But Is It Art? Creative Writing
Workshops in the U.S.*( それにしても、文学と言えるのですか？
アメリカにおけるクリエイティブ･
ライティングワークショップ）
David Galef**
It’s an odd fact of English departments across the United States that somany professors who study literature for a living don’t particularly want
authors as their colleagues. This divide is known as the literature-creative writing rift in academia. The literary critics see the writers as having it easy: producing some stories or poems every once in a while and teaching courses that don’t
seem to require much preparation. The writers, of course, view the critics as
uncreative parasites, living off others’ work.
This mutual non-comprehension was best epitomized some decades ago at
Harvard, when the literature department was considering whether to offer Vladimir
Nabokov a position. “What’s next?” thundered the linguist Roman Jakobson,“Shall we appoint elephants to teach zoology?” Though Nabokov eventuallywent on to teach at Cornell, and his remarks on the field have been collected in
the magisterial Lectures on Literature, the sore point remains: Should actual
writers rather than critics teach literature? Furthermore, should writers teachwriting, or is that a non-rigorous subject best left to some non-university sector?
Can creative writing even be taught, anyway?
These are old issues, admittedly. They’ve been around since the firstcreative writing program at the University of Iowa, which followed the model ofthe trade school, where doctors teach apprentice doctors, and so on. Thoughmany institutions were slow to accept creative writing as a discipline, English
itself was once a tough sell in the academy. In the mid-1800’s, literature study
consisted mainly of classics, works considered aere perennius, Horace’s termfor “more enduring than bronze.” Taking a hard, critical look at stuff like novels
and Romantic poetry was considered silly.
* This article is a revised version of the special lecture given at Sophia University on 30 April 2008.
** Professor of English at Montclair State University, New Jersey, U.S.A.

But Is It Art? Creating Writing Workshop in the U.S.

Yet, as William Riley Parker notes in his essay “Where Do English Departments Come From?,” literature in English began to emerge as a legitimate field ofstudy in the 1870’s, with a focus on elocution and literature beyond the classics.
Harvard inaugurated a composition class in 1872, and figures like the now-forgotten
Barrett Wendell taught what became known as the daily theme, a short piece ofwriting about whatever the students chose to focus on, no matter how trivial, but
enlivened by the students’ perceptions and mode of expression. Driving thisexpressivist movement was the conviction that, to understand literature, a soundknowledge of its interior workings was crucial, and who had a better command ofsuch knowledge than a working writer?
Literature classes, on the other hand, were still devoted to a weary procession of dates and other facts, and in many courses the students never read so muchas a sonnet. The professors lectured on literature without bringing much of it into
the classroom. These were the philologists, a Latin term that means “love ofwords,” and a piece of irony for those students who suffered under a drone offacts and historical details. On the other hand, by the early 1900’s, many composition classes focused on sheer mechanics, grammar and syntax building to clarityof expression. Creative writing workshops were a middle ground, encouraging
writing but with a literary grounding. “Teach by doing” was the credo. The
teacher William Hughes Mearns was influential in bringing creative exercises toelementary school pupils with marked success, and many educators were eager tofollow his example. At the same time, popular how-to books began to tackle
fiction-writing, with a heavy emphasis on the making of short stories. One of themore enduring volumes, So You Want to Write!, by Esther L. Schwartz, became abestseller. It also spawned later imitations like So You Want to Write? and So You
Want to Write a Book.
But so-called creative writing in the academy started at Iowa in 1922 withthe acceptance of creative work for advanced degrees and was formally inaugurated as a program in 1936 as a workshop for poets and fiction writers (Writers’
Workshop 1). And the set-up spread to other universities, notably Denver,Cornell, and Johns Hopkins. Because someone had to teach these seminars
devoted to producing literature, now known as the workshop method, professional writers were tapped for the job. As the system grew, a national network ofcreative writing instructors emerged, supporting squads of otherwise unemployable poets and feckless fiction writers.
The whole contentious history, with plenty of arguments between the schol4

David Galef

ars or philologists and the lay critics or writers, is best summed up by D. G.
Myers in The Elephants Teach: Creative Writing Since 1880. Since the book was
published in 1996, it omits the latest decade of creative writing growth. Around1945, only a handful of institutions taught creative writing. Today, over 300
programs in creative writing span the United States.
The whole system began to pick up speed in the 1960’s, when so much elsein American culture began to mushroom. As James Berlin remarks in Rhetoricand Reality: Writing Instruction in American Colleges, 1900-1985, “The influence of expressionism in art and of Freudian psychology also encouraged the riseof creative writing courses in high schools and colleges” (79). The AWP, or
Association of Writing Programs, was founded in 1967, in tune with the exhibitionist 1960’s movement and the 1970’s Me Decade coming to slow fruition in
the inevitable time-lag that exists within the academy. During this stretch, creative writing began to rise like a hot-pick stock. To cite a few numbers: in 1975,
the entire country had only 15 M.F.A. degree-granting institutions. By 2004, thenumber had climbed to 109. On the undergraduate level, the number of B.A.
programs in creative writing jumped from 3 to 86. Schools offering a Ph.D. increative writing (usually a creative dissertation or some hybrid of scholarshipand personal essay), once considered a great rarity, moved from 1 to 42.
Based on a raft of writing workshops, literature courses, language and translation classes, and pedagogy, creative writing programs now have their own corecurricula and degree requirements—for the A.A. and B.F.A. at the undergraduatelevel, the M.A., D.A., and M.F.A. at the graduate level, and the Ph.D. Recent
offshoots of the basics include playwriting, screenplay-writing, creative nonfiction, and even advertising copywriting. As in other academic fields, the degree of
specialization gets ever more refined. For example, some twenty years ago
Vermont College was the first in the nation to develop an entire M.F.A. programaround writing for children, and Goucher College in Maryland in the 1990’s
spearheaded a low-residency M.F.A. in creative nonfiction. Today, creative
nonfiction, which is to say factual accounts enlivened by dialogue, characterization, and scenes, is the new kid on the block.
During the businesslike 1980’s and beyond, the appeal of creative outlets
grew in an era when more and more jobs seem programmed or systematized; orthese days, the quixotic lure of originality in a society whose current generation
cannot top the economic accomplishments of the baby boomers. Yet, despite
distinguished creative writing program graduates as far back as Flannery O’Connor
5But Is It Art? Creating Writing Workshop in the U.S.

and as recent as Jonathan Safran Foer, for decades creative writing suffered thesame ghettoization as composition, as a poor cousin of the English department,
often staffed by adjunct faculty. If the study of English literature originally
suffered by comparison to the classics, at least it was analytic and could boast a
tradition. The creative writing workshop, in which students produced original
poetry or fiction and subjected it to a circle of peers, seemed unacademic to many:
non-rigorous, unscientific, and cultivating a skill that was either unteachable or
which smacked of arts and crafts. That English departments looked down on thein-house production of the very material they purported to study was an irony
that did not go unnoticed but also did not get corrected. To this day, a tacit war
exists between literary theorists and writers, though both usually publish andteach within the same department.
Why the animus on the part of other faculty members? One could posit thatmany literary theorists wanted their literature safely dead. During the rise of Big
Theory, whose reign was approximately from the mid-1970’s to the mid-1990’s,
the author was dead. In fact, Roland Barthes famously wrote an essay withexactly that title, “The Death of the Author,” in the mid-1970’s. On anothertheoretic front, Derrida’s deconstruction showcased language as a dazzling, endless chain of signifiers, without—as Norman Holland noted in The Critical I—
ever crediting a mind, or a working writer, as the fabricator. To avoid the embarrassment of talking about how one author influences another, literary theorists
even came up with intertextuality, how one text influences another, seemingly
without human intervention.
Yet, as the theory movement continued, other critical perspectives started torescue the author from oblivion. Feminist literary criticism cared a great deal
about the sex of the author, or his or her constructed gender. On another front,
African-American theorists wanted to know where the writer was coming from,as did those who examined class issues. Thus was born the unholy trinity of race,
gender, class—though in many places, including the American South, creed is justas important. The academy also tried to theorize humble composition, but withlimited success.
During an era that hasn’t been too friendly to English departments—or tothe humanities in general, with people questioning the usefulness of a liberal arts
education—attendance in workshops has swelled. Yet, if English as a major isquestionable as a career move, surely focusing on writing poetry is doubly suspect, at least for managing in the larger world that smacks one in the face after6

David Galef

graduation. So what accounts for this rise in popularity?
Well, what accounts for the allure of creative writing, in general? Robert
Wincour, a lawyer devoted to copyright law, puts it best: “As writing is one ofthe desperate professions, it has universal appeal, especially for those who are
not engaged in it” (7). As W. H. Auden once observed, somewhat more harshly:“How often one hears a young man with no talent say when asked what heintends to do, ‘I want to write.’ What he really means is, ‘I don’t want towork’” (7). Perhaps the idea of something for nothing, of creation seemingly ex
nihilo, is leading droves of students to sign up for creative writing workshops.
The system spawns itself. Schools yearly graduate a whole crop of apprentice writers who can’t support themselves by writing and generally end up, ifthey’re lucky, publishing some work and teaching their craft at a college somewhere. But can you teach creative writing?
I dislike this question and its waspish assumptions, but I’ve grown used toit. True, apprentice writers must provide their own inspiration and experience,
two aspects vital to the writing process, but a good writer and teacher can serve
as a sounding board, an editor, a nurturer of fledgling writers. Such a figure canalso help with connections to other writers, editors, agents, and publishers. And
what these apprentice writers learn in class often seems a lot more purely literary
than the sociology that, sadly, much literary criticism has become. Maybe this iswhere the profession should be headed. It was once called rhetoric.
Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion through verbal means, might best be termed
performance in words, as Robert Frost once described what he did. To study
rhetoric is to focus not specifically on what something means, a textual analysis
stemming from Biblical hermeneutics, when important doctrinal distinctions rested
on deep or fine meanings. Rhetoric, based in the classical era and thus predating
Christianity, focuses rather on how something means, with an intense interest intechnique and style and an urge to recreate those tricks in one’s own writing.
For example, near the start of Shakespeare’s Tempest, when Prospero explains to his daughter Miranda just how they happen to be on an island, far fromtheir native Milan, he begins by telling her that it is time she knew about her
origins. He then disgorges a huge chunk of information concerning politicalbetrayal, the embarkation for the island, and so forth—all the while continually
asking Miranda whether she’s listening, to which she replies, “Sir, most heedfully,” “O, good sir, I do,” and finally, as the old man continues to rant, and loudly:“Your tale, sir, would cure deafness.” She also acts as the prompter, asking naive
7But Is It Art? Creating Writing Workshop in the U.S.

questions along the way.
A traditional literary critic might note how a dual character portrait emerges
from this Q & A, the sad old man and his wide-eyed daughter. A theorist might
focus on political exile and the hegemony of power relations in Shakespeare’stime. A creative writing class would more likely notice how the speech is a
species of forced exposition really meant for the audience: How could Miranda,
already a young woman, not know these matters? And since Prospero’s speechis overlong, she interrupts him many times to break it up.
Whether other professors like it or not, students enjoy taking apart literature
like this, rather than dealing with it as either a sacred icon or a site for politicalcontestation. But what about the second, crucial part of creative writing: Can justanyone write a poem or write a really fine short story? Maybe not, but no one
who’s tried to rig up a plausible dialogue or attempted a lyric poem emerges fromthat class without a deeper, broader understanding of the difficulty, complexity,
and richness of art, and that’s genuinely useful, even if the student concludes thatperhaps a career as a banker makes more sense.
But not everyone can do creative writing! cry some critics, charging intellectual elitism. Maybe so, but not everyone can do math, either, yet it continues tobe offered at many levels. More telling, not everyone can make the football team,but no one thinks to call college athletics a bastion of elitism. Then again, since thefounding of the nation, the American educational system has been dogged byworries over intellectual elitism: see Richard Hofstadter’s Anti-Intellectualism inAmerican Life, published back in the 1960’s.
Creative writing may antagonize certain parties who don’t like that not
everyone can write well, but also satisfies others who see it (somewhat falsely) as
an alternative to hard analysis. Thus, some have turned to creative writing
workshop techniques as a means of pursuing old-style literary criticism in theclassroom. Back in the 1990’s, during the heyday of Big Theory, the Modernist
scholar A. Walton Litz at Princeton became head of the school’s creative writing
program. He said that he appreciated the emphasis on primary texts there, and helikened the work they were doing to monks preserving manuscripts during thedark ages. Robert Scholes, a literary scholar who taught for years at Brown
University, seeing the same crisis in the field of literature, came out with a bookcalled The Rise and Fall of English, in which he advocated a return to the trivium,
the medieval three-legged educational program consisting of grammar, logic, andrhetoric.
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David Galef

Creative writing has, for the most part, remained inimical to the larger machinations of literary criticism, and even today the bulk of criticism regarding creative writing has concentrated mainly on exercises and anthologies. See, forexample, such classics in the field as John Gardner’s The Art of Writing and Robert
Pack and Jay Parini’s Writers on Writing, or more recent efforts like Madison
Smartt Bell’s Narrative Design: A Writer’s Guide to Structure. Nowadays you
can’t open the pages of a publisher’s catalogue without encountering at least one
or two guides to creative writing. All these books hope desperately for course
adoption, an expedient that’s become necessary for sales.
Meanwhile, creative writing remains a growth industry. What has this expansion brought? Over the last couple of decades, a recognizable workshop
product has emerged, both in fiction and poetry. What do the artistic spirit andthe ivory tower have to do with each other? As Christopher Beach asks rhetorically in “Careers in Creativity: The Poetry Academy in the 1990s”: “Does theentrenched network of academic poetry constitute an elitist and reactionary front,
a wall of vested power and institutional status that marginalizes alternative poetic
cultures and discourages the participation of groups from outside the mainstream?”(5). Many others have inveighed against the burgeoning of M.F.A. programs,some famously—see John W. Aldridge’s Talents and Technicians: Literary Chic
and the New Assembly-Line Fiction, for example, M. S. Bell’s “Less is Less: The
Diminishing American Short Story,” Joseph Epstein’s “Who Killed Poetry?,” orDana Gioia’s “Can Poetry Matter?”
Most pungently, Gore Vidal once observed, “Teaching has ruined more writers than drink.” Nonetheless, the numbers in workshops continue to rise. Flannery
O’Connor was once asked whether she thought creative writing programs discouraged writers, and her answer was brief: “Not enough.”
The expansion is in part economically driven: creative writing is a cash cow,
a popular offering with a low overhead and a big return. It’s even self-generating.
As one professor with a foot in both literary criticism and creative writing cynically commented: “All you need to start is a copy machine and an instructor witha few poetry publications under his belt.” Meanwhile, the need for creative
writers to publish has spawned hundreds of little magazines, journals, and reviews, with the result that the market share of each is minimal. The more there
are, the less each matters individually—or as Yogi Berra once said of a popular
restaurant: “That place is so crowded that no one goes there anymore.” The same
situation happened to cable television when it expanded to umpteen channels,
9But Is It Art? Creating Writing Workshop in the U.S.

just as the same scenario is replaying itself as the World Wide Web beckons toevery face in front of a computer screen. In all these cases, the embarrassment of
riches is embarrassing only to those whose offerings are more or less ignored.
What seems like a surfeit resembles a vast banquet at which the majority eatsfrom only a few dishes. Some of the food has a distinctly institutional flavor, but
few go truly hungry in this land of plenty, where blandness is always safe. The
urge to scribble now almost seems like an American right: life, liberty, and the
pursuit of self-expression.
The latest in creative writing is the current craze for memoirs, themselves a
subset of creative nonfiction, in which the writer pens a true account of something
but relies on the fiction writer’s props of dialogue, characters, scenes, and soforth. The writer and teacher Lee Gutkind has become a crusader, travelingaround with his journal, Creative Nonfiction, as well as his annual conferences, thelatest having just taken place in Oxford, Mississippi.
There’s even been a seep of creative writing into more traditional sectors ofliterary scholarship. Frank Lentricchia, once the “bad boy” of literary criticism,has written a memoir and two novels, and repudiated his previous role “as anhistorian and literary polemicist of literary theory, who could speak with passion, and without noticeable impediment, about literature as a political instrument” (“Last Will” 59). Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, so influential in gay and lesbianstudies, long ago migrated to a self-involved brand of poetry. To some extent, afocus on oneself is a focus on the force of personal style. As Adam Begley noted
in a Lingua Franca essay called “The I’s Have It” (55), narcissism and selfexpression are often linked. Since narcissism knows no age limits, rhetoricalexcess can be any generation’s property. In response to this growing trend, theOctober 1996 PMLA Forum dwelt entirely on the use of the personal in literaryscholarship.
One irony remains: Though creative writing once offered a refuge from thewars of political correctitude, many creative writing workshops are now afflictedwith the same problems that disciplines like postcolonialism have pointed out.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s “Can the Subaltern Speak?” has been translated tothe creative writing instructor’s dilemma, “Is It Okay to Write Like an AfricanAmerican If You Aren’t One?” The stakes may be somewhat higher than in thepolitically charged sociology cum literary criticism classroom, because in there, atleast, students are encouraged to question received values and label cultural products as an essential process of critical reading, whereas such strategies have rarely
10David Galef

been thought crucial to writing fiction. The policing of creative writing presents
another reason for the popularity of the memoir, with the self as the source ofauthority, as well as the focus on minorities and working class concerns to show
one’s social merit badge. As the author and creative-writing teacher (and myformer colleague) Barry Hannah has remarked, “If you want to get taken seriously these days, you’ve got to write about trailer parks.”
At my old institution, the University of Mississippi, Doug Robinson, the
new head of the writing program, by which I mean expository writing, the kindthat’s supposed to be useful for everyone, is advocating a textbook that teaches
students how to write by imitation: Follow the work of a particular writer.
Practice the craft. Understand by doing. Write to read better and vice versa. This
path seems remarkably similar to the way in which the 19th century taught its
students classics: Write an ode in the style of Pindar. So maybe the wheel hascome full circle. For better or worse, it’s bound to turn again.

Works Cited and Consulted
Aldridge, John W. Talents and Technicians: Literary Chic and the New Assembly-Line Fiction. New
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Aristotle. On Rhetoric. Trans. George A. Kennedy. New York: Oxford UP, 1991.
---. Poetics. Trans. Richard Janko. Cambridge: Hackett, 1987.
Auden, W. H. The Prolific and the Devourer. Hopewell, NJ: Ecco, 1993.
Barthes, Roland. “The Death of the Author.” Image/Music/Text. Trans. Stephen Heath. New York: Hilland Wang-Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977. 142-48.
Beach, Christopher. “Careers in Creativity: The Poetry Academy in the 1990s.” Western Humanities
Review 50 (1996): 4-16.
Begley, Adam. “The I’s Have It: Duke’s ‘Moi’ Critics Expose Themselves.” Lingua Franca 4.3 (1994):
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Bell, Madison Smartt. “Less is Less: The Diminishing American Short Story.” Harper’s Apr. 1986:
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---. Narrative Design: A Writer’s Guide to Structure. New York: Norton, 1997.
Berlin, James. Rhetoric and Reality: Writing Instruction in American Colleges, 1900-1985.
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--- and Michael J. Vivion, eds. Cultural Studies in the English Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/
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Booth, Wayne. The Rhetoric of Fiction. 2nd ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983.
Brown, Stuart C., Paul R. Meyer, and Theresa Enos. “Doctoral Programs in Rhetoric and Composition:

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A Catalog of the Profession.” Rhetoric Review 12.2 (1994): 240-51.
Bruffee, Kenneth A. Collaborative Learning: Higher Education, Interdependence, and the Authorityof Knowledge. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins UP, 1993.
Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1952.
Chapman, David W., and Gary Tate. “A Survey of Doctoral Programs in Rhetoric and Composition.”
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Corbett, Edward P. J. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1990.
Elbow, Peter, and Pat Belanoff. Sharing and Responding. New York: Random House, 1989.
Epstein, Joseph. “Who Killed Poetry?” Commentary Aug. 1988: 13-20.
Farrell, Thomas B. Norms of Rhetorical Culture. New Haven: Yale UP, 1993.
Fenza, D. W., and Gwyn McVay, eds. The AWP Official Guide to Writing Programs. 8th ed.
Fairfax, VA: Associated Writing Programs, 1997.
Gardner, John. The Art of Fiction: Notes on Craft for Young Writers. New York: Knopf, 1984.
Gioia, Dana. “Can Poetry Matter?” The Atlantic Monthly May 1991: 94-106.
Gradin, Sherrie L. Romanci ng Rhetori cs: Social Expressivist Perspectives on the Teaching of
Writing. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook-Heinemann, 1995.
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Holland, Norman. The Critical I. New York: Columbia UP, 1992.
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Lentricchia, Frank. “Last Will and Testament of an Ex-Literary Critic.” Lingua Franca 6.6 (Sep.-Oct.
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Myers, D. G. The Elephants Teach: Creative Writing Since 1880. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
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Pack, Robert, and Jay Parini, eds. Writers on Writing. Hanover, NH: Middlebury College P and UP
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Parker, William Riley. “Where Do English Departments Come From?” College English 28.5 (1967):
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UP, 1992.

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David Galef--- and Mark Turner. Clear and Simple as the Truth: Writing Classic Prose. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
UP, 1995.
Tompkins, Jane P., ed. Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structuralism. Baltimore:
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