The review of current situation of water resources management
and the role of agricultural education in Cambodia
Ngo Bunthan
Royal University of Agriculture (RUA), Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries(MAFF), Chamcar Daung, Dangkor District, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Tel: (855)23 219 753
Fax: (855)23 219 690, Email: bunthan_rua@forum.org.kh
Summary:
The paper highlights a brief profile of the water resources, management and policy of
the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC). The report is based on the secondary informationof the RGC, Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM), Cambodian
Development Committee (CDC), Mekong River Commission (MRC), Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF), Royal University Of Agriculture (RUA), andother related sources. The total land area of Cambodia is 181,035 km2 while the population isabout 13.8 million. Cambodia currently has very high potential of water and water resources
with limited capability to adopt water for both agricultural production and daily usage and isbeing promoted by various kind of development policy from the RGC under the support ofgovernment itself and international agencies / organizations. There are 207 Farmer Water
User Communities (FWUC) that have been established and are functioning. In the rainy anddry seasons, the FWUC can irrigate 76,720 ha and 59,770 ha, respectively. Only 15% of the
populations in the 19 out of 24 provincial towns have access to piped water.

Agriculture in

Cambodia is mostly rainfed. Only a small percentage of total cultivated land is irrigated yearround. Irrigation is only available for 4.5% of total usable land. Of that amount, 1.4% is bysurface water irrigation and 3.1% by groundwater irrigation. On the other hand, total irrigatedland is about 20 % of total cultivated land.
Legal framework, water policy, and duties for supporting the sustainable and effective
Uses of Cambodian water have been established. The FWUC has been designed toaccomplish many objectives aiming at attaining sustainable water use. There have been very
few courses provided within the Higher Educations such as Royal University of Agriculture(RUA), Institute of Technology of Cambodia (ITC), but not fully related to neither
agricultural production nor livelihood. RUA is directly related to water for agriculture andrural development, but can deliver only few courses with least expertise and support. The
academic researches focusing on the irrigation system, water contamination and pollution,
and water supply have limited concepts for application. It is recommended to find out crop
types, rice varieties, and other breeding species, to determine the water potential throughout
the country, to disseminate the maintenance techniques, skills, and way of sustainable use of
irrigation facilities, and to introduce specific courses or programs to institutions that areplaying a role in the related field.
Keywords: Water Recourse Management, Agricultural Education, Cambodia
1. Introduction
Water is the most important natural resource, which is indispensable among all natural
resources for supporting comprehensive social development and in particular for sustaining
plant, animal and human being. Cambodia is a country that is considered to have abundant
water. Its rivers and streams, lakes, aquifers and marine waters are an important resource fornational economic development in many areas, such as agriculture, manufacturing, smallscale industries, hydropower, navigation, tourism, environmental protection, and daily life.
The purpose of this country report is to present to participants of the 2005 TSUKUBAASIAN SEMINAR ON AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, the current situation of water
resources management in Cambodia. It also includes a review for the role of agricultural
education in Cambodia that related with water resources management. The report is based on
the secondary information of the Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry concerned, andother related sources with specific objectives as follows:- To highlight the current situation of water resources management in Cambodia,
2

- To review some parts of Government policy and strategies related with water
resources management, and- To review the status of water and agricultural education in Cambodia.
2. General situation of Cambodia
2.1. Geography, Climate and Population: As stated in MoP (2003), Cambodia has aland area of 181,035 km2 in the southwestern part of the Indochina peninsula. The capital cityof Cambodia is Phnom Penh. International borders are shared with Thailand and Laos P.D.R.
on the west, the north respectively and Vietnam on the east and southeast. Its climate isdominated by the monsoon, which are known as tropical wet and dry because of distinctly
marked seasonal differences. January is the coldest month, and April is the warmest. Averageannual rainfall is between 1,000 and 1,500 millimeters, with the heaviest fall in the southeast.
The relative humidity is high at night throughout the year. During the daytime in the dry
season, humidity averages about 50% or slightly lower but it may remain at about 60% in therainy season.
Average Rainfall

Rainfall (mm)
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Year

Source: MOWRAM (2005)
Figure 2.1: An average annual rainfall in Cambodia from 1994 to 2004
The population projection in 2003, based on the General Population Census ofCambodia 1998 is 13.8 million, of which 52% are females. The grow rate is estimated at 2.5%
per annum. The population density is 67 persons per km2. Around 84% of population lives in3rural areas. Phnom Penh has an estimated population of 1.0 million and annual rate of grow at
3.5%.
2.2. River Systems and the Great Lake “Tonle Sap”: Mekong River is the largest riverin Cambodia and dominates the hydrology of the country. At Phnom Penh, with its alternativearms, the Bassac River from the south, and the Tonle Sap River link with the “Great Lake”
Tonle Sap, from the northwest and continues further southeastward to its lower delta in
Vietnam.
The role of Tonle Sap as a buffer of the Mekong River system in flood mitigation andthe source of beneficial dry season flows warrants explanation. By about mid June, the flowof Mekong and Bassac Rivers fed by monsoon rains increases to the point where its outlets
through the delta cannot handle the enormous volume of water, flooding extensive adjacentfloodplains for 4-7 months. At this point, instead of overflowing its banks, the floodwaters
reverse its flow to the Tonle Sap River (about 120 km in length) which then has a maximum
inflow rate of 1.8 m3/s and enters the Great Lake. This characteristic of the Tonle Sap Rivermakes it the only “river with return’ in the world. The Great Lake increases in size from about
2,600 km2 in the dry season to up to 13,000 km2, and the water levels rise by an average of 7
meters at the height of the flooding (MoP, 2003).
3. Government policy and Strategy related with water resources management
3.1. Water responsible institutions: In Cambodia, institutions having responsibility
related with water resources are; Cambodia National Mekong Committee (CNMC), Ministryof Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM), Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy(MIME), Ministry of Rural Development (MRD), Ministry of Public Works and Transport(MPWT), Ministries of Environment (MoE), Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests(MAFF), Ministry of Economics and Finance (MEF), Ministry of Health (MoH), Provincial
governments, Municipalities, and Development committees (MOWRAM, 2001).

4

3.2. National Water Resources Policy
3.2.1. The Rectangular Strategy: In the second element of the second rectangle of therectangular strategies addressed by Prime Minister Hun Sen (2004), “Management of water
resources and irrigation” has been stated to be one of the four major elements in therectangle. It is a part of broad program to protect, manage and ensure sustainable exploitationof both fresh-water and marine resources while enhancing bio-diversity and sustainability for
equitable benefit to the public. The objectives are to anticipate and prepare ourselves to meetthe growing challenges facing Cambodia’s water resources in next 20 years by adopting
relevant measures.
These will focus on; providing all citizens with clear and safe water, protecting all
citizens from water-related diseases, providing adequate water supply to ensure food security,
economic activities and appropriate living standards, and ensuring that water resources andthe environment are free from toxic elements, while enabling a supportive fisheries andecological system. The RGC will also develop and expand irrigated lands and effective water
resources management by improving the efficient use of exiting irrigation systems, further
development and enhancing the effectiveness of water communities and reducing thevulnerability of the population to natural disasters and its total dependence on natural
conditions.
3.2.2. Policy of Water for Agriculture: Cambodia’s population is predominantly ruraland agricultural. Rice is the dominant food and cash crop. In some areas in which there isgood access to markets, crops such as corn and sugar cane also are produced, while, manyrural people raise their own livestock and poultry, have home gardens and orchards, and raisecatch fish. Most crop production depends on rainfall and every year, farmers face shortages ofwater, drought, and floods, and these have a major impact on agricultural production. The
irrigation infrastructure is in poor condition and is unable to provide enough water for
agricultural production with only about 20% of cropland receives from any form of irrigation.
5

The same is true of facilities for mitigating the adverse impacts of water-logging and periodic
flooding. Participation of the beneficiaries in the planning, construction, management andoperation of irrigation, drainage and flood control infrastructure is limited, but is being
promoted in part by the Prime Minister’s Circular No. 01 SR, 11 January 1999.
To address the above issues, MOWRAM (2000) mentioned about the policies of RGC
as the followings:- To provide farmers with the quality of water they need, when and where they need it,
at a cost they and the wider community can afford, and within the limits of available water
resources, technology, and financial resource for investment,- To promote, where justifiable on economic or social grounds, the rehabilitation andconstruction of irrigation, drainage, and flood management infrastructure, in order to provide
sufficient water for agricultural production and to alleviate the adverse consequences ofexcess water,- To promote the development and extension of water management technologies thatare particularly suited to rain-fed agricultural areas, such as water harvesting, improvements
to the moisture-holding capacities of soils, use of farm ponds, and sustainable extension fromgroundwater, and- To strengthen and expand Farmer Water User Communities (FWUC), to enable themto participate in water management and allocation and maintain irrigation infrastructure witheffectiveness and sustainability.
4. Major Achievement of Implementing Water Resources Policy
4.1. Water Resources
4.1.1. Preparation of Legal Framework: MOWRAM working with other Government
institutions and development partners has prepared and submitted to the parliament a draft of
Law on Water Resources Management. Subsequently, a National Policy on Water Resources
Management was prepared and approved by the Council of Ministers in January 2004.
6

4.1.2. Rehabilitation of Irrigation Infrastructure, Drought Intervention and River
Bank Protection: MOWRAM has rehabilitated: 315 irrigation systems for rice cultivation
covering an area of 153,149 ha (rainy season 89,383 ha and dry season 63,766 ha); FloodControl Dikes that now provide protection over an area of 113,500 ha, and sea protection
Dikes (Polders) to protect sea intrusion into the cultivable land an area covering 16,680 ha.
Droughts are a recurring phenomenon in Cambodia. A high priority was assigned by the RGC
to improve river embankments. The embankment along the Mekong River in the provincial
town of Kampong Cham, totaling 5.2 km, was restored using domestic budget resources(CDC, 2004).
4.1.3. Farmer Water User Community (FWUC): From 1999 to 2003, there has been
207 FWUC (42.800 Families) established and functioning in the whole Cambodia. FWUC
covers the land area of 76,720 and 59,770 hectares of rainfed and dry season rice fields
respectively (MOWRAM, 2003).
The FWUC lead by the committee, which is elected and has the following members: achairman, 2 vice chairmen, a treasurer and all chiefs of farmer water user groups.
According with the study of Pouk FWUC in Siem Reap Province, we found that many
conflicts and problems that faced by farmers before formulation a FWUC. Most of conflicts
and problem has been solve after formulate a community.
A case study of Roung FWUC in Kampong Speu province found that the general
education of farmers was very low. Most of them, particularly women are literacy or attained
primary education. Only 5.72 % of the farmers in this community have been educated in highschool, but all of them are men.

7Percentage

Educational Attainment

40

35.71

35

Male

31.43
28.57

30

Femal
27.14

25

Total

21.43

21.44

20
14.29

15
10

5.71

5.72

5.72

2.58

5
0

No
education

Primary
SchoolSecondary High school
schoolSource: Sodany (2005)
Figure 4.1. Distribution of educational attainment of farmers in Roung FWUC of
Kompong Speu Province
In the practical activities of FWUC, women are much more involved in theconstruction of water canal system and grass planting along the water canal system. Only men
that involved in the maintenance and repairing of canal system and make the decision forwater management. The figure and table below show that there is no gender balanced in the
FWUC. Only very few of women have ability to contribute their ideas to FWUC
management.
The Participation of Farmers in FWUC

Percentage of
farmers
35
30
30

25.72
25

Man
Woman

20
12.86

0

0
making on
water

5

7.14

5.72

4.28

7.14

0

0
Water feecollection

7.14

water canal

10

water canal

15

Maintenancemanagement

Decision

RepairingGrassplanting along thecanalof water
canal

Construction

0

Source: Sodany (2005)
Figure4.2. Distribution of participating activities of farmers in Roung FWUC of
Kompong Speu Province8Table 4.1. The distribution of farmer participations to meeting of Roung FWUC
Participating in meeting
Participation (%) Non-participation (%)
Men
Women
Men
Women
38.86
40
5.71
18.58
Source: Sodany (2005)

Contributing ideas to meeting
Contribute
Never contribute
Men
Women
Men
Women
41.43
7.14
2.85
48.57

4.2. Potable Water: The Royal Government’s National Policy on Water Supply andSanitation has set the goal of expanding the supply safe water to improve the living standards
and the welfare of people to reach Cambodian Millennium Development Goals. The supportof international financial institutions and donor countries has been sought to rehabilitate andconstruct water supply systems to respond the urgent needs of the people. RGC has alsosought the participation of the private sector in this sector. At present, 85 percent of the
population in Phnom Penh and 15 % of the population in the provincial towns has access to
piped water. Out of 24 provincial towns, five provincial towns, Odor Meanch Chey, Mondul
Kiri, Preah Vihear, Pailin and Krong Kep municipalities, have no water supply systems. Overthe last five years, significant progress has been made to rehabilitate the water systems. WithWB financing, the Sihanoukville Water Supply system has been rehabilitated and expanded toincrease supply from 2,000 to 8,000 m3/day, and 1,320 households have been connected.
With financing from ADB loan, water supply systems in six provincial towns (Battambang,
Pursat, Kampong Thom, Kampong Cham, Kampot and Svay Riang) are being rehabilitated
and work will be completed in 2005. This project will supply safe water to about 10,000
families. With grant aid from Japan, the Siem Reap Water Supply System is being
constructed. The Cambodia Provincial and Peri-Urban Water and Sanitation Project withWorld Bank financing is being implemented in 43 locations in urban areas (CDC, 2004).
4.3. Agriculture: Agriculture in Cambodia is mostly rain fed. Existing irrigation
schemes are in disrepair and require rehabilitation or reconstruction, even when functioning,
the water control and flow is sub-standard. As a result most of the schemes are actually only
9

providing supplementary irrigation water to seasonal production. Irrigated areas in one season
are not irrigated year-round. Only a small percentage of total cultivated land is irrigated yearround. Irrigation covers only 4.5 percent of total usable land. Of that amount, 1.4 percent
consists of surface irrigation and 3.1 percent of groundwater irrigation. On the other hand,
total irrigated land is about 20 percent of total cultivated land (MOWRAM, 2001).
MOWRAM (2001) also indicated that the limited quantity of surface freshwater has
been exploited for irrigation. The inventory of irrigation systems in various studies initiated in
1993/1994 show that there were 841 irrigation systems throughout Cambodia. Of these only
21 percent were reported to be operational. A recent listing showed that currently Cambodia
has in place 946 systems, which can irrigate 256,120 and 143,490 hectares, respectively, in
wet and dry season. This means that out of the current 2.06 million hectare cultivated area ofwet season rice land only a small fraction (12.4 percent) could receive irrigation water and theremaining area under rainfed. During the dry season more than half (55.21 percent) of thecultivated dry season rice land, 259,919 hectares can receive irrigation water from the existing
systems, while the remaining areas are perhaps under recession cropping condition and fed bysmall and medium scale pumping.
Rice production: Year 2004 is the difficult year for rainfed rice cultivation. The totalof rice production in 2004 is less than the production of 2003. The rice cultivated areas of2004 is more than 2003 but damaged areas is more than in 2003. This is due to the lack ofwater. The average annual rainfall were less than 2003 (serious drought in some areas) andalso not fairly rainfall (Figure2.1).

10

Table4.2. A comparison of rice farming production in rainy season from 2000-2004
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
Average 2000-03
2004
Compared to 2003
Compared to 2000-03

CultivatedLand (in ha)
2,129,730
1,974,048
1,845,135
2,032,303
1,995,304
2,075,646+ 43,343+ 80,342

DamagedLand (in ha)
481,918
250,663
135,483
65,267260,027

Harvested
Land (ha)1,647,812
1,723,385
1,709,652
1,967,036
1,761,971
1,815,619- 151,417+ 53,648

Yields(t/ha)
1.949
1.901
1.706
1.951
1.879
1.725

Quantity(in t)
3,212,269
3,275,953
2,915,900
3,837,957
3,310,520
3,132,581- 705,376- 177,939

Source: MAFF (2005)
Rice cultivation in dry season of 2004-05 is good compared with last several years.
The yield is increased a little bit higher. Less damaged areas.
Table 4.3: A comparison of rice farming production in dry season from 2000-2004
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
Average 2000-03
2004
Compared to 2003
Compared to 2000-03
Source: MAFF (2005)

CultivatedLand (in ha)
259,847
266,869
291,990
283,550
275,564
298,529+ 14,979+ 22,965

DamagedLand (in ha)
4,500
9,959
6,997
8,550
7,502
5,098
- 3,452- 2,404

Harvested
Land (in ha)
255,347
256,910
284,993275,000
268,063
293,431+ 18,431+ 25,369

Yields(t/ha)
3.187
3.204
3.181
3.175
3.187
3.536
+ 0.362+ 0.350

Quantity(in t)
813,823
823,063906,609873,000
854,124
1,037,703+ 164,703+ 183,579

Even though the total of rice production in 2004 is less than 2003, this product can
provide enough food to the Cambodia people in a whole year, but actually our farmers use
their rice for more purposes other than food, such as animal feed, gasoline, fertilizer orchemical (Table and ).
Table4.4. Total of rice production (Rainy and dry season) in year 2004-05
Item
Planned
Cultivated areas
Damaged areas
Replanted areas
Harvested areas
Average yields
Production
Source: MAFF (2005)

Unit
ha
ha
ha
ha
ha
t/ha
t

Rainy season
2,174,000
2,048,360
260,027
27,286
1,815,619
1.725
3,132,581
11

Dry season
287,600
298,529
5,098
293,2213.539
1,037,703

Total
2,461,600
2,346,889
265,125
27,2862,108,840
1.978
4,170,284

Table4.5. Total food balanced (rice) for year 2005
Items
Total annual rice production
Reduction of 13% for seed reserve and post harvest losses)
Remaining paddy available for consumption
Available rice for consumption converted into mills rice
64% milling-rate
Food requirement per year (140 kg/person-year)
Surplus production of rice
Source: MAFF (2005)

Total (t)4,170,284
542,137
3,628,147
2,322,014
1,905,896+ 41,6118

Mechanization for irrigation: For supplementary irrigation of their rice field, farmers
use water pump machines for surface water and ground water. Some place farmers still use
traditional water tolls, such as Snach and Rohat (local names).
Water pump machines and traditional tools
Units
120000106569100000
80000
51252

60000
40000
20000

3461

0
Water pumpmachine

Snach

Rohat

Source: DOAM (2004)
Figure 4.3: The statistic of water pump machines and traditional tools use in agriculture
4.4. Domestic Water Supply in Rural Area: Most of people in the rural area obtainwater for domestic use from wells (open & tube wells), rivers and natural streams, reservoirs
and ponds. In 2003 the statistic of MOWRAM indicated that there are 137,121 wells and13,598 ponds have been used by people in 17 provinces for domestic and irrigation purposes.
Only 2 provinces (Takeo and Prey Veng) have used ground water for irrigated rice crop.
Takeo is facing the problem of chemical substance contamination mainly the unsafe water(MOWRAM, 2003).

12

4.5. Environment and Conservation: CDC (2004) has reported that there are 23 areasthat are protected under the Law on Environment Protection and Natural Resources
Management. Each protected area is classified into four management zones namely core zone,
conservation zone, sustainable development zone and community zone.
The Ministry of Environment has made concerted efforts on biodiversity conservationin the three core areas of Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve by constructing environmental stations
for research and monitoring biodiversity, organizing of management groups, conducting
environmental awareness and educational activities as well as capacity building for park
rangers. A mechanism for cooperation between relevant ministries for sustainable
management the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve has been created to facilitate effective reformsof land use, forestry and fisheries and creation of community organizations for natural
resource management.
To ensure water pollution prevention, 48 factories that were adversely affected havebeen forced to install wastewater treatment facilities. Also, some main canals and thesewerage system in Phnom Penh have been restored and repaired with the support from JICA.
Wastewater treatment facilities have been built in Shihanoukville and Battambang Province.
5. Water and Agriculture Education
5.1. Water / Agricultural Education Institutions: In the year 2005, there are 40 higher
education institutes in Cambodia. There are ten public higher education institutes providing
degree level in Cambodia; seven universities and three institutes. Among the 40 institutions,
there are only two main institutions; RUA and Institute of Technologies of Cambodia (ITC)
have curricula related to water including water supply, drainage, and irrigation system.
5.1.1. Royal University of Agriculture: RUA was established in 1964 and composed ofeight faculties; Agronomy, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Forestry, Fisheries,
Agricultural Technology and Management, Agricultural Economics and Rural Development,

13

Agro-Industry and Land Management and Administration. It offers bachelor and master
degree programs as well as short training courses.
Four out of the eight faculties have significantly water related subjects inserted into
their curricula. The most directly related one is Faculty of Agricultural Technology andManagement in which hydrology, ground water, irrigation and drainage systems, pumping
work for agricultural production are the most important concepts of its curriculum. Due to thelack of equipments and laboratory the faculty seems to be less important and loosing its rolein water irrigation system. The curriculum of the Faculty of Agronomy includes the subjects
in need of water for crop production, crop ecology and soil and water management. Faculty ofFisheries is providing courses related to sea and fresh water and aquaculture in Cambodia.
The water contamination and treatment are also taught in this faculty. Several researches
related to water quality have been conducted in the faculty. The last one, Faculty of Forestry
has a course on watershed management that can be excluded. Even, the four faculties havesome courses relating water but they are all not the specialized one and cannot be expertise in
the future.
5.1.2. Institute of Technology of Cambodia (ITC): ITC has programs related to rural
engineering and hydrology. The programs serve the educational development mainly related
to rural infrastructure improvement and maintenance. However, it is related neither to thedrainage and irrigation system nor water supply and sanitation.
5.3.3. Other Institutions: There are also some other institutions such as Prek Leap
National School of Agriculture (PLNSA) and Kampong Chham National School of
Agriculture (KCNSA), and Moharussey Vedic University (MVU) offer courses in agriculture
and some water concepts for agricultural production.
5.2. Water and Agricultural Research: How to use water effectively is the main topic
for research related to water within the water-agricultural organizations, CARDI (Cambodian
Agricultural Research and Development Institute), RUA and JICA. CARDI has carried out
14

research that can be considered as the relation to use water more effective such as innovationof new rice varieties and land leveling (Mak Solieng et al, 2000). RUA has research studies
on water use efficiency and water pollution in the peri-urban of Phnom Penh city. There arealso some research studies in terms of theses being conducted to strengthening the FWUC
process and sustainability as well. JICA also projects the planning of how to use water for
agricultural production and water planning of Cambodia and some other provinces such asBattambang, Kompong Cham, and Siem Reap. The water pollution and waste treatment arealso being considered by JICA.
6. Conclusion
Cambodia has a very high availability of water and water resources. The capabilities
to adopt the sources for usage are very limited both for agricultural production and daily life.
Water for agriculture is very limited and is being promoted by various kind of development
policy from the RGC under the support of government itself and international agencies /organizations. The water for daily usage, potable water can be accessed only in the cities andprovincial town.
The existing irrigation system and water supply are under rehabilitation and leastcapability to maintain. To sustain use, MOWRAM under the policy of RGC has establishedlegal framework, water policy and duties for supporting the sustainable and effective use of
Cambodian water. Irregular rainfall has a negative impact for the present crops production of
Cambodian conventional agriculture. The FWUC has been widely implemented and seems tobe successful and will contribute to sustainable water use for life and all other purposes.
Addressing the use of water and managerial support to the policy, Cambodia seems to
be lacking in concentrating on its educational program. There has been very few courses
provided within the Higher Educations such as RUA, CIT, etc. Though, the courses are notspecific and therefore not fully related to neither agricultural production nor domestic use.
15

RUA is directly related to water for agriculture and rural development, but only few courses
with least expertise and support. The academic researches focusing on the irrigation system,
water contamination, water pollution and water supply are of very basic concept andapplication.
7. Recommendations
Even though, the policy on water seems to be strong as indicated, it is only on theprocess and not yet clearly defined. In conclusion, some ideas can be identified recommended
for consideration.
- Crop types, rice varieties and other breeding species need to be reproduced inaccordance to the new climate conditions.
- Water potential determination throughout the country should be implemented so thatthe water use will be more efficient.
- Maintenance techniques, skills and way of sustainable usage of the existing irrigation
system and water supply need to be disseminated to the consumers of those systems.
- Water management, water treatment, irrigation and drainage system and other water
related courses must be specifically considered into the academic program of higher
education, since those institutions play very important role in the area.

16

Acknowledgements
The author wish to express his deepest gratitude and acknowledge to his advisor Dr.
TOYOAKI MORISHITA, JICA Senior Volunteer to RUA, for his cooperation, supportingand introducing author to the 2005 TASAE.
Special acknowledgment is also due to Prof. Dr. Iwasaki Yoichi, President of
University of Tsukuba and Prof. Dr. Haruyuki Mochida, Chairperson of 2005 TASAE fortheir invitation author to participate the seminar.
He would also express his gratitude to Prof. Satoh and Mr. Busia for their commentson the report writings.
Acknowledgement and appreciation are also due to his colleagues Mr. Chun Nimul
and Mr. Sun Chamnan, for their helpful support to develop this report.

17

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