Proceedings of the 25th Linear Accelerator Meeting in Japan (July 12-14, 2000, Himeji, Japan)[13C-01]

Synchrotron Radiation Analysis on
Ancient Egyptian Vitreous Materials
Kyoko Yamahana1
Lecturer of Egyptian Archaeology, Tokai University
117 Kita-kaname, Hiratsuka-city, Kanagawa,259-1292 JAPAN
Abstract
Ancient Egyptian vitreous materials, namely faience and glass, share the same elemental composition. But they appear
to have originated separately. Faience objects appear as early as the Predynastic period, and glass was introduced from
Mesopotamia during the New Kingdom. These faience and glass objects were not of daily use, rather they wereregarded as religious symbols or luxury status goods. Most of the products were coloured blue, but we see an increased
use of other colours during the New Kingdom (c.1550-1069BC). This tendency corresponds to the period of bothterritorial and political expansion of Egypt. A non-destructive SR-XRF experiment at Spring-8 was conducted last
winter, aiming to determine the regional trait of elemental composition by examining the pattern and ratio of rare earth
elements. As a result, we could observe some distinctive rare earth elements that may indicate regional variation.

古代エジプトのガラス質物質を対象とした放射光分析
1. Ancient Egyptian vitreous material – faience andanimal figurines were thus made of blue-green faience.

glass
In the context of ancient Egyptian history, the categoryof vitreous material applies to both faience and glass.
Faience is one of the oldest “high-tech” ceramics,
composed of siliceous core and glassy coating( Figs 1, 2,
and 3). It was named after the ceramics made at Faenze
in northern Italy, since the blue-green colour resembles
to the Egyptian counterpart. The ancient Egyptian called
this, ‘the shining (one)’. In the ancient Egyptian art andbelief, colour plays an important role. Especially blue orgreen is a symbol of life, rebirth and regeneration. It
added sacredness to the object to which the colour was

Fig.1 Faience Ushabti, by courtesy of Institute ofapplied. A number of divine figures, amulets, sacred

Egyptology, Waseda University

1

Kyoko Yamahana, 0463-58-1211(Tokai University),
KyoYamO@aol.com or obaya2@keyaki.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp−92−

On the other hand, glass was probably derived fromproducts have unearthed from many sites in the vicinity

glaze production and began to be used independently. Itof the royal residences at Malkata, Amarna and Qantir.

was then introduced to Egypt and made explicitly at

The artifacts of high quality such as delicate cosmetic

Pharaohs’ workshops. Some loanwords were applied tojars, inlayed tiles, openwork rings were manufactured

call this object in Egypt, or it was also referred infor the members of the royal family. Such prosperity inancient Egyptian as ‘stone of the kind that flows’. Glass

artifact production corresponded with the widespread

was one of the luxurious products of royal use, andpower of the Egyptian New Kingdom. During the early

Pharaoh would occasionally grant to their courtiers. The

period of the New Kingdom, King Tuthmose III

technique of shaping and decoration, as well as

expanded Egypt’s territory to the maximum fromcolouring was well established by the time glass reachedmodern Sudan to Syria. Egypt could then practice her

to

III

power over the conquered regions, enjoying her subjects(ca.1504-1450BC). Egyptians began to make their glass

paying various tributes to their master. Egypt obtained a

products shortly after, probably from the reign offair amount of gold from the south, and various objects

Amenhotep III (ca.1386-1349BC). They favoured tosuch as horses, chariots, gold, silver, lapis lazuri, Syrian

make small cosmetic containers, amulets, inlays, andivory, metals, metal ores, glass, wood planks, as well ascups. So there seems to be a distinct functional

the knowledge of new technologies from the north.

difference between faience and glass; faience had an

Glass manufacturing was one of the new technologies

intrinsic symbolic value associated with Egyptian ritualthat were introduced to Egypt from the north. The firstand notion of the afterlife, whereas glass was rather

glass was invented around 1700BC, originating mostregarded as luxurious goods, substituting precious

probably in the kingdom of Mitanni, the kingdom thatstones for the privileged people.

occupied the vast area of northern Mesopotamia. Then

Egypt

during

the

reign

of

Tuthmosethe manufacturing technique spread southward into
2. History of Ancient Egyptian Faience and Glass

Egypt during the 15th century BC. Perhaps the techniqueof constructing the glass-fusing kiln which could yieldhigher temperature was also introduced. The newtechnique of making glass and traditional faience
production

Fig. 2A set of Faience Scarab, private collection

mergedandreached

to

the

most

sophisticated state during the New Kingdom. But after
the fall of the New Kingdom, Egypt could no longer

The first glazed objects appear from c.5500BC both inhold a vast territory, and even her own land was

Egypt and Mesopotamia in the form of beads. During

segmented (Third Intermediate Period: c.1069 – 500BC).

the early dynasties of Egyptian history, small figurines

The Glass production rapidly declined, and it did notof gods and animals, as well as ornamental tiles andrevive until the Late Period (c.500 – 332BC). The Latebeads were made. Most of these early objects were of

Period was the time of final struggle for independence

blue-green, resembling turquoise.

against Persians. Faience, glass and many aspects of

It was during the 18th dynasty and later that theEgyptian objects display a revival of traditional culture,

multi-coloured faience production was in boom. A

but gradually incorporated into Graeco-Roman world.

number of such beads to make floral garlands or other3. Ingredient and Manufacture of Faience and Glass

Glass, on the other hand, was mostly shaped using the

There are three techniques of making faience;‘core technique’. This is a process for making vessels by

Application,

Efflorescence.

building glass around a removable core[2]. Other

Application is to apply a glazing powder or slurry to thetechniques, such as Mold Pressing and Cold Cutting

faience core. Sometimes drip lines or brush marks thatwere rather uncommon, but certainly in use from theindicate the use of this technique are clearly visible.

2nd millennium BC. Blowing and Mold Blowing were

Cementation,anddeveloped from the end of the 1st Century BC.
The elemental composition of faience surface glaze andglass is similar, and sometimes indistinguishable by theappearance of the final product. Especially from the
New Kingdom when the production of both faience andFig. 3 Faience Udjat Eyes: (left: private collection)(right: excavated at Dailaman, Iran, by the courtesy of
The University Museum, The University of Tokyo)

glass was closely connected, glass powder wasoccasionally added to faience glaze to enhance its
quality.

Both faience glaze and glass are composed ofsilica, lime and alkali (natron or plant ash). These
Cementation is also known as ‘Qom technique’ since
the faience objects made by this technique are still being
produced at Qom, Iran. First, unglazed dry faience coreis buried in a glazing powder which partially melts onheating. The powder reacts with the surface of thequartz core and so glazes it, though powder not in
contact with it remains unaffected[1]. In these first two
techniques, the core and glaze materials are madeseparately. The core is usually the open-textured silica,
and the glaze is an alkaline calcium silicate mixture
with addition of colourant. The last, efflorescence
technique is unique in combining the glaze mixture in
the core. Water-soluble alkali salts probably in the formof natron or plant ash are mixed with the siliceous core.
The mixture of these ingredients is moistened andformed into a desired shape. Then, in the process ofdrying, the salts migrates to the surface of the object toform an efflorescent bloom. When fired in highingredients were locally available. But Egyptians musthave obtained the colouring minerals through a long
distance trade, since they were unavailable along theNile Valley. One of the most important colouring agentswas copper. Copper was in use since the Late
Predynastic Period and the systematic exploitation ofcopper in Sinai peninsula began from the Early Dynastic
Period (c.3100BC-). Copper was thus readily available
mineral for faience production since the beginning of
the dynastic period. The Egyptians made blue and red
faience and glass, knowing the difference in oxidized
state of copper could make two distinctive colours.
Other colours such as white, green, purple, amber, black,yellow, and their variations were made by adding
antimony, lead, tin, iron, manganese, cobalt and otherminerals into the basic soda-lime-silica batch[3]. Amongthese minerals, antimony, tin and cobalt are thought tohave been very rare in Egypt. Instead, these minerals

temperature, usually above 1000℃, this layer melts andfuses with the fine quartz, copper oxide or lime to createa glassy coating.. The latter two methods are regarded as‘self-glazing’.
[1]

Nicholson, P.T., Egyptian Faience and Glass, Shire

Egyptology, 1993, pp.10-14[2] Tait, H., (ed.), Five Thousand Years of Glass, British
Museum Press, rev. 1999, p.243[3] Brill, R.H., “The Chemical Interpretation of the texts,” in
Oppenheim, A.L., Glass and Glassmaking in Ancient
Mesopotamia, Corning, rep.1988, p.122, Table 1

were likely to have been imported to Egypt from theelements. We examined approximately 45 samples

north. The number of cobalt containing faience andincluding mostly of faience and glass beads of mid-14th

glass increased during the New Kingdom, when Egypt

century BC to 2nd century AD. Most objects wewas one of the most influential nations in the Near East.

analyzed were the excavated samples from Iran and

But the ratio of cobalt-containing objects diminished as

Egypt[4]. I have chosen the objects of two distinctive

the New Kingdom collapsed. The same tendency isregions, to test our assumption that the geographicalobservableformation reflects in contents of rare earth elements.

withyellow

colourant,

which

is

a

combination of antimony and lead. The colour also
thrived during the New Kingdom, but vanished shortly

X-ray fluorescence analysis is one of the scientificafter. The colour variation of the period represents notmethod by which the concentration of element can be

only the technological sophistication of the workshops,

measured. The method is widely used in the study ofbut also Egypt’s both territorial and political influencearchaeological objects since it is non-destructive andover other regions in the Near East. The origin of suchcomparably simple. We conducted our study using

colouring minerals is not exactly known, but we assume

synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF), thethat they were mostly mined at the fringe of the Taurus

method which started to gain its popularity recently.

mountains, northern Mesopotamia. We may be able toSpring-8, where we undertook our experiment can

trace down the specific region where the minerals were

provide 3.3×1013 photons/s at 100 keV. This was themined, through the continuous effort to accumulate thefirst time that the ancient faience and glass weredata of scientific analysis.

irradiated by high energy X-rays (115 keV). Due to its
high brilliance and energy, very small concentration of

4. Elemental Analysis using Synchrotron Radiation*
A number of elemental researches have been conducted

elements can be measured precisely.
Incident X-ray

Sampleto clarify the regional traits of pottery, faience and othermetal products. However, the ratio of major elements ismore or less uniformed. Finding the regional variability
with the major elements has been very difficult. In thisanalysis, we boldly set aside the major elements, but

Ge detector

rather set our eyes on trace elements. We picked rareearth elements since the inclusion of those elements in

Measurement systemminerals is affected by the geographical formation of
the region. So, we expect to find the regional variability

Computerby analyzing the ratio and pattern of such rare earth

Fig.4 Experimental set up
The set up is shown in Fig.4. The X-ray fluorescence is*I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Masayoshi Itou, Dr.
Hiroyasu Ego, Dr. Takashi Ooshima, Dr. Yuuji Oohashi, Dr.
Yoshitaka Kawashima, Dr. Hiroshi Saeki, Dr. Kenichi
Funakoshi, Dr. Yoshiharu Sakurai, Dr. Yasushi Sato, Dr. Schin
Date, Dr. Masahiro Hara, (JASRI researchers), and Akiko
Mukai (Tokai University) for assisting this project. EspeciallyI am deeply indebted to Dr. Yasushi Sato of JASRI for thecontinuous encouragement and for his expertise. Preparing thelatter technical part of this article could not be compiled

detected by a Ge semiconductor detector. The spectrum

without Dr. Sato’s help.
[4] For the supply of the faience and glass specimens, I
am grateful to The University Museum of The
University of Tokyo, Institute of Egyptology, Waseda
University, and Okayama Orient Museum.

of fluorescence is obtained by the measurement systembeen imports from Egypt. As a result of our analysis,

combined with a computer.

most of them fell in the cluster of Iranian objects. Only
one example belonged to Egyptian cluster. Though not

Figure 5 shows an X-ray fluorescence spectrum of acertain at this stage, this outcome may indicate an

faience from Egypt. X-axis is the energy of fluorescence

existence of an Egyptian craftsman outside of Egypt,

X-rays, and Y-axis is the counts. In this spectrum, Cu,

producing the Egyptian artifacts. More analyses on such

Sn, Pb, Sr, Ba, La, Ce, Nd and Dy are detected.

objects which have been regarded as imports may help

10

Cu Kα
Sn Kα
Cu Kβ
Sn Kβ1,2
Sr Kα
Ba Kα
Zr Kα
La Kα
Ce Kα

4

to gain the internationalization of the area, as well as the
Pb Kα1Pb Kα2extent of the ancient trade network.
Pb Kβ2

0.6

Egypt
Iran

Pb Kβ1
0.5

1000

Ba Kβ1Ba Kβ2
Dy Kα

100

Pb Lγ
Pb Lβ
Pb Lα

Nd Kβ
Ce K β

10
0

20

0.4

Ce/Ba

Counts10540Energy[keV]

0.3

0.2

60

80
0.1

Fig.5 An XRF spectrum of Egyptian faience
0

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.2

La/Ba

Fig.6 shows the distribution of the faience with La/Ba

Fig.6 La/Ba and Ce/Ba distribution of Iranian andpeak ratio in X-axis and Ce/Ba peak ratio in Y-axis.

Egyptian faience (core)

In order to adjust the intensity decline of synchrotron
radiation, we picked out La/Ba and Ce/Ba peak area

The experiment also yielded the compositional trend

ratios. La and Ce are rare earth elements. Though theirchange in accordance with time. We detected thechemical characteristics are similar, their ion radiuses

increased use of lead in faience glaze and glass. Our

are different because charge in nuclei can not be

Iranian samples dating 5-4th Century BC contained a fairobstructed by inner shell electrons.

amount of lead compared to those samples of 10th
Century BC. Perhaps sometime between these periods,

5.

The result of analysis

people discovered that adding lead gives a great merit to

Our analysis is still in progress, and we cannot, at thisvitreous material. It increases fluidity, thinness, andstage, draw any definite conclusion of the last

brilliance. Adding lead also lowers melting temperature,experiment.

thethus displaying better cost performance. The presence ofeffectiveness of trace element analysis. As shown inlead was also obvious in the Egyptian samples, dating

Fig.6, the distribution plots of Egyptian and Iranian

2nd Century AD, while the New Kingdom samples

faience cores seem to form two major clusters. These

contained very little. We expect to undertake moreclusters appear to correspond to these two distinctive

SR-XRF analyses in order to seek the compositional

regions. Further accumulation of data may be able totrend change.

draw clearer clusters. Among the samples from Iran, we

Our SR-XRF study achieved to present the potential

had several fragments of Egyptian Udjat-eye amulet

new(see Fig.3 right, as an example). The art style of thearchaeological objects.

We

could,

however,observeamulet is clearly Egyptian, so they were thought to have

data

for

furtherscientificanalysison