J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2017; 15: 48–53

Journal ofInternational Cooperation for
Agricultural Development

Field Report

Development of Core Agricultural
Researcher for Promotion of Rice
Production in Sudan
Osama M. A. Elhassan
Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC), Sudan
Received: February 16, 2017

Accepted: March 15, 2017

Abstract. Sudan is the third largest country in Africa that depends mainly on agricultural activities. Among major crops,
rice is recently contributing as the fourth source of food after sorghum, millet and wheat. Rice production is very importantto fill the gap of food consumption in the country, wherein a total estimated potential area of production is more than 300,000
hectares. In addition, rice produced from the country is being exported. In the White Nile State, rice production plays the
major economic activity and a source of employment for the rural population. The national average yield of rice has increased
to 5 t/ha during the last ten years as a result of introducing newly released technologies. The research plan for rice in Sudan(2015–2019) consisted of: rice enhancement and evaluation, crop husbandry development, dissemination and out scaling of
released varieties, cultural practices and establishment of innovation platform.
Key words: Rice, research, technology, promotion and production

I. Outline of agriculture in generalin Sudan
1. Statistics of major crops and rice
Sudan with an area of 1.8 million square kilometers is
third largest country in Africa. The country has great-untapped potentialities for agricultural development. About
one third of the total area is suitable for crop or pastoral
production, but only small fraction of this land is underintensive use. Despite this fact, the country is heavily dependent on agriculture. The agriculture sector dominates
the economy. It provides the livelihood for over 80% of
the population and also provides a big share of inputs forthe country agro-industries. Main agriculture products aresorghum, sesame, cotton, Gum Arabic, livestock and otherproducts.
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench) is an importantfood and feed crop. Semi-arid tropical Asia and semi-arid
tropical Sub-Saharan Africa grow about 60% of the world
area1), while Sudan grows about 24% of Africa area and48 J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2017

produces 17% of its production. Sorghum is grown annually throughout the country on an area of about 5.25
million hectares, representing 45% of total cultivated land.
About 90% of the area is rainfed, while only 10% is underirrigation, floods and basins. The main growing areas are
the central rain lands, particularly Gedarif, Sinnar and Blue
Nile States, and it is also grown in Southern Kordofan andSouthern Darfur states. The national average yield is 595
kg/ha. The total production is estimated as 3.5 million
tones2).
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L) is an important oil seed
crop, grown extensively in the tropical to subtropical semiarid zones in the world. Sesame is grown mainly for its
seeds which contain about 50% edible oil and 20% protein.
Sudan is one of the main sesame producing countries. It
is almost exclusively produced under rain-fed conditions,by both the mechanized sector and the traditional farming
system in a belt characterized by summer rainfall of 300–
800 mm in about four months during June to September.
The cultivated area is about 1.1 million hectares; with av-

erage yield of 357 kg/ha. The total production is estimatedas 405,000 tones3).
Cotton is one of the most important cash crops producedin Sudan. Cotton is grown in Sudan under various topographical and environmental conditions, utilizing various
methods of irrigation, and using different applicationsof chemical inputs. It is cultivated in clay soil in Gezira
scheme, in silt soil in Tokar of Eastern Sudan and in heavy
clay soil in Nuba mountain, Blue Nile and Gedarif areas.
Categorized by system of irrigation it is grown by gravity
and pumps in Gezira, Rahad, New Halfa, White Nile, Blue
Nile and Suki Scheme, by Flood in Tokar Delta and by rain
in Nuba Mountain, Blue Nile and Gedarif areas.
Cotton farming is a livelihood issue and a way of life formore than 300,000 Sudanese farmers. The intensive labordemand in cotton farming and cotton- based industries
provides employment, reduces poverty, improved lives
and encourages settlement in rural areas. Commercially
cotton had been grown in the Eastern Sudan (Tokar Delta)
since 1867 where traditional organic farming is still inpractice. Sudan produces five types of cotton; namely
the Extra-fine, Fine, High-Account, Medium and Coursecount cotton. The Sudan as one of the cotton producing
countries produces both irrigated and rain fed cotton overlarge areas fluctuating between 0.5 million hectares in
1970th dropping to 192,780 hectares in 2010th. The production fluctuated widely between 713,000 tons in 1970th
to below 100,000 tons in 2000th. The national average
yield is about 1,428 kg/ha.
Rice is one of the most important food crops in theworld and the second largest cereal crop. It is the staple
food of nearly one-half of the world’s population. Sub
Saharan African countries produce about 21.6 million tonsof rice and they introduce 32% of the global rice market
to fill the gap between their production and their demand4).
This was a result of population growth and the increasingof consumer preference in favor of rice in urban area5, 6).
Rice is one of cereal crops which is recently contributes
as four food source in Sudan after sorghum, millet andwheat. Rice production is very important to fill the gap ofconsumption and then to export for Arabic gulf countries
to catch hard currency. Sudan has a total estimated potential rice area of more than 300.000 hectares. If this area
properly utilized, it would suffice the local consumption
demand to fill the gap for non-course food grain. In theGezira, the crop was introduced by the technical assistanceof China in 1973 through 1980. During this period 12.000
hectares were cultivated under irrigation system attaining
3.5 to 7.6 t ha–1. Rice production constitutes the major
economic activity and a key source of employment for
the rural population at White Nile State in the Sudan; thecrop is cultivated as irrigated and flood ecosystem in thisState. Low yields of (0.98−1.2) t ha–1 were produced dueto the using traditional varieties with low inputs that are
not adequate to enhance productivity. The average yield ofrice in the Sudan has been increased to 2−5 t ha–1 during
the last ten years as a result of introducing and releasing
new varieties but it is still far less than other leading
rice-growing countries. The total cultivated area of rice in
Sudan during the last ten years is about 8000 ha. The total
production is about 25,000 ton. The annual consumption
increases during the last ten years from 40−60 thousands
metric ton, although Sudan import about 40,000 metricton, Annually7).
Aerobic rice is a production system where rice is grownin well-drained, non-puddle and non-saturated soils. Water
requirements can be lowered by reducing water losses due
to seepage, percolation and evaporation. Aerobic rice is
specifically developed rice, combining drought toleranceof upland rice and yield potential of lowland rice. Therefore, aerobic rice is “improved upland rice” in terms ofyield potential, and “improved lowland rice” in terms ofdrought tolerance. Aerobic rice varieties have the ability
to maintain rapid growth in soils with moisture content
at or below field capacity, and can produce yields of 4−6
t/ha with a moderate application of fertilizers under such
soil water conditions. Aerobic rice can save as much as
50% of irrigation water in comparison to lowland rice. An
aerobic rice varieties (Kosti 1, Kosti 2, wakra and Umgar),
new released varieties were recommended for commercial
production for aerobic rice areas in the Sudan8). In 2010,
the Government of the Sudan and government of Japansigned the agreement for Capacity Building Project for
the Implementation of the Executive Program for the
Agricultural Revival by Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) with Federal Ministry of Agriculture. The
project duration was 6 years. Through the experimental
activities of the project, a model system of human resource
development and organizational capacity development of
the ministry of Agriculture has been developed. Planning,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation for promotionof rice production enhanced (Fig. 1).
2. Cropping system
Cropping systems vary among farms depending on
the available resources and constraints; geography andclimate of the farm; government policy; economic, socialand political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of
the farmer. A cropping system refers to growing a combination of crops in space and time.
An ideal cropping system should:- Use natural resources efficiently- Provide stable and high returns
J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2017 49

is called monocropping. In contrast to monocropping,in crop rotation practice crops are grown in a planned
sequence from season to season within a year or from year
to year.
This planned crop rotation sequence could be:- Three-year period i.e. three-year crop rotation, e.g.
Year 1: sorghum; Year 2: groundnut; Year 3: cotton;
Year 4: will be sorghum again.
- Four course rotation (cereal crop, legume, cotton,
fallow)- Five course rotation (cotton, wheat, fallow, groundnut, sorghum)
Fig. 1. Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) action incollaboration with JICA project in the area of rice
research.

- Do not damage the environment.
Benefit of cropping systems:- Maintain and enhance soil fertility.
- Enhance crop growth.
- Minimize spread of disease.
- Control weeds.
- Inhibit pest and insect growth.
- Increase soil cover.
- Use resources more efficiently.
- Reduce risk for crop failure.
- Improved food and financial security.
The cropping systems followed in dry lands differ fromthose followed under normal conditions, only those crops
can be grown under dry land conditions which requireless water to complete their life cycle or which can standor yield under drought conditions. This can include bothdrought resistant and drought tolerant plants. In addition,
plant can be to sustain the growth of plants.
Commonly practiced cropping systems are:
- Monocropping (practiced in large area in the rainfed
sector)- Crop rotation practices (practiced in the irrigatedschemes)- Intercropping systems (irrigated and rained areas)- Mixed cropping systems (small scale area underrainfed conditions)- Ratoon cropping (Sugar cane schemes)- Agro-forestry (savanna)
Growing the same crop year after year in the same field
50 J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2017

Intercropping or mixed cropping:
Adverse weather conditions like delay in the onset ofrains and/or failure of rains for few days to weeks sometime or other during the crop period is very common in therain-fed sorghum growing areas. Such situation results ineconomic losses to the farmers due to the partial or total
failure of sorghum crop. To overcome this situation, following sorghum based cropping systems like intercroppingor mixed cropping in rain-fed sorghum growing areas is
adopted. With particular reference to dry land agriculture,
an intercropping system needs to be designed in such a waythat in the case of unfavorable weather, at least one crop
will survive to give economic yields, thereby providing forthe necessary insurance against unpredictable weather. In
case the year happens to be normal with respect to rainfall,
the intercropping system, as a whole, should prove to be
more profitable than growing either of the crops alone.
Intercropping refers to growing more than one cropin the same land area in rows of definite proportion andpattern. Mixed cropping refers to simultaneously growing
more than one crop in the same land area as a mixture.
Unlike in intercropping system, in mixed cropping thecrops are grown without any definite proportion or pattern.
Mixed cropping of Sorghum-pigeon pea is most common.
Mixtures with pigeon pea, bambara, cowpea and evenwith pearl millet and other cereals, vegetables, etc. during
Autumn are practiced under different situations.
Agro forestry is an integrated approach of using theinteractive benefits from combining trees and shrubswith crops and/or livestock. It combines agricultural andforestry technologies to create more diverse, productive,
profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.
3. General constraints- Climate change and drought- Marketing (infrastructure)- Finance- Low yield of crop- Poor cultural practices and crop management- Mechanization- Pests (insects, diseases and weeds)- Research capacities: shortage in laboratory equipments, chemical and spare parts is a problem- Seed production system- Biotechnology- Technology transfer- Scarcity of funding for research

II. Outline of rice cultivation andmarketing
1. Planting method
Rice crop is cultivated as irrigated and flood ecosystem
in rice growing areas in the Sudan (upland and lowland).
Most of cultivated area is traditional under flooded conditions in the White Nile state. The method of cultivation
is direct sowing under rain fed conditions with an annual
average rain fall of 280 mm from July to end of August.
The areas cultivated by rice are then subjected to floods
from the White Nile River till the time of harvest in lateNovember or early December. Harvesting the crop ispracticed in the water and then transferred by small boats
to outside the field. Other methods of planting were:- Directly by the hand (broadcasting + ridging)- Directly by hand (on flat in holes- 25 × 25 cm, 5–10
seeds per hole)- Planter (seed drill) in rows, 20 cm apart.
2. Management till harvesting
Under submerged conditions in the White Nile state,
the area was cultivated by rice directly in the rainy season(July–August) and then subjected to floods from the White
Nile River till the time of harvest in late November or early
December. Harvesting the crop is practiced in the waterand then transferred by small boats to outside the field.
Under aerobic (upland) conditions in the Gezira stateand other rice growing areas, the land is well prepared bydisk harrow and leveling. The planting time was first to
mid-July. The crop was sown in rows (seed drill), 20–30
cm apart, using a seed rate of 70 kg/ha. The fertilizers wereapplied at the rate of 86 and 43 kg/ha–1 in of the form of
urea and triple super phosphate, respectively. The triple
super phosphate was applied as a basal dose during final
land preparation and the urea was top dressed in two equal
split doses one at 21 days after sowing and the other before
panicle initiation. Hand weeding was performed threefour times per season. The irrigation was scheduled every
5 to 7 day intervals according to weather conditions andcrop stage until plants reached maturity. After maturity, thecrop was harvested manually, then dried and threshed.

3. Critical problems faced in cultivation
Aerobic rice describes a management adaptation to
reduced irrigation water supplies but, due to reduced
intervals of flooding in this system, this requires revised
weed management approaches to reduce costs and provide
effective weed control. Low plant density and high gaps
encourage the growth of weeds, and in many cultivars,
result in less uniform ripening and poor grain quality. On
the other hand, very high plant stand should be avoided
because it tends to have less productive tillers, increases
lodging, prevents the full benefit of nitrogen application,and increases the chances of pest damage. Also, methodsof planting, planting date, row spacing, and seeding rates
of aerobic rice have important factors affecting plant competition for light, water, nutrients, and space.
4. Marketing of rice
Up to now there is no problem for rice marketing due
to existence of rice production deficit, but by the increaseof rice production it became very important to develop
marketing methods, that have a link with post harvestingif we targeting the global markets. It is necessary to encourage cooperation establishment for financing production and marketing that could solve basic problems. Today,
there is no problem facing marketing as the local market
can accept different types and packs from the local andimported production.
5. Constraints faced to improve rice productivity- Drought stress (empty seeds)- Low yield and less quality of local traditional varieties(especially under flooded rice system in the White Nile
State)- Poor crop establishment and management- High cost of inputs (fertilizer, herbicides)- Weed competition and lack use of herbicides- Pest (birds, termites)- Research capacities: shortage in laboratory equipments- Biotechnology- Scarcity of funding for research- Poor seed production system- Technology transfer and extension services- Rice post harvest machines

III. Research for rice development
1. Theme of major researches on rice conducted by ARC- Released of four aerobic rice varieties namely: Kosti
1, Kosti 2, Umgar and Wakra to grown in rice growing
area in the Sudan.
- Variety improvement activities in the White Nile Gezira, Shambat, and Rahad locations includes: Nursery
J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2017 51

and field trials for genetic identification, enhancement
and evaluation of promising germplasm.
- On station experiments conducted in the Gezira, White
Nile and Rahad, Geiniena locations to determine theoptimum sowing methods, sowing date, seed rate,
plant spacing, herbicides dose, water irrigation andinterval and fertilizers doses.
- Demonstration farms of rice technologies conductedin the Gezira, White Nile, Gedarif and other sites
under irrigation conditions.
- Transfer of technologies of some rice packages to thefarmers in different states.
- Collaboration research program with JICA and otherorganizations conducted in the Gezira, White Nile andGedarif States.
- Maintenance and Seed production (foundation andcertificate seeds) of released and promising varieties
2. Research plan on rice of ARC
The research plan on rice (from 2014–2018) consistedof the following projects/activities:
a. Genetic enhancement and evaluation of promising
germplasm- Performance of some upland rice genotypes in
multi-location trials under irrigated conditions of
Sudan- Breeding for high yield and quality in upland rice
- Evaluation and screening of introduced rice genotypes for yield and adaptation under submergenceconditions at White Nile flooded areas- Advanced Irrigated rice yield trial- National yield and quality upland rice trial- Response of Rice germplasm selected under Saline
Conditions- Physical and chemical mutagenesis for drought andsalinity tolerance in aerobic rice
- Nursery observation of upland, lowland and irrigatedrice genotypes introduced from WARDA and IRRI
b. Development and recommendation of improved crop
husbandry practices for different eco-logical zones- Effect of different tillage systems on the growth andyield of upland rice
- Effect of different sowing methods on yield andwater consumption of upland rice
- Modification and evaluation of mechanical planting
of upland rice
- Effect of seed rate and/or spacing on growth andyield of lowland Rice
- Effect of seed rate and/or spacing on growth andyield of upland Rice
- Response of aerobic rice varieties to planting dateunder irrigated conditions
52 J Intl Cooper Agric Dev 2017

- Response of upland rice to different rates of phosphate and nitrogen fertilizers- Response of low land Rice to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization under irrigated soil condition.
- Zn-Phosphorus Interaction Effect on upland ricegrain yield and Quality under the irrigated conditions.
- Testing of different types and amount of fertilizer of
upland rice
- Determination of crop water requirement of uplandrice- Determination of suitable Irrigation scheduling of
upland rice
- The effect of extra and deficit irrigation on yield of
upland rice
- Chemical weeds and weed control of rice
3. Research needs to be conducted- Biotechnology as the breeding method in rice
- Rhizobium as a crop enhancer and biofertilizer forincreasing upland rice productivity- Post-harvest technologies and processing and valueaddition- Rice insect fauna survey and control- Monitoring of diseases- Socioeconomic studies on rice production in the Sudan- Dissemination and out scaling of released varieties,
cultural practices and establishment of innovation
platform
4. Financial and/or technical support of donors to ARC
for conducting research- Local finance- JICA support, (training, equipments, inputs), throughthe Capacity Building Project for the Implementationof the Executive Program for the Agricultural Revivalin the Sudan
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