Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics:
Observations from Temporal and Spatial Dimensions

Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics:
Observations from Temporal and Spatial
Dimensions
Kazuo OGOURA

Introduction
As the Paralympics becomes more widely recognized and the public’s knowledge
and interest grows, Paralympic competitions are, in part, starting to becommercialized and made into a form of entertainment. The current situation calls
for a re-evaluation of what has been considered as the essential significance and effectof the Paralympic Games and the Paralympic Movement on society. In other words,
there is an increasing need to look back on the history of the Paralympics to examine
its original significance and ideals and, at the same time, to re-evaluate or re-examine
the significance and ideals of the Paralympics through comparisons with similarinternational games and movements.
From this perspective, this article will attempt to revisit the original ideals of the
Paralympics and to look back on the history of the Paralympics. It will also discuss
the significance and ideals of the Paralympics from social and international
perspectives, in particular through comparisons with other international disability
sports competitions: the Deaflympics, Special Olympics, the VIRTUS（previously
INAS）Global Games for persons with intellectual disability, and the Invictus Games.
The observation and analysis will focus on Paralympic ideals through the following
eight dimensions:（1）as symbolized by the Paralympic symbol;（2）the slogans of the
Paralympic Games;（3）the words of Sir Ludwig Guttmann;（4）the speeches at the
opening and closing ceremonies; （5） the stage performances at the opening andclosing ceremonies, medals, and songs;（6）the achievements of the recipients of theWhang Youn Dai Achievement Award; （7） comparison with major international
disability sports competitions; and（8）comparison with the ideals of Japan’s NationalSports Festival for People with Disabilities.
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1.

The Ideals of the Paralympics in its Symbols

When the archery competition by patients of Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Britain—
considered the origin of the Paralympics—was first internationalized, the flag of thegames bore a symbol comprised of the initials “SMG”（for Stoke Mandeville Games）
surrounded by stars representing the number of countries participating in the games.
After the International Paralympic Committee （IPC） was established in 1989, theRome 1960 Paralympic Games became recognized officially as the first Paralympic
Games.１ A symbol that joined the three wheels of the wheelchair was used（Fig. 1）
for the Tokyo 1964, the Tel Aviv 1968, and the Heidelberg 1972 Paralympic Games.
The three wheels represented “Unity,” “Friendship,” and “Sportsmanship.”Figure 1. Symbol used at the Paralympic Games in 1964, 1968 and 1972.
Ludwig Guttmann, 1976, Textbook of Sport for the Disabled, HM+M Publishers, 34.

In a message on the aims of the Games, Unity was described as “uniting paralyzed
men and women from all parts of the world in an international sports movement,”
Friendship as “through the medium of sports, to further friendship and understanding
among nations,” and Sportsmanship as “the spirit of sportsmanship will give hope andinspiration to thousands of paralyzed people.”２After the Seoul 1988 Games, it was decided that the Seoul Games logo consisting offive decorative motifs would become the symbol of the Paralympics（Fig. 2）.３

Figure 2. Paralympic Symbol from the Seoul 1988 Games to the Lillehammer 1994 Games
IPC, “Seoul 1988,” https://www.paralympic.org/seoul-1988/medals,（September 7, 2019）22

Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics:
Observations from Temporal and Spatial Dimensions

The explanation for this design was as follows: the five motifs represented the fivecontinents and the five oceans, and the configuration of three motifs at the top andtwo at the bottom was meant to represent “w” for the word “world,” with the intent
to express “harmony” and “unity of the disabled worldwide through sports.” Thehorizontal configuration of the motifs in two lines was a symbol of “equality” and“humanity,” respectively, and the dynamism of the wave shape signified the“willingness” and “determination” of disabled people to become fully active.４
However, the International Olympic Committee found its resemblance to the
Olympic symbol of the five rings a problem. From the Lillehammer 1994 Games
onwards, a mark using three of the same motifs in the shape of a mountain was
adopted（Fig. 3）. This mark symbolized the “Mind,” “Body,” and “Spirit.”５

Figure 3. Paralympic Symbol from the 1996 Atlanta Games to the 2004 Athens GamesDisabled World, “The Symbol for the Paralympics,” https://www.disabled-world.com/sports/
paralympics/symbol.php,（September 7, 2019）.

Later, at the meeting of the International Paralympic Committee（IPC）in 2003, it
was decided to adopt the new symbol of the “three Agitos.”６（The three Agitos havebeen redrawn and recoloured as part of new brand strategy of the IPC in October 2019.
And a new brand narrative “Change Starts with Sport” has been created as well）

Figure 4. Paralympic Symbol from the 2006 Torino Games
IPC, IPC VISION, MOTTO, SYMBOL, https://www.paralympic.org/sites/default/files/
document/120427151817794_Vision.pdf,（September 7, 2019）.

The three lines encircling a central point symbolize motion and emphasize the roleof the Paralympic Movement in bringing athletes together from around the world to23

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.13

compete.7 When we look back on the history of the Paralympic symbol, it can be said
that one of the ideals of the Paralympics is to promote activities of disabled people
through sports and to bring disabled people together from around the world to foster
solidarity and friendship.

2. The Ideals of the Paralympics from the Perspective of the
Slogans of the Paralympic GamesThe ideals of the Paralympics have also been expressed in the slogans that the hostcity and its country have adopted for the event.
In the past, some of the Paralympic Games did not necessary have clearly definedslogans. With others, the slogan used during the event preparation stage or during
the event differed slightly from the points emphasized in the post-event report.
Nevertheless, when we focus on the clearly defined slogans from past Paralympics, it
is possible to find the following three points of Paralympic significance or ideals
expressed overall. Since the 2006 Paralympics, common slogans have been used forboth the Olympic and Paralympic Games, and these common slogans are included in
the analysis below as Paralympic slogans.
The first is to inspire, awaken, and encourage people. It is expressed in such
slogans as “Passion lives here”（Torino 2006 Games）, “Inspire a generation”（London
2012 Games）, and “Passion. Connected.”（PyeongChang 2018 Games）.
The second is the display of human potential. Examples include “The triumph ofthe human spirit”（Atlanta 1996 Games）, “No limits”（Lillehammer 1994 Games）, and“Without limits”（Sydney 2000 Games）.
The third is the spirit of solidarity. The slogans corresponding to this ideal are “A time to
be together”（Toronto 1976 Games）and “One World, One Dream”（Beijing 2008 Games）.
These suggest that the ideals of the Paralympic Games are to encourage andinspire people through the display of human potential and to enable people to sharein the spirit of solidarity.

3. The Ideals of the Paralympics as Seen in the Words of Sir
Ludwig Guttmann
The report on the Tokyo 1964 Games quotes Sir Ludwig Guttmann, known as thefather of the Paralympics, as saying “Do not count what is lost. Use what is remaining
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to the full,”８ and treats this quote as the ideal of the Paralympics. There are also
people in the world of disability sports in Japan who repeat this quote as the origin of
the Paralympic spirit. However, this quote could not be found in any books written
by Guttmann or by his long-time secretary Joan Scruton,９ or in the biography ofGuttmann written by Susan Goodman.10
Some take the view that the quote was disseminated in Japan by Yutaka
Nakamura, the founder of Japan sun Industries（Taiyo no Ie）in Oita City, who heard
similar words from Guttmann. There are, however, no such words written in thedetailed biography of Nakamura,11 and this view lacks clear evidence.
A predecessor of Nakamura in disability care in Japan, Saburo Naito, the directorof Kyushu Rosai Hospital, had already introduced in 1957 “a training method fordisabled people who are unrecoverable to strengthen their remaining functions andto encourage their reintegration into society through inclusion of sports in theirtraining.”12 It may be that because ideas similar to the alleged quote by Guttmann
had already been spreading among people involved in disability care in Japan, the socalled “Guttmann’s words” were used to spread to the wider public what was acommon understanding among those involved in disability care.
For this reason, although we cannot determine the origin of what is often alluded
to as “Guttmann’s words,” we can consider them as an expression of the ideal of the
Paralympics.
It should also be noted that the above quote seems to have been widely shared inEurope not specifically as the ideal of the Paralympics, but as words ofencouragement for disabled people. As evidence, in D. H. Lawrence’s Lady
Chatterley’s Lover published in 1928, Lady Chatterley’s husband Clifford, who wasparalyzed in the lower body from an injury in the war and became bound to awheelchair, remarks “What remained to him was inordinately precious to him.”13 It is
possible to say that strengthening of the remaining functions was considered a way
to encourage disabled people, and this idea was keenly recognized in Europe after theFirst World War.

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4. The Significance and Ideals of the Paralympics as Seenfrom the Perspective of the Speeches at Opening and Closing
Ceremonies
A.

The Rome 1960 Games and the Tokyo 1964 GamesAt the opening ceremony of the Rome 1960 Games, Pope John XXIII, in praise of
the athletes, said “You have shown what an energetic soul can achieve, in spite ofapparently insurmountable obstacles imposed by the body.”14 At the Rome Games,
Guttmann said “The vast majority of competitors and escorts have fully understood
the meaning of the Rome Games as a new pattern of reintegration of the paralyzed
into society, as well as the world of sport,”15 and declared that social reintegration of
disabled people was a core ideal of the Paralympics.
In an address at the opening ceremony of the Tokyo 1964 Games, Guttmann said
“The basics of it［the Games］is always aligned with the three principles of friendship,
unity, and the spirit of sportsmanship,”16 in what could be described as an explanationof the meaning of the symbol of the Paralympic Games. His Imperial Highness the
Crown Prince Akihito（at the time）, in an address at the opening ceremony, said “I
express my respect to the achievement and spirit of the Stoke Mandeville Games
that brought hope and meaningful life to physically disabled persons around theworld,” and noted, “Sport has provided you［disabled people］with mental support
and a quick path to being reintegrated into society,” in a speech that recognized thesignificance of the Paralympics as one of raising the awareness of the wider public
about the role of sports in promoting social reintegration of disabled people.17 The
report on the Tokyo Games summarized the significance of disability sports
competitions, with the Paralympics foremost in mind, as follows:18
The meaning of disability sports competitions is first, to remove any inferiority
complex in disabled people—as Sir Guttmann has said, “Do not count what is lost.
Use what is remaining to the full”—by having them train their body, haveconfidence in their physical fitness and functions, and have fresh hope andcourage. Second, it is to show to the general public the potential of disabled
people and to increase their interest and understanding. This will substantiallyhelp in the social reintegration of disabled people. Third, it is to promote, through26

Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics:
Observations from Temporal and Spatial Dimensions

sports, friendship and fellowship among people who share a common predicamentof having a physical disability, so that they can encourage each other in
improving the lives of each person with a disability.
B. The Beijing 2008 Games, the London 2012 Games, and the Rio 2016 GamesAt the closing ceremony of the Beijing 2008 Games, Philip Craven, then Presidentof the International Paralympic Committee, quoted Confucius: “That friends shouldcome to one from afar, is this not after all delightful?” These words suggest thatdeepening the bond of fraternity or friendship is part of the Paralympic ideal.19
At the same closing ceremony, Liu Qi, President of the Beijing Organizing
Committee for the Olympic Games, praised the Paralympic athletes for displaying a
positive attitude toward life by exhibiting “self-respect,” “self-confidence,” “selfimprovement,” and “self-reliance,” and at the same time, added to the above four, theelements of “fortitude” and of being “masters of their own destinies.” These words
suggest that the significance of the Paralympic Games lies in how the performance ofdisabled athletes helps to stimulate a greater sense of independence among disabled
people at large. Qi, moreover, added that “Inspired by the Paralympic Games, morethan 300,000 people with a disability in Beijing further integrated themselves into
society,” and emphasized the social significance of the Paralympics by saying that theParalympics are a great event to encourage public interest in and to promote thecause for disabled people. He also mentioned the barrier-free improvements made to
public facilities as the result of the Games, and touched on improvements made to
non-physical aspects by saying, “An accessible bridge has also been formed to join
our hearts.” His speech stressed the profound significance the Beijing Games had onsociety, and implied that such social significance was the essential principle of the
Paralympics.20
At the London 2012 Games, a disabled veteran gave a speech at the closing
ceremony, in which he said, “We have all been touched by the triumphs and drama,”suggesting that the ideal of the Paralympics was also about confirming “the glory oftriumph.”21 Sebastian Coe, Chair of the London Organising Committee of the Olympic
and Paralympic Games, quoted the words of a Games volunteer in his speech, “TheParalympians have lifted the cloud of limitation,” stating to the effect that themeaning of the Paralympics was in removing limitations imposed by disability.22
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In his speech at the closing ceremony of the Rio 2016 Games, Philip Craven, thenPresident of the International Paralympic Committee, said, “You showed to the worldthat with a positive attitude, the human body, and above all the human heart andmind, knows no limits and absolutely anything is possible,” and praised theParalympians by saying, “You are now heroes and role models for a new generationof sports fans from all over the world.”23
The speeches at the London and Rio Games overall lay emphasis on the effect of“inspiration” brought about by the athletes “overcoming disability” and excelling intheir performances, reflecting the idea that this aspect of the Games is the verysignificance of the Paralympics. In contrast, the emphasis at the Beijing Games wason the positive effect of the Paralympics on improving facilities in both physical andnon-physical aspects, on social participation of disabled people, and on the attitude of
the public towards disabled people. This implies that how the ideals and significanceof the Paralympics will be interpreted will depend considerably on the situation in
the host country.
C. The Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics as Set Out by the IPC
The IPC sets out the ideals or significance of the Paralympics as “values” in its
Annual Report. From the annual reports available on the IPC website as of October
2019, the Annual Report 2006 states the current values of the Paralympics as“determination,” “courage,” “inspiration,” and “equality.” The current explanation onthese four values of the Paralympics was added in the Annual Report 2015. The
athletes are considered to embody or maintain these values: “courage” is defined as“through their performances, Para athletes showcase to the world what can beachieved when testing your body to its absolute limits”; “determination” as “Paraathletes have a unique strength of character that combines mental toughness,
physical ability and outstanding agility to produce sporting performances which
regularly redefine the boundaries of possibility”; “inspiration” as “Para athletes fully
maximize their talents and abilities in their tireless pursuit of sporting excellence, andas role models they empower and excite others to get active and involved in sport”;
and “equality” as “through sport Para athletes challenge stereotypes and transform
attitudes, helping to increase inclusion by breaking down social barriers anddiscrimination towards people with an impairment.”2425
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This annual report divides the process for concretizing these values into fourstages -“drivers,” “goals,” “vision,” and “aspiration” - as a pathway or guideline so thatthe values the athletes are expected to embody will have a social impact（Fig. 5）.

Figure 5. IPC’s Aspiration, Vision and Values
IPC, 2016, International Paralympic Committee Annual Report 2015, 11, https://www.
paralympic.org/sites/default/files/document/161017094732962_2016_10_11+IPC+Annual+Re
port+2015+web+version.pdf,（September 6, 2019）

These explanations, however, have not necessarily made clear the relation between
the values embodied by the athletes（“courage” and “determination”）and the impact
on society, including on disabled people（“inspiration” and “equality”）. It should be
noted that because the four values are placed side by side, it may give the misleading
impression that social impact, such as empowerment and inclusion, can be achieved
simply through the inspiration of personal efforts and talents of individual disabledathletes.

5. Ideals of the Paralympics as Seen from the Stage
Performances at the Opening and Closing Ceremonies, Medals,
and Songs
The ideals of the Paralympics are reflected not only in the speeches or othercomments by the officials of the Games, but also in the stage directions for the
opening and closing ceremonies, the forms of medals, and Paralympic songs.
Firstly, the Paralympic ideal of promoting social participation of disabled people
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was expressed, for instance, at the stage performance during the opening ceremonyof the Atlanta 1996 Games. At that ceremony, the national anthem was sung by aparaplegic singer, the host was the Hollywood actor Christopher Reeve, who had
spinal cord injury from a horse-riding accident, and of the 14 U.S. Army parachutists
descending into the center of the arena, the last to land was a soldier who had double
leg amputation as a result of a parachute accident.26 The fact that disabled people
played their unique roles in the ceremony implies that their active participation insocial activities is an ideal of the Paralympics. This kind of stage performance wasalso meaningful in terms of highlighting the diversity of disabled people. The same
could be said of the opening ceremony at the Barcelona 1992 Games. At that
ceremony, it was a single arm amputee who carried the Paralympic flame into thestadium. The flame was then passed on to a visually impaired athlete running with aguide dog, to an athlete with brain palsy, and then to an athlete in a wheelchair. This
performance also highlighted the diversity of disability.27 In the Paralympics, because
attention is often directed to wheelchair events owing partly to the origins of the
Paralympic Games, impressing upon people’s minds the diversity of disability has animportant meaning for society.
In this context, research on whether braille is used in the configuration of the
medals at each of the Paralympic Games - as a measure of whether the diversity ofdisability has been taken into consideration - is summarized in Table 1. The fact thatbraille is used in every summer Paralympic Games since Athens 2004 indirectly
confirms that promoting understanding of the diversity of disability and the social
participation of disabled people are ideals of the Paralympics （not to mention its
effect on encouraging the visually impaired to participate in the Paralympic Games）.
For the Tokyo 1964 Games, Senichi Inoue composed the song “Tokyo Paralympic
no Uta” with lyrics by Junsaku Kobayashi. In it, the Paralympic spirit of international
solidarity and friendship is expressed by the words “power of love,” “power to unite,”and “power to connect.” It can be said that cultivation of friendship and solidarity isproclaimed in the song as ideals of the Paralympics.28
The IPC’s official Paralympic Anthem “Hymn de l’Avenir”（Anthem of the Future）
was composed in 1996 by Thierry Darnis. The Australian country singer Graeme
Connors, who sung his own song at the opening ceremony of the Sydney 2000 Games
to popular acclaim, wrote the lyrics to “Hymn de l’Avenir” after the Games, and the30

Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics:
Observations from Temporal and Spatial Dimensions

Table 1. The Paralympics Games that Awarded Medals with Braille
Summer

WinterToronto 1976

Ornskoldsvik 1976

Stoke Mandeville & New York 1984

Tignes Albertville 1992

Seoul 1988

Lillehammer 1994

Barcelona 1992

Nagano 1998

Atlanta 1996

Vancouver 2010

Athens 2004

Sochi 2014

Beijing 2008

PyeongChang 2018

London 2012
Rio 2016
Brittain, I., 2014, From Stoke Mandeville to Sochi: A History of the Summer and WinterParalympic Games, Common Ground Publishers；IPC, “PARALYMPIC GAMES,” https://www.paralympic.org/paralympic-games,（September 06, 2019）.

IPC Management Committee at the time decided that the Hymn with the lyrics “willbecome a regular feature （of the opening and closing ceremonies of the future
Paralympic Games）.”29 The lyrics include “Facing the challenge, striving to findstrength in the body, power of the mind” as well as words that stress friendship andunity. The Paralympic ideals of unity and friendship arising from coming together in
one place to compete, and of developing a strong body and mind for the Games, arecaptured in the song as basic assumptions about the meaning of the Paralympics.

6. Ideals of the Paralympics as Seen from the Achievementsof the Recipients of the Whang Youn Dai Achievement
Award
At the very beginning of the Paralympics, sport was seen as a catalyst forrehabilitation and social reintegration of disabled people. However, as publicawareness of the Paralympics rose and the Games became more competitive, there
was a growing trend to attach more importance to athletes’ performances andwinning medals. In the face of this trend, a movement arose to focus more on thesocial significance of the Paralympics by honoring athletes who roused and inspired
the world not simply by winning medals, but through their achievements beyond
sporting performances. Specifically, the Whang Youn Dai Achievement Award was31

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established on the occasion of the Seoul 1988 Games by Whang Youn Dai who, as adisabled person, dedicated herself for many years to further the cause of disabled
people in the Republic of Korea.30 By analyzing the personal background andachievements of the recipients of this award, it can, in itself, indirectly prove that theParalympics have a significance and ideals besides improving the athletes’ competitive
performances.
Analyzing the personal background of the recipients and the reasons for theiraward, the recipients can be broadly categorized into four groups, as shown below.
The first group of athletes is those who exhibited remarkable performances, suchas winning multiple medals at both the summer and winter Paralympic Games.
Examples include the German athlete Martina Willing, who was awarded in 2000, andthe Canadian athlete Collette Bourgonje, who was awarded in 2010.
The second group of athletes is those who overcame particularly difficult
adversities in disability. Examples are（a）the German athlete Axel Hecker, who wasawarded in 2002 for overcoming multiple disabilities, and the above-mentioned
Willing; （b） the American athlete Lonnie Hannah, who was awarded in 2006 forovercoming physical disability as well as cancer; and（c）the South African athlete
Zanele Situ, the Ukrainian athlete Olena Iurkovska, and the Panamanian athlete Said
Gomez, awarded in 2004, 2006, and 2008, respectively, for overcoming poverty andother difficult circumstances.
The third group of athletes is those who had a broad impact on society throughtheir competitive performances or who played a role in society as a pioneer fordisabled people. They include the South Korean athlete Mi-Jeong Kim, the 1998
recipient who became the first disabled person to study physical education at college
in South Korea; Australian Rainer Schmidt, the 2004 recipient who is also active as an
author and pastor; the South African athlete Natalie Du Toit, the 2008 recipient who
engaged in fund-raising activities for a school for children with cerebral palsy; the
Kenyan athlete Mary Nakhumicha Zakayo, the 2012 recipient who has promoted theParalympic Movement and played an important role in society in encouraging womento participate; and Tatyana McFadden, the 2016 recipient who had a difficult
childhood in Russia before moving to the U.S. where she worked to implement a law
for ensuring that students with disabilities have equal access to sports.
The fourth group of athletes is those whose achievements were extremely32Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics:
Observations from Temporal and Spatial Dimensions

impressive or symbolic in “overcoming disability.” They include Takayuki Endo, the2010 recipient who climbed Mt. Fuji, and the above-mentioned McFadden, who madethe Grand Slam in the marathon.
The observations and analysis of the above recipients and their personal
backgrounds suggests that the Paralympics not only offers a model for “overcoming
physical disability,” but can also serve as a symbol for overcoming all kinds ofdifficulties in life. The award, in a sense, also makes heroes and heroines of disabledathletes, because it honors the accomplishments of individuals, which in itself has animportant social significance. It can also be observed that the social significance of
this award and, by extension, of the Paralympics, can differ significantly depending on
the situation in each country.

7. Comparison with Major International Disability Sporting
Competitions
As a means to understanding the ideals of the Paralympics, it is necessary to lookat and compare it with the stated ideals of other international disability sports
competitions that are not limited in scope to one type of competition. For comparison,
this article will look at the Deaflympics, Special Olympics, the VIRTUS（previously
INAS）Global Games, and the Invictus Games.
Regarding the Deaflympics, its governing body the International Committee ofSports for the Deaf（ICSD）, in its Constitution referred to Articles 5 and 30 of theConvention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and stated that ICSD’s mission
will be in accordance with the two articles. Article 5 of the Convention proclaims
equality and non-discrimination, and Article 30 clearly states that persons withdisabilities have the right to participate in cultural life and sports activities.31
Therefore, it can be considered that the ideals of the Deaflympics are, at its source,
elimination of discrimination against disabled people and promotion of participation of
disabled people in sports. The Deaflympics, moreover, adheres to the motto “PERLUDOS AEQUALITAS（Equality through sport）,” suggesting that equal treatment
of deaf people through sport is its core ideal.
Strengthening of solidarity, international collaboration, and a sense of unity among
the deaf are also an important point in terms of the aims of the Deaflympics, and isevident from the official ICSD website. While looking back on the history since the33

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International Silent Games, the starting point for the Deaflympics, the website statesthat “the establishment of a sense of identity within the world-wide deaf community”
is one of the missions of the Deaflympics.32 These ideals pertaining to the “identity” ofthe deaf and “strengthening of solidarity” through the Deaflympics are also evident in
the fact that the Deaflympics is organized separately from the Paralympics.33
As for Special Olympics, its stated mission is to “provide year-round sports training
and athletic competition in a variety of Olympic-type sports for children and adults
with intellectual disabilities, giving them continuing opportunities to develop physicalfitness, demonstrate courage, experience joy and participate in a sharing of gifts,
skills and friendship with their families, other Special Olympics athletes and thecommunity.”34
What should be noted here is the particular emphasis on the word “year-round.” Inother words, in addition to the World Games, which are organized every four years,
Special Olympics places weight on continuous daily activities. It is considered
important that “through the power of sports, people with intellectual disabilities
discover new strengths and abilities, skills and success. Our athletes find joy,confidence and fulfillment—on the playing field and in life. They also inspire people intheir communities and elsewhere to open their hearts to a wider world of humantalents and potential.”35
Special Olympics considers that it is important to increase opportunities forinteraction among persons with intellectual disabilities and between persons with andwithout intellectual disabilities. The significance, therefore, of the Special Olympics
Movement lies in providing meaningful opportunities for such interactions.36
As mentioned, the key aim of Special Olympics is to promote participation of people
with intellectual disabilities in sports. At a glance, the resulting “empowerment” ofpeople with intellectual disabilities may appear similar to the “empowerment” ofdisabled people in the Paralympics. In Special Olympics, however, there is notnecessarily emphasis on “overcoming disability” or “excelling in performance,” and interms of gaining the understanding of society, their ultimate aim is not about
introducing barrier-free designs. In other words, the social model whereby changes in
the physical and non-physical aspects of society will remove disability, does not apply
directly to people with intellectual disabilities. In that respect, there are differences in
the ideals between Paralympians who often go through the process of rehabilitation,
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overcoming disability, and achieve athletic performance, and Special Olympic athletes
who do not necessarily go through the same process. To put it differently, it can besaid that while the Paralympic Games may attach too much emphasis on athletes’
performance and medals, Special Olympics gives more emphasis on the participationof athletes. If so, a comparison between the Paralympics and VIRTUS（previously
INAS）Global Games may be more beneficial when it comes to intellectual disabilities,
than a comparison between the Paralympics and Special Olympics.
The INAS/VIRTUS website states that one of their visions is “the belief that an
intellectual impairment, autism or Down syndrome should not be a barrier tocompeting at the highest levels.” INAS/VIRTUS sees its role as promoting inclusionof people with intellectual disabilities. As a member of the Paralympics, it supervises
eligibility and classification and supports athletes in their development.37 INAS/
VIRTUS assists the participation of athletes with intellectual disabilities in the
Paralympic Games, and has established a working partnership and cooperation with
the IPC.
Lastly, in relation to the history of the Paralympics that has positioned sports as ameans to support rehabilitation and social participation of disabled people, acomparison can be made with the ideals of the Invictus Games, which are organizedas part of the rehabilitation of disabled veterans.
The disabled veterans who can participate in the Invictus Games are not only thewounded and injured, but also sick veterans. The purpose of the Games is to “use thepower of sport to inspire recovery and support rehabilitation.” On the other hand, theGames puts emphasis on an ideal different from those of the Paralympics byproclaiming as its aims and ideals, “using the power of sport to generate a wider
understanding and respect for those who served the country.”38 The Latin word
invictus used in the name of the Games means “unconquerable” or “invincible,” andthis expression of a fighting spirit in the name suggests that the Games are inthemselves a form of a “fight” with “victory” in the participants’ second life at stake.

8. Comparison with the Ideals of the National Sports Festival
for People with Disabilities
In Japan, the Tokyo 1964 Paralympic Games（officially, the 13th International Stoke
Mandeville Games for the Paralysed）prompted the establishment of the Japan Sports
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Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.13

Association for the Disabled （today’s Japanese Para-Sports Association）, whichorganized the National Sports Festival for People with Physical Disabilities （from2001, the National Sports Festival for People with Disabilities; hereafter the “NSFPD”）
every year from 1965. The ideals of the NSFPD were derived from the outcomes of
the Tokyo 1964 Games of “maintaining and enhancing physical fitness, improving
their remaining functions, and promoting psychological rehabilitation of the physicallydisabled persons who participated in the Paralympics” and “as for the general public,of profoundly increasing their understanding of and interest in physically disabled
persons.” This process was expected to “contribute to furthering independence andrehabilitation of the physically disabled.”39 These ideals are basically the same as theideals of the Paralympics.
Sports essentially entail physical movement. For disabled people, improvement of
their fitness levels not only increases their independence, but also facilitates their
participation in society. It can be said that improving physical fitness is a common
ideal for both the Paralympics and NSFPD. In fact, expressions such as “Take off andfly” and “Fly away” were used at 11 out of 55 games of the National Sports Festival
for People with Physical Disabilities and NSFPD.
On the other hand, the NSFPD has not provided any official explanation as to what
extent the principles of competition should be adopted in the NSFPD and to what
extent competition over performance in sports should be encouraged in achieving theabove ideals. To begin with, the number of athletes that each delegation can field at
the NSFPD is calculated by dividing the total number of athletes participating in thegame by the number of official booklet certificates of physical and intellectual
disabilities issued by each prefecture and designated city on a pro rata basis. The
selection of athletes is decided by a selection committee composed of members fromdisability organizations and disability sports organizations from different prefecturesand major cities in Japan. The committee is expected to give due consideration toprioritizing athletes who have not yet participated in the NSFPD. From this, it ispossible to surmise that the main objectives are to field athletes from all parts ofJapan and to improve their physical capabilities.4041
These ideals are also reflected in other aspects of the games. In the 55 games of
the National Sports Festival for People with Physical Disabilities and NSFPD
organized between 1965 and 2019, none has proclaimed victory or glory in their36

Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics:
Observations from Temporal and Spatial Dimensions

slogans. At the 1968 games in Fukui, the slogan did contain the word “glory,” but it is
the “glory of perseverance and efforts” and not the “glory of victory.” There is no
mention of the “limitless human potential” often proclaimed at the Paralympic Games.
Expressions such as “making utmost efforts,” “perseverance,” “with all might,” and“efforts” can also be found in the slogans of the National Sports Festival for People
with Physical Disabilities and NSFPD. Whereas one of the sources of inspiration in
the Paralympic Games is the achievement of the seemingly impossible, theexpectations in the NSFPD are to praise, and be inspired by, the very act of theathletes exhibiting their very best effort.

Conclusion
The above observations and analysis show that the Paralympics, which beganoriginally with Guttmann’s ideals of “overcoming disability through rehabilitation bymeans of sports” and “fostering international solidarity,” has, through the passage oftime, come to lay more emphasis on “inspiration” from athletes’ high levels ofcompetitive performance. Such “inspiration” has come to be seen as having
significance, first as a symbol displaying capabilities of disabled people and their
participation in society and second, as a catalyst for improving the social environment
in which disabled people are placed.
However, this historical process has also created a tendency where thoseparticipating in the Paralympic Games are seen not as “persons with disability” butpurely as “athletes.” This tendency is “metamorphosing” the Paralympic Games froma sporting event for disabled people to an international sporting event that, althoughrequiring “disability” as a condition for participation, is developing in new, distinct
ways.
Therefore, it would not be surprising if the ideals or significance of such “distinct”
games did not necessarily relate directly to “disability.” An indication of this is thetrend where the word “disability” is not clearly stated in the Paralympic logo or theslogans of the Paralympic Games. Attention should be given to the fact that the idealsof the Paralympics have changed with the passage of time and have been dependent
on the social conditions prevailing in the year in which the Paralympic Games are held.

37

Journal of Paralympic Research Group vol.13
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14Brittain, I., From Stoke Mandeville to Sochi: A History of the Summer and WinterParalympic Games, 55.

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Ibid.

18

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21

Brittain, I., From Stoke Mandeville to Sochi: A History of the Summer and WinterParalympic Games, 273.

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23

IPC, “IPC President’s Speech at Closing Ceremony of Rio Games,” September 18. 2016,38

Ideals and Significance of the Paralympics:
Observations from Temporal and Spatial Dimensions
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40

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39