental Counselor

4.0.1 Introduction

consumption and using resources effectively

The world’s waste discharge has been increasing

while minimizing environmental burdens. Japan’salong with population growth and also economic

experiences in the late 20th century in industrial

growth in developing countries. In rapidly

waste treatment and disposal are expected toindustrializing countries in particular, waste

be useful for rapidly industrializing countries asdischarged through industrial activities has

they seek to decouple in these areas. Since waste

shown a sharp increase and its impacts on thedisposal systems or methods vary according toenvironment are a concern. If the increase

countries or regions, it is i mportant to consider

continues at the present rate, the world’s waste

what aspects of the Japanese experience candischarge in 2050 is estimated to grow to more

be useful in light of each country’s individual

than twice the 2010 amount. Making effective

situation and local conditions.

use of limited resources while dealing properlywith waste is one of the most important issues

There were three notable changes in Japan’s

globally in the path to sustainable development.

way of thinking as a result of its experiences in
the late 20th century. The roles of the entities

108

Two types of decoupling will be key: realizing

promoting these changes have also evolved. The

economic growth while reducing resource

following sections highlight these transitions.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

4.0.2 Three changes inJapan’s way of thinking
derived from its experiencesin the late 20th century

b. The 3Rs: Transitioning to a recycling societya. Quality and quantity: Efforts to conserve

In the 1970s and 1980s, Japan establishedin which resources are effectively utilized
and recycled, departing from just waste
disposalthe environment are essential for

laws, regulations and disposal standards

sustainable development

for hazardous substances to ensure proper

During its rapid growth in the 1950s

disposal of industrial waste, grounded in theand 1960s, Japan focused on economic

responsibility held by the entity generating

development and took the environment

the waste, that is Extended Producer

into consideration only afterward, leading

Responsibility (EPR). However, as theto pollution problems. Delays in controlling

generation of industrial waste dischargeindustrial effluent and smoke gave rise to water

increased, there was no end to the number ofcontamination and air pollution. Heavy metals

businesses that improperly disposed of it

flowed into rivers and became concentrated inby contracting for disposal at low prices

various types of food, resulting in health issues

with companies that illegally dumped thefor the people who ate them. During the Diet

waste in remote areas. The costs associatedsession that convened in 1970, laws to address

with cleaning up and restoring the severely

environmental issues were formulated all in

polluted environment were much greater than

one burst, as were systems for medical carethe costs that would have been incurred byand compensation for people suffering fromproperly disposing of the waste.

pollution-related health problems. However,lawsuits demanding certification of pollution-

In light of this, Japan concluded that inrelated health impacts have continued until

response to increases in industrial waste

recently. Despite a half century, society still

generation, it is important to depart frombears a number of deep scars.

the focus on just disposing of waste. Japan
has been working to change society’s way of

The experience showed that end-of-pipe

thinking so as to switch over to a recycling

measures focusing on cleaning up

society in which resources are effectively

environmental pollution results in manyutilized and recycled. Doing so requires that

more costs than preventive measures. As thethe priority order of the 3Rs be followed

Japanese experience showed, the measuresconscientiously. This 3R hierarchy has

needed to recover from pollution included“reduce”, or effective use of limited resources

not only environmental recovery, but also

and reduction in generated waste, as the

medical care and compensation for harmhighest priority. This is followed by “reuse”,

inflicted on people’s health.

by which things are used multiple times, andfinally by “recycle”, or cyclic use. It is also

In light of this experience, in creating aessential to create systems for this recycling

safe and secure society moving towards

society that incorporate heat recovery andsustainable development, it is important toproper disposal.

specify “environmental conservation” within
the philosophies or basic principles adopted

c. Coordination: Society-wide efforts

by the national government, companies andthrough cooperation among the national

local governments. This represents a change

government, local governments, industry,in the conventional way of thinking.

disposal companies and citizens

Chapter 4: Concluding observations on the potential relevance of Japan’s experience for rapidly industrializing countries

109Since it is possible to point to a sourcechanges in how stakeholders, including thecompany in many cases of pollution, pollution

national government, local governments,

tends to be blamed on companies rather thanindustry, academia, and citizens, think about

on society as a whole. However, in the case of

the issue; and to develop frameworks underautomobile fumes polluting the air, society

which these entities can work in cooperation.

as a whole is both victimizer and victim. In

In Japan, after the illegal dumping andthe same way, improper industrial waste

improper disposal of industrial waste and the

management, such as chlorofluorocarbons

shortage of disposal facilities became social

not recovered from refrigerators or air

problems, policies on the 3Rs and on properconditioners at the time of disposal, candisposal of industrial waste were rapidly

develop into a global environmental issue.

formulated, beginning in the 1990s. Since
2000, the basic laws for creating a recycling

It is therefore important to have a change insociety and various legal systems concerning

the way of thinking in which all social actors,

recycling have also been established.

including the national government, local
governments, industry, disposal companies

Specifically in the case of industrial waste

and citizens, take responsibility for their own

disposal, it is necessary to formulateroles and work collaboratively to manage

and implement systems clarifying theindustrial waste. It is primarily major

responsibility for disposal and for costs. When

companies with consistent performance thatconsidering environmental conservation

are able to shoulder the costs and advancemeasures, it is important to incorporate

environmental measures and the 3Rs. Society

the responsibility of waste dischargers andas a whole must create an environment

extended producer responsibility, under thethat effectively incentivizes companies thatpolluter pays principle. On that basis, it isundertake environmental efforts or thenecessary to set standards for proper recycling

3Rs. A better reputation for the company

and disposal as well as provide administrativein society and higher enterprise value

supervision to investigate whether or

are among the incentives that companies

not these standards are in fact followed.

generally respond to.

Regulations must also be thoroughly enforced.

4.0.3 Roles of social
actors; perspectives thatfacilitate coordination andcollaborationa. Establishing appropriate regulations and110

The 3Rs and heat recovery should receive highpriority within industrial waste policies. In
Japan, incineration was introduced early on
because of hygiene considerations. However,in countries that will be creating improved
industrial waste disposal systems in thestandards by the national government

future in response to rapid increases in waste,

to stimulate changes in society’s way of

the 3Rs and heat recovery should be included

thinking and foster business operators

on a priority basis when devising the system.

In creating a recycling society that

In light of the highly diversified types ofappropriately manages industrial waste, theindustrial waste that must be addressed, it ismost important roles of the government are

difficult to manage industrial waste under ato raise the degree of priority given by the

uniform approach through public services. It

government to relevant policies; to improveis therefore essential that policies be createdthe legislative framework; to encouragein ways that foster private businesses so that

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

the originality and ingenuity of the private

businesses are regulated in detail through asector can be utilized.

regulatory approach.

In addition, Japan has conceived of ways to

Industrial circles as a whole adopted aaddress industrial waste problems throughquantitative approach, setting a numericalmany years of responding to a variety of

reduction target for the final disposal volume

problems. To replicate this expertise thatof industrial waste. Their joint efforts

comes with experience, it would be beneficial

resulted in a final disposal amount in FY2010

to establish an organization or a departmentthat was 86 per cent less than the amount in

to handle industrial waste disposal issues

FY1990. In addition, individual targets were

and then cultivate relevant personnel.

set by various industrial sectors. Industries
have been enhancing the atmosphere of trust

Although these processes, including

afforded to them by society by carrying out

policy planning and implementation,

their responsibilities to society, namely by

improvements to various systems andconducting follow-ups annually on what they

human resource development, have been

actually achieved, implementing the PDCA

communicated to other countries proactively

cycle and then publishing the results for thethrough the Regional 3R Forum in Asia

public to see.

and on other occasions, in order to addressincreasingly serious industrial waste

Industry contributes to the creation of aproblems, there is a tremendous need torecycling society not only by making suchmake use of international cooperation whenvoluntary efforts but also by providing

moving into implementation.

information and conducting educational
activities for consumers.

b. Responsibilities of businesses generating
industrial waste and voluntary efforts by

c. Strengthening the industrial waste

industry

disposal industry’s integrated performance

The Voluntary Action Plan on thein proper disposal and recycling

Environment set forth by Keidanren inIndustrial waste disposal in Japan makes

1997 is worthy of special mention, as it

good business sense, with businesses

led to accelerated involvement by industry

receiving value from the disposal

in environmental conservation as wellcompanies that provide disposal services.

as in earnest efforts at industrial waste

However, unlike in ordinary commercial

management.

transactions, nothing remains with thebusinesses that generated the waste after

A notable characteristic of the Keidanren

their waste and the money for services

plan is voluntary efforts conducted byare handed over to disposal companies.

businesses. If industries devise measures

Therefore, waste generators tend to paythat comprehensively take account of both

attention to the cost of disposal rather

technology trends and cost-effectivenessthan the quality of disposal. As a result,while working towards the national

disposal companies emerge that contract

government’s overarching direction

for disposal at a low price and thenfor creating a recycling society, thenimproperly dispose of the waste, such associety as a whole will be able to address

through illegal dumping. They may evenenvironmental issues more efficiently than if

deprive legitimate disposal companies

Chapter 4: Concluding observations on the potential relevance of Japan’s experience for rapidly industrializing countries111

of their economic base. Accordingly,

d. Creating a virtuous cycle between thewhen a national government establishes

environment and the economy as a step

appropriate regulatory standards andtowards sustainable production andlocal governments enforce them properly,

consumption

together they set the foundation for

When businesses take an interest in

improving the quality of disposal andthe quality of disposal as generators of

also for the sound operation of legitimate

industrial waste and come to engage inindustrial waste disposal businesses.

recycling assiduously in cooperation withdisposal businesses, their cost burden for

Recently, the establishment of various legal

environmental measures increases. In ordersystems for recycling and the difficulties

to have businesses establish environmental

in constructing new final disposal sites

measures, it is important for society as ahave further accelerated the trend towards

whole to take an interest in such businessrecycling industrial waste as a resource

activities and for consumers to select green

rather than landfilling it. The industrial

companies’ products or services as well as

waste disposal industry has also shownenvironmentally friendly products, such asa trend towards recycling throughplainly wrapped products. Moreover, whencooperative efforts with waste-generating

financial institutions decide on investments

businesses, giving birth to new industries.

or loans for companies, it is desirable for

As a result of waste-generating businesses,

them to evaluate highly those companies

industrial waste disposal companies andthat have demonstrated their interest

the government promoting recycling in a

in creating a recycling society. It is also

united manner, the final disposal amount ofimportant for the government, companies

industrial waste residues after intermediate

and citizens to cooperate in order toprocessing has decreased in Japan to about

cultivate a society in which environmental

a quarter of the previous amount.

friendliness is highly evaluated by the
consumer and financial markets.

Industrial waste disposal processes could
also include such options as a public

Through cooperation with the private

sector monopoly on disposal services or

sector, the Japanese national government

the provision of disposal services only bydeveloped an eco-label to affix onregional exclusive companies that haveenvironmentally friendly products to assist

been specially authorized by the public

consumers in decision-making. The Law

sector. However, such anticompetitive

Concerning the Promotion of Procurement ofprocesses would not be expected to result

Eco-friendly Goods and Services by the Statein a diversified range of devices for recycling

and Other Entities (Law on Promoting Greenor higher rates of recycling. Although thePurchasing) was enacted as well to promote

most appropriate path forward will vary

the procurement of eco-friendly goods andwith national circumstances and local

services by the national and local governments.

conditions, developing and implementing
clear, transparent, and appropriate

There has also been an increase in theregulations would be a minimum

number of companies that have adopted

requirement if the Japanese process isan environmental management systemtaken as a base.

to check their business activities. They
communicate the status of their activities

112

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

to the public on a regular basis throughterm inhibits the development of private

environmental reports. In order tobusinesses and impedes waste reduction.

encourage such behaviour by industry,

Accordingly, it is necessary to set in advancethe Law Concerning the Promotion of

the conditions under which the public sector

Business Activities with Environmental

will withdraw its involvement. In addition,

Consideration by Specified Corporations,when the government’s withdrawal takes

etc. by Facilitating Access to Environmental

place, it is important to provide appropriate

Information, and Other Measures (Law for

guidance to the businesses that generate

Promotion of Environmental Consideration)

waste in order to smooth the transition towas enacted to serve as the strategy fordisposal by the private sector.

communicating companies’ environmental
information to society as a whole and forWhen the public sector decides to initiate

raising the level of public interest.

or withdraw from involvement in industrial
waste disposal services, not only economic

Consumer groups and NGOs have also been

viability but also public utility are important.

enthusiastically engaged in efforts to support

Public sector involvement should therefore

sustainable production and consumption.

be comprehensive, including regulations

They are also active in community-based

and guidance strategies rather than merely

environmental learning in cooperation withthe systems for collecting, transporting andbusinesses and local governments.

processing waste.

e. Coordination by local governments;

The cities of Kitakyushu and Kawasaki

motivation to create communities taking

are both leading manufacturing areas inan environmental perspective

Japan. They also are known historicallyOsaka City is a community that introduced

as cities that suffered from pollution,industrial waste disposal through public sector

including air pollution and water

involvement. Under the Waste Management

contamination. However, the two cities

and Public Cleansing Law enacted in 1970,

have overcome this pollution by developing

businesses generating industrial waste dispose

environmentally friendly technologies

of it by consigning it to industrial waste

and systems to the point where they

disposal companies. However, as the private

are now well respected as communities

sector did not move forward in improving

with successful urban development thatand constructing disposal-related facilities,

takes an environmental perspective.

there was concern that serious environmental

Parts of Asia have areas with significant

impacts on the environment would arise

environment deterioration caused by rapid

should there be cases of improper disposal

industrialization. The experience and effortsof hazardous industrial waste. Against thisof Kitakyushu and Kawasaki are expected

backdrop, the Osaka City government set

to be instructive for such communities. It

up the Osaka Industrial Waste Disposal

can also be said that a mentality has been

Corporation jointly with the Osaka prefectural

fostered in both of these cities whereby

government to improve and construct landfillssociety welcomes spending money on

and intermediate processing facilities.

environmental measures.

While public sector involvement plays a

Kitakyushu has succeeded in creating

key role, its involvement over the longindustry-government-academia cooperation

Chapter 4: Concluding observations on the potential relevance of Japan’s experience for rapidly industrializing countries

113

in the process of overcoming pollution. Asan eco-friendly area through cooperationa result, research institutions including

among companies that are already working

universities join measures proactively to help

to be environmentally friendly. The third

improve the quality of this collaboration.

step is to undertake research to bring about

In concrete terms, one characteristic ofa district that can develop sustainably with

Kitakyushu’s efforts is its adoption of

the environment as the cornerstone. The

methods to reduce the environmental burdencity encourages research for sustainable

during each production process, in a way

development, promotes cascading utilization

highly similar to the cleaner productionof waste heat and fosters recycling efforts. The

approach advocated by UNEP.

fourth step is to communicate information on
the achievements of companies and districts

In addition, in order to secure the financial

to others. Under this step, accomplishments

resources for proactively promoting

are publicized both domestically and overseas

environmental measures including properand technologies to conserve the environment

waste disposal and the Eco-town project, an

and mitigate pollution are transferred to“environmental future tax” has been imposed,

developing countries.

whereby a tax of 1,000 yen (approximately
US$10) is collected for each ton of industrial

When launching efforts to create an Eco-waste that is landfilled. This tax has resulted

town, it is important first to understandin reductions in the amount of landfilled

the major challenges in the area and decideindustrial waste and has been utilized

upon policies to solve those challenges, as

as a financial resource that support new

well as to accumulate the technologies thatmeasures, such as a grant-in-aid programme

will be required. In addition, it is difficult tofor technology being developed for the

implement these efforts at a wide scale from‘environmental future’.

the beginning. It is desirable to expand theefforts across a broader area after completing

Kawasaki has been working to achievea trial implementation in a model area.

community-wide zero emissions not only
through the introduction of new technologies

factory. Kawasaki is the first city in Japan

4.0.4 Suggestions forindustrial waste
management in developing
countries, based onJapan’s experience andlessons learned

to formulate and implement a plan for

Various suggestions on industrial wasteenvironmentally friendly urban development

management in developing countries can beas an “Eco-town”.

made based on Japan’s experience with suchfor recycling and waste disposal but also
through cooperation across the entire area
and cooperation within local neighborhoodsby industry. Under this system, one factory’s
waste is used as a resource in another nearby

management and the lessons it has derived
The first step in creating an Eco-town is tofrom its experiences. Developing countries could

increase the eco-friendliness of companies

work to:by encouraging a switchover to factories
that are in harmony with the environment.

114(1) formulate frameworks to address waste

The second step is to increase the eco-problems overall through cooperation

friendliness of the area by aiming to achieve

among stakeholders, including the national

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

government, local governments, industry,a whole, including community creation by local

academia, and citizens;governments and industrial circles and checking(2) establish systems that clarify the sharing ofand cooperation by citizens and NGOs.

responsibility and costs for waste disposal;(3) consider public sector involvement in waste

Thinking back about the transition to a recycling

disposal in situations in which the private

society, it appears to have been particularly

sector industrial waste management systemvaluable to achieve a change in society’s way

is inadequate;of thinking, as this factor led industrial waste-(4) establish standards for proper recycling anddisposal;(5) enforce regulations on illegal dumping andimproper disposal thoroughly;(6) place priority on the 3Rs and heat recovery
within industrial waste policies;(7) develop frameworks for industrial waste

generating businesses to make voluntary efforts.
It seems that such social change was largely
influenced by three factors, namely, the assertive
introduction of environmental management
systems including ISO 14001 by industry; theuse of supply chain management, under which
companies critically examined their businessdisposal in accordance with policies, laws

partners’ environment-related policies; and theand regulations;engagement of even SMEs and local governments(8) develop the human resources that will be
engaged in waste management;(9) understand the problems in the country orin environmental efforts. In 2010, the number oforganizations registered for ISO 14001 screening
in Japan surpassed 20,000, while the number

city and develop and accumulate policies andof businesses certified under Eco Action 21, an

technologies that will solve those problems;

ISO 14001-like certification system within Japan(10) receive transfers of experience andthat targets SMEs, reached 5,600. In addition,technology in waste management or

according to a survey by Japan’s Ministry of theenvironment improvement from developed

Environment, the ratio of companies preparing

countries through international cooperation;“environmental reports” and publishing their(11) foster voluntary environmental efforts byenvironmental efforts to reduce waste or CO2 inbusinesses generating waste and create a2011 reached 55 per cent of listed companies andsocial environment that encourages such

25 per cent of unlisted companies.

efforts; and/or(12) promote measures to create a recycling

Thus, it can be concluded that the changes insociety, such as the Eco-town project inthe way of thinking and cooperative efforts byJapan

individual entities have contributed significantly
to the improvement of industrial waste

4.0.5 Conclusion

management in Japan. It is hoped that Japan’s
experience and lessons can serve as a useful

Since the 1990s in particular, Japan has steeredreference in industrial waste management

itself towards the creation of a recycling society

conducted through the cooperation of manyin part by raising the priority of waste- andstakeholders. Japan’s experience and lessons

recycling-related policies within the national

have the potential to be instructive for thegovernment. However, Japan’s tremendous

creation of sustainable societies in Asian or

results were achieved not only through theother developing countries around the world,

national government establishing regulations

taking into consideration their individual

and standards but also through the development

situations and local conditions.

of frameworks to be undertaken by society as

Chapter 4: Concluding observations on the potential relevance of Japan’s experience for rapidly industrializing countries

115

Glossary
Best available techniques (BAT): The latestof the Basic Environment Law. It examines

stage of development (state of the art) ofenvironmental rules and regulations in Japan andprocesses, of facilities or of methods of operation

provides its views on environmental issues to thewhich indicate the practical suitability of a

Prime Minister, the Environmental Minister andparticular measure for limiting environmental

other relevant ministers. The council consists ofand social impacts (UNEP, 2010a).

both specialists and members representing local
governments, business organizations, and labour

Best environmental practices (BEP): Practices

unions, non-governmental organizations, andthat apply the most appropriate combination ofother civil society groups.

environmental control measures and strategies.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):
Biodiversity: Biological diversity or biodiversity

Defined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, themeans the variability among living organisms

CDM is intended to meet two objectives: (1) tofrom all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial,assist parties not included in Annex I in achieving

marine and other aquatic ecosystems and thesustainable development and in contributing

ecological complexes of which they are part;to the ultimate objective of the convention;

this includes diversity within species, between

and (2) to assist parties included in Annex I

species and of ecosystems (CBD, 1992).

in achieving compliance with their quantified
emission limitation and reduction commitments.

Brown economy: See green economy.

Certified Emission Reduction Units from CDM
projects undertaken in Non-Annex I countries

Bubble economy: A boom in Japan from thethat limit or reduce GHG emis¬sions, whenlatter half of the 1980s through the early 1990s

certified by operational entities designated bynotable for soaring asset prices.

Conference of the Parties/Meeting of the Parties,
can be accrued to the investor (government or

Carbon credit: Under the Clean Development

industry) from parties in Annex B. A share of

Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of thethe proceeds from certified project activities is

Kyoto Protocol, a country with an emission-used to cover administrative expenses as well

reduction or emission-limitation commitment

as to assist developing country parties that areunder the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) is

particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects ofallowed to implement an emission-reduction

climate change to meet the costs of adaptation

project in developing countries. Such projects(UNEP, 2013c).

can earn saleable certified emission reduction(CER) credits – or carbon credits, each equivalent

Cleaner production: The continuous application

to one ton of CO2, which can be counted towardsof an integrated preventive environmental

meeting Kyoto targets (UNFCCC, n.d.). See also

strategy to processes, goods, and services toemissions trading and Clean Development

increase overall efficiency, and reduce risks to

Mechanism.

humans and the environment. Cleaner Production
can be applied to the processes used in any

116

Central Environmental Council: A council

industry, to goods themselves, and to various

established within the Ministry of theservices provided in society. See also resource

Environment in accordance with Article 41

efficient and cleaner production (UNEP, 2010a).

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Combined heat and power (CHP)/

of the Environment of Japan to encourage

decentralized combined heat and power

environmental activities by small- and medium-(decentralized CHP): A system that generates

sized enterprises, which often find certification

power using fuel such as petroleum or natural

under ISO 14001 standards to be a heavy

gas and then uses the resulting waste heat forburden. These guidelines set forth methods

hot water service and heating/air-conditioning.

for business operators to adopt effective andDecentralized systems generate heat and power

efficient systems for environmental activities,

near to where they are used (Japan Waste

then implement those activities, evaluate, andManagement & 3R Research Foundation, 2006).

continually improve upon them, and finallyreport on the results to the public. Companies

Commercial municipal solid waste: Waste

completing all the steps can apply for Eco Action

generated through business activities that

21 certification (Japan, MOE, 2004). See also

is not designated as industrial waste under

ISO 14001.

Japan’s Waste Management Law (Japan Waste
Management & 3R Research Foundation, 2006).

Eco-industrial parks: See industrial symbiosis.

Decent jobs: Jobs that involve opportunities

Eco-innovation: Eco-innovation is thefor work that is productive and delivers adevelopment and application of a new businessfair income, security in the workplace, social

strategy that entails a combination of a new orprotection for families, better prospects for

significantly improved product (good/service),

personal development and social integration,

production process, organization and businessfreedom for people to express their concerns,

model that will lead to better sustainability

organize and participate in the decisions that

performance.

affect their lives and equality of opportunity andtreatment for all women and men.

Eco-town project: Eco-towns in Japan
originated in 1997 through a subsidy system

Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds (DLCs):

established by the Ministry of International

Persistent environmental pollutants that are

Trade and Industry and the Environment Agency

primarily by-products of industrial processes,of Japan (predecessors to Japan’s current

including incineration, smelting, chlorine

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry andbleaching of paper pulp, and some types ofthe Ministry of the Environment). The projectchemical manufacturing, but may also result

facilitates the development of an urban planningfrom certain natural processes, such as volcanicand environmental management approach for

eruptions and forest fires. The term includes

cities with industrial clusters based on the Zero

polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins (PCDDs)

Emissions Concept (METI, n.d.).

and compounds with dioxin-like properties suchas polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and

Ecodesign: Ecodesign aims at reducing thepolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In Japan, theyenvironmental impact of products (including

are regulated under the Law Concerning Special

energy consumption) throughout their entire

Measures against Dioxins (WHO, 2010).

life cycle (UNEP, 2010a).

Eco Action 21: A set of guidelines in Japan

Eco-labelling: A system in which products are

based on the ISO 14001 standards of therequired to be labelled with information about

International Organization for Standardization.

their impacts on health and the environment.

Eco Action 21 was formulated by the Ministry

Glossary117

Ecological footprint: A measure of how muchincludes organisational structure, planning

biologically productive land and water anactivities, responsibilities, practices, procedures,individual, population or activity requires toprocesses and resources (UNEP, 2010a).

produce all the resources it consumes and to

Guidelines and standards for EMSs include

absorb the waste it generates using prevailing

Eco Action 21 created by the Ministry of thetechnology and resource management practices.

Environment of Japan and ISO 14001. See also

The ecological footprint is usually measured

Eco Action 21 and ISO 14001.

in global hectares (a common unit thatencompasses the average productivity of all the

Extended producer responsibility (EPR):

biologically productive land and sea area in the

An environmental policy approach in whichworld in a given year). Because trade is global, ana producer’s responsibility for a product is

individual or country’s footprint includes land

extended to the post-consumer stage of aor sea from all over the world (UNEP, 2010a).

product’s life cycle (UNEP, 2013c).

Economic instruments: A monetary incentive

Green Cities Programme: A programme ofor disincen¬tive to act in a manner supportive

the OECD to assess how urban green growthof policy objectives (UNEP, 2010a).

and sustainability policies can contribute toeconomic performance and environmental

Emissions trading: A market-based approach toquality of metropolitan areas and thus enhanceachieving environmental objectives that allows

the contribution of urban areas to national

those reducing greenhouse gas emissions below

growth, quality of life and competitivenesswhat is required, to use or trade the excess(OECD, n.d.).

reductions to offset emissions at another source
inside or outside the country. In general, trading

Green economy; brown economy: A “green

can occur at the intra-company, domestic andeconomy” is defined within UNEP’s Greeninternational levels (IPCC, 2007). See also

Economy Initiative as an economy that results

carbon credit.

in improved human well-being and social equity
while significantly reducing environmental

Environment Agency of Japan: See Ministry ofrisks and ecological scarcities. In contrast, thethe Environment of Japan.

conventional type of economy which is based on
fossil fuels and results in resource depletion andEnvironmental assessment: An assessmenta large amount of carbon emissions is referredof the possible impacts that a proposed project

to as a “brown economy” (UNEP, 2011b). See

may have on the environment, consisting of thealso Green Economy Initiative.

environmental, social and economic aspects.
Green Economy Initiative: An initiative led by

118

Environmental management system: An

UNEP having three key components: promoting

environmental management system (EMS)

the Green Economy Report and related researchis part of an organisation’s management

to analyse the implications of green investment,

system used to develop and implement

providing advisory services on how to transition

its environmental policy and manage its

to a green economy, and engaging a wide range

interactions with the environment. Aof stakeholders, including researchers, non-management system is a set of interrelated

governmental organizations, and businesses, inrequirements used to establish policy andimplementing the Initiative (UNEP, n.d.). See

objectives, and to achieve those objectives it

also green economy.

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

Green growth: Green Growth is environmentally

Kalundborg Eco-Industrial Park in Denmark,sustainable economic progress that fosters

the first such network in the world (Onishi andlow-carbon, socially inclusive development.

Fujita, 2005).

It articulates concise and clear entry points
and policy approaches for making real gains

ISO 14001: A set of standards formulated by thein transferring to low-carbon development,International Organization for Standardization

synergizing climate action with development(ISO) that establish specifications forgoals (UNEP, 2010a).

environmental management systems. The
standards include items which must be complied

Heat recovery: Collecting and using thermal

with when trying to establish environmental

energy generated when waste is incinerated

management systems that are in line with ISO

instead of using incineration solely as a means

standards.

of disposing of waste.
Itai-itai disease: A pollution-caused disease
High economic growth period: Period ofwhich occurred in areas around the Jinzu River

dramatic economic growth in Japan from thein Toyama Prefecture, Japan in 1955. In the

mid-1950s to the beginning of the 1970s.

process of producing zinc from mined ores, water

Consumption rapidly increased and a social

containing cadmium and other heavy metals

structure based on mass production, mass

was discharged into the river, contaminating

consumption and mass disposal emerged.

rice paddies and well water in downstream areas.
Residents who ingested the contaminated rice

Impact assessment on the living environment:

and water contracted the disease.

An assessment conducted under the Waste
Management Law of Japan for forecasting

Japan Standard Industrial Classification

and analysing the impacts of a planned waste(JSIC): A statistical standard in Japan thattreatment facility on the surrounding living

includes statistics broken down by industry

environment, after identifying the current stateand categorizes all economic activities relatedof the living environment of the surrounding

to the production or provision of goods andarea. The results are used to consider measuresservices (Japan, Ministry of Internal Affairs andto protect the living environment that are

Communications, 2008).

suitable in light of the current situation. The
assessment is conducted for the atmospheric

Kanemi rice bran oil disease incident: An

environment, the aquatic environment,

incident which occurred in 1968 in Kitakyushu

noise, vibration and offensive odours (Japan,

and other areas of western Japan. In the

MOE Waste Management and Recycling

deodorization process for manufacturing rice

Department, 2006).

bran oil by Kanemi Company in Kyushu, PCBs
used as a heating medium leaked throughIndustrial symbiosis: The sharing and recycling

corroded pipes and contaminated the oil,of materials and energy between different

causing acute poisoning to those who ingested

industries in an integrated industrial complex

the contaminated oil. See also polychlorinatedor park, often referred to as an “eco-industrial

biphenyl (PCB).

park”, in order to minimize waste and pollution.
The symbiotic relationship also optimizes theLife cycle: A product’s passage through distinct

activities of each individual industry. A well-stages from extraction of raw materials,

known example of industrial symbiosis is

manufacture, packaging, transport, distribution,

Glossary119

sale, use to end-of-life, when it enters into thefor waste management until the reorganization

waste management system and the later phasesof Japan’s ministries in 2001, at which timeof the waste hierarchy.

its waste management responsibilities weretransferred to the Ministry of the Environment.

Life cycle assessment (LCA): A tool to evaluate

The ministry of Health and Welfare merged

the environmental and social performance ofwith the Ministry of Labour in 2001 to form theproducts or services along their life cycle. See

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.

also life cycle.
Niigata Minamata disease: A pollution-caused
Minamata disease: A pollution-caused

disease similar to Minamata disease which

disease that occurred in and around the city ofoccurred in the basin of Agano River in Niigata

Minamata in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan in

Prefecture in 1965, also referred to as “second

1956. Methylmercury compounds contaminatedMinamata disease”.

wastewater from a plant that produced
acetaldehyde, a raw material for plastics. These

Original equipment manufacturer (OEM):

compounds accumulated in fish and shellfish,

A company that designs, develops andand local residents who ate such fish andmanufactures products or components on behalf

shellfish developed nervous system diseases.

of another company, which then sells the items
under its own brand name.

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry ofJapan (METI): Japanese ministry whose areas

PDCA cycle: A management method whereof responsibility include economic and industrial

operational improvement activities aredevelopment, particularly the improvement

continually conducted by repeating a cycleof economic vitality in the private sector andof (1) making policies and plans (“plan”), (2)the smooth development of foreign economic

implementing (“do”), (3) checking (“check”) andrelationships, as well as ensuring the efficient(4) correcting and revising (“act”).

and stable supply of mineral resources andenergy. The ministry was reorganized in 2001

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): Chemicalfrom the Ministry of International Trade andsubstances that persist in the environment,

Industry (MITI).

bioaccumulate through the food web, and posea risk of causing adverse effects to human

Ministry of the Environment of Japan (MOE,

health and the environment. It is a collective

MOEJ): The Environment Agency of Japan wasname for organic compounds including PCBs,

established in 1971 and upgraded in 2001 todichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT),

become the Ministry of the Environment. Its

dioxins and dioxin-like compounds (DLCs). The

areas of responsibility include the protection of

Stockholm Convention on POPs (adopted in May

the global environment, pollution prevention,2001) aims to protect human health and thethe conservation and improvement of the naturalenvironment from persistent organic pollutants

environment and other types of environmental(Stockholm Convention, 2001).

protection. The ministry’s areas of responsibility
also include ensuring the safety of nuclear energy

Polluter pays principle (PPP): An

research, development and utilization.

environmental policy principle stating thatthose who cause or gen¬erate pollution should

120

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare ofbear the cost of it. In the waste management

Japan (MHLW): Japanese ministry responsible

context, the principle means that those who

The Japanese industrial waste experience: Lessons for rapidly industrializing countries

generate waste should bear the cost of managing

from the perspective of the resources that go

it so that it does not pose risks to human healthinto each stage, since losing resources as waste

and the environment. It is the basic principle

is inefficient. That may include rethinking thefor the pollution control measures in Japan’s

entire design and asking whether the functions

Basic Environment Act. The concept originatedthat the product provides to the consumer canin a recommendation adopted by OECD in 1972

be delivered in some other way.

and is also found in the 1992 Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development (UNEP, 2002;

Resource efficient and cleaner production

OECD, 1972).

(RECP): RECP reduces environmental impact
and pollution by minimizing the use of

Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB): A man-maderesources to lessen waste within the production

organic chemical formerly used for insulating

system. These strategies attempt to exemplify

and lubricating oil and other purposes due toa preventive stance towards environmental

its electric insulation and chemical and thermal

management, choosing pollution prevention

stability. It became the focus of attention as arather than end-of-pipe treatments. Measures

pollutant thought to damage human health andinclude adoption of environmentally soundliving environments because it remains intact

technologies, introduction of process

in the environment for long periods, becomesmodification and substitution of raw materials.

widely distributed geographically, bioaccumulate
in in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife.

Sulfur oxides: The collective name for sulfur

In Japan, its use and import was discontinued

an oxygen containing compounds, notably

in 1972. Its holders are required to store it

sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3),

appropriately and dispose of it appropriately at

generated by the combustion of the sulfur

an early time (Japan Waste Management & 3R

content in fuels. Sulfur oxides are abbreviated as

Research Foundation, 2006).

SOx. Sulfur dioxide is a common pollutant that
can injure the respiratory system and is a major

Reduce-reuse-recycle (3Rs): The 3R Initiative

precursor to acid rain. Most of the sulfur oxides

aims to promote the “3Rs” (reduce, reuse andcontained in combustion gases are SO2, but part

recycle) globally so as to build a sound-material-of the SO2 is oxidized in the air and becomes

cycle society through the effective use of

SO3 (Japan Waste Management & 3R Researchresources and materials. Agreed upon at the G8Foundation, 2006).

Sea Island Summit in June 2004, it was formallylaunched at a ministerial meeting in Japan in the

Smart city: A city or an area which has social

spring of 2005. Reducing means choosing to use

infrastructure that has been streamlined

things with care to reduce the amount of waste

and upgraded using information andgenerated. Reusing involves the repeated use ofcommunications technologies (ICT),

items or parts of items which still have usable

environmental technologies and other advanced

aspects. Recycling means the use of waste itself as

technologies.

resources. Waste minimization can be achieved inan efficient way by focusing primarily on the firstSound material-cycle society: A societyof the 3Rs, “reduce,” followed by “reuse” and thenwhere consumption of resources is reduced“recycle” (UNEP, 2010a).

and environmental impacts are minimized,
through preventing or reducing the generation

Resource efficiency: The goal of resourceof waste by promoting cyclical use as circulative

efficiency is to rethink the life-cycle of a productresources and ensuring the appropriate

Glossary121

disposal of what cannot be put into cyclical use

waste” (commercial municipal solid waste).

(Japan, Basic Act, 2000).
Waste-to-energy: Recovering energy in the
Supply chain: The process from the raw material

form of electricity or heat from waste.

stage to the point where products or services aredelivered to consumers.

Yokkaichi asthma: A pollution-caused disease
that occurred in the city of Yokkaichi in Mie

Value chain: A tool for analysis and strategic

Prefecture, Japan from the early 1960s intoplanning in which business activities are

the early 1970s. Sulfur, heavy metals, andclassified into processes. The processes

nitrogen oxide contained in soot and smoke

are analysed to find where value is added,

discharged from the city’s petrochemical

determine which aspects of the activities

complex polluted the air, causing local residents

have strengths and weaknesses, examine theto develop asthma.

effectiveness of business strategies, and look
for means of improvement.

Zero emissions: A concept put forward by theUnited Nations University in 1994 that all

Waste (general waste; industrial waste): In

industrial inputs can be completely converted

Japan, the Waste Management and Public

into a final product and that waste products

Cleansing Law, enacted in 1970, defines waste

can be converted into value added inputs for

as “garbage, bulky trash, [and] …other unclean

another chain of production. Manufacturing isor unnecessary things that are solid or liquid.”

therefore viewed as a series of production cycles

The Law also designates 20 types of waste

and recycling systems. The aim is to transition

discharged as a result of business activities

from societies based on mass production, massthat may pollute the environment (cinders,consumption and mass disposal to sustainable,sludge, waste oil, waste acid, waste alkali, waste

recycling-based societies. Although it is difficult

plastics, rubber scraps, metal scraps, refuse

for a single company to eliminate waste, society

glass and ceramics, animal and plant residue,

as a whole can achieve zero waste emissions

waste paper, wood chips, waste textiles, slag,

through different industries utilizing waste

debris, excretions from livestock, corpses ofgenerated by other industries as raw materials

domestic animals, dust, unnecessary animal(UNU-IAS, 2013).

solids, and what is left by disposing of theindustrial waste listed above) as “industrial
waste” and other types of waste as “general

References
CBD (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity, Article 2. Available from http://www.cbd.int/convention/articles/default.
shtml?a=cbd-02
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About the UNEP Division of Technology,
Industry and Economics
Set up in 1975, three years after UNEP was created, the Division of Technology,
Industry and Economics (DTIE) provides solutions to policy-makers and helps
change the business environment by offering platforms for dialogue andco-operation, innovative policy options, pilot projects and creative market
mechanisms.
DTIE plays a leading role in three of the six UNEP strategic priorities: climatechange, chemicals and waste, resource efficiency.
DTIE is also actively contributing to the Green Economy Initiative launched
by UNEP in 2008. This aims to shift national and world economies on to a
new path, in which jobs and output growth are driven by increased investment
in green sectors, and by a switch of consumers’ preferences towards
environmentally friendly goods and services.
Moreover, DTIE is responsible for fulfilling UNEP’s mandate as animplementing agency for the Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fund andplays an executing role for a number of UNEP projects financed by the Global
Environment Facility.
The Office of the Director, located in Paris, coordinates activities through:> The International Environmental Technology Centre – IETC (Osaka),
which promotes the collection and dissemination of knowledge on
Environmentally Sound Technologies with a focus on waste management.
The broad objective is to enhance the understanding of converting waste intoa resource and thus reduce impacts on human health and the environment(land, water and air).
> Sustainable Consumption and Production (Paris), which promotes
sustainable consumption and production patterns as a contribution to humandevelopment through global markets.
> Chemicals (Geneva), which catalyses global actions to bring about the soundmanagement of chemicals and the improvement of chemical safety worldwide.
> Energy (Paris and Nairobi), which fosters energy and transport policies forsustainable development and encourages investment in renewable energy andenergy efficiency.
> OzonAction (Paris), which supports the phase-out of ozone depleting
substances in developing countries and countries with economies in transition toensure implementation of the Montreal Protocol.
> Economics and Trade (Geneva), which helps countries to integrate
environmental considerations into economic and trade policies, and works withthe finance sector to incorporate sustainable development policies. This branch
is also charged with producing green economy reports.
DTIE works with many partners (other UN agencies and programmes,
international organizations, governments, non-governmental organizations,business, industry, the media and the public) to raise awareness, improve thetransfer of knowledge and information, foster technological cooperation andimplement international conventions and agreements.

For more information,www.unep.org/dtie

The Japanese industrial waste
experience: Lessons for rapidly
industrializing countries,
developed with the financial
support of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of Japan, analyses theJapanese case and highlights thepotential relevance of Japan’s
experience in industrial waste
management for sustainable
development in rapidly
industrializing countries.
The Japanese industrial waste
experience gives an overview of
the industrial waste situation in
Japan in the late 20th century.
Concrete examples of how theindustrial waste challenge has
been tackled in Japan are provided
by the national government, local
government entities, and theprivate sector. They give an insight
into the historical developments
and processes that led to thechange in dealing with industrial
waste in a more sustainable way.
Some of the approaches applied inJapan have already been echoed ininternational initiatives.

For more information, contact:
UNEP DTIE
International Environmental
Technology Centre
2-110 Ryokuchi Koen,
Tsurumi-ku, Osaka
538-0036, Japan
Tel : +81 6 6915 4581
Fax : +81 6 6915 0304
E-mail: ietc@unep.org
Web: www.unep.org/ietc

The sharing of experiences andlessons learned from the Japanesecase is intended to expand
the menu of policy options forconsideration by decision-makers
in rapidly industrializing countries.
Assisting these countries in finding
solutions to the environmental
challenges associated with rapid
economic growth is critical on thepath to sustainable development.

ISBN: 978-92-807-3359-4
DTI/1759/JA