Taeko Kitahara

The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford:
Corleone and The Godfather（ F ・マリオン・クロフォードの遺産：『コルレオーネ』と『ゴッドファーザー』)

Taeko Kitahara *SUMMARY IN JAPANESE:19世紀末に、イタリアを舞台にした「国際」小説で莫大な人気を博したアメリカ作家、F. マリオ
ン・クロフォードは、ローマ貴族の三代記 Saracinescaシリーズが代表作である。このシリーズには Corleone: A Tale of Sicily(1897)という続編がある。
『コルレオーネ』
は、舞台をシチリア島に移し、サラシネスカ家の青年公子が地元マフィアとの抗争に巻き込まれる物語だ。コルレオーネというネーミングやマ
フィアの題材から想起されるのは、コッポラ監督の映画で有名なマリオ・プーヅォ原作の The Godfather (1969) である。実際『コルレオーネ』と『ゴッドファーザー』を読み比べると、興味深い共通点が浮上する。それは、物語構造、人物造型、シチリ
アという場、義賊としてのマフィアの表象である。二作品の相互テクスト性は、いかにクロフォードの忘れられた小説がマフィアを扱う現代ベストセラーのひな形になっていたかを示す。
イタリア統一運動以後、得意の貴族ロマンスが時代遅れとなり、創作の新機軸を模索していたクロフォードは、読者が好むイタリアの「異国情緒」の負の側面に着目し、「マフィア」という鉱脈を発掘したと言えよう。その鉱脈は、やはり作家として経済的成功を狙うプーヅォに引き継がれ、特にエスニシティの問題を含む現代アメリカ社会や大衆文化を考える上で重要なテクストを創出することにつながる。作品に見られる政治意識の有無* 北原

妙子 Associate Professor, Department of English and American Literature, Toyo Univer-sity, Tokyo, Japan.

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The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford: Corleone and The Godfather

が、結果的に二作の明暗を分けたと言えるが、「お上品な伝統」
を破り、暴力や犯罪を全面に押し出し、従来の悪役を主役に据えた新手の物語を考案したクロフォードは、先見性をもってジャンルフィクションの基礎を築いたと言える。アメリカ大衆文化を考える上で、クロフォード作品の意義がもっと再考されてもよいのではないだろうか。現代によみがえったサラシネス
カ・サーガが、『ゴッドファーザー』三部作といっても過言ではないだろう。
It is wonderful what a natural charm there is about murder and sudden deathin a romantic country like this. Deeds that would be simply brutal anddisgusting anywhere else become dramatic and mysterious because this is
Italy. . . . (“For the Blood is the Life”)1

Introduction
The American author F. Marion Crawford attained popularity on both sidesof the Atlantic with his “international” fiction, particularly the works that are set
in Italy in the late nineteenth century. After the unification of Italy, however, hishigh romance of Italian nobles became anachronistic, so that Crawford had to seeka new direction for his writing. One of the attempts he made with this objectivein mind was Corleone: A Tale of Sicily (1897). In fact, the novel is a sequel to his
famous Saracinesca trilogy, a saga about a noble Roman family. By shifting thesetting to Sicily, Corleone shows how the young prince of the Saracinescas
becomes involved in a conflict with the local “Mafia,” which is connected to thetitle character, Prince Corleone of Sicily. The naming of “Corleone” reminds oneof the Francis Ford Coppola movie The Godfather, which was based on Mario
Puzo’s bestseller of the same name (1969).
Puzo’s desire to seek commercial success rather than pursue aesthetic ideals
enabled him to write The Godfather.2 Following advice from an editor, Puzo
developed an episode involving the Mafia in The Fortunate Pilgrim (1964), a
novel about the life of early Italian immigrants in Hell’s Kitchen. The author
admits that he never met a real gangster and he “wrote The Godfather entirely
from research,”3 which does not clarify if Puzo had read Crawford’s Corleone.
When one reads both works, however, many interesting commonalities stand out.
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Although a Crawfordian critic, John C. Moran, refers to Puzo’s possible borrowing from Crawford,4 he does not produce a textual analysis. Other critical works
also do not include a comparative study of these novels.5 This essay, then, will
examine the intertextuality between the two works and explore how Crawford’s
forgotten novel inspired the twentieth-century bestseller.
Although Corleone is a part of the Saracinesca series, it deviates considerably from Crawford’s typical genteel high romance. This is because Crawford
dares to explore the issues of “sex” and “violence”—a definite digression from his
own conventions—in Corleone. An anonymous reviewer has criticized The
Godfather as follows: “There is brutality in abundance. . . . Sex is abundant; it is
not love, just animality, except in a few instances.”6 In addition to these aspects,
what these works have in common is the fact that they both deal with the Mafia.
As John G. Cawelti suggests, because crime fiction attracts readers,7 the Mafia
served as suitable material for these authors—both of whom were seriously
seeking a commercial breakthrough.
It should also be noted that the existence of the Mafia is closely related to theimage of Italy. For a long time, Italy has attracted many types of artists from allover the world. American artists/painters, sculptors, musicians, writers, andcritics were no exception.8 Almost every aspect of the place, especially theunique atmosphere created by its history, art, nature, people, etc., fascinates
visitors, who envision their own Italy in their minds. In other words, they helped
to create diverse stereotypical images of an Italy that is full of beauty, art, andmystery. As the epigraph of this essay suggests, even the dark side of Italy isromanticized: one example is the Mafia, which remained shrouded in mystery fora long time because of omerta.9 The general enigmatic charm of Italy seems to
explain why such a dreadful aspect of the country became the germ of popular
fictions with the possibility of cinematic adaptations. Taking such an aspect into
consideration, I would like to study how Crawford’s novel serves as an archetypeof an important Mafia story and begins the tradition.10 In the next section, I will
give some background to the authors. In Section Two, I will analyze theintertextuality between the two works. Section Three will then involve a further
analysis of the American/Italian characteristics of both the novels.

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1. Background
It would be appropriate to provide a brief explanation of the background ofthese popular authors at this point. The profiles of the two authors strongly
contrast with each other, owing not only to the different times they lived in but
also their social backgrounds.
After serving in WWII and a government office, Mario Puzo (1920-1999)
struggled to become “somebody” through his writing and to leave behind his
working-class Italian immigrant background. Making one’s fortune through hard
work seems to be the typical formula for realizing the American dream. Nevertheless, the thing that should be noted here is that the timing of Puzo’s successcoincided with the social turmoil of the 1970s. Following the civil rights andfeminist movements, various socio-cultural changes took place, including theanti-ageism movement, youth culture symbolized by hippies, and the so-called
New Age movement with its focus on ecology, spiritualism, and health. The surgeof multiculturalism is one of these major changes; multiculturalism deals with the
how different cultural identities that are often based on “ethnicity, race, gender or
religion” can be recognized as equals in a pluralistic society.11 Caught in thishistorical current, ethnic minorities began to turn to their heritage and take pridein it. Italian and Jewish Americans were the first to raise their voices as ethnic
whites. This historical context is closely related to the widespread popularity of
The Godfather.12
Unlike Puzo, F. Marion Crawford (1854-1909) occupied a more privilegedsocial position right from the beginning. The father of the novelist, Thomas
Crawford, was an eminent sculptor in Rome, best known for his statue “Armed
Liberty” which stands atop the Capitol building in Washington, D.C. Further,
Crawford’s mother, Louisa, was from the distinguished Wards of New England.
(Julia Ward Howe, famous for having written “The Battle Hymn of the Republic,” was the author’s aunt.) Crawford, who was born in Italy and spent hischildhood there, was distanced from his “home” country despite his American
citizenship. He decided to spend most of his life in Sorrento, Italy. During his
career as a novelist, Crawford seemed more concerned with the loss of the Arcadian,artistic atmosphere in Italy after the Risorgimento. In Don Orsino (1892), thework that preceded Corleone, the author has his characters—even the villain—deplore the ugly cityscape of a rapidly changing Rome, which was witnessing a
construction boom. In those days, America certainly underwent enormous changes,
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such as rapid industrialization, the imperial expansionist policy, and the end of
the Frontier. Nevertheless, Crawford set most of his novels in international
locales, paying little attention to the “domestic” issues in America. Although theauthor attempted a trilogy about the high society of New York City13 (in the veinof Edith Wharton’s work), the series neither won much critical acclaim, nor was it
continued until the third volume. Later, Crawford’s interest was again diverted
beyond America, including forays into the supernatural world.
Thus, it is evident that the lives of the two authors moved in opposite
directions. While Puzo struggled to gain acceptance in American society, Crawford
opted to remain an expatriate and to even be buried in Sorrento. However, whatthese authors have in common is the fact that they achieved literary successthrough their own ingenuity and diligence. What, then, are the common featuresof their works? This will be the central question in the discussion that follows.

2. An Overview: Two Family Sagas
The similarities between Corleone and The Godfather are conspicuous; they
appear in the entire narrative structure, characterization, the use of a Sicilian
setting, and the representation of the Mafia as Robin Hood characters. Thissection will compare/contrast the two works in terms of structure and characterization. Before beginning the discussion, however, it is appropriate to provide abrief summary of Corleone. On the other hand, The Godfather needs little
introduction.
Corleone is a Bildungsroman about a young prince named Orsino Saracinesca,
who grows up in Rome at the end of the nineteenth century. The story depicts his
adventures in Sicily and his forbidden love for a girl belonging to a villainous
family, the Pagliuca d’Orianis. As a subplot, Crawford simultaneously describes
the fall of the Pagliuca clan. Despite his nobility, Prince Corleone is notorious forhis misdeeds such as fraud and his wicked, dishonest nephews are members of the
Pagliucas. Orsino falls in love with Vittoria, the youngest of the Pagliucas. One
can easily foresee how troubles and conflicts would arise from this relationshipand the search for a solution to the above problems drives the narrative.
1) The Narrative Structure
Although the plots of the two family sagas differ, their narrative structures,
87The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford: Corleone and The Godfather

if observed from the standpoint of the incidents in each story, appear to be
similar. Both works are roughly divided into four parts, with shifts in settingsfrom each stronghold (i.e., Rome and New York) to Sicily, followed by a return tothe original setting.
After the introduction, the second parts of Corleone and The Godfather
show the heroes’ initiation into the world of crime: using a gun to commit homicide. This incident changes the hero’s position from that of an outsider to one
who is associated with the Mafia. The third part depicts the tragedy in Sicily. In
Corleone, the eldest son of the Pagliucas, Tebaldo, murders his second brotherand falsely accuses the sole witness, who happens to be Orsino’s younger brother,
Ippolito (a priest), of the murder. On the other hand, The Godfather portrays thebombing of Michael Corleone’s car, wherein his newly-wed wife is accidentallykilled instead of him. Almost simultaneously, Puzo reports the news from America
that the rival Mafia has killed Michael’s elder brother; in fact, it is Michael’s
brother-in-law (Carlo Rizzi) who arranges this murder. As is evident, despitesome changes, the common themes of family victimization and fratricide emerge
from the two novels. Finally, in the last part, both authors deal with the cleanupof the Mafia. While the military destroys the Mafia in Corleone, Michael orders
the assassination of betrayers and the heads of rival families in The Godfather.
Both stories restore narrative order by extinguishing the “evil” Mafia. The above
similarity suggests that Crawford created the structure of Mafia stories, which
Puzo then seems to have imitated.
2) The Characters
A comparison of the characters in Corleone and The Godfather reveals morestriking similarities between the two works. The Pagliucas and Corleones eachhave four children.14 All the children seem to have roles that are assigned to themaccording to the order of their birth. Both the authors have depicted the eldest son
as violent and the second son as gentle but weak. On the other hand, despite
having ideal human traits, the youngest son ends up joining a type of “chivalrous”
Mafia. Furthermore, the youngest child, the only daughter, does not serve as amere family pet; instead, she triggers the calamity that occurs in each family
owing to her involvement with a stranger (i.e., Orsino and Carlo). Such parallelism demonstrates the intertextuality between the family sagas rather than thestereotypical roles of children in a family.
Here, the noteworthy point is that the family analyzed in Crawford’s work
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Taeko Kitaharais the Pagliucas and not the Saracinescas. In other words, Crawford highlights themain family in his subplot. As the above families are of Sicilian descent, thiscomparison seems valid. Interestingly, although Corleone is the sequel to theSaracinesca trilogy, the subplot accounts for a major part of the story, as the title
indicates. In fact, the latter half of Corleone focuses on the fate of the villain
Tebaldo: his repeated crimes/sins, attempts to escape, and final destruction throughillness. Accordingly, in Crawford’s work, the original hero, Orsino, recedes into
the background at this point.
Corleone has a happy ending that reveals the true identity of Vittoria, whoturns out to be the kidnapped, long-lost princess of a noble family. She marries
Orsino, the young Prince Saracinesca. This ending certainly modifies the former
narrative shift wherein the subplot assumed importance over the main plot. The
significance of the subplot, however, indicates that Crawford was experimenting
with a new type of family saga, perhaps similar to the robber baron genre ofstories. The Corleone children in The Godfather are reminiscent of the Pagliuca
children; these members convince Puzo’s readers that Michael Corleone is destined to be the “don” regardless of his intentions. What matters here, though, isthat Crawford projects the conventional villains as the central characters, thereby
making them the forerunners of the Corleones in The Godfather.
3) The Rise of the Antihero
It is not an exaggeration to consider Corleone as a novel that has two protagonists: Orsino and Tebaldo. While Tebaldo appears to be a thorough villain, heis nevertheless blue-blooded and entitled to be a prince. In this sense, he is asuitable adversary for Orsino. Being passionate and relentless, the ambitious
Tebaldo overshadows the melancholy Orsino, who is said to “have not much
more than the individuality of [his] class, and very little of [his] own.”15 In
Corleone, Tebaldo is more of an antihero than a mere villain. Crawford describes
Tebaldo as follows: “above all tenacious, and he [is] endowed with much boldness
and daring, of the kind which cast a romantic glamour over crimes of violence”(Crawford, Corleone vol. 1, 264-65). In fact, the fall of Michael Corleone closely
resembles that of this antihero.
As in the case of a typical melodrama,16 Crawford clearly draws a line
between the hero and the villain in Corleone. Even though Orsino murders amember of the Mafia, his actions are considered as righteous self-defense. In
contrast, Tebaldo becomes more vile and corrupt as the plot develops—he com89

The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford: Corleone and The Godfather

mits sins ranging from small-scale offenses such as deceiving two girlfriends toliteral blasphemy (i.e., murder in church and abusing the confession system inorder to trap Ippolito). Furthermore, Crawford portrays Tebaldo as a complete
reprobate when he betrays the Mafia, who help him to destroy evidence of themurder he committed, by breaking the code of omerta. Here, the author attempts
a surprisingly bold innovation by portraying human evil through the successionof misdeeds that Tebaldo commits. This technique surely paved the way forcrime fiction.17
Puzo was an author who followed a similar path. The character of Michael
Corleone repeats Tebaldo’s above-mentioned infernal deeds. In The Godfather,
Michael begins his career as a don by killing a cop and a rival “capo.” He also
betrays two women: his first wife in Sicily, Apolonia, and the woman who wasinitially betrothed to him and became his second wife, Kay Adams. Neither
Apolonia nor Kay knows about the other’s existence before marriage.18 Toward
the climax of the story, Puzo underscores Michael’s audaciousness by having him
abuse the Catholic ritual of baptism. This is a symbolic scene where Michaelbecomes a literal/figurative godfather: he attends the ceremony while his men
carry out his order of assassination. The Godfather closes with Michael lying to
Kay again—denying the suspicion of having murdered Carlo, the father of his
godson—thereby suggesting his dishonesty toward his wife as well as his disloyalty to the code of omerta. The correspondence between the nature of crime/sin
committed by the heroes in the two novels is noteworthy: we can observe thetwentieth-century version of Tebaldo in the person of Michael.
As Catholicism is important in both works, the unabashed profanity ofTebaldo and Michael stands out. What distinguishes the fate of the antiheroes,
however, is whether they respect the Sicilian “code of honor.” Tebaldo’s lack ofrespect for omerta is so unpardonable that even the former girlfriend deserts the
man as a “shame” to Sicilians. On the other hand, a different outcome awaits
Michael when his crimes/sins are considered to be acts committed to protect thefamily and restore its honor. At the persuasion of the consigliere, Kay, who
realizes her husband’s lie and leaves home at one point, begins to understand therole of Don Michael. As a result, she converts to Catholicism and prays for her
husband.
At this point, we can observe how the heroine of Northern European descent decides to become the cultural/social “other.” Kay Adams obtains a newself by exchanging her original Protestant identity for a Catholic one—a sign of90

Taeko Kitahara

religious otherness. In the name of “love,” the heroine elects to be a part ofSicilian culture—more precisely, the world of the Mafia; she becomes an accomplice of her “family.” In the homosocial world of the Mafia, the manner in which
the heroine eventually attempts to save the don illustrates Catholic devotion to
the Virgin Mary, as Thomas Ferraro suggests:19[Kay] emptied her mind of all thought of herself, of her children, of all anger,of all rebellion, of all questions. Then with a profound and deeply willeddesire to believe, to be heard, as she had done every day since the murder ofCarlo Rizzi, she said the necessary prayers for the soul of Michael
Corleone.20
At the same time, Kay’s gesture demonstrates the thrust of a narrative, whicheven changes the subjectivity of the WASP heroine. Such a narrative allows the“reverse dynamism” that makes the evil good, and the culturally subordinate, themainstream. In other words, Crawford’s experiment with the narrative shiftemphasizing the secondary characters in Corleone is developed into a narrativewith such reverse dynamism by Puzo. As seen, the story of the antihero emerges
wholly in The Godfather.

3. America/Italy
The following section will focus on the use of a unique setting, Sicily, andthe representation of the Mafia. It is the locale and the criminal organization thatseem to characterize the “Italian-ness” of these works of American fiction. Do
these Italian characteristics have any additional significance besides merely contributing to the atmosphere? If so, what is the significance? This will be the key
point of my argument. In discussing the Mafia, I will pay attention to the narrative technique, which seems to be crucial in representing criminals.
1) Sicily: The Lost Eden
Both Corleone and The Godfather emphasize the fact that Sicily, particularly the Corleone area, is picturesque. Let us read some of the descriptions in thenovels:91

The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford: Corleone and The Godfather

It is a small, well-kept station near the sea, surrounded by gardens of oranges and lemons, and orchards of fruit trees, and gay with vines and flowers, penetrated by the intense southern light. The sky was perfectly cloudless, the sea of a gem-like blue, the peach blossoms were out by thousands. . . . The trees had an air of belonging to pleasure gardens rather than tobusiness-like orchards, and the whole colouring was almost artistically magnificent. It was late spring in the far south, and Orsino had never seen it.
(Crawford, Corleone vol. 1, 156)
The land was filled with pink flowers, orange orchards, groves of almondand olive trees, all blooming. That had been one of the surprises. Michael
had expected a barren land because of the legendary poverty of Sicilians.
And yet he had found it a land of gushing plenty, carpeted with flowers
scented by lemon blossoms. (Puzo, The Godfather, 316)
The above quotations evoke the verdant scenery that is full of flowers and fragrant fruits. Such a portrayal is reminiscent of Genesis and Puzo even uses theexpression “Garden of Eden” (316).
This pastoral impression of Michael’s stay in Sicily is heightened when thehero finds the perfect romantic love. Upon encountering the beautiful Apolonia,
Michael is jolted by love—an experience referred to as “the thunderbolt” (317).
He starts wooing her after obtaining permission from her parents. The two thenget married and the bride soon becomes pregnant. This episode appears to bemarkedly different from the bloody events in The Godfather. Michael’s oldfashioned courtship here serves as a vivid contrast to his uninhibited affair with
Kay in New York.
In both the novels, however, the protagonists’ illusion about Sicily is shattered instantly. Intoxicated with the idyllic atmosphere, Orsino is awakened to
the reality of Sicily when his band is raided by the local Mafia. Similarly, Michael’s
peaceful honeymoon is brought to an abrupt end by his bodyguard/betrayer. The
Edenic image is followed by the immediate denial of such a conception: Sicily is
no land of grace.
The interpretation of the locale, nevertheless, differs in Crawford and Puzo.
In the case of Crawford, Sicily appears to be a “romantic” Arcadia in contrast to
Rome, the big city, and America, the civilized nation. At the same time, it remains
feudal despite the modernization of Italy. Crawford describes Sicilians as “super92

Taeko Kitahara

stitious” and “vengeful,” providing an impression of them as premodern people.
The episode involving a rich American girl who is chaperoned by her aunt inCorleone highlights this impression. The American girl adores Tebaldo, who isallegedly connected to the Mafia, for being “romantic” and she even gets engaged
to him. However, after hearing about the serial murders in Sicily, the Americans
reject the Pagliucas. According to the aunt, murders only happen in the West; thetwo then hurry back from the unbelievably savage land to their “civilized modernlife” in America (Crawford, Corleone vol. 2, 204). In this case, one can argue that
Crawford satirizes his “innocent” compatriots who blindly idealize Italy. The
comparison of Sicily to the American West, however, suggests Crawford’s opinion of the locale as a type of frontier, a place on the periphery of civilization. The
author seems to consider Sicily to be inferior to Rome/America. This is evident
from the ending, which has Vittoria return to Rome with Orsino after having
completely severed her ties to the Pagliucas. For Crawford, Sicily remains a mere
backdrop for adding a “romantic” Italian tint to his work. He does not seriously
explore real history or social injustice in Italy in Corleone.
Unlike Crawford, Puzo avoids the simplistic binary opposition of Sicily/
America as savage/civilized. He provides a somewhat more detailed historicalaccount of Sicily and the Mafia, as is evident from the following passage:
Sicily was a land that had been more cruelly raped than any other in history.
The Inquisition had tortured rich and poor alike. The landowning barons
and the princes of the Catholic Church exercised absolute power over the
shepherds and farmers. . . . They learned that society was their enemy andso when they sought redress for their wrongs they went to the rebel underground, the Mafia. (Puzo, The Godfather, 311)
Although Puzo does not explicitly demonstrate any ambivalence toward his
ethnic background, in The Godfather, this second-generation Italian American
writer seems to respect his own roots. Although his parents were originally from
Naples,21 Puzo shows a far greater understanding of and sympathy toward theland and his compatriots than Crawford.
As a second-generation Italian American, however, Michael first finds Sicily
to be a cultural other in which he hopes to enjoy domestic bliss for a brief period.
However, the cruel murder of his wife along with their unborn child delivers him
a severe jolt and awakens him to his ethnicity: Sicily can no longer be the other for
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Michael. More importantly, he becomes conscious that his roots lie in the land
his father had to flee, and he realizes that he cannot escape his ties to it; the locale
allows Michael to attain a deeper understanding of his father and his familybusiness. It is only natural for the hero to regenerate himself as a don in Sicily.
Before this experience, Michael intended to independently create a life forhimself like the American Adam, by separating himself from his own family andits “family” business. For this purpose, he not only goes to Dartmouth but also
renders distinguished services to the U.S. Navy during WWII. Nevertheless, it ishis visit to Sicily that forces him to confront the past and his ethnic roots, towhich he remained unconnected until then. Accordingly, Michael has to reconcile
the present and America to something that he has shut himself away from.
In fact, Sicily has always been a socio-cultural/political other in Italy. As
Puzo states in the above quotation, because of its strategic location in the Mediterranean, the land had been conquered repeatedly since ancient times. In order toreclaim autonomy, the Sicilians had to wait until 1860 for the advent of Garibaldi.22
Exposed to the socio-cultural/political periphery of Italy, Michael becomes doubly aware of his position as one who is deprived—as an American as well as a
Sicilian. There, the hero probably realizes that the root of his personal suffering
derives from a much broader historical context, which gave rise to the Mafia.
After becoming aware that the past is inescapable, Michael succeeds in mentally
decolonizing himself and begins internalizing Sicilian attributes such as respectfor honor, omerta, the family, and machismo; the most Americanized member of
the Corleones turns out to be the most Sicilian in spirit. Puzo thus has his
protagonist search for his own identity through the bitter journey of his discovery of his roots. Sicily is the place where the needle of Michael’s compass
reverses itself owing to its peculiar magnetism.
2) The Representation of the Mafia
It is the Mafia who demystify Sicily in Corleone and The Godfather. However, as mentioned earlier, this atrocious criminal organization is the product of
the history of exploitation that took place in Sicily. The term “Mafia” first
appeared in 1875, according to the OED, and is defined as “the spirit of hostility
to the law and its ministers prevailing among a large portion of the population,and manifesting itself frequently in vindictive crimes” in Sicily. The definition
continues as follows: “the body of those who share in this anti-legal spirit. In the
U.S. and elsewhere, an organized secret society existing for criminal purposes.”23
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The conceptions of the Mafia by the two authors fit the definition, despite thedifferences in time and setting. While Crawford stresses the anti-authoritarianismof his late nineteenth-century Sicilian Mafia, Puzo emphasizes the organizationof the post-WWII American Mafia:
The mafia is not a band, nor anything of that sort. It is the resistance which
the whole Sicilian people opposes to all kinds of government and authority.
It is . . . [a] sentiment, a feeling, a sort of wild love of our country, that is asecret, and will do anything. (Crawford, Corleone vol. 1, 127)
That the word ‘Mafia’ had originally meant place of refuge. Then it became
the name for the secret organization that sprang up to fight against the rulers
who had crushed the country and its people for centuries. (Puzo, The
Godfather, 311)
It seems that both Crawford and Puzo attempt a realistic portrayal of the
Mafia. Some details observed in the novels coincide with accounts in nonfiction
and historical works on the Mafia. These details include the Mafia’s organization, their (il)legitimate business, rivalry among families, types of weapons, andthe absoluteness of omerta.24 The obvious difference between the two authors isthe absence of explicit descriptions of murders by the Mafia in Crawford’s work.
It was probably the pressure of the genteel tradition and his own beliefs thatcompelled Crawford to refrain from making the novels too realistic.25
At the same time, the two authors romantically represent the Mafia as Robin
Hood characters. Crawford describes Ferdinando, a Mafia leader who is killed by
Orsino, as an honorable hero. Not only the Mafia but also the village people inSicily deeply mourn his death. Crawford has a priest utter the following dialogue:“[T]hese, my parishioners, desire the body of Don Ferdinando Corleone, in orderto bury it in holy ground, for he was beloved of many” (Crawford, Corleone vol.
1, 209). The true villain of the story is Tebaldo, not the Mafia. Although thedestruction of the Mafia at the end of Corleone suggests Crawford’s stance, theauthor also has one member of the Mafia survive the cleanup operation so that hecan accuse Tebaldo; we should not overlook the fact that Crawford lends a senseof balance to his portrayal of the Mafia by depicting it as a criminal organizationthat is “chivalrous”—one that serves the public and has its own code of honor.
The Godfather contains a similar dimension. Puzo depicts Vito Corleone,95

The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford: Corleone and The Godfather

the first don, as a man who is humane and faithful to his family and “friends.”
Vito is a capable and respectable leader with an impressive personality. While
Crawford only portrays one Mafia group, Puzo describes rival families in New
York. Through the confrontation between these families, the author implies that
the Mafia consist of the older good establishment and the new bad one. The
members of the latter group are so greedy that they do not hesitate to makesurprise attacks and enter into drug trade. Unlike such nefarious “realistic” newfamilies, the Corleones hold tradition in high esteem and reject prostitution anddrug trade. The underlying message here is that Don Corleone is exceptional andacceptable, even though he is a mafioso. If one considers the contemporary sociopolitical context with the threat of nuclear war and the rise of Communism, Vito’s
old-fashioned manners and policy, although his “business” may be illegitimate,appear to be rather romantic.
Here again, as observed in the section on the antihero, Puzo takes advantage
of multiple viewpoints to create reverse narrative dynamism, which enables him
to romanticize the Mafia. While Crawford narrates his story from the omniscient
point of view and does not directly criticize the Mafia, their destruction at the end
illustrates his judgment. On the other hand, Puzo seems to tacitly but ironicallysuggest the chivalric side of the Mafia by introducing multiple viewpoints ofsocial others, namely, those of marginal, voiceless characters. Their viewpoints
reveal that America is far from an ideal land of freedom and equal opportunities.
Rather, it is a world where the so-called law of the jungle prevails. Corrupt
politicians, unethical judges, and evil cops dominate such an unfair world. The
exploited voices of obscure characters endorse Don Corleone as their righteous
savior. One episode that strongly supports this premise is that involving theundertaker Amerigo Bonasera. Upon Bonasera’s request, Vito relieves him of themortification he suffers owing to the unjust assault on his daughter and theineffectual U.S. legal system. The novel gives the impression that Puzo overuses
the technique of multiple viewpoints; however, one soon realizes that the larger
the multiplicity of voices, the more substantial are the proofs of Vito’s greatness.
In this case, one can observe that the Sicilian spirit and way of life, which areusually assimilative in nature, prove to be more effective. On the other hand,
American standards—something that immigrants are encouraged to adopt—seem
to be more dubious and harmful. In this sense, the Mafia headed by Don Vito isa type of resistance force in the imperialistic milieu of America. The marginal
culture criticizes the flaws of the mainstream and uses reverse dynamism to try
96Taeko Kitahara

and subvert it.26
This subversion is completed when the heroine is wholly absorbed into the
Mafia culture in The Godfather. Kay Adams belongs to the social mainstreamthat Michael desires to be part of. In addition to her family name, which suggests
its relatively longer history in America,27 this woman from New Hampshire28
displays other signs of a privileged existence: a scholar/priest father, a college
degree, and the profession of a schoolteacher. In terms of ethnic background,class, and higher education, regardless of her gender, Kay occupies an enviable
position from Michael’s viewpoint. At the beginning of the novel, readers gradually understand the Corleones from Kay’s viewpoint. Although she should havean outsider’s vision in order to observe the Mafia critically, she ends up adjusting
to Sicilian culture and obtaining an insiders’ viewpoint. Hence, her critique of the
Mafia is repressed at the narrative level.
In this manner, by assimilating everything into the subordinate world, theromanticization of the Mafia succeeds in The Godfather, where black and white
are reversed. Nonetheless, when Michael declares his intention to ensure that his
family becomes “legitimate,” the meaning of the Mafia becomes ambiguous. Further, he tells Kay of his desire to ensure that their children achieve the American
Dream:
I want kids; it’s time. And I don’t want those kids to be influenced by me
the way I was influenced by my father. . . . I want them to be influenced by
you [Kay]. I want them to grow up to be All-American kids, real AllAmerican, the whole works. . . . Maybe one of them will be President of theUnited States. . . . But I’ll settle for my kids being doctors or musicians orteachers. They’ll never be in the Family business. (Puzo, The Godfather,348, italics mine)
Like Kay, readers of the novel probably begin to sympathize and side withMichael on reading the above lines. As seen, the real evils of the Mafia areseemingly nullified and its romanticization is reinforced. In this manner, overtime, the minor Robin Hood-type mafioso in Corleone develops into the real heroof a Mafia epic.

97

The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford: Corleone and The Godfather

Conclusion
As observed, the extent of intertextuality between Corleone and The Godfather suggests how Crawford’s forgotten novel served as an archetype of The
Godfather. The seeds of both novels lie in one of the exotic associations with
Italy: the Mafia. When his reputed high romance of Italian nobles became unfashionable, Crawford found a new breakthrough in the dark side of his favorite
subject, Italy. By taking advantage of his compatriots’ tendency to romanticize
Italy, including its negative aspects, Crawford seems to satisfy the capricious,
Italophile readers. In other words, Crawford transformed orthodox Italian highromance into a new type of romance with the Mafia. Thus, he began a new
tradition that was carried on by Mario Puzo’s The Godfather, and even by one oftoday’s popular TV series revolving around a Mafia family in New Jersey, The
Sopranos (1999-2007).29
The keyword in such a tradition is “family.”30 The tragedy surrounding afamily underlies both Corleone and The Godfather. In Corleone, the fatal conflictis related to the efforts of the Pagliuca brothers to restore the family name, whichleads to the complete destruction of the family. In The Godfather, the promisinghero dares to give up the path to legitimate success and instead commits himself
to the Family business. By transcending Crawford’s melodramatic ending, Puzo
intensifies the drama of the inevitable destiny of one family.
A close textual analysis, however, simultaneously reveals the two authors’opposing standpoints as well as their stance toward Italy/America. This is wellobserved in Crawford’s apparent political unconsciousness. While Puzo views
American society as it is as a second-generation immigrant, Crawford is perhaps
too privileged to offer such a viewpoint. Despite the fact that he held American
citizenship all his life, America itself perhaps was the other to the author.
Although Crawford delineates Italy in both a romantic and realistic style invarious works, he does not refer to the mass immigration of Italians to America in
the late nineteenth century. He also shows little awareness of the invisible “colorline” or borderline that appeared in America at that time due to continuous mass
immigration. Hence, it seems as though issues such as immigration, assimilation/acculturation, ethnicity, and identity did not concern this expatriate. Such unawareness is borne out by his portrayal of Sicily, which merely appears to be afoil to highlight Rome, the center of many Crawfordian narratives. A similar
observation can be made about the representation of the Mafia, which he uses as98

Taeko Kitahara

another exotic prop. Although he certainly refers to its spirit of resistance, theauthor does not explore the additional possibility of using his portrayal of the
Mafia as a social critique. (To be fair to Crawford, though, it must be added that
this also reflects his policy to avoid writing a “purpose-novel.”)31
On the other hand, Puzo was keenly conscious of his status as a second-rate
citizen in America before the era of the civil rights movement. One can consider
The Godfather as a vindication of “democratic” American society, which is notfree of discrimination in terms of ethnicity, class, gender, religion, political creed,
etc. All the multiple viewpoints of the novel discussed in the previous section
attest to this point. Puzo’s portrayal of several Mafia families also indicates thefact that organized crime is an actual means of social mobilization in America. The
reverse narrative dynamism throughout the entire story itself presents a strong
case of social critique. In Corleone, although Crawford hints at the creation ofsome reverse dynamism by emphasizing the antihero, the narrative returns to theorthodox happy ending, without suggesting any implications of the existence ofthe Mafia.
Being an acute observer of his time, Puzo seemed to closely notice the social
dynamism of the period, especially in terms of ethnicity. It is interesting toobserve his foresight about the influence of multiculturalism throughout The
Godfather. Even though Michael eventually begins to honor the Sicilian tradition,
his strong desire to raise culturally hybrid children with Kay saves him becoming
ethnocentric; in this sense, he becomes one of the pioneering embodiments ofmulticulturalism in America. As mentioned in the “Background” section, thehistorical context of the 1970s enabled The Godfather to acquire considerable
readership. Michael Corleone, the ethnic hero, represented “our” hero to those
who were excluded from the mainstream of American society. These “minority”
readers (particularly in terms of ethnicity) were probably in a position to suitably
understand Michael’s anxiety to take over his “family” business. They musthave been deeply touched by his brave decision to give up his pursuit of the“legitimate” American dream and his taking pride in his Sicilian heritage. Michael’s
perfect performance in becoming the new don was perhaps found to be more thansatisfying. The chivalry of the Corleones also enhanced their appeal to nonprivileged readers. In the absence of these qualities, it would be difficult forreaders to accept criminals as “our” heroes. Hence, it seems that the readership of
The Godfather continued to expand and include new “others”; this has certainly
contributed to the novel’s longevity.32
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The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford: Corleone and The Godfather

Thus, an examination of the intertextuality between Corleone and The Godfather reveals the overlooked continuity in the history of American popular
culture. It is intriguing to observe how Crawford utilizes the genre of highromance as well as the subject of Italy and succeeds in pioneering the rich genre of
Mafia fiction. In spite of the lack of a sympathetic vision toward social others, it
has to be admitted that Corleone occupies an important position in genre fiction;
the work deserves more serious critical attention in reconsidering American popular culture. Although Puzo’s actual borrowing from Crawford cannot be proved inthis paper, it is worth noting that the Godfather trilogy appears to be a contemporary version of the Saracinesca saga.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) (20520249).

Notes
1 F. Marion Crawford, “For the Blood is the Life” and Other Stories (1911; Clarkston, Georgia:
White Wolf Publishing, 1996), 176.
2 Mario Puzo, The Godfather Papers and Other Confessions (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
1972), 34.
3 Puzo, The Godfather Papers, 35.
4 John C. Moran, An F. Marion Crawford Companion (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981),
34.
5 For a survey of the criticism on Crawford, see chapter one of the following dissertation: Taeko
Kitahara, “Light and Shadow: A Comparative Study of Henry James and F. Marion Crawford.”
University of Tokyo, 2003, 21-44.
6 “Review of The Godfather, by Mario Puzo,” America, 3 May 1969, 538.
7 John G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, and Romance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976),
52.
8 William L. Vance researches and explores this theme well in The America’s Rome, Volume Two:
Catholic and Contemporary Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
9 Until the 1960s, omerta was never broken. Joe Valachi was one of the first to break the code; he madethe existence of organized crime public and testified in the U.S. Congress. The detailed accounts of
the Mafia appear in his famous The Valachi Papers (1968). Fred L. Gardaphe, “Italian American
Novelists,” The Italian American Heritage: A Companion to Literature and Arts, ed. Pellegrino
D’Acierno (New York: Garland Publishing, 1999), 178.
1 0 In cinematographic history, like the Western, “gangster” movies have a long, rich tradition. Here,one needs to note that the term “gangster” refers to mobsters of diverse ethnic backgrounds—not
only Italian people but also Irish, Jewish, African American, Chinese, etc. Even among the Italians,

100Taeko Kitahara
there exist local criminal organizations such as the Neapolitan “camorra,” Milanese “teppa,” andRoman “bagherinaggio”; the Sicilian Mafia is considered to be different from these organizations.
Italian gangs started appearing as the protagonists in movies in the 1930s: Little Caesar and
Scarface portray the “big shot” modeled on Al Capone, who was from Naples. In fact, Capone hascontinued to remain a popular subject (e.g., The Untouchables, 1987). In this context, The Godfather (1972) was a pioneering film that shone the spotlight on the Sicilian Mafia without referringto the term explicitly. It inspired many films such as Mean Streets (1973), Once Upon a Time in
America (1984), Wise Guys (1986), Goodfellas (1990), and so on.
1 1 Amy Gutmann, introduction, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Charles
Taylor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 3.
1 2 Bruce J. Schulman points this out in his concise sketch of the “shift” in the 1970s: “‘Plugging In’:
Seeking and Finding in the Seventies,” The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2001), 78-101; see especially 80-87 for accounts on the ethnic revival and fervor that surrounded the publication of The Godfather.
1 3 The first two volumes are titled Katharine Lauderdale (1894) and The Ralstons (1895). While theformer deals with the eponymous heroine’s secret marriage to the son of the Ralstons, the latter isabout their marital life in New York society. The two novels are meant to be novels of manners;
however, they seem to involve a greater focus on the characters.
1 4 The fate of the children demonstrates the parallelism between the two texts. In the Corleone family,
the first son (Sonny) dies; the second son (Fredo) drops out of the Mafia war; the third son (Michael)
inherits the post of don; and the youngest child/only daughter (Connie) gets married but is widowed. In the Pagliuca family, the first son (Tebaldo) dies; the second son (Francesco) is murdered;
the third son (Ferdinando) is killed after joining the Mafia; and the youngest member/only daughter(Vittoria) marries a Saracinesca.
1 5 F. Marion Crawford, Corleone: A Tale of Sicily, 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1898), vol. 1, 153.
All textual citations will be based on this edition and hereafter only the page number will be
provided in parentheses.
1 6 Melodramas have a distinct structure for presenting a stark contrast between good and evil. The
typical structure is as follows: first, an “innocent” character is introduced; but the character is thenthreatened by some form of “evil.” After the confrontation between the two, the evil defeats theinnocent one. At the end, however, the innocent manages to restore the original state of order by
overthrowing the evil (or the evil destroys itself). Such a framework can be applied to many dramas/
works of fiction that were written from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Even contemporary entertainment such as the “police story, Western, [and] hospital drama” reveals a clear melodramatic conflict (Brooks 204). For an in-depth study on melodrama, see Peter Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination: Balzac, Henry James, and the Mode of Excess (1976; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).
1 7 Crime fiction has a long history that can be traced to the ancient Greek/Roman dramatists. Chronologically, after the ancient plays, the genre was carried on through the Shakespearean tragedies, thepicaresque novels of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and the classic detective novels of the101The Legacy of F. Marion Crawford: Corleone and The Godfather
nineteenth century. The genre of crime fiction deals with diverse crimes/sins such as murder, theft,arson, and swindling. It usually focuses on serious crimes/sins committed by individuals and thepunishment for the same. (The iconic title of Dostoyevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment comesto mind in this context.) The late nineteenth-century detective novels simultaneously becamearchetypal mysteries, and the inspiration for the subgenres of hard-boiled detective as well as
gangster fiction. For a detailed discussion on crime fiction and its history, see Cawelti, especially
51-79. The Rough Guide to Crime Fiction by Barry Forshaw (London: Rough Guides, 2007) also
serves as a compact introduction to the genre.
18 Concerning this point, William Simon suggests that Michael is hypocritical toward Kay in his “AnAnalysis of the Structure of The Godfather, Part One,” Studies in the Literary Imagination 16,
no.1 (1983): 85.
1 9 Thomas J. Ferraro, “‘My Way’ in ‘Our America’: Art, Ethnicity, Profession,” American Literary
History 12, no. 3 (2000): 499-522.
2 0 Mario Puzo, The Godfather (1969; New York: New American Library, 2005), 428. All textual
citations will be based on this edition and hereafter only the page number will be given in parentheses.
2 1 Mel Gussow, “Mario Puzo, Author Who Made ‘The Godfather’ a World Addiction, Is Dead at 78,”
New York Times on the Web, 3 July 1999 <http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html>.
2 2 “Sicily,” Encyclopaedia Britannica in Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite(Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007); M. I. Finley, Denis Mack Smith, and Christopher
Duggan, A History of Sicily (London: Chatto & Windus, 1986).
2 3 “Mafia,” The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., CD-ROM (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1992).
2 4 Crawford himself wrote nonfiction on the Mafia, The Rulers of the South (New York: Macmillan,
1905), 363-85. In addition to Raimondo Catanzaro’s Men of Respect: A Social History of theSicilian Mafia, trans. Raymond Rosenthal (New York: The Free Press, 1988), the following aresome other historical works which provide relevant information: The Italian Mafia by Silvio
Piersanti, trans. Kyoko Asada (Tokyo: Chikuma, 2007), 36; Alexander Stille, Excellent Cadavers:
The Mafia and the Death of the First Italian Republic, trans. Hideki Matsuura (Tokyo: Mainichi
Shimbun Publishing Division, 1999), 9-39.
2 5 F. Marion Crawford, The Novel: What It Is (1893; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Literature House, 1970),
37-42.
2 6 James Thomas Chiampi argues that in The Godfather, Puzo defamiliarizes America by using Sicilian
values. See “Resurrecting The Godfather,” MELUS 5, no.4 (1978): 18-31.
2 7 Adams was one of the twenty most common names in America in 1790. Masashi Kimura, British/
American Surnames: the Origin and Historical Tradition (1980; Tokyo: Yumi Press, 1994), 164.
2 8 As a young boy, Puzo used to enjoy boarding with a private family in New Hampshire during
summer; this was part of the programs organized by the Hudson Guild Settlement House—the“field of joy for slum kids.” To Puzo, the verdant landscape of New Hampshire connoted a land of
aspiration. The Godfather Papers, 20-22.
2 9 Many academic works on The Sopranos are now available, suggesting an increase in critical inter-102

Taeko Kitahara
est. A useful anthology is This Thing of Ours: Investigating the Sopranos, ed. David Lavery (NewYork: Columbia University Press, 2002).
3 0 Interpretations of The Godfather with a focus on the “family” (including the movie version) havebeen provided by Cawelti (51-79) and Richard Combs: “Coppola’s Family Plot: The Godfather
Variations,” Film Comment 38, no.2 (2002): 38-44.
3 1 Crawford, Novel, 11-18.
3 2 Today’s popular Mafia TV series, The Sopranos, offers another ethnic hero, Tony Soprano. However, unlike the impeccable, brilliant, and handsome Michael, Tony, who is surely shrewd andcharming, appears to be a more real-life figure with health and family problems. Because of the highlevels of stress he experiences as a “don” of two families (i.e., private and business ones), Tony isobliged to consult a psychiatrist; this contributes to a convincing rendering of a contemporary
mafioso.

An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 40th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Association for American Studies held in Nagoya (June 2006).

103