日本禁煙学会雑誌

第 7 巻第 3 号《原2012 年（平成 24 年）6 月 29 日

著》

Perceived Attractiveness of Female Smokers:
A Comparison between Caucasian andAsian Students（Conducted at
the University of Victoria, B.C., Canada）
Ai Miyamoto1, 2, Hideaki Miyamoto1, 3, Deborah George2, Elizabeth Brimacombe2
1）NPO Womenʼ s Respiratory Disease Research Organization, Tokyo, Japan2）Department of Psychology, in the Faculty of Social Science, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
3）Southern Tohoku General Hospital, Fukushima, Japan

Objective
Smoking among females is a serious global issue. Studies have demonstrated a link between smoking andattractiveness. The present study investigated the differences between Caucasian and Asian university students in theirperceptions of the attractiveness of female smokers.
MethodIt involved 102 participants, 81 of them female; the participants were 51 Caucasian and 51 Asian students at a midsized Canadian university (the University of Victoria in British Columbia). Participants were shown a photogram of afemale either with or without a cigarette and asked to evaluate the attractiveness of the model. The Caucasianparticipants were shown the Caucasian model and the Asian participants the Asian model.
Result&Discussion
The results of the study reported a strong relationship between smoking and attractiveness as well as differences
based on ethnicity. Consistent with past research, non-smoking models were perceived as more attractive than smoking
models by both Caucasian and Asian participants. Moreover, Caucasian participants rated the model as significantly
more attractive overall than did the Asian participants, and rating differences between the smoking and non-smoking
models were larger for the Caucasian model than for the Asian model, indicating that cigarettes had a stronger impact
on the perceived attractiveness of the model for the Caucasian participants.
Conclusion
The results of this study can be applied to future smoking prevention programs among young adults.
Key words
tobacco, smoking, female smoker, attractiveness, ethnicity

Background1）

smoking and lung cancer since 1950. According2）
to Henschke , females are twice as likely as males
to suffer from lung cancer given the same level ofcigarette smoking. Moreover, women have greaterdifficulty quitting smoking and are physically andemotionally more dependent on cigarettes than are3）men. Smoking also has a negative influence on
the health of pregnant women and their unborn
4）children. Although consequences of smoking are
more serious for females than for males, WHO
indicates that about 200 million women are daily

The World Health Organization（WHO）reported
that smoking is recognized as a health hazard, andstudies have investigated the link between cigaretteContact address
Hideaki Miyamoto, MD: Chief Director of NPO,
Womenʼ s Respiratory Disease Research
Organization, Tokyo Clinic 2-2-1 Ootemachi
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0004, Japane-mail:
受付日 2011 年 4 月 4 日 採用日 2012 年 5 月 8 日

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tion that concern with appearance has a stronger
impact on young women than on middle aged andelderly people and is more important to women
11）
than men , it is assumed that young females may
be most highly motivated to quit smoking becauseof concern over their appearance, to maintain their
physical attractiveness.
The relationship between smoking and attractiveness has been investigated by several resear12 ～ 15）
12）
chers
. For example, Wiium examined thesubjective attractiveness of smoking and chewing
tobacco among young Norwegians through phoneinterviews. They found that both smoking andchewing tobacco were perceived as unattractive
and that the younger the participants the less13）
attractive they perceived smoking to be. Clark
also investigated the attractiveness of smokers andnon-smokers by using videotapes of models. They
found that, overall, non-smoking models wereperceived as more attractive than were the smoking
14）
models. Polivy showed that smokers were seen
as generally less attractive by using sets of
15）
photographs as stimuli. Jones examined theperceived social characteristics of female smokers
and non-smokers in Australia. According to theirstudy, female smokers were perceived as more
outgoing, more sophisticated, more independent,
and less emotional than non-smokers; however,they were not found to be more attractive.
Despite the fact that there are fewer female
smokers in Asia than in the West, WHO warns thatsmoking rates for females have been increasing
significantly since the entry of foreign multinational tobacco firms into Japan, the Republic of
6）
Korea, and Thailand. While several studies haveinvestigated the link between smoking andattractiveness in North America as mentioned
above, little in the published literature in Asia
addresses this subject.
The purpose of this study is to help fill the gap byinvestigating the link between attractiveness andsmoking f or Asians and comparing it to the12, 13 ～Caucasian linkage. Based on previous research15）, it is hypothesized that non-smoking models will

smokers today. Moreover, the smoking rate
among women in developing countries is either
stable or rising, while the smoking rate among men
appears to have peaked and has decreased
6）
substantially over the last few decades. Tobacco
industries are promoting young women as new
targets for cigarette consumption, especially inmany developing countries, where women are lesseducated about the health risks associated with
7）
cigarettes. Recognizing this trend, WHO selected“ Gender and tobacco with an emphasis onmarketing to women” as the theme of the World No
8）Tobacco Day, May 31, 2010. This event was
designed to highlight the epidemic of tobacco
among women and draw particular attention to the8）harmful effects of tobacco marketing to girls.
WHO suggests that women differ from men in
their smoking behaviours in various ways and that
it is important to use gender-specific strategies to5）
discourage smoking. The importance of thepresent study is its focus on the smoking issues
among females, especially young and adolescent
girls, in its contribution to the prevention ofsmoking among the target population.
Some anti-smoking campaigns are effective
9 ～ 11）9）while others are not.
Hansen found thatdeath-related warnings were ineffective and evenheightened positive attitudes in people with highsmoking-based self-esteem. In contrast, deathunrelated warnings such as “smoking makes you
9）
10）
unattractive” were more effective. Grogan
examined the effectiveness of the British antismoking campaign “Give up to save face” . Young
non-smokers were found to be concerned about theeffect of smoking on their appearance（such asaging and yellowing skin and discoloured teeth）,
while smokers said they would be concerned only10）
if they saw the changes happening on their skin.
11）
According to Hayes , anti-smoking advertisements which do not focus on health issues but
rather emphasize the beauty of non-smokers might
be effective because factors such as physicalattractiveness, appearance, and popularity are mostmeaningful to youth. Following from the assump-

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understand instructions or questions during thestudy. The researcher then showed a photogram ofa female to the participants. There was a total offour photograms: a Caucasian girl with a cigarette（Figure 1-1）, the same Caucasian girl without acigarette（ Figure 1- 2 ）, an Asian girl with acigarette（Figure1-3）, and the same Asian girlwithout a cigarette（Figure 1-4）. Caucasianparticipants were shown photograms of a
Caucasian girl, and Asian participants were shown
photograms of an Asian girl. Each participant was
shown only one photogram of a girl, either with orwithout a cigarette. After exposure to thephotogram, they were asked to answer questions
about the girl in the photogram in order toinvestigate their perceptions of her attractiveness.
Each girlʼ s physical attractiveness was measured
using the subscale “measurements of physicalattractiveness,” taken from the interpersonal
16）
attraction items developed by McCrosky.
Four of the 10 questions were deleted because of
their irrelevance（e.g., “She wears neat clothes” ,“The clothes she wears are becoming” , “She iswell groomed ” , “ She is repulsive to me ” ）,resulting in a total of 6 questions（see Figure 2）.
The internal reliability of the questions ranged
from .61 to .85. All of the questions were answeredby a 7-point Likert scale（e.g., “I think she is quite
pretty” was answered by a response range from “1＝ strongly disagree” to “7 ＝ strongly agree”）. Half
the questions were reverse-scored questions to
avoid response bias（e.g., “I donʼ t like the way she
looks” was answered by a response range from “1＝ strongly disagree” to “7 ＝ strongly agree”）.
After participants answered the test items, they
were asked to fill out a questionnaire with theirdemographic information, including age, homecountry, and smoking status（see Figure 3）. The
study took approximately 10 to 20 minutes. Aftercompletion, participants were thanked and briefed
about the true purpose of the study.
The data collected were statistically examined byusing a computer program called IBM SPSS
Statistics ver. 17, exact tests. No participant was

be perceived as more attractive than smoking
models by both Caucasian and Asian young adults.
In addition, there will be differences between
Caucasians and Asians in the perceived attractiveness of female smokers as compared to female
non-smokers.
MethodParticipants

On e h un d r e d a n d tw o s tu den ts f r om t heUniversity of Victoria participated in the study. The
university where the research was conducted had
many international students with different ethnic
backgrounds. The Caucasian students were taking
undergraduate psychology courses and participatedfor extra course credits. They were born and raisedin North America or Europe. The Asian students
were studying English as a second language at theuniversity and participated in the study as
volunteers, without any compensation. They wereborn and completed at least their elementary
education in Asian countries such as Japan, China,
South Korea, and Taiwan before their arrival in
Canada. In total, 21 males and 81 females
participated. The mean age of the subjects was
20.8, ranging from 18 to 30 years old.
Materials and Procedures

Participants were tested in groups of no larger
than 9. Researchers told them that this was a study
on the social perceptions of individuals. Participants were told that they would be viewing aphotogram of a female and answering questions
about her based on their first impression. Photograms were used as stimuli because past research
indicated that although videotapes might provide
stimuli similar to real settings, using them makes it
more difficult to exclude confounding variables
13 ）than using photograms.
Participants were
informed that they could withdraw from theexperiment at any time and asked to read and signa consent form. Participants who were not fluent
English speakers were encouraged to use a dictionary or ask the researcher when they did not

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rated non-smoking modelsʼ attractiveness significantly higher than that of smoking models（N ＝ 51,

excluded from the data before performing theanalysis of variance.

M ＝ 5.02 for non-smoking models; N ＝ 51, M ＝Results

4.45 for smoking models ）. In other words,
participants found non smokers more attractive
than smokers overall. There was also a significant
main effect of ethnicity on attractiveness at F（1,98） ＝ 60.19, p ＜ 0.001. Caucasian participants
rated the attrac tiveness of models significantly
higher than Asian participants did（N ＝ 51, M ＝5.42 for Caucasian participants; N ＝ 51, M ＝ 4.05
for Asian participants）. In other words, Caucasians
found the Caucasian model more attractive than
Asians did for the Asian model. In all, 7 % of thevariability was explained by the smoking status of

A 2×2（the modelʼ s smoking status × participantsʼ
ethnicity）analysis of variance was performed onparticipantsʼ attractiveness ratings. Levenʼ s test for
the assumption of homogeneity of variance wassignificant at p ＜ 0.02. Therefore, our assumption
was violated. However, this is possibly due to thelarger response variance for Asian than for Caucasian participants; therefore, data transformation
was not performed. There was a significant main
effect for the smoking status of the model on attractiveness: F（1, 98）＝ 7.84, p ＜ 0.01. Participants

Figure 1-1. The Caucasian smoking
girl model

Figure 1 - 2. The Caucasian non smoking girl model

Figure 1- 3.
model

Figure 1-4.
girl model

The Asian smoking girl

Perceived Attractiveness of Female Smokers

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The Asian non-smoking

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2012 年（平成 24 年）6 月 29 日

2model was stronger for Caucasian participants thanthe model（R ＝ 0.07）, and 38 % of the variability
2
for Asian participants. Moreover, there was a
was explained by ethnicity（R ＝ 0.38）（. see Table 1）
correlation between gender and model attractiAs Figure 4 shows two parallel linear lines,
veness（r pb ＝ 0.22）. Furthermore, 5 % of thethere was no significant attractiveness interaction
2
between the smoking status of the model andvariability was explained by gender, at R ＝ 0.05,
ethnicity, at F（1, 98）＝ 0.18, p ＞ 0.67. For bothindicating that male participants generally rated themodels lower than female participants did.
Caucasians and Asians, attractiveness for non
However, this must be interpreted carefully due tosmokers is higher than that for smokers by fairly
the small sample of male participants involved.
similar amount. However, the mean difference
between the smoking model and the non-smoking
model was slightly wider for Caucasian particiDiscussion
pants than for Asian participants（mean difference
The primary goal of this study was to investigate
of Female
Smokers
19 and Asians in the
differences＝ 0.56 for Caucasian participants; mean difference Attractivenessbetween
Caucasians
perceived attractiveness of female smokers. It was＝ 0.41 for Asian participants）, showing that the
hypothesized that non-smoking models would be
impact of cigarettes on the attractiveness of the
Figure 2.
1. I think she is quite pretty.
strongly disagree 1

2

3

4

5

6

7 strongly agree

3

4

5

6

7 strongly agree

3

4

5

6

7 strongly agree

3

4

5

6

7 strongly agree

4

5

6

7 strongly agree

4

5

6

7 strongly agree

2. I don’t like the way she looks.
strongly disagree 1

2

3. She is very sexy looking.
strongly disagree 1

2

4. She is somewhat ugly.
strongly disagree 1

2

5. She is very attractive physically.
strongly disagree 1

2

3

6. She is not very good looking.
strongly disagree 1

2

3

Now that you have finished the questions, why did you rate the woman the way you did, what
are the things that affected your rating of the woman in the photo?

Figure 2. Question sheet #1: By looking at the girl on the screen, please circle the number basedon how much you agree with each sentence.
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2012 年（平成 24 年）6 月 29 日

smoking models are found to be more attractive
perceived as more attractive than smoking models
than smoking models. One explanation for thisby both Caucasians and Asians. Moreover, differfinding could be the similarity effect that smokers
ences were anticipated between the Caucasian and
13）
Asian participants in their perceptions of the attraclike smokers and non-smokers like non-smokers.
tiveness of non-smoking and smoking models. In
More than eighty percent of the participants are
our study, both hypotheses are supported. Connon-smokers in this study; therefore, the preference
sistent with prior research, non-smoking models
for non-smokers may have occurred. Anotherare perceived as significantly more attractive thanpossible reason is because smoking may be seen as
smoking models, regardless of their ethnicity.
negative for women due to the distinctiveness of
13）
smoking behaviour for women in our society.
However, the results also show that Caucasianparticipants show significantly higher attracThus, participants may have rated smokers lesstiveness of the model and stronger impact of
attractive than non-smokers because of the
Attractiveness of Female Smokers 20
cigarettes on attractiveness than Asian participants
negative schema about female smokers.
do.
Caucasian participants show higher
attractiveness than Asian participants regardless ofFor both Caucasian and Asian participants, nonFigure 3.
1. How old are you?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What is your biological sex?
 Female  Male
3. Were you born in Canada?
 Yes No
If “No”, which country are you from? _________________________________
If “No”, or your permanent home is outside of Canada, how long have you been in Canada? (Forexample, if you came to Canada 2 years ago for post secondary education, then you have been
here for 2 years)_______________________________________________________________
4. Please identify yourself.
 never-smoker (you have never smoked in your life)
 former smoker (you have smoked before, but have not smoked for 4 years)
 current smoker (you smoke daily or occasionally).
If you are a current smoker, how many cigarettes do you usually smoke per week?
______________________________________________________________________
5. Do your parents smoke?
Mother:  Yes  No
Father:  Yes No
6. Are you currently in a relationship?  Yes  No

Figure 3. Question sheet # 2
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71Attractiveness of Female Smokers 22
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2012 年（平成 24 年）6 月 29 日

Table 1.

Table 1. A 2 × 2（ the model ʼ s smoking status×participants ʼ ethnicity ）analysis
of varianceethnicity

Caucasian students

Asian students

Total

Non smoking model

M = 5.69, SD = 0.54,(N = 27)

M = 4.26, SD = 0.78
(N = 24)

M = 5.02, SD = 0.97
(N = 51)

Smoking model

M = 5.13, SD = 0.97
(N = 24)

M = 3.85, SD = 1.11
M = 4.45, SD = 1.22
(N = 27) Attractiveness of(NFemale= 51) Smokers 21
Attractiveness of Female Smokers 21

Total

M = 5.42, SD = 0.81
(N = 51)

M = 4.05, SD = 0.98
(N = 51)

smoking status

Figure 4.
Figure 4.

M = 4.73, SD = 1.13
(N = 102)

6
6
5
5
4
4
smoking modelsmoking model
non-smoking model
non-smoking model

3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0

Caucasian students
Caucasian students

Asian students
Asian students

6
6
5
5
4
4
smoking modelsmoking model
non smoking model
non smoking model

3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0

Caucasian students
Caucasian students

Asian students
Asian students

Figure 4. Inﬂuence of ethnicity and the smoking status of the modelon attractiveness

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There are several limitations to this study. First,
gender differences are difficult to assess due to thesmall male sample size. A significant relationshipbetween the perceiverʼ s gender and the attractiveness of the model has not been found in many
published studies; it would be interesting to see
how malesʼ perceptions of female smokers differ
from those of female participants. Secondly,
13）
according to Clark , the smoking status（current
smokers, former smokers, and never smokers）hasa significant influence on the perceived attractiveness of female smokers. However, the influence of participants ʼ smoking status is not
examined in this study due to the lack of current
smokers in the sample. Therefore, further researchthat includes more male participants and current
smokers is needed. A third limitation of this study
involves the photograms used as stimuli. The
Caucasian and Asian models are not manipulated
to be equally physically attractive; therefore, wecannot verify whether the Caucasiansʼ tendency torate models higher than Asians occurred because of
their ethnicity or because of the higher attractiveness of the Caucasian model. Finally, the last
limitation of this study is that each participant sees
only one photogram. The use of more photograms
would help counterbalance attractiveness levels
and address the issue of differences in attractiveness between the two models in this study.
In conclusion, addressing the global female
smoking epidemic, this study indicates that we candiscourage young girls from smoking byemphasizing the beauty and attractiveness of nonsmokers. By telling young girls that “they lookbetter without cigarettes because they are alreadyattractive the way they are” , we can lead them toappreciate their health and youth as forms ofnatural beauty and make them stay away from thecigarettes that will degrade their attractiveness.
Moreover, the results of this study suggest that it
would be useful to increase health awarenessamong young adults by taking more anti-smoking
actions.

the conditions. There are three possible explanations for this finding. First, Asians may havescored lower than Caucasian participants because
Asians have a cultural tendency to avoid extreme
scores and to provide middle scores, unlike
17）
Caucasian participants. The second explanation
for the scoring differences between Caucasians andAsians is the actual differences in the two modelsʼ
physical attractiveness. Although the picture
backgrounds and postures of the two models are
identical, their attractiveness is not controlled inthis experiment. The Caucasian model has a slightsmile, while the Asian model does not. People
perceive a face with a wide smile as significantly
18）
more attractive than one without.
A smileindicates positive emotions（such as joy, friendliness, and sociability）that are associated with18）
attractiveness. Thus, the Caucasian model may
have been perceived as more attractive than the
Asian model because of her smile. Finally, Asianparticipants show lower scores in attractivenessbecause Asians may be more critical of physical19 ）appearance than Caucasians.
Females incollectivist cultures to be more critical of their
physical appearance than those in individualistic
cultures because collectivist cultures place moreemphasis on gender roles and have higher
19）
expectations for women to look beautiful.
The most unexpected finding in this study is thatthe discrepancy in attractiveness ratings between
the smoking model and the non-smoking model iswider for Caucasian participants than for Asianparticipants. In other words, the impact ofcigarettes on physical attractiveness is stronger for
Caucasian participants than for Asian participants.
6）
According to WHO , the substantial decrease in
North American smoking rates is attributable to themany recent actions against smoking, including
anti-smoking campaigns, smoking bans in public
spaces, and increases in tobacco prices and taxes,
that are still rare in many Asian countries. In
participantsʼ written responses, Caucasians reported
cigarettes as disgusting and less clean, while
Asians reported them as cool and sexy.

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References
1） IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: Tobacco smoke andinvoluntary smoking. International agency for
research on cancer（ IARC; WHO ）, Lyon,
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2） Henschke C. I., Yip R., Miettinen O. S.: Womenʼs susceptibility to tobacco carcinogens and survival after diagnosis of lung cancer. JAMA 2000;
296: 180-184.
3） Bjornson W., Rand C., Connett J. E., et al.:Gender differences in smoking cessation after 3
years in the lung health study. Am J Public
Health 1995; 85: 223-230.
4） Einarson A., Riordan S.: Smoking in pregnancy
and lactation: a review of risks and cessation
strategies. Eur J Clinic Pharmacol 2009; 65: 325330.
5） WHO: 10 facts on gender and tobacco. 2010;
http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/gender_
tobacco/6） WHO: Tobacco Atlas 3rd edition
http://www.afro.who.int/en/clusters-a-program
mes/hpr/health-risk-factors/tobacco/tobaccocountry-profiles.html
7） Amos A.: Women and smoking. Br Med Bulletin
1996; 52: 74-89.
8） WHO: World No Tobacco Day 2010
http://www.who.int/tobacco/wntd/2010/announce
ment/en/index.html
9） Hansen J., Winzeler S., Topolinski S.: When thedeath makes you smoke: A terror management
perspectives on the effectiveness of cigarette on
pack warnings. J Exp Social Psychol 2010; 46:
226-228.
10）Grogan S., Fry G., Grough B., et al.: Smoking tostay thin or giving up to save face? Young men
and women talk about appearance concerns and2012 年（平成 24 年）6 月 29 日

smoking. Br J Health Psychol 2009; 14: 175-186.
11）Hayes D., Ross C. E.: Concern with appearance,
health beliefs, and eating habits. J Health Social
Behaviour 1987; 28: 120-130.
12）Wiium N., Aero L. E., Hetland J.: Subjective attractiveness and perceived trendiness in smoking
and snus use: a study among young Norwegians.
Health Education Research 2009; 24: 162-172.
13）Clark E. M., Klesges R. C., Neimeyer R. A.: Attributions about sexual behaviour, attractiveness,and health as a function of subjectʼ s and targetʼ s
sex and smoking status. Basic Applied Social
Psychol 1992; 13: 205-216.
14）Polivy J., Hackett R., Bycio P.: The effect ofperceived smoking status on attractiveness.
Personality Social Psychol Bulletin 1979; 5: 401404.
15）Jones B., Carroll M.: The effect of a video
characterʼ s smoking status on young femaleʼ s
perceptions of social characteristics. Adolescence
1998; 33: 657-667.
16）McCrosky J. C., McCain T. A.: The measurementof interpersonal attraction. Communication
Monographs 1974; 41: 261-266.
17）Si S. X., Cullen J. B.: Response categories andpotential cultural bias: effects of an explicit
middle point in cross-cultural surveys. Int J
Organizational Analysis 1998; 6: 218-230.
18）Cunningham M. R.: Measuring the physicalattractiveness: Quasi-experiments on the sociobiology of female facial beauty. J Personality
Social Psychol 1986; 50: 925-935.
19）Jung J., Lee S. H.: Cross-cultural comparisons ofappearance self-schema, baby image, selfesteem, and dieting behaviour between Koreanand U.S. women. Family Consumer Sciences
Research J 2006; 34: 350.

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2012 年（平成 24 年）6 月 29 日

女性喫煙者における女性の魅力：カナダビクトリア大学 、
欧米人学生とアジア人学生の調査結果
宮元あい 1, 2 、
  宮元秀昭 1, 3 、  Deborah George 2 、Elizabeth Brimacombe 2
NPO 法人1．

女性呼吸器疾患研究機構 、カナダビクトリア大学 社会科学部 心理学科 、3．財団法人

2．

総合南東北病院【目 的】 今日女性喫煙は世界中で深刻な問題である。本研究は女性喫煙者の魅力における西洋とアジアの文化の違いについて調査したものである。
【方 法】 対象はカナダビクトリア大学生 102 名（女性 81 名）。内 51 名は欧米人 、51 名はアジア人。タバコを持った女性の写真か 、持っていない女性の写真のうちのどちらか一枚を見せて 、その女性の魅力について定められた質問をした。欧米人には欧米人の写真 、アジア人にはアジア人の写真を見せた。
【結 果】 アジア人 、欧米人共にタバコを持っていない女性のほうが 、持っている女性より高い魅力の評価を得た。アジア人に比べ欧米人の方がタバコを持っている女性と持っていない女性の魅力により差をつけて評価した。
【考 察】 民族性文化に関係なく 、非喫煙女性の方が喫煙女性よりも魅力的に見られていることがわかった。
更に 、アジア人に比べ欧米人の方がタバコの危険性について高い教育 、知識を得ている可能性がある。アジア人の方がタバコに対し肯定的なイメージを持っている若者が多い可能性がある。
【結 論】 本研究の結果は将来的な若者の禁煙プログラムの制作に大いに役に立つであろうと思われる。
キーワード：タバコ 、喫煙 、女性喫煙者 、女性の魅力 、民族性文化

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