A Historical Look at Technology
and Society in Japan (1500-1900)
An essay based on a talk given by Dr. Eiichi Maruyama at thePART 1

Japan-Sweden Science Club (JSSC) annual meeting, Tokyo, 31

Gunpowder and Biotechnology

October 1997.

- Ukiyo-e and Microlithography

Dr. Maruyama studied science history, scientific philosophy, and phys-

In many parts of the world, and Japan was no exception, the 16th

ics at the University of Tokyo. After graduating in 1959, he joined

Century was a time of conflict and violence. In Japan, a number ofHitachi Ltd., and became director of the company’s advanced re-

feudal lords were embroiled in fierce battles for survival. The battles

search laboratory in 1985. He was director of the Angstrom Tech-produced three victors who attempted, one after another, to unify

nology Partnership, and is currently a professor at the National

Japan. The last of these was Ieyasu Tokugawa, who founded a “per-Graduate Institute for Policy Studies.

manent” government which lasted for two and a half centuries
before it was overthrown and replaced by the Meiji Government inIntroduction

1868.

Japanese industry today produces many technically advanced products of high quality. There may be a tendency to think that Japan

One particularly well documented battle was the Battle of Nagashino

has only recently set foot on the technological stage, but there are

in 1575. This was a showdown between the organized gunmen ofnumerous records of highly innovative ideas as far back as the 16th

the Oda-Tokugawa Allies (two of the three unifiers) and the in-century that have helped to lay the foundations for the technologi-

trepid cavalry of Takeda, who was the most formidable barrier tocal prowess of modern day Japan. The aim of this essay is to shedunification under Nobunaga. Three groups of untrained infantry

light on some historical aspects of the technological development

men with 3,000 match-lock guns completely defeated the troopsof Japan that might otherwise be overlooked, and in certain casesof veteran horsemen by cyclical firing of their weapons. Historians

are not even well documented.

regard this tactic as being Nobunaga’s invention, occurring as it did
about 30 years prior to its introduction on a European battle ground.

Table 1 is a list of important historical periods in Japan from AD

The events leading to the victory date back to 1543 when a Portu-

250 to the present day that will serve as a useful reference to thisguese ship was wrecked off a small island off the south-west ofseries of essays.

Kyushu called Tanegashima. The ship bore a pair of match-lock guns.
The Lord of Tanegashima, a 15-year old youth named Tokitaka

The first part of the essay discusses some early examples of Japa-

Tanegashima, cleverly recognized the benefit of possessing firearms

nese biotechnology and microlithography; the second part relates

and purchased the guns at a price of 2,000 ryo (equivalent toto the organisation and management of people and the develop-$1,000,000 at today’s prices). He then ordered his retainers to copy

ment of a highly sophisticated socio-technological infrastructure;

the design and manufacture duplicates. Historical archives show

the third and final part concerns changes in education and scien-that when the Portuguese returned to Tanegashima two years later,tific thought following the Meiji Restoration in 1868.

they were very surprised to find guns being manufactured there.

Periods

Dates

Nara

As a result of mass production at Kunitomo in Oumi (now Shiga),
Negoro in Kishu (now Wakayama) and Sakai (presently Osaka), even710- 794

before the start of the Battle of Nagashino in 1575 there wereHeian794-1185

more than 100,000 guns in Japan. The gun-making technology

Kamakura1192-1333

was greatly facilitated by the presence of traditional iron-making

Muromachi

1338-1573

and forging industries, known as tatara, which had been nurtured

Aduchi-Momoyama

1573-1600

Edo

1603-1867

Meiji

1868-1912

Taisho1912-1926

Showa

1926-1989

Heisei1989-

Table I

Japanese Periodsby the swordsmiths and provided a plentiful supply of high qualityiron for the gunsmith.
Gunpowder
Another factor that contributed to the growth of the gun industry
in Japan was the supply of gunpowder. Black gunpowder is madefrom charcoal, sulphur and potassium nitrate, known also as nitre.
While charcoal and sulphur were abundantly available, nitre, whichis readily soluble in water, did not exist naturally in Japan and had,

22

JSAPI

JSAP International No.1 (January 2000)

Page 2201.3.19, 10:06 AM

Adobe PageMaker 6.5J/PPC

consequently, always been imported from China. However, by us-

PART 2

ing an early form of biotechnology Japan managed to secure a

Socio-Technological Infrastructure

stable supply of nitre from its own resources. The process used formaking the nitre was as follows. A rain-proof hut was built with aDuring the Edo Period the practice of “sankin kotai” (1) contrib-

one metre square fireplace in the centre around which several one

uted to the establishment of a very efficient socio-technologicalmetre deep holes were dug. Stacked layers of mugwort leaves, silk-

infrastructure in Japan. This was because if approximately 260

worms’ excreta and chicken droppings were thrown alternately into

daimyos spread over Japan travel back and forth between Edo andthe holes. The holes were then covered with earth and warmed bytheir respective domains once every other year, it is necessary to

the heat from the fireplace.

establish an extensive traffic management system, including chains

Subsequently, human urine (a good source of nitrogen!) was addedof relay stations to provide lodgings, horses, labourers, food andand the material in the holes was left for four to five years. Duringother provisions, distributed along major paths. For instance, about

this time the various materials underwent a series of chemical reac-

130 daimyos having domains in the western part of Japan had totions: the nitrogen compounds (urea and uric acid) in the excreta

pass through a sekisho (checkpoint) at Hakone. Since most of thedecomposed into ammonia, this was then converted by bacteria

jounrneys involved during sankin kotai were scheduled in Spring,

into nitric acid which reacted in turn with potassium in the mugwort

the relay station at Hakone had to accept daimyo processions ev-

leaves to form the potassium nitrate or nitre. Subsequently, theeryday. This required a systemmatic operation based on a precise

contents of the holes were dug out and put into a barrel with atimetable, flexible adjustment to cope with unexpected accidents

perforated bottom. Water was then poured in from the top to leachsuch as storms and flooding, and effective information gatheringor dissolve out the nitre. The resulting solution was then refinedon the part of the relay stations. The money spent by the Daimyo

and dried to make a pure product.

during this biennial journey was mostly used for maintenance ofthe traffic infrastructure. There is a byobu (folding screen) portray-

Ukiyo-e and Imaging Technology

ing a view of daimyo gyoretsu (procession) of the Kaga-han involving more than 2,000 people. They shuttled between Kanazawa,

The introduction of Ukiyo-e to Paris in 1850 created enormous en-

home city of the Maeda, and Edo, walking 600 kilometers in athusiasm for this form of Japanese art. Its fresh and simple use offortnight every other year. The Maeda spent about 200 million Yen

colour together with its bold and clear designs was highly appreci-

per single journey at current prices. The establishment of a traffic

ated. Indeed, many impressionist and post-impressionist artists suchinfrastructure stimulated tourism among the general public. Theyas Monet, van Gogh and Degas were so deeply affected by Ukiyo-

enjoyed travelling in groups to Ise Shrine. According to statistics,

e art that they used its concepts in their own works. Ukiyo-e is anearly 3 million people, about 10 % of the total population of themulti-coloured wooden block print which can be thought of as anation at the time, visited Ise each year. The Japanese fondness forhigh-precision colour printing technology. A painter creates an origi-

teamed tourism seems to have been inherited from this period.

nal picture design and a team of wood cutters engrave that picture
into a number of wooden blocks, one for each of the different

The long distance travel of a daimyo on sankin kotai required fre-colours.Finally, a print is made using the seven or eight wooden

quent communication between his home and Edo by hikyaku or

blocks in accurate registration. Extreme care is required to prevent

courier system. At that time, a courier ran from Edo to Kyoto in

misalignment. A deluxe version of this technique called Nishiki-e

about 10 days, while an express courier on relayed horses covered

also exists in which each print is made with 50 or 60 blocks, using

the distance in 2 days. This speed is comparable to that of thea powder of gold and silver foil as well as the ordinary dyes oncurrent mailing system.

embossed paper. These prints are treasured by connoisseurs worldwide.

Centralized Economy

Techniques analogous to those of Ukiyo-e are used in the

The feudalism of Japan in the Edo Period was somewhat different

microlithography industry in Japan today. For example, the fabri-from that in Medieval Europe. Feudal lords or daimyos were given

cation of microelectronic circuits such as the 256-megabit DRAM,

autonomous political authority for their domains, but the economy

where l0 to 15 separate exposures are required, employs multiple

was fully centralized.

masks that have to be aligned with submicron accuracy.
Edo, with one-million inhabitants, was one of the largest cities in
the world. Samurai and their employees accounted for about halfof the Edo population. They were all consumers. Most commodi-

JSAP International No.1 (January 2000)

JSAPI

Page 2301.3.19, 10:06 AM

Adobe PageMaker 6.5J/PPC

23

ties were transported to Edo from other parts of Japan, mainly via

ture, and education. All these conditions have some resemblancesea. A number of kaiser, or coastal trading companies, with fleetsto the phase of rapid economic growth of Japan in 1970-80s. Hence,of merchant vessels, flourished with bases at Osaka, such as Higaki

this phase is often called “ShowaGenroku”.

Kaisen and Taru Kaisen. For example, sake (rice wine) produced at
Nada near Osaka and sent down to Edo was more highly evaluatedEngelbert Kampfer, a German surgeon-naturalist, was sent to Ja-

than that locally brewed. From this, a Japanese adjective “kudaranai”

pan by the Dutch East India Company and stayed in Nagasaki be-

evolved for lower quality, literally meaning “not sent down”.

tween 1690-91. He introduced history, politics, religion and thegeography of Japan to Europe in his book “Historia Japonica”.

The centralized economy was based not on barter but on exchange

Kampfer wrote about the Japanese as following: “All the people ofof bill notes. This required merchants to be able not only to keep

Japan live in full harmony and cooperation, respect their own gods,

accounts by using a fore runner of the digital calculator, soroban

observe laws, follow the superior’s instructions, and exert polite-(abacus), but also to read and write. In this way, merchants’ chil-ness and friendliness to their colleagues. They are superior to any

dren were forcibly educated.

nation of the world in respect to habits, morals, arts and behaviors.
They have thriving domestic trade, fertile farmland, good healthAt that time there were a large number of ronin, or unemployed

and brave spirits. Daily commodities are available in surplus, andsamurai, who were well educated but not paid well. They opened

the political peace has been held for a long span of time. Thus, thejuku or private schools in every corner of the nation’s towns andJapanese are the happiest nation which is rarely encountered in thevillages. Popularised education improved the literacy of the Japa-

world.”

nese to the highest level in the world, as high as 50 % (80 % formale and 20 % for female).

Every peak is accompanied with a trough. The Genroku prosperity
was followed by a serious depression. Here stepped in the eighth

Another merit of sankin kotai was to distribute the metropolitan

Shogun, Yoshimune Tokugawa. Kiyonobu Itakura, a historian, de-culture of Edo to remote towns and villages. Samurai returning

scribed the situation as following in his book “Nihonshi Saihakken

home from Edo brought a variety of souvenirs, including Ukiyo-e(Rediscovered History of Japan)”: Yoshimune issued in 1720 “Pro-

prints, which served as sight-seeing guides of Edo, and fashion books

hibition of Production of New Articles” stating that since every-

to show portraits of Kabuki players, new hair styles and kimono

thing is now in adequate supply, any new designs should not be

patterns. The active cultural exchanges between the centre andproduced. Production of new cakes, new kimonos, or anything new

remote areas are illustrated by the presence of old dolls manufac-

was bannned. This situation is closely analogous to the present day

tured in Kyoto in a remote village of Tohoku District.

Japan where the domestic market is saturated by the collapse of
the so-called “bubble” economy. From this time on there was tech-

The taxation in this period is said to be go-kou go-min, meaning 50

nological stagnation throughout the Edo Period. The Prohibition% of the harvest for the government and 50 % for peasants’ con-

Law is heavily criticized by historians including Mr.Itakura, for re-sumption. In view of the population ratio among four classes attarding technological progress in Japan. However, Yoshimune triedthat time: peasants 84 % and the other three (samurai, artisans

to strengthen the economic power of the Tokugawa Government

and merchants combined) 16 %, the government was taking muchby encouraging local industries and promoting expansion of new

more rice than they consumed. Samurais discharged excess rice toarable land.

the rice market at Osaka to obtain cash to buy extravagant goods.
The tax rate was variable depending upon the financial conditions

The general populace of Edo responded to Yoshimune’s Prohibitionof each of the hens (feudal clans) or the state of harvest. In the year

Law with extensive recycling of resources: used paper was collectedof a poor harvest, the tax rate was reduced, but unchanged or

to be used as raw materials for new paper, ash from ovens wasraised in others so as to secure fixed income for the samurai, whilegathered for use as fertiliser, and people were enthusiastically ab-letting peasants suffer from starvation.

sorbed in low cost hobbies and entertain

Prosperity in Genroku and Yoshimune’s Reform

ments such as haiku (making short poems), cultivation of asagao(morning glory), joruri (a sort of ballad sung to the accompanimentPeace and prosperity enjoyed a peak in the middle of the Edo Pe-

of shamisen, a 3-string instrument), bonsai (growing miniature trees

riod, or Genroku Period (1688-1706). This period is characterised

as old as hundreds of years in a small pot), ikebana (the art ofby the climactic development of consumer technologies, consoli-

flower arrangement), chano-yu (tea ceremony), hana-mi (going todation of traffic and transportation networks, urban infra-struc-admire cherry blossom), momiji-gari (going to admire autumn col-

24

JSAPI

JSAP International No.1 (January 2000)

Page 2401.3.19, 10:06 AM

Adobe PageMaker 6.5J/PPC

ors) and o-matsuri (a parading and dancing festival).

PART 3
Meiji Restoration

Another undertaking Yoshimune emphatically promoted was education. He allowed learning of Dutch things except for Christianity.

Meiji Ishin or Restoration was a coup d ‘etat initiated and brought

He allowed town people to attend lectures at Shoheiko, a govern-

to completion by a group of young samurai of Choshu (present

ment operated school for young samurai. Furthermore, Yoshimune

Yamaguchi Prefecture) and Satsuma (present Kagoshima Prefec-

encouraged daimyo to establish their own government and privateture). Choshu is located at the extreme west of Honshu Island, andschools. This contributed to raising the literacy of the Japanese toSatsuma at the extreme south of Kyushu Island. Both were least

the highest level in the world at that time.

affected by, and the least attached to, the cultures of Edo and Kyoto.

In the area of science and technology, a mathematician, Takakazu

Education in Early Meiji

Seki invented the calculation of determinants, and a surgeon, Seishu
Hanaoka prepared an anaesthetising agent called “Tsusen-San”,

A number of Japanese scientists achieved world-wide fame in thewith which he anaesthetised a female patient and successfully re-

Meiji Period. For instance, Shibazaburo Kitazato developed the se-

moved breast cancer, 37 years prior to general anaesthetision withrum therapy for tetanus under Dr. Robert Koch of Germany; Jokichi

ether by the American surgeon, Crawford W. Long. Tadataka Ino,

Takamine discovered adrenaline (or epinephrine), a hormone which

who was a merchant until the age of 50 years, started to learncauses emergency reactions in the body and is produced in theastronomy and the art of surveying and made a highly accurate

adrenal gland; Kikunae Ikeda discovered the seasoning effect ofmap of the entirity of Japan in 17 years, walking through all the

kelp extract, identified its main ingredient (sodium glutamate) andareas of Japan. Errors in Tadataka’s map are said to be within 1/

commercialized it as ajinomoto; Hantaro Nagaoka proposed an

1000.

atomic model based on the Saturn ring system; Kumagusu Minakata
pioneered the study of slime molds and plants in ever-green, broad-Towards the end of the Edo Period, a number of private schools

leaved tree forests; Kiyoshi Shiga identified the pathogen of dysen-

were active in teaching young people. Among them were:

tery, Bacillusdysenteriae, which was later renamed as Shigella

Kaitokudo; Tekijuku, founded by Koan Ogata in Osaka for teachingdysenteriae after him; Umetaro Suzuki discovered that vitamin B1

science and medicine in the Dutch language, and Shoka-sonjuku in(or thiamine) prevented beriberi, and Hideyo Noguchi succeeded in

Yamaguchi presided over by Shoin Yoshida. Many of the young

culturing the pathogen of syphilis, Treponema (formerly called-Spi-samurai, who greatly contributed to the Meiji Restoration, wererochaeta) and was nominated for a Nobel Prize in physiology or

trained and educated at these schools: Yukichi Fukuzawa andmedicine several times.

Masujiro Omura at Tekijuku; and Takayoshi Kido, Shinsaku Takasugi
and Hirobumi Ito at Shoka sonjuku.

Alas ! Subsequently, no renowned scholars emerged from Japan
until Hideki Yukawa was awarded with the Nobel Prize in physics in

By the 19th century, the old socio-economic structures were begin-

1949. It may be said, that under the Seclusion in the Edo Period,

ning to collapse. Peasant uprisings had become common place,the intellectual potential of the Japanese had been fully realised,

the samurai and even the daimyo were badly indebted to the mer-and, after the Restoration, a lot of ambitious young men went

chant class, and the Tokugawa Government’s repeated attempts toabroad to boost their scientific capability. I think that the education

improve the economic situation failed. The leadership of Shogun

system established in the Meiji Period is responsible for reducing

was questioned, and further deteriorated by the arrival of Perry’s

the vigor of Japanese scientists in the early part of the 20th century.

ships, forcing Japan to accept unequal commercial treaties with
the United States and several European countries. In l867, the

The Government established a schooling system in 1872, by com-

Shogun was forced to resign and the imperial government wasbining elementary schools operated by feudal lords with privately

restored under the young Meiji Emperor.

owned terakoya, to provide equal opportunity for education to children of all classes under a centrally controlled system. In 1879 theLaw of Education was enacted to reform the primary school system, transferring educational control to local communities. The Government, suffering from a financial crisis, was attempting to reduce its financial burden.
In 1886 the Education Ordinance was issued to centralize educa-

JSAP International No.1 (January 2000)

JSAPI

Page 2501.3.19, 10:06 AM

Adobe PageMaker 6.5J/PPC

25