TEAK IN MEKONGFOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Teak (Tectona grandis) is one of the most important valuable hardwoods in the world

The book comprises six main sections, namely (1) Introduction, (2) Teak distribution
across the Greater Mekong Sub-region (3) Silvicultural practices and teak improvement
techniques, (4) Sustainable teak forest management and certification, (5) Research inteak genetics, and (6) Policy and regional/international collaboration. It also provides
policy recommendations and guidance for future work in promoting sustainable
management of natural and planted teak forests in the tropics.

It is hoped that this book will serve not only the larger global teak community with the_อISBN 978-616-278-693-8

TEAK IN MEKONGFOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

YONGYUT TRISURAT, HWAN-OK MATETRA YANUARIADI, PROMODE KANTAND P.K. THULASIDAS
Editors

state of up-to-date information on the conservation of teak genetic resources, but also
on the sustainable management and use of legally harvested teakwood from naturaland planted teak forests, strengthening the capacity building of smallholder teakcommunities, legal and sustainable supply chains, and sharing lesson-learned andexperiences among multi-stakeholders in the region. The book contributes to theachievement of international conventions and agreements such as UN SDGs, and the
Global Forest Goals.

TEAK IN MEKONG FOR
A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

that contributes to national economic growth and livelihood enhancements. Natural
teak forests occur in central and southern India, Myanmar, Thailand, and Lao PDR.
In addition, teak has been grown across 70 tropical countries. However, natural teakforests are declining in all the native teak growing countries mainly due to overexploitation and agriculture expansion. This edited book entitled “TEAK IN MEKONGFOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE” is the outcomes of the ITTO executed Teak Mekong
Project in the Greater Mekong sub-region implemented with the financial support of
the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of the Federal Republicof Germany (BMEL) with the participating countries of Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar,
Thailand, and Vietnam.

YONGYUT TRISURAT, HWAN-OK MATETRA YANUARIADI, PROMODE KANTAND P.K. THULASIDAS
Editors

TEAK IN MEKONG FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Outcomes of the BMEL-ITTO Project:“Enhancing Conservation and Sustainable Management ofTeak Forests and Legal and Sustainable Wood Supply Chainsin the Greater Mekong Sub-region”
YONGYUT TRISURAT, HWAN-OK MATETRA YANUARIADI, PROMODE KANTAND P.K. THULASIDAS
Editors2022
KASETSART UNIVERSITY
INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATIONTEAKNETTEAK IN MEKONGTEAK IN MEKONG FOR SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Published by Kasetsart University, International Tropical Timber Organization and
TEAKNET
Printing

August 2022

Copyright@2022 Kasetsart University, International Tropical Timber Organization and
TEAKNET.

Citation

KU, ITTO and TEAKNET. 2022. Teak in Mekong for a Sustainable Future.
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand; International Tropical Timber
Organization, Yokohama, Japan; and TEAKNET, Kerala, India. 359 p.

ISBN:

978-616-278-693-8

Editors

Yongyut Trisurat, Hwan-ok Ma, Tetra Yanuariadi, Promode Kant,
and P.K. Thulasidas

Printed byBoonsiri Printing Co., Ltd.
9/11-13 Sena Nikhom 1 Soi 1, Sena Nikhom, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900
662-941-6650, 668-813-4199
Reproduction of this publication for education or other non-commercial
purposes is authorized without written permission from the copyright holder
provided the sources is fully acknowledged.

TEAK IN MEKONGCONTENTSFOREWORDMESSAGE FROM ITTOMESSAGE FROM BMELABOUT THE EDITORSAUTHORS AND THEIR AFFILIATIONSPREFACEACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Chapter 1

xiii
xv
xvii
xviii
xx
xxii
xxiii
xxiv

SECTION I: INTRODUCTION

1

Overview and Achievements of the BMEL-ITTO Teak Project inMekong2

SECTION II: TEAK DISTRIBUTION ACROSS THE
GREATER MEKONG SUB-REGION

21

Yongyut Trisurat, Nikhom Laemsak, Hwan-ok Ma, Tetra Yanuariadi,
Promode Kant and P.K. Thulasidas

Chapter 2

Teak Management in Thailand

22

Chapter 3

Natural Teak Forests and Teak Plantations in Myanmar

37

Chapter 4

Natural Teak Forests and Plantations in Lao PDR

51

Chapter 5

Teak Plantations in Cambodia

62

Chapter 6

Teak Plantations in Vietnam

78

Chapter 7

Mapping of Natural Teak Forests and Teak Plantations in the
Greater Mekong Sub-region

87

Climate Change Impact on Natural Teak Forests in the Greater
Mekong Sub-region

101

Sapol Boonsermsuk
Zar Chi Hlaing

Vongvilay Vongkhamsao, Baisone Inthirath and Bounthavy
Cchaleunsouk
Say Sinly, Chheang Dany, Kim Sobon, Lim Sopheap, Hort Sothea andPang Phanit
Dang Thinh Trieu, Tran Lam Dong and Nguyen Van Bich

Chakrit Na Takuathung

Chapter 8

Yongyut Trisurat, Sapol Boonsermsuk, Vongvilay Vongkhamsao and
Zar Chi Hlaingi

TEAK IN MEKONGSECTION III: SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES ANDTEAK IMPROVEMENT

117

Teak Plus Tree Selection and Its Propagation Techniques Used in
Thailand

118

Chapter 10

Technique for Controlled Hand-Pollination of Teak (Tectona
grandis L.f.)
SuwanTangmitcharoen

130

Chapter 11

Teak-Based Pest and Disease Management in Myanmar

144

Chapter 12

Insect Pest Management in Teak Plantations in Thailand

149

Chapter 13

Indonesia’s Teak Resources, Breeding and Biotechnology

155

Chapter 14

Effects of First Thinning on Growth and Stem Form of Teak
Plantations in Thailand

165

Silviculture Aspects of Large-Scale Teak Plantations in Brazil

182

SECTION IV: SUSTAINABLE TEAK FOREST
MANAGEMENT AND CERTIFICATION

201

Chapter 9

Chumnun Piananurak

Thant Shin, Zaw Min Aye and Myo Htet Aung
Wattanachai Tasen and Decha Wiwatwitaya

Anto Rimbawanto and ILG Nurtjahjaningsih

Tosporn Vacharangkura

Chapter 15

Sylvio de Andrade Coutinho and Fausto Hissashi Takizawa

Chapter 16

Teak Timber Harvesting

202

Chapter 17

Teak Small Holder Plantations in Indonesia for Improving
Livelihood

212

Chapter 18

Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Credits of Teak Plantations
S. Sankar

223

Chapter 19

Review of the Current Trade Trends of Tropical Timber andTimber Products

232

SECTION V: RESEARCH IN TEAK GENETICS

244

Chapter 20

Conservation Approaches of Teak Genetic Resources in Thailand

245

Chapter 21

Progress in Teak Improvement Program in Thailand

256

Chapter 22

Clonal Teak for Sustainable Plantation Establishment

270

Nopparat Kaakkurivaara

Anis Fauzi, and Anto Rimbawanto

Tetra Yanuariadi and Jean-Christophe Claudon

Suwan Tangmitcharoen
Chumnun Piananurak
Doreen K.S. Gohii

TEAK IN MEKONGSECTION VI: POLICY ANDREGIONAL/INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION
Chapter 23

284

Ensuring Legal and Sustainable Teak Supply Chains in theLower Mekong Region

285

Forests, Timber Sources and Supply Chains of Myanmar:
Opportunities and Constraints to Ensure Legal Origin of Timber

296

Teak in Mekong: Governance Concerns and The Evolving
Policies

315

Knowledge Management for Teak: The International Teak
Information Network (TEAKNET)

339

Teak in Mekong for a Sustainable Future: The Way Forward351

Hwan-ok Ma

Chapter 24

Taiji Fujisaki and Barber Cho

Chapter 25

Promode Kant

Chapter 26

P.K. Thulasidas and M.P. Sreelakshmy

Chapter 27

P.K. Thulasidas, Hwan-ok Ma, Tetra Yanuariadi, Yongyut Trisurat andPromode Kant

iii

TEAK IN MEKONGTABLES
Table 1-1
Table 2-1
Table 3-1
Table 3-2
Table 3-3
Table 3-4
Table 3-5
Table 3-6
Table 4-1
Table 5-1
Table 5-2
Table 6-3
Table 7-1
Table 7-2
Table 7-3
Table 8-1
Table 8-2
Table 14-1
Table 14-2
Table 14-3
Table 14-4
Table 16-1
Table 17-1
Table 18-1
Table 18-2
Table 18-3
Table 18-4
Table 18-5
Table 18-6
Table 18-7

Demonstration plots established by the ITTO Teak Project inMekongMean annual increment of 50-year rotation of planted teak on thebest sites within its natural ranges
Area of major forest types in Myanmar
Forest cover status of Myanmar
Status of reserved forests, protected public forests and protectedarea system in Myanmar
Teak clonal seed orchard in Myanmar
Seed production areas (SPA) in Myanmar
Teak provenance trials
Types of plantation ownershipTeak plantations in Cambodia
Service fee for timber and non-timber forest products
Growth and productivity of teak plantation in Vietnam.
Definition of data
Area of natural teak forests (1,000 ha) as on 2021
Area of teak plantations (1,000 ha)
Variables and their contributions in the MaxEnt models for teak(Tectona grandis)
Estimated extend of occurrence, gain, and loss in the suitable
rangeStand characteristics of Den Dan plantation before, just after and4-year after thinningStand volume production (m3 ha-1) in stands with different
thinning intensities
Decrease in annual stand volume increment
Parameters of tree attributes associated with quality of stem
form: 4 years after thinning
Reclassification of grading score for each relevant factor.
The population of planted species in the small holder plantationin Indonesia
Carbon content in various compartments of teak
Carbon sequestration in various compartments of teakSoil carbon stock in 50 year teak plantations
Thinning schedules of teak and trees removed per hectare
Carbon sequestered at various thinning regimes of teak
Carbon sequestration potential of teak plantations in Kerala forthe year 2014
Certified Emission Reduction (CER) potential of teak plantations

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89
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169
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Table 20-1
Table 20-2
Table 20-3
Table 21-1
Table 21-2
Table 21-3
Table 23-1
Table 24-4
Table 24-2
Table 24-3
Table 26-1
Table 26-2

Teak clonal test planted during 1988-2021 at four regions ofThailand
Progeny test conducted during 2008-2011
Areas of teak seed orchards in Thailand
Information about clone banks in Thailand
Information of CSO in Thailand
Evaluation and genetic thinning plans of teak breeding orchard ineach plot (block)Area certified and number of chain-of-custody certificates issued
by the Forest Stewardship Council and the Programme for theEndorsement of Forest Certification in lower-Mekong region.
Measures supporting traceability of legal origin of timber
products
Permanent Forest Estate and Protected Areas in Myanmar(December 2019)
Key documents and information included in timber supply chain
from log landing to private processing facilities.
Details of membership options
Consulting Services Organized and Implemented by TEAKNET

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TEAK IN MEKONG

FIGURES
Figure 1-1
Figure 1-2
Figure 1-3
Figure 2-1
Figure 2-2
Figure 2-3
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-5
Figure 2-6
Figure 3-1
Figure 3-2
Figure 3-3
Figure 3-4
Figure 4-1
Figure 4-2
Figure 4-3
Figure 5-1
Figure 6-1
Figure 6-2
Figure 7-1
Figure 7-2
Figure 7-3
Figure 7-4
Figure 7-5
Figure 7-6
Figure 8-1
Figure 8-2
Figure 8-3
Figure 8-4
Figure 14-1

Potential suitable habitats at baseline
Remaining suitable habitats at baseline (masked by land use
map)
Training sessions and number of participants
Thai provinces with natural teak forests
Natural teak zonation in Thailand
Forest area in northern Thailand
Thailand’s wood demand to support national andinternational market
Value of import and export of teak logs and sawn-teaktimberValue of import and export of timbers (all species) and teak
Major forest types in Myanmar
Forest cover of Myanmar
Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) area in Myanmar
Established Teak plantations area (from 1981 to 2021)
Map of teak tree seed sources in Lao PDR
Annual plantation establishment in Lao PDR 1975-2015
Comparison of planted tree species
Map showing disperse teak plantations in Cambodia
Teak seed production plantation established in 1961-1962 in
Dong Nai Province
Teak plants unable to stand straight following removal of
Acacia hybrid in Thanh Hoa Province
The general flow chart of the analysis procedure
The potential natural teak distribution in 2021
Distribution of teak plantations in Cambodia
Teak distribution in Lao PDR
Teak distribution in Thailand
Teak distribution in Vietnam by zone
Predicted suitable ecoregions of natural teak and changes inclimate space by 2050 and 2070 under RCP6.0 and RCP8.5
scenarios
Potential suitable habitats at baseline
Remaining suitable habitats at baseline (masked by land use
map)
Predicted climate change impact on teak distribution by
2050 under CMIP6 scenarios
Layout of experimental plots

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 14-2

Figure 14-3

Figure 14-4

Figure 14-5

Figure 14-6

Figure 14-7

Figure 14-8
Figure 14-9
Figure 15-1
Figure 15-2
Figure 15-3
Figure 15-4
Figure 15-5
Figure 15-6
Figure 15-7
Figure 15-8
Figure 15-9
Figure 15-10
Figure 15-11
Figure 16-1
Figure 16-2

Mean basal area 4 years after thinning. Letters signify
individual statistical differences among treatments in eachmeasurement time, based on the ANOVA. The treatments
marked with the different letters are significantly different(p≤ 0.05)
Mean stem volume 4-year after thinning. Letters signify
individual statistical differences among treatments in eachmeasurement time, based on the ANOVA. The treatments
marked with the different letters are significantly different(p≤ 0.05)
Mean annual DBH increment of all trees and dominant trees.
Letters signify individual statistical differences among
treatments in each measurement time, based on the
ANOVA. The treatments marked with the different letters
are significantly different (p≤ 0.05)
Mean annual height increment of all trees and dominant
trees. Letters signify individual statistical differences among
treatments in each measurement time, based on the
ANOVA. The treatments marked with the different letters
are significantly different (p≤ 0.05)
Mean stand volume increment. Letters signify individual
statistical differences among treatments in eachmeasurement time, based on the ANOVA. The treatments
marked with the different letters are significantly different(p≤ 0.05)
Total stand volume production. Letters signify individual
statistical differences among treatments in eachmeasurement time, based on the ANOVA. The treatments
marked with the different letters are significantly different(p≤ 0.05)
Live-crown ratio and slenderness before and after thinning
Absolute form factor before and after thinning
Teak planted area evolution in Brazil
Operations of the company of the case studied
Forests and office location of the company of the casestudiedPlanted area evolution and history
Soil water influence depth thematic map
Soil texture thematic map
Soil aluminium thematic map
Growth in individual volume, comparing clone and seed,
17.5 years
Growth in dbh, comparing clone and seed, 17.5 years
Activities carried out in the harvest
Composition of the sawmill
Example of harvesting plan
Harvesting process of teak harvesting in Thailand
vii

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Figure 17-1
Figure 18-1
Figure 18-2
Figure 19-1
Figure 19-2
Figure 19-3
Figure 19-4
Figure 19-5
Figure 19-6
Figure 19-7
Figure 19-8
Figure 19-9
Figure 19-10
Figure 19-11
Figure 20-1
Figure 20-2
Figure 21-1
Figure 21-2
Figure 21-3
Figure 24-1
Figure 24-2
Figure 24-3
Figure 24-4
Figure 25-1

Figure 26-1
Figure 26-2
Figure 26-3

Natural distribution of teak
Teak height varied from 6.93 m at age of five years to 22.83
m at 50 years
Diameter at breast height also increased with age from 6.36
cm to 45.01 cm from 5th year to 50th year respectively.
Production of tropical industrial roundwood (logs), 20102020, million m3
World imports of tropical primary wood products, 19902020
Major trade flows 2020: Tropical logs
Major importers of tropical sawnwood, 2010-2020
Major exporters of tropical sawnwood, 2010-2020
Major Trade Flows 2020: Tropical sawnwood
Major exporters of tropical plywood, 2010-2020
Major importers of tropical plywood, 2010-2020
Major Trade flows 2020: Tropical plywood
Major tropical exporters of furniture, 2010-2020
Major trade flows 2020: Wooden furniture from China and
ITTO producer countries
Teak distribution in natural forest in Thailand in protectedarea and outside
Teak distribution across different types of protected areas inThailandTeak improvement program in Thailand
Teak clonal test timeline and the testing information
Locations of 3 sets of clonal tests of teak plus trees
AAC and actual harvested teak trees in number
AAC and actual harvested hardwood in number
Timber sources and supply chains in MyanmarMarks on bucked log
Sketch map of the existing and proposed forest reserves in
Pegu and Tenasserim divisions of British Burmah in 1861.
The Karen areas and the boundary of Siam at that time arealso shown
Organigram of TEAKNETThe Home Page of the TEAKNET Website
Examples of Publication Media Issued by TEAKNET

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PHOTOS
Photo 1-1
Photo 1-2

Photo 1-3

Photo 1-4

Photo 1-5

Photo 1-6
Photo 1-7
Photo 2-1
Photo 2-2
Photo 2-3
Photo 2-4
Photo 5-1
Photo 5-2

Photo 5-3

Photo 5-4

Launching and 1st PSC meeting, Bangkok on 24 April 2019(left) and 2nd PSC meeting in Vientiane, Lao PDR on 20
February 2020 (right)
Teak clonal seed orchard (CSO) in Myanmar (upper left),clonal test in Thailand (upper right), seed orchard (lowerleft) and tissue culture lab in Thailand (lower right), being
maintained under the ITTO Mekong (Teak) Project
Teak nursery at Kampong Speu demonstration plot,
Cambodia (left) and The ITTO Mekong (Teak) Projectprovides genetically sound teak seedlings to the community(right)ITTO Project team visited smallholder teak plantations in
Son La province, Viet Nam (left) and Teak smallholders’networking workshop at Ngao Silvicultural Station, Thailand(right)Myanmar National Coordinator visited teak planting stock(upper left), Training workshop in Thanh Hoa (upper right),
Training on Silviculture techniques (lower left) and Teakimprovement technique training, 10-13 July, 14-17 July
2021 at FRI Office and online training to District staff andsmallholders, October 2019, Laos (lower right)
Interview of teak wood trader in Son La Province, Vietnam(left) and VCA Training on 25 February 2022 (right)
Project provides genetically sound teak seedlings(Myanmar-left) and small fund to community (Thailandright)
Nawamintara Rachinee teak forest, Mae Hong Son Province
A mother teak trees from Paa Sak Nawamindra Rachinee
forest, Mae Hong Son Province
Seedling production from good quality material
Teak timbers in the log yard at the Forest Industry
Organization (FIO)
Teak plantation with cotton and corn in Han Chey commune,
Kampong Cham Province, 1936
Study visits to private teak plantation in Han Chey
commune, Kampong Cham Province and teak nursery atGrandis Timber Limited in Aoral district, Kampong Speu
Province
Measuring and Monitoring of the Target Teak
Demonstration Plots belonging to Mr. Keo Kosal, the ownerof a private teak plantation in Han Chey commune,
Kampong Cham Province
A study comparing the growth between planting without
pruning and maintenance (thinning and pruning) andmonitoring the mean annual average growth of teak (meanannual increment-MAI)

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 5-5
Photo 5-6
Photo 6-1
Photo 6-2
Photo 6-3
Photo 7-1
Photo 7-2
Photo 7-3
Photo 7-4
Photo 7-5
Photo 7-6
Photo 9-1
Photo 9-2
Photo 9-3
Photo 9-4
Photo 10-1

Photo 10-2
Photo 10-3
Photo 10-4
Photo 10-5
Photo 11-1
Photo 11-2
Photo 11-3
Photo 11-4
Photo 11-5
Photo 11-6
Photo 12-1
Photo 12-2

Nursery breeding, experiment in the nursery, using
technology (Sensor) to record for monitoring the growth ofteak trees at Teak Farm's in Kampong Speu Province
Teak products--wooden furniture made of teak in Lamphat
district, Ratanakiri Province
Teak seed production plantation established in 1961-1962 in
Dong Nai Province
Teak plants unable to stand straight following removal of
Acacia hybrid in Thanh Hoa Province
Agroforestry model of teak and coffee in Son La Province
Teak plantations in Cambodia
Natural teak forest in Xayabuly Province, Lao PDR
Teak plantations in Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR
Natural teak forest in Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand
Teak plantations in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand
70- years old teak plantation in Dak Lak Province, Vietnam
Plus tree selection
Teak budding process by patch grafting techniques.
Rooted cutting processes of teak from rejuvenated materials
Tissue culture processes of teakInflorescence and flower: Large panicle of teak inflorescenceshowing high rate of fruit abortion, which commonly occurs in
self- and open pollination (left); Teak flowers at receptivity
showing six stamens and petals and straight style; and, one
day after receptivity after corolla abscised (right)
Access to flowers of 40 year-old teak using street scaffolds
which should be elected soon after emerging of flower bud(July)
Marking flowers using colored string tied to the pedicel ofan unopened flower
Pollinated flowers are enclosed in a cellophane bag to
exclude all potential pollinators
Controlled pollination by brushing an anther against thestigma of a receptive flower
Teak plantations damaged by Eutectona machaeralis Walker
Young teak stem and branch damaged by Xyleutes
ceramicus Walker
Adult Eutectona machaeralis Walker
Young teak stem and branch damaged by Xyleutes
ceramicus Walker
Rust disease
Teak tree affected by Mistletoe
Study on teak beehole borer in plantation
Defoliator damage

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 13-1
Photo 13-2
Photo 13-3
Photo 13-4
Photo 15-1
Photo 15-2
Photo 15-3
Photo 15-4
Photo 15-5
Photo 15-6
Photo 15-7
Photo 15-8
Photo 15-9
Photo 15-10
Photo 15-11
Photo 15-12
Photo 15-13
Photo 15-14
Photo 15-15
Photo 15-16
Photo 15-17
Photo 15-18
Photo 15-19
Photo 15-20
Photo 15-21
Photo 15-22
Photo 15-23
Photo 15-24
Photo 15-25
Photo 15-26
Photo 15-27
Photo 16-1
Photo 16-2
Photo 16-3

Remnant of century-old teak at Napabalano Nature Reservein Muna, Southeast Sulawesi
Clonal plantation of Jati Unggul Nusantara (JUN) 8-years
old at Gunung Kidul Yogyakarta
Flagpole made of teak more than 300 years old and thebackground board
Teak stand at Bau Bau, Buton Island
Superior tree selected for 72 cm dbh at 20 years rotation
Micro cuttings from genetically superior trees rejuvenatedand multiplied
Pollen collection and controlled pollination in teakMini clonal garden to produce mini cuttings of superior
genotypes
Mini cuttings into tube for rooting
Greenhouse for rooting mini cuttings
Seedlings ready for planting in the field
Old degraded pasture being prepared for teak planting
Bedding plough with subsoiler
Teak manual planting with “matraca”
Teak clonal stand, good and uniform initial growth start
Chemical weeding in the planting line
Application of fertilizer in the teak standPruning with a pole prune saw
Logs being transported by truck
Train and wagons transporting teak wood
Logs being placed inside containers
A pile of teak logs for export
Teak wood products
Macaws in the conservation areas
Tapirs inside teak standJaguar family on the side of the road at the teak plantation
farmElectric pruners of Sunrise Project
Toque de Letra Project
Part of the company team during the Internal Work
Accident Prevention Week
Mosaic aerial view of the teak plantation respecting
conservation areas
Teak trees into stand
Tree felling with chainsaw
Timber extraction
Examples of short distance transportation vehicles
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Photo 16-4
Photo 16-5
Photo 17-1
Photo 17-2
Photo 17-3
Photo 17-4
Photo 20-1
Photo 20-2
Photo 20-3
Photo 20-4
Photo 20-5
Photo 21-1
Photo 21-2
Photo 22-1
Photo 22-2
Photo 22-3
Photo 22-4
Photo 22-5
Photo 22-6
Photo 25-1
Photo 25-2
Photo 26-1
Photo 26-2
Photo 26-3

Log processing
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)Intercropping of maize in teak plantation on Java
Patterns of agroforestry in a small holder plantation in
Nglanggeran, Gunung Kidul
Teak small holder plantations in Muna, South-east Sulawesi
An 8-year-old plantation of JUN at Gunung Kidul
Yogyakarta
Nawawintara Rachinee teak forest in Mae Hong Son
Province spread over 9,600 ha
Hauy Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve in Lampang Province
Clone bank at Ngao SRS with collection of 396 clones over
5.76 ha (left) and Maegar SRS with collection of 113 clones
over 0.5 ha (right)
Clonal test plots Ngao SRS in the North (left) andThongphapoom SRS in Central Thailand (right)
Seed orchards at Donglan SRS in Khonkaen Province (left)
and at Mae gar SRS in Phayao Province (right)
Clone bank at Maegar SRS
Performance of 8 year-old teak trees in half-sib progeny test
plots at a) Bantakhun SRS, b) Donglan SRS, and c)
Inthakhin SRS
Herbaceous shoots are collected for in vitro culture fromstanding mother trees selected based on outstanding
morphological traits
Contamination-free and responsive nodal explants giving
rise to axillary microshoots that will be used for subsequentmultiplication under optimal tissue culture conditions
Mass production of clonal teak at the tissue culture facilityof YSG Bioscape in Sabah, Malaysia
Monospecific teak plantation establishment using clonal
planting materials with stringent and systematicmanagement practices in Brazil
Planting of clonal teak along oil palm plantations in Sabah is
encouraged for optimizing land use for a dual return that can
coincide for both species at the end of the rotation cycle
Fruits are annually collected from standing mother trees withknown origins from one of the two Progeny/Provenance Plotestablished in 1998 in Sabah, Malaysia
Teak Plus Tree T6 at Karulai in Nilambur South Forest
division, Kerala, India for producing high quality planting
stock
Natural teak forests at Sungam, Parambikulam, Kerala, India
Visiting Scientists of RITF to teak plantations in Kerala
Participants at the Bangkok Workshop
Panelists answering queries from audience
xii

207
208
214
215
216
219
247
248
249
250
252
260
267
272
273
274
277
278
279
328
333
345
347
348

TEAK IN MEKONG

FOREWORD
On behalf of Kasetsart University, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation
to the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) and the Ministry of Food andAgriculture of the Federal Republic of Germany (BMEL) for providing this opportunity to
Kasetsart University to coordinate the implementation of the project entitled Enhancing
Conservation and Sustainable Management of Teak Forests and Legal and Sustainable Wood Supply
Chains in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (ITTO Teak Project in Mekong) in the five participating
countries, namely Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam.
Natural teak forests occur in India, Myanmar, Thailand, and the Lao PDR. Thailand’s natural
teak forests are located in the northwestern part of the country and ranks second in area after
Myanmar. Historically, to generate income, Thailand granted logging concessions in its teakforests to foreign powers, from around 1829 until the country enforced a logging ban in 1989.
Commercial teak plantations have flourished in the period since logging was restricted (about
40 years) which has helped to replace the lost natural teak and met demands for timber indomestic and international markets. The University acknowledges the significance of the researchundertaken by this project and the importance of the contributions that the outcomes provide, promoting
the socio-economic of local livelihoods in Thailand and the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS).

Kasetsart means “agriculture. The university was first chartered in 1943 with a mission toprovide Knowledge of the Land and Natural Resources. From its earliest days and continuing
now nearly 80 years, KU has promoted educational programs and research that has focused onsustainable development to improve the well-being of Thai society and throughout the GMS.
The Faculty of Forestry offers undergraduate, post-graduate, and doctoral degree programs indiverse fields related to sustainable forest management and biodiversity conservation and has
gained a world-wide reputation. Based on its consistent record of research and academic
excellence, for more than 10 consecutive years KU has ranked within the top 5 universities in
Asia and within the top 50 in the world in the QS World University Rankings in fields ofAgriculture and Forestry.
The publication of the edited book, Teak in Mekong for a Sustainable Future, comes at theright time. The book effectively supports implementation of Thailand’s governmental policies
advancing the country’s economic development towards a “value-based economy” and it
contributes to various international agreements such as the UN Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) and its Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, the UN Sustainable
Development Goals 2030, the UN Global Forest Goals 2030, and the Paris Climate Agreement.
Notably, Article 7 of the amended Forest Act 2019 exempts teak planted on land that is owned
or possessed by rights granted under the Thai Code of Land Law. This policy encourages andincentivizes local people to grow more trees, especially teak, which provides greater economic
value to the timber trade and increases the density of areas with green cover.

xiii

TEAK IN MEKONG

This book contains technical data and information that greatly contributes to the base ofknowledge needed by the global teak community. It provides up-to-date information regarding
the conservation of teak genetic resources, sets forth best practices for sustainable forest
management, and recommendations concerning the use of legally harvested teakwood fromnatural and planted teak forests. On behalf of Kasetsart University, I extend an invitation toscientists, policymakers, smallholders, and individuals in related commercial sectors in
Thailand and other countries to not only explore the concepts and lessons learned from theresearch completed by the five participating countries and presented in this book, but to also
contribute their own experiences and insights in continuing dialogues.
Finally, I take this opportunity to congratulate the editors and authors who contributed to thiscomprehensive book.

Dr. Chongrak Wachrinrat
President of Kasetsart University
Bangkok, Thailand

xiv

TEAK IN MEKONGMESSAGE FROM ITTO
For more than three decades, ITTO has been assisting its tropical member countries in theirefforts to manage forests sustainably. To this end, the Organization promotes timber production
from legal and sustainable sources that simultaneously maintains the ecological values,
productivity, resilience and natural regeneration capacity of tropical forests and the culturesand livelihoods of forest-dependent communities.
As part of its work, ITTO is piloting the Legal and Sustainable Supply Chains Programme toencourage the establishment of and best practices on legal and sustainable supply chains in
productive tropical forest landscapes. Such supply chains minimize the negative environmental
impacts on forests, biodiversity and the environment while respecting the customary user rights
of Indigenous Peoples and local communities while enriching livelihoods, enhancing gender
equity, health and safety and encourages inclusive participation.
Natural teak forests cover about 2 9 million hectares in central and southern India, the Lao
People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), Myanmar and Thailand. These forests play crucial
roles in the livelihoods, economies and environment of the Greater Mekong Subregion.
Teakwood is recognized as one of the world’s most sought after and valuable hardwoods, andit has long been used for a range of products in furniture manufacturing, the ship-building
industry and construction. Legal and sustainable teakwood supply chains—from the tree in theforest to shelves in the marketplace can bridge the transition towards a circular bioeconomy.
Conversely, illegality and overexploitation can cause the degradation and loss of teak forests
in countries that lack the necessary legal and institutional frameworks to counter the immense
force of illegal activities across borders.
I am delighted that the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture of the Government of theFederal Republic of Germany (BMEL), established a partnership with ITTO to improve theconservation and sustainable management of teak forests and legal and sustainable teakwood
supply chains in the Mekong subregion. I am deeply grateful to BMEL for their support infacilitating the capacity building of institutions within and outside governments in thesubregion to promote the sustainable management of teak forests and create transparent
teakwood supply chains between smallholders, processors and consumers.
I also highly appreciate the collective efforts of the implementing teams in the Mekong region- the Cambodia Forestry Administration, the Lao PDR National Agriculture and Forestry
Research Institute, Myanmar’s Forestry Department and Forest Research Institute, Thailand’s
Royal Forest Department and Kasetsart University, and the Vietnamese Academy of Forest
Sciences—for their valuable contributions to the BMEL-supported teak partnership.

xv

TEAK IN MEKONG

This report, written by teak experts with extensive on-the-ground experience, showcases bestpractices in planting, managing, harvesting and processing teak into valuable products anddemonstrating legality and sustainability along supply chains. I thank the authors for their
dedication in producing this valuable report.
In collaboration with its partners and stakeholders, ITTO will continue promoting sustainabletimber production and consumption practices to enable countries and businesses to meet theirneeds while contributing positively towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals andthe Global Forest Goals.

Sheam Satkuru
ITTO Executive Director
Yokohama, Japan

xvi

TEAK IN MEKONGMESSAGE FROM BMEL
The conservation, restoration and sustainable management of forests is a core objective of theinternational community in the framework of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development with its 1 7 Sustainable Development Goals, especially Goal 1 5 , as well as theUnited Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017–2030 and its Global Forest Goals and targets.
As part of efforts to promote cooperation, coordination, coherence, synergies and politicalcommitment and actions at all levels in achieving these objectives, a partnership between theFederal Ministry of Food and Agriculture of the Government of the Federal Republic of
Germany (BMEL) and ITTO has been established for the project “Enhancing the conservationand sustainable management of teak forests and legal and sustainable wood supply chains in
the Greater Mekong Subregion”. It is the region where teak naturally occurs and originates andI appreciate that countries of the region did not hesitate to support a collective regional or crossborder effort for this project under ITTO.
Teak wood and teak products are characterised by their beauty and unique durability, and they
can store carbon for decades and even centuries. Due to ongoing unsustainable and illegal
exploitation teak as a species today is endangered and the potential it is offering is at risk. The
sustainable and legal production and consumption of teakwood has strong potential tocontribute to the livelihoods of local communities and the economic development of thesubregion and at the same time to climate-change mitigation and adaption as well as
biodiversity conservation. Enhancing legal and sustainable teakwood supply chains canadvance a circular bioeconomy in the subregion.
I acknowledge the engagement and hard work of the ITTO project teams in Cambodia, the Lao
People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand and Viet Nam for the effective
implementation of many activities despite the challenges imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic
for more than two years. Much more work lies ahead before it can be said with certainty thatteak forests in this region are being sustainably managed. I hope this report will serve as a
useful reference for policymakers and practitioners here and worldwide in conserving teak as
a wonderful species and a precious natural resource.

Matthias Schwörer
Head of Division, International Forest Policy Division
Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL), Germanyxvii

TEAK IN MEKONGABOUT THE EDITORS
Prof. Dr. Yongyut Trisurat is Professor of Forestry at Kasetsart University in Bangkok,
Thailand. He has been active in the area of protected areas, biodiversity conservation,
landscape ecology, climate change and GIS for over 25 years and has been a frequent
contributor to several international agencies (e.g., ADB, CIDA, DANIDA, FAO, GIZ, IPCC,IPBES, ITTO, IUCN,). Professor Yongyut Trisurat is now a member of Thailand’s National
Committee for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity, a member of Thailand’s
National World Heritage Committee, a Co-chair of the Asia-Pacific Biodiversity Observation
Network (APBON), Chair of Scientific Committee for ILTER-EAP and the KBA Community
representative for East-Asia Region. In addition, he was awarded as Research Fellow/Visiting
Professor at several research institutions and universities (e.g., Freie University Berlin,
Gottingen University, University of Hawaii and the East-West Center, Turku University,
University of Leeds). Professor Yongyut Trisurat has published more than 50 peer-reviewed
research articles in international journals, books and book chapters, and presented papers inmany international conferences.
Dr. Hwan-ok Ma is a Senior Project Manager at the International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO), an intergovernmental organization based in Yokohama, Japan, that haspromoted sustainable forest management (SFM) in the tropics for more than 30 years. He has
followed the capacity building programs of SFM, forest-based climate change adaptation andmitigation, including REDD+, and conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in tropical
production forests, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region. His recent work includes facilitating
the preparation of ITTO’s guidelines for forest landscape restoration in the tropics, as well as
legal and sustainable teakwood supply chains in the Lower Mekong region. He used to be an
adjunct professor at the Asian Institute of Technology and is currently an honorary professor
at the Myanmar University of Forestry and Environmental Sciences. After studying in forestry
at the Korea University, he received a master’s degree in forest product marketing and PhD inforest resource economics from the University of Washington, Seattle, USA.
Dr Promode Kant holds a PhD in Climate Change and Forestry, Masters in Physics andMasters in Forestry, and a post graduate diploma in wildlife conservation and management. He
has 32 years long experience in the Indian Forest Service related to forest and wildlife
management, coastal zone and wetland conservation, forest-tribe interface, international
environmental conventions, and corporate management of tea plantations and factories.
Between 1997 to 2002 he was responsible for steering the north-eastern tribal communities
towards increased sustainability of forests under their control and better management of nontimber forest products. Dr Kant is a frequent visiting faculty at the Indira Gandhi National
Forest Academy, Dehradun, and at the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal. He has
written more than 50 papers and has been a co-author of a number of books. He is a regularreviewer of the Elsevier Journal of Energy Policy and of Forest Policy and Economics.

xviii

TEAK IN MEKONG

Dr. P.K. Thulasidas holds PhD in Wood Science & Technology from the Forest ResearchInstitute, Dehra Dun, India. He was the Former Senior Scientist & Head, Wood Science andTechnology Division of Kerala Forest Research Institute, India and the Former TEAKNET
Coordinator of FAO established International Teak Information Network. He is the Dy.
Coordinator of IUFRO Teakwood Working Party (Div5.06.02) who organized many Partner
Events and Side Events on Teak in different countries across the globe with the involvementof FAO, ITTO and other regional and international agencies. Dr. Thulasidas is currently
serving as International Consultant for knowledge management and networking of teak for the
ITTO Teak Project now under implementation in Mekong sub-region and is the Chief Editorof Teak Mekong Newsletter and Associate Editor of TEAKNET Bulletin. He also served as
editorial board member of the International Journal of Bamboo and Rattan for almost 13 years.
He has more than 36 years’ vast experience in tropical forestry with profound interest in thewood quality assessment of teak and other tropical timbers, wood anatomy and wood
identification, durability studies, quality assessment and physico-chemical characterization of
non-timber forest products like rattans and reed bamboos, tree-rings and dendroecologicalstudies of teak etc. He has more than 60 research papers to his credit published in refereed
journals besides project reports, handbooks, consultancy reports and presented papers in many
international conferences.
Dr. Tetra Yanuriadi is the ITTO Projects Manager of Trade and Industry (since 2008) wheregoals include enhancing SFM in the tropics while expanding and diversifying the trade intropical wood products from sustainably managed and legally harvested forests. Objectives are
to grow financial/policy support for the implementation of SFM in the tropics, address market
access/customs regulations and international policies for tropical forest products and identify
measures to implement and balance sustainable production/consumption in line with the SDGs
2030.Tetra was previously the Head of Forestry Division/Forestry Attaché of the IndonesianEmbassy, Tokyo (2007); Forest Program Coordinator of WWF Indonesia (2005-2006), andHead of Evaluation Division of the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry and Environment (20012005). He graduated from Forestry Faculty of Mulawarman University, Indonesia (1985) andholds a Master degree in Forest Science from ITC-Twente University (1991) and a PhD degreein Agricultural and Environmental Sciences from Wageningen University, the Netherlands(1999).

xix

TEAK IN MEKONGAUTHORS AND THEIR AFFILIATIONSNameJean-Christophe Claudon
Hwan-ok Ma
Tetra Yanuariadi
Nopparat Kaakkurivaara
Nikhom Laemsak
Chakrit Na Takuathung
WattanachaiTasen
Yongyut Trisurat
Decha Wiwatwitaya
Sylvio de Andrade
Coutinho
Fausto Hissashi Takizawa
Chheang Dany
Pang Phanit
Say Sinly
Hort Sothea
Kim Sobon
Lim Sopheap
Promode Kant
S. Sankar
P.K. Thulasidas
M.K. Sreelakshmy
Anis Fauzi
ILG Nurtjahjaningsih
Anto Rimbawanto
Taiji Fujisaki

Affiliation
International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO), Japan
International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO), Japan
International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO), Japan

Emailitto-stat@itto.int

Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University, Thailand
Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University, Thailand
Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University, Thailand
Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University, Thailand
Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University, Thailand
Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University, Thailand
Teak Resources Company (TRC),
BrazilTeak Resources Company (TRC),
BrazilForest Administration (FA),Cambodia
Forest Administration (FA),Cambodia
Forest Administration (FA),Cambodia
Forest Administration (FA),Cambodia
Forest Administration (FA),Cambodia
Forest Administration (FA),Cambodia
Institute of Green Economy, India
Kerala Forest Research Institute,
India
TEAKNET, India
TEAKNET, India

ffornrm@ku.ac.thCentre for Forest Biotechnology
and Tree Improvement, Indonesia
Centre for Forest Biotechnology
and Tree Improvement, Indonesia
Centre for Forest Biotechnology
and Tree Improvement, Indonesia
Institute for Global Environmental
Strategies (IGES), Japan

giant_anies@yahoo.com

xx

ma@itto.int
tetra@itto.int

ffornil@ku.ac.th
chakrit_n@ku.ac.th
fforwct@ku.ac.th
fforyyt@ku.ac.thffordew@ku.ac.th
sylvio@teakrc.com
faustot@teakrc.com
wpo@online.com.kh
pangphanit@yahoo.com
saysinlyrua@gmail.com
sotheahort@gmail.com
sobonit@yahoo.com
sopheap73@yahoo.com
promodekant@gmail.com
dr.s.sankae@gmail.com
thulasidas.teak@gmail.com
secretariat@teaknet.org

iluh_nc@yahoo.com
rimba@indo.net.id
fujisaki@iges.or.jp

TEAK IN MEKONG
Bounthavy Cchaleunsouk
Baisone Inthirath
Vongvilay Vongkhamsao
Doreen KS Goh
Zaw Min Aye
Myo Htet Aung
Zar Chi Hlaing
Thant ShinBarber Cho
Sapol Boonsermsuk
SuwanTangmitcharoen
Chumnun Piananurak
Tosporn Vacharangkura
Nguyen Van Bich
Tran Lam Dong
Dang Thinh Trieu

National Agriculture and Forestry
Research Institute (NAFRI), Lao
PDR
National Agriculture and Forestry
Research Institute (NAFRI), Lao
PDR
National Agriculture and Forestry
Research Institute (NAFRI), Lao
PDR
YSG Bioscape Sdn Bhd., Sabah,
Malaysia
Forest Research Institute (FRI),Forest Department, Myanmar
Forest Research Institute, (FRI)
Forest Department, Myanmar
Forest Research Institute (FRI),Forest Department, Myanmar
Forest Research Institute (FRI),Forest Department, Myanmar
Myanmar Forest Certification
Committee (MFCC), Myanmar
Royal Forest Department (RFD),
ThailandRoyal Forest Department (RFD),
Thailand
Project’s consultant (Thailand)
Project’s consultant (Thailand)

Bounthavy99@hotmail.co.thVietnamese Academy of Forest
Sciences (VAFS), Vietnam
Vietnamese Academy of Forest
Sciences (VAFS), Vietnam
Vietnamese Academy of Forest
Sciences (VAFS), Vietnam

bichnv.fsiv@gmail.com

xxisone.be2019@gmail.com
vongvilay7566@gmail.com
dorngoh@gmail.com
zawminaye@gmail.com
myohteaung@gmail.com
zarchihlaing08@gmail.com
thantshin@gmail.com
secretary@myanmarforestcer
tification.org
sapolboonsermsuk@gmail.comsuwantang@hotmail.com
chumnunpian@gmail.com
vtosporn@gmail.com

tranlamdong@gmail.com
thinhtrieu@hotmail.com

TEAK IN MEKONGPREFACE
Teak (Tectona grandis) is one of the most valuable tropical hardwoods of the world. Natural
teak forests occur in India, Myanmar, Thailand and Lao PDR. Teak has been grownincreasingly in planted forests in about 70 tropical countries in Africa, Asia-Pacific and Latin
America. Natural teak forests, in particular old-growth high quality stands are declining in all
the native teak growing countries mainly due to over exploitation, agriculture expansion,
shifting cultivation, conversion to other land-uses and growing competition for environmental
services.
The ITTO teak project entitled “Enhancing Conservation and Sustainable Management of TeakForests and Legal and Sustainable Wood Supply Chains in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (PPA/54-331)” aims to promote the sustainable management of natural and planted teak forests
with establishment of demonstration plots for conservation of genetic resources and capacity
building of key stakeholders in the Mekong sub-region to improve legal and sustainable supply
chains for sustainable production and consumption.
This comprehensive book entitled “Teak in Mekong for a Sustainable Future” is theoutcome of the ITTO teak project in the Greater Mekong Sub-region implemented in the five
participating countries of Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam during 20192022. The book comprises 27 chapters in 7 main sections, namely (1) Introduction, (2) Teak
distribution across the Greater Mekong Sub-region (3) Silvicultural practices and teakimprovement techniques, (4) Sustainable teak forest management and certification, (5)Research in teak genetics, and (6) Policy and regional/international collaboration. It also
provides policy recommendations and guidance for future work in promoting sustainable
management of natural and planted teak forests in the tropics.
It is hoped that this book will serve the global teak community not only with the most up-todate information on the conservation of teak genetic resources, but also on the sustainable
management natural and planted teak forests and sustainable consumption of legally harvested
teakwood from sustainable sources. It also intends to promote sustainable investments in teakforests to strengthen capacity building of smallholder teak communities, legal and sustainablesupply chains, and multi-stakeholder fora in the region. The book contributes to theachievement of SDGs, especially SDG 1 (No poverty), SDG 12 (Sustainable production andconsumption), SDG 13 (Climate action) and SDG 15 (Life on land) and the Global Forest Goalsof the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2030 (UNSPF).

xxii

TEAK IN MEKONG

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication presents the outcome of the ITTO teak project in the Greater Mekong subregion implemented in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam during 20192022. Publication of this book was made possible by the financial support from the Ministryof Food and Agriculture of the Federal Republic of Germany (BMEL). International Tropical
Timber Organization (ITTO) as the executing agency, worked closely with Lao PD’s National
Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI), Cambodia’s Forest Administration (FA),
Myanmar’s Forest Department, Thailand’s Royal Forest Department (RFD), and Vietnam’s
Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences (VAFS). The five participating countries have shown
great dedication to promote the sustainable management of teak forests through the legal andsustainable supply chains for sustainable production and consumption and to conserve teakgenetic resources.
We gratefully acknowledge the technical cooperation and management provided by the Facultyof Forestry, Kasetsart University and Forest Industry Organization in Thailand; Teak Farm in
Cambodia; TEAKNET based in Kerala Forest Research Institute in India; Centre for Forest
Biotechnology and Tree Improvement in Indonesia; Asian Forest Cooperation Organization(AFoCO) in Republic of Korea; YSG Bioscape Sdn Bhd in Malaysia; Institute for Global
Environmental Strategies (IGES) and JICA in Japan and the Teak Resources Company (TRC)
in Brazil for successfully implementing the project in Mekong sub-region. We are thankful to
the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) for the fruitful technical support andadministrative assistance throughout the project period for implementation.
The editors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the Project Steering Committee,
Technical Committee, and Demonstration Plots Selection Committees in Thailand andCambodia for proving guidance and technical support to fruitily implement the project. Our
sincere thanks to all the contributing authors for their high-quality manuscripts and subsequent
reviews suggested by the editors. We are grateful to the project staff, Ms. Suchanart Suyarat
and Ms. Saichon Mutarapat, to document and formatted various permutations. Valuablecomments are provided by Ramon Carrillo during the final stage of printing. Special thanks to
Mr. Stephan Wagner and Ms. Silke Hertrich for their constant support. We would especiallylike to thank Dr. Chongrak Wachrinrat, President of Kasetsart University, Ms. Sheam Satkuru,
Executive Director of ITTO, and Mr. Matthias Schwörer, the representative from BMEL for
contributing the remarkable foreword and messages for this book.

Yongyut Trisurat, Hwan-ok Ma
Tetra Yanuariadi, Promode Kant
and P.K. Thulasidas
Editorsxxiii

TEAK IN MEKONG

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AFoCO
AFTSC
B.C.
B.E.
BAP
BMEL
CBD
CF
CFC
CFE
CFI
CFU
CFNWG
C&I
CITES
CMIP
CoC
CSO
DANIDA
dbh
DNA
DNP
FA
FAO
FD
FIO
FLEGT
FLR
FSC
GDP
GHGs
GIS
GIZ
GMS
IRR
IBA

Asian Forest Cooperation Organization
ASEAN Forest Tree Seed Centre
Before Christ
Buddhist Era
Benzene Adenine Purine
Federal Ministry for Food and Agriculture
Community-based Development
Community Forestry
Community Forest Conservation
Community Forest Enterprise
Community Forestry Instructions
Community Forestry Units
Community Forestry National Working Group
Criteria and Indicators
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora
Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
Chains of Custody
Clonal Seed Orchard
Danish International Development Agency
Diameter at Breast Height
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant
Conservation, Thailand
Forest Administration, Cambodia
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Forest Department, Myanmar
Forest Industry Organization, Thailand
Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade
Forest and Landscape Restoration
Forest Stewardship Council
Gross Domestic Products
Greenhouse Gases
Geographic Information Systems
German International Cooperation
Greater Mekong Sub-region
Internal Rate of Return
Indole Butyric Acid
xxiv

TEAK IN MEKONG

ISSR
ITTO
IUCN
IUFRO
JIRCAS
KU
LDD
LMB
LPTP
MAFF
MAI
MFCC
Mha
MIG-seq
MMSS
MOFCOM
MRRP
MSS
MTE
MTLAS
NAA
NAFRI
NDCs
NGOs
NTFPs
PAs
PCR
PEFC
PEPC
PPE
PES
RCP
RECOFT
REDD
RFD
SDG
SFM
SNP
SRS
SSO

Inter simple sequence repeats
International Tropical Timber Organization
International Union for Conservation of Nature
International Union of Forest Research Organization
Japan International Research Centre for Agricultural
Sciences
Kasetsart University
Land Development Department, Thailand
Lower Mekong Basin
Luang Prabang Teak Programme
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Mean Annual Increment
Myanmar Forest Certification Committee
Million hectares
Multiplexed ISSR genotyping by sequencing
Modified Myanmar Selection System
Ministry of Commerce of China PR
Myanmar Reforestation and Rehabilitation Projects
Myanmar Selection System
Myanmar Timber Enterprise
Myanmar Timber Legality Assurance System
Naphthalene acetic acid
National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute, Laos
Nationally Determined Contributions
Non-governmental organizations
Non-timber Forest ProductsProtected Areas
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Program for the Endorsement of Forest Certification
Private Forest Plantation Cooperatives
Personal Protective Equipment
Payment for Ecosystem Services
Representative Concentration Pathways
Centre for People and Forests (previous name – The Regional
Community Forest Training Center for Asia and the Pacific)
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation
Royal Forest Department, Thailand
Sustainable Development Goal
Sustainable Forest Management
Single-nucleotide polymorphism
Silvicultural Research Stations
Seedling seed orchard
xxv

TEAK IN MEKONGSSPTEAKNET
TPC
UN
UNSPF
VAFS
VCA
WTC

Shared socioeconomic pathways
International Teak Information Network
Thai Plywood Company
United Nations
Global Forest Goals of the United Nations Strategic Plan for
Forests
Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences
Value Chains Analysis
World Teak Conferencexxvi

TEAK IN MEKONGSECTION I
INTRODUCTION

1TEAK IN MEKONG

Chapter 1: Overview and Achievements of the BMELITTO Teak Project in Mekong
Yongyut Trisurat, Nikhom Laemsak. Hwan-ok Ma,
TetraYanuariadi, Promode Kant and P.K. Thulasidas

Abstract

production plots were established and goodquality seedlings were distributed to teaksmallholders. With the support of TEAKNET,
18 issues of bi-monthly electronic newsletter,
which carries success stories and support
sharing lessons of the project results were
widely circulated online to the global teakcommunity including the social media
platform of Youtube and Facebook page. The
success lessons of the project were alsopresented at the Regional Teak Workshops, theXV World Forestry Congress and will bepresented at the 4th World Teak Conference.
Furthermore, this book documented theories
and good practices of sustainable forest
management of natural and planted teakforests in the Mekong region not merely
limited to the five participating countries.

The ITTO Teak Mekong project“Enhancing
Conservation
andSustainable Management of Teak Forestsand Legal and Sustainable Wood Supply
Chains in the Greater Mekong Sub-region(PP-A/54-331)” is implemented by ITTO
with participation of five countries, namely
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand
and Vietnam as well as with the support of
the Kasetsart University of Thailand. The
project duration covers 3 years fromJanuary 2019 to September 2022.The teakproject in Mekong is aimed at assisting
governments, local communities andsmallholders to enhance natural teak forest
management, production and marketing tofacilitate the establishment of legal andsustainable wood supply chains while
improving national economy and livelihood
enhancement of local communities in the GMS.
Three outputs and various activities
involving the conservation of teak genetic
resources, strengthening community-based
smallholders teak forest management withimproved legal and sustainable supply
chains, and regional and international
collaboration and information sharing wereplanned and implemented.

Project Overview

Teak (Tectona grandis) is one of themost important valuable tropical
hardwoods in the world. It has been used formany centuries for the manufacture of wide
range of products in furniture making, shipbuilding, house construction besides
providing cultural services. Natural teakforests occur in central and southern India,
Myanmar, Thailand and Lao PDR.
Considering its prominent position in the
global timber market and its potential tocontributing to national economies andlivelihood enhancement of smallholder
communities, teak has been grownincreasingly in planted forests in about 70
tropical countries. Natural teak forest area
has declined substantially in all native teakgrowing countries mainly due tooverexploitation, agriculture expansion andshifting cultivation. Furthermore, teakseedlings for commercial plantations are
established largely from seeds of unknown
origin. Thus, there is a high risk of losing theirSince February 2020, the COVID-19
pandemic and resultant lockdown disrupted
physical meetings, field visits and travels.
Field activities, training, and dissemination of
information and knowledge sharing wereresumed after travel restrictions have been
lifted. Monthly webinars and online training
programs were also conducted. As of March
2022, there were 21 training courses
conducted with more than 750 participants.
Fourteen demonstration plots were establishedin the five participating countries to support
community-based smallholders teak forests.
Besides, several clonal test and seed2

TEAK IN MEKONG

diversity of genetic traits and woodcharacteristics.

social distancing and work from home. A lot ofplanned activities were cancelled or
rescheduled. Therefore, the project duration
was extended for 6 months until September
2022without additional cost.

At the 53rd International Timber Council
Meeting in Lima, Peru, the ITTO Council
approved an activity entitled “Enhancing
Teak Management” which proposed acomprehensive global activity to improvethe management and marketing of bothnatural and planted teak in all three tropicalregions. Also at ITTC 53, the Federal
Ministry of Food and Agriculture,
Government of the Federal Republic of
Germany (BMEL) pledged funds toimplement the first stage of this activity in
the Greater Mekong Sub-region. The Teak
Mekong project “Enhancing Conservationand Sustainable Management of TeakForests and Legal and Sustainable Wood
Supply Chains in the Greater Mekong Subregion (PP-A/54-331)” is aimed at assisting
governments,
local
communities
andsmallholders to enhance natural and planted teakforest management, production and marketing tofacilitate the establishment of legal andsustainable wood supply chains while
improving national economy and smallholder
communities’ livelihood in the Greater Mekong
Sub-region (GMS).

The Teak project in Mekong conforms with
ITTO’s objectives and Strategic Action
Plan (SAP 2022-2026) towards promotionsof the expansion and diversification ofinternational trade in tropical timber fromsustainably managed and legally harvested
forests. The project contributes to theachievement of SDGs, especially SDG 1(No Poverty), SDG 12 (Responsible
Consumption and Production), SDG 13(Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life onland), and the Global Forest Goals of theUnited Nations Strategic Plan for Forests
2030 (UNSPF). The project also supports
the participating countries’ policies andstrategies
onsustainable
forestmanagement and sustainable wood supply
from legal sources in line with their
Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs). For example, Thai’s National
Forest Policy adopted by the cabinet in2019 aims to maintain 40% forest cover ofwhich 25% conservation forests and theremaining 15% production forests.

This project is being executed by ITTO
with the participating institutions in five GMS
countries, namely Cambodia’s Forestry
Administration (FA), Lao PDR’s National
Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute(NAFRI), Myanmar’s Forestry Department,
Thailand’s Royal Forestry Department(RFD)/Forest Industry Organization and
Vietnam’s Vietnamese Academy of Forest
Sciences (VAFS).

In order to achieve these strategic goals of
production forests and wood industries,
Thai government promotes afforestation in
private and public land; promotes andassists value chain process in woodindustries and biodiversity-based economy
development; licensing and national andinternational certification of timber,including small- and medium-sizedenterprises. Most importantly, Article 7 of
the Forest Act 2019 (amended from 1941)
stated that the previously restricted tree
species, in particular teak either planted in
the public land or private own land are nolonger defined as restricted species. Similar
policies and approaches are also practiced
in the participating countries.

The Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University in
Thailand was assigned as the Regional ProjectManager. In addition, nine consultants wererecruited to assist the participating countries toimplement the planned activities andarrange training courses during 3 years
period starting January 2019. However, as aresult of COVID-19 pandemic that started
early 2020, all participating countries
imposed strong measures to cope with theglobal pandemic such as travel restriction,
3

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 1-1 Launching and 1st PSC meeting, Bangkok on 24 April 2019 (left) and 2nd PSC meeting in
Vientiane, Lao PDR on 20 February 2020 (right)

This publication presents a collective workand achievements made by the five
participating countries to strengthen on-goingstrategic objectives and policies on thesustainable development of teak forest
resources, in particular livelihood improvement
and ecological significance in all countries of the
GMS. In addition, the three outputs
expected from the project were: output 1conservation of teak genetic resources,
sustainable management and use of natural
teak forests and market accesses of teakfrom legal sources have been improved;
output 2-community-based and smallholders
teak forest management and agroforestry
systems have been strengthened withimproved legal and sustainable supply
chains; and output 3-regional andinternational collaboration, information
sharing and knowledge management,
networking, policy development andoutreach on the sustainable management ofteak forests, including sustainable use ofteak genetic resources have beenstrengthened.

Myanmar alone occupies almost 50 percent
area of natural teak forests. Natural
distribution of teak occurs in the semievergreen forests, mixed deciduous forestsand deciduous dipterocarp forests. Mixed
deciduous forest produces teak with clear
and straight boles compared to other forest
types (Kermode, 1957). Thailand has thesecond largest area of natural teak forests(after Myanmar) at an estimated 8.7 million
ha mainly distributed in northern Thailand.
In the 1970s Lao PDR had about 70,000 hanatural teak forests, and in 2010, only about
1,500 ha are left. They are mainly locatedin north-western Lao PDR adjoining
Thailand border. Currently, only fragmentsof the original teak forests in Thailand and
Lao PDR remain mainly in a few protectedareas. Vietnam and Cambodia do not havenatural teak forests, but in Vietnam planted
forests has been introduced by the French in1952 and Lao PDR in 1985.
The remaining suitable range of teak forests
in 2019 covers 18.90 million ha, which wassubstantially different with the estimation
by Kollert & Cherubini (2012) due tounsustainable logging and encroachment
for agriculture and future climate change(Chapter 8). About 43% of the remaining
total teak occurrence (8.1 million ha) was
predicted in Myanmar, whereas 41% (7.7
million ha) and 16% (3 million ha) arelocated in Thailand and Lao PDR,
respectively. Substantial loss has been
detected in Myanmar due to unsustainable
logging (Forest Department, 2000; FAO,

Conservation of Teak Genetic
Resources
Natural teak distribution
Natural teak forests occur within alatitudinal range of 10° to 25°N (Gyi &Tint, 1995) in South and Southeast Asia,
especially India, Myanmar, Thailand and
Lao PDR. Kollert & Cherubini (2012)
reported that natural teak forests cover
approximately 29 million hectares of which
4

TEAK IN MEKONG

followed by 10% in Africa and 6% in the
Latin America.

2020). Comparatively less reduction ispredicted in future as a result of the logging
ban in India, Lao PDR, Thailand andMyanmar, and the governments allowed
only a limited sustainable harvest fromnatural forests (Roshetko et al.,2013).

Teak genetics
Though teak has been widely planted acrossthe world, reliable information on genetic
variation within and among populations,and among regions is important to ensure
the long-term survival of a species andestablish conservation stand and commercial
plantations effectively in a changing environment.
Teak occurs naturally in a wide range ofclimatic conditions. However, the optimal
temperature ranges from 25°C to 35°C withthe optimum annual precipitation between
1,250 – 2,500 mm associated with a dry
period of 3-5 months are most suitable forthe production of good quality timber(Kaosa-ard, 1981).

However, actual extent of natural teak forests atpresent (Chapter 7) is significantly less than thesuitable area derived from the species
distribution model.
Teak has been widely established inplantations throughout the seasonally dry
tropics as a high value tropical hardwood.
Planted teak forests according to various
estimates has reached approximately 6.89
million ha of which 80% are grown in Asia

5

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 1-1 Potential suitable habitats at baseline

Figure 1-2 Remaining suitable habitats at baseline(masked by land use map)

6

TEAK IN MEKONG

Seth & Khan (1958) and Champion & Seth( 1968) classified the teak forests in India
into 5 ecological zonation by correlating theamount of annual rainfall, stand composition andthe qualities of teak into five types. Ranging
from very moist teak forest (annual rainfall> 2,500 mm) to very dry teak forest (annual
rainfall <900 mm). Using the similar
approach, Kaosa-ard (1979) classified
natural teak forests in Thailand into 4 zones
using P:T ratio moisture index method,where P is annual rainfall in mm, and T isannual mean temperature as follows: Zone
1: dry-humid zone with the P/T ratio
smaller than 40; Zone 2: medium-humid
zone with P/T ratio of 40-50; Zone 3: moisthumid zone with P/T ratio of 50-60; andZone 4: wet zone with P/T ratio of greaterthan 60.

difference between selective logging andunlogged teak forests in Myanmar.
Teak tree improvement program wasstarted in Myanmar since 1981 through theestablishment of clonal seed orchards in
Letpankon, Oaktwin consisting of 33
clones. A total of 1,011 plus trees of teakwere selected throughout Myanmar
representing almost all teak growing
regions, of which 856 trees were selectedduring the Myanmar Reforestation andRehabilitation Programme (MRRP) project
phase. These plus trees are important forevolutionary conservation of Myanmar
teak. Clones from some plus trees wereplanted in six clonal seed orchards in 6.3 haarea and seven hedge gardens in 7.6 ha area,
serving as gene pool for ex situ
conservation. For propagation, shoots fromthese clones are used for producing clonalmaterials. Currently 207 teak seedproduction areas in fourteen out of fifteen
regions having an area of 2,815 ha weretransformed into seed production areas (SPAs).

Teak Genetic and Tree Improvement
Based on teak genetic Consultant’s
comprehensive literature review, the present
status of teak genetic and tree improvement in
the five participating countries are elaborated
below.

No progeny test for selected clones nor
genetic studies of teak clonal seed orchard(CSO) or plus trees had been conducted
before 2019. The ITTO Teak Projectprovided funding support for a progeny trial
to test genetic characteristics of candidate
plus trees using clones in gene bankplantation. Seeds obtained from selectedclone was used to raise seedlings for theprogeny test. It is expected to collect datafor progeny test after 3 years. The results ofprogeny will be used to determine plus trees
for future tree improvement program of teak.

MyanmarGeographic variation of teak in Myanmar
was observed in both provenance trails andmolecular genetic studies. The results ofinvestigations indicated that Myanmar teakhas at least four groups of genetic
components which corresponds to four
genetic clusters spread over in thegeographic regions of lower, central, upper,and southern regions, respectively. Almost
all genetic studies of native teakcongruently suggested that Myanmar teakhas higher genetic diversity than Thailandand Lao teak, similar to central Indian teak.
Among the four clusters, teak populations
from lower region (around Bago Yoma)
showed slightly higher genetic diversity
than upper and central teak populations,while southern populations exhibited thelowest genetic diversity (Win, 2022).
Nevertheless, Myanmar teak populations
possess high level of genetic diversity. The
genetic diversity does not show significant

In addition, a new teak CSO was established asa demonstration plot at Moe Sew Research
Station, Myanmar in June 2020. The teak
CSO, 0.8 ha area is composed of 260 meters
representing 20 clones collected fromdifferent teak sources across Myanmar. The
teak CSO has been maintained by the
project. Survival counting was conducted in
December 2020, weeding, fencing andperiodical measurements were accomplishedduring the reporting period of Jan-June 2021.
Apart from being a demonstration plot, the7

TEAK IN MEKONG

teak CSO also serve as a research centre of
the Forest Department, and support of
ITTO Mekong-Teak project is crucial for
future teak improvement program.

1) Dong Lan SRS, Khon Kaen Province, 2)
Krueng Krawia Forest Plantation in
Kanchanaburi Province, and 3) Thung
Kwien Forest Plantation in Lampang
Province. The first site is under the RFD,
while the remaining two sites are under theForest Industrial Organization (FIO). The
duration of the project is 5 years undercooperation between the RFD and Kasetsart
University with the financial support fromthe ITTO Teak Project in Mekong. Progeny
tests using full-sib progeny and half-sib
progeny were employed to identify trees ofbetter genetic quality. These high-quality
teak seedlings produced from tissue cultureor shoot cutting of good material are now
available for use by farmers for producing
high quality teak timber. See details in
Chapter 21.

Tissue culture technique and cutting
methods can be successfully practiced in
Myanmar for clonal materials. However, nolarge-scale production of planting materials
from plus trees produced via tissue culture
laboratories existed for commercial
plantations. During this project phase, genebank of Myanmar teak and a new hedge
garden was established in Forest ResearchInstitute using the clones. Subsequently, theplanting materials produced from these labs
will be planted in clone bank used for masspropagation and establishment of teakclonal plantations.
ThailandThai natural teak forests display a highgenetic diversity and form, the Thai teak
germplasm (seedlings and clones) has been
globally used in many tropical countries forplantation establishment often without
knowing its provenance or origin. Natural
distribution of teak forests are confined tonorthern and western Thailand between
latitudes 16-21. They are separated into
seven gene-ecological zones based on the
results of provenance trials, climate,topography and soil factors (See details in
Chapter 2). For over 50 years, the results
showed that genetic improvement resulted
in improved teak varieties, which growfaster, produce good quality wood andresistpests
anddiseases.
Teak
improvement program such as developmentof
cuttingtechniques,pollination
technique, use of molecular technology anduse of Index selection coupled with
Forward selection in offspring test forestablishment of the seed production areas
has lead to modern breeding strategy withhigh accuracy and efficacy.

Teak genetic improvement in Thailand
began in 1965 under a bilateral agreement
between Thailand and Danish governments.
A total of 636 plus trees were selectedacross the natural teak forests in Thailand
according to growth performance, stem
form, wood quality, and the health of thetree criteria. Of these 509 plus trees wereplanted in 5 clone banks across the country.
Three sets of clonal test were conducted,
the first one using budding techniques for
propagation for 100 clones and tested at one
site.
Second set of clonal test was
conducted using rooted cuttings forvegetative propagation for 400 clones at 4
sites. The last set of 100 clones has recently
been established at Maegar Silvicultural
Research Station in Payao Province as partof the ITTO-Mekong Teak project in 2021.
The objective of this clonal test was toevaluate genotypic value of the remaining
plus trees located in different environment.
The seedlings derived from the clonal test
were planted at 3 experiment sites:8

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 1-2 Teak clonal seed orchard (CSO) in Myanmar (upper right), clonal test in Thailand(upper left), seed orchard (lower left) and tissue culture lab in Thailand (lower right),
being maintained under the ITTO Mekong (Teak) Project

Lao PDR

most of these seed production areas have
either been harvested or transferred to
private owners. The ITTO Teak project inMekong supports NAFRI to establish 2
demonstration plots for teak seedproduction. A total of 100 mother trees atThong Khang and 178 mother trees at Huay
Khodin Xayabuly Province were selected
for teak seed source production situated at
Na Sak, Kengsao and Sisa-ard village forsmallholder plantations. In addition, teakseed source from 170 mother trees inLuang Prabang province were chosen forestablishment of Nam Suag Forest
Research Center (Table 1-1).

As previously mentioned, teak is a priority
native species in Lao PDR. Natural teakforests are found in north-western
provinces of Lao PDR. Laos teak has thelowest genetic diversity compared to othercountries like Indian teak (Win, 2022). It
has remarkable genetic difference with
Indian and Myanmar teak, but southern Lao
population was similar to Thailand teak(Win, 2022). No significant difference wasobserved in genetic variation of Lao intrapopulations.
In Laos, teak genetic improvement efforts
dates back to the 1990s as part of the Laos
Tree Seed Project. This project took an
important role in both the in situ and ex situ
conservation of important tree species in
Laos and the establishment of seedproduction areas. Of the total 102 seed
sources, nine are for the teak seed sources
established in it natural habitats. However,

Clones of those selected trees weremaintained at three clonal banks.
Improved seedlings derived from theselected trees, clone bank and clonal
seed orchards have been distributed tofarmers for developing their plantations.

9

TEAK IN MEKONG

Cambodia
VietnamNatural teak forests do not occur in
Cambodia, but it is included in the list of
species used for reforestation program
along with Hopea odorata, Dipterocarpus
spp., Pinus merkusii and fast-growing
fuelwood species. Teak plantation in
Cambodia was commenced in 1936 in thefirst reforestation attempt by intercropping
teak with cotton and maize in Han Chey
commune, Kampong Cham province as anagroforestry system supervised by French(Pierre, 1947).

Similar to Cambodia, teak is not a native
species in Vietnam. Teak was first
introduced in Vietnam by the French in1889 in the north and south regions, largelyin parks and along road sides. The five
major species of plantations are Acacia,
Rubber, Pinus, Eucalyptus, and Bamboos
for production purpose. Most plantations
have been established in the Taungya
System as a mixture with food crops (rice,maize, green bean, soya), for which asilvicultural management system has beendeveloped that allows for the production ofhigh-value timber.

A number of teak plantations were
established in the late 1970s in Kampong
Cham, Pursat and Rattanak Kiri provinces.
Since 1990s, afforestation in Cambodia wasresumed and vast majority of tree
plantations were promoted, not only bystate in open forest areas, degraded
mountainous areas and watersheds, but alsoprivate sectors. The MAFF promulgates the
Declaration on the Establishment of Private
Forests to promote and incentivize
individuals or legal entities to plant trees on
their own legally acquired land as a meansof increasing timber production andfuelwood supplies for domestic consumption
and export.

During the period 1993 to 2010, teak was in
the list of the major tree species for planting
in the two national large-scale afforestation
programs. Data from national forest
inventory 2016 compiled in FORMIS II
Project (2017) showed that teak plantations
cover about 6,600 ha, about 0.15% of thecountry’s
plantations.
Major
teak
plantations were observed in the Son La
province of northwest, in Dak Lakprovince, central highland, and in Dong Nai
province, southeast. The ITTO Teak projectin Mekong supports the establishment andmaintenance of 3 teak seed source
production centres, namely Dong Nai Teak
Plantation, Son La Teak Plantation andThanh Hoa Station. Good quality teakseedlings have been prepared atdemonstration plots. More than 6,000 highquality seedlings were distributed tosmallholders. The target number is 15,000
seedlings. Myanmar and Vietnam components
have produced over 15,000 seedlings foreach country under this project.

There is no seed source of teak in
Cambodia. Seeds are imported fromThailand by some private companies inthe early 2000s. With the support of
ITTO Teak project in Mekong, Cambodia,
has established 2 seed sources at Han
Chey Mountain in Kampong Cham
Province and Teak silvicultural practicein Kampong Spue Province for
production of high-quality seedlings.
Teak plantations currently exist between
6,200 and 7,000 ha. The number of major
teak plantations reported is 6,100 ha in 6
provinces including Tbong Khmum,
Kampong Cham, Kratie, Ratanakiri,
Kampong Speu, and Kampot.

Cambodia, Lao PDR (2 seed sources) and
Vietnam components also establisheddemonstration plots. The main objectives
are for teak seed production and silvicultural
practices rather than for clonal tests.

10

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 1-3 Teak nursery at Kampong Speu demonstration plot, Cambodia (left) and The ITTO Mekong(Teak) Project provides genetically sound teak seedlings to the community (right)

Community-based and smallholders teakforest management and agroforestry systems
have been strengthened with improved legal
and sustainable supply chains.

indicators for the selection of demonstration
plots establishment and appointed
Demonstration Selection Committees
to advise the project to choose thedemonstration plots. In the last 3 years, 14
demonstration plots (Table 1-1) have been
established for production of good quality
seedlings that was freely distributed tointerested local communities andsmallholders. In addition, learning centers
for good practices in agro-forestry andsilvicultural practices has been included forsmall-scale plantation.

ITTO Teak Project in Mekong is aimed at
assisting governments, local communities andsmallholders to enhance natural teak forest
management, production and marketing tofacilitate the establishment of legal andsustainable wood supply chains. The RFD ofThailand and Forest Administration of
Cambodia developed criteria andTable 1-1 Demonstration plots established by the ITTO Teak Project in Mekong
No

Name

Cambodia1
Han Chey Mountain (10plots, 625 m2 each)2
Lao PDR
1

2

Teak silvicultural practice(12 plots; 625 m2 each)
Nam Suag Forest ResearchCenter, Ban HoayKhod,
Number 3 and Nakha
village
Na Sak, Kengsao and Sisaard village

LocationRole in supply chains

Kampong Seam
District, Kampong
Cham Province
Kampong Spue
Province

10 small plots forsilvicultural practice
12 small plots forsilvicultural practice

XiengNgeing District, Teak seed source from
Luang Prabang
plantation (170 mother
Province
trees)
Pakllai District,
Xayabuly Province

11

Natural teak seed
source (100 mothertrees at Thong Khang
and 178 mother trees at
HuayKhod)TEAK IN MEKONG

No

Name

Myanmar1
Moe Swe Research Station
No.5, Oattarathiri
Township, Nay Pyi Taw
2
Letpankhon Forest Resarch
Station No. 7, Oaktwin
Township, Bago Region
Thailand1
Mae Ka Silvicultural
Research Station

LocationRole in supply chains

Oattarathiri
Township, Nay Pyi
Taw
Oaktwin Township,
Bago Region

Silvicultural practice,supply of quality seed
and genetic resource
Agro-forestry practice,supply of quality seed

Mae Ka district,Phayao Province

Teak seed orchard,
preparation of goodmaterial
Teak seedling
production andsmallholder
networking
Demonstration forthinning, pruning andgrowth estimation
harvesting
demonstration

2

Ngao Silvicultural Research Ngao district,StationLampang Province

3

Smallholder Teak
Plantation (Mr. Suchat
Poolkerd)
Khunmae Kummae Teak
Plantation

Hang Chat district,
Lampang ProvinceCommunity-based teakplantation (enterprise)

Nan provinceCommunity-based
wood harvesting andprocessing throughC&I and CoC

Vietnam1

Dong Nai Teak Plantation

Teak Plantation

Teak seed source

2

Son La Teak Plantation

Son La Province

Teak seed source

3

Thanh Hoa

Thanh Hoa

Seed production

4
5

Rongkwang District,Phrae Province

12

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 1-4 ITTO Project team visited smallholder teak plantations in Son La Province,
Viet Nam (left) and Teak smallholders’ networking workshop
at Ngao Silvicultural Station,Thailand (right)

The project team with the technicalsupport of consultants conducted training
workshops to increase capacity of
government staff in central and field
offices, teak farmers and interested
individuals on the following themes:(1) seed production/nursery techniques,(2) silvicultural practices and improved
stand management, and (3) minimizing
harvesting loss, efficient transport andprocessing of teak round wood, and (4)supply chains control and marketing. The
first training workshop on Seed
Production and Silvicultural Practices
was conducted in Lampang province,
Thailand on 5-9 August 2019. After get
trained, the participants from Vietnam,
Lao PDR, and Cambodia became theinstructors to train interested staff andlocal people in their own countries.

namely Luang Prabang and Paklai,
Xayabuly province were trained on
Sivilcultural Techniques on teak plantationand tree seed management and network
establishment. Cambodia component
conducted 2 training sessions onsilviculural practices and seed production
with 46 participants. Myanmar conducted
6 training courses covering various aspectsof silvicultural practices such as teakgrafting, teak hedge garden establishment
and Plus tree selection, teak improvement,
and teak based agro-forestry systems. The
number of participants for each training
varied between 20 and 30 persons from
communities and field office of Forest
Research Institute. Vietnam also conducted
4 training workshops on seedling
production and planting techniques (a series
training course) in 2 pilot provinces (Thanh
Hoa and Son La). The number ofparticipants was 20 persons for eachsession. As a result of COVID-19 outbreak,Vietnam component arranged a series of
online Teak Value Chains Analysis (VCA)
for participants from 5 countries.
Similar to Myanmar component, 2
online trainings on tree improvement
were conducted in July 2021.

As of March 2022, there were 21 training
courses conducted with more than 750
participants. Thailand Component
organized 5 training courses for 177
participants affiliated with the RFD and
FIO, teak smallholders, interested
individuals across the country. In Lao
PDR, about 250 local people from 6
villages situated in 3 pilot provinces

13

TEAK IN MEKONG

300

No. of participants

250

200

150

100

50

0
Thailand

Vietnam

Myanmar

Laos

Cambodia

Silviculture/seed 1

Silviculture/seed 2

Silviculture/seed 3

Silviculture/seed 4

Silviculture/seed 5

Minimizing harvesting loss

Supply chains/certification 1

Supply chains/certification 2

Figure 1-3 Training sessions and number of participants

Photo 1-5 Myanmar National Coordinator visited teak planting stock (upper left), Training workshop
in Thanh Hoa (upper right), Training on Silviculture techniques (lower left) and Teak improvement
technique training, 10-13 July, 14-17 July 2021 at FRI Office and online training to District staff andsmallholders, October 2019, Laos (lower right)

14

TEAK IN MEKONGThe VCA of smallholders aims to increase
their access to markets by improved primaryprocessing as well as capital and market
information. Prof. Dr. Tek Maraseni, aninternational VCA expert from University ofSouthern Queensland provided the training
and support to write report on teak VCA.

Photo 1-6 Interview of teak wood trader in Son La Province, Vietnam

Teak-Based Forest User Groups

package for buying new homes. The Forestry
Development Strategy (2017 – 2036) predicts
an annual wood demand of 47 million tons.
This huge demand can be met by either the
additional forest plantations of 1.4 million haby 2036.

Experts from timber production and consumer
countries discussed and agreed during the
ITTC-57 that the COVID-19 will remain asignificant problem on the tropical timbertrade market, international prices and demand
are expected to decline. In addition, thepolitical and structural limitations that affectthe region will persist, and logistics willcontinue to be a major problem. There havebeen disruptions in supply chains, leading tolimited sales of tropical timber in global
market. In contrast, the RFD, Thailand
reported that the domestic wood production ispredicted a steady increase due to substantial
decrease of imported wood products andresidential property development in big cities
and the government’s property stimulus

In addition, the Governments of allparticipating countries promulgated the ban
on logging of natural forest and accelerated
plantation forestry, provide income forfarmers, improve environment and secure
raw material for wood industries. Although,the project document aimed to promote theestablishment of teak-based forest usergroup only in Myanmar, the remaining four
participating countries also identified teakbased forest groups. In Myanmar, teakbased agroforestry in Moe Swe area, Ottara
15

TEAK IN MEKONG

Thiri Township, Nay Pyi Taw wasestablished. Individual meeting, discussion
with potential user group members andvisit to the community were arranged.
Genetically sound and vigorous teakseedlings, intercrop plants and othernecessary techniques were provided by the
project, while every user group member on
the other hand, is given preference inchoosing planting design, spacing, quantity
and type of planting species particularly forintercrop plant species.

networking in northeast and north Thailand.
More than 65 farmers and field staff ofrelevant agencies participated. Participants
had opportunities to visit small-scale teakplantation and agro-forestry practice (Mr.
Suchat Poolkerd’s plot) and explores direct
experience from Mr. Suchat Poolkerd in
Lampang Province. In addition, twocommunication line groups were created toshare experience and knowledge. Furthermore,
Maegae Silvicultural Research Station
provided teak seedlings, technical support, andlimited budget to improve water resources at
the agro-forestry plot.

Meanwhile, Thailand component organized
two workshops on teak smallholders’Photo 1-7 Project provides genetically sound teak seedlings (Myanmar-left) andsmall fund to community (Thailand-right)

Government Policies and Governanceplantations and, therefore, it is important thatthe smallholders should be guided andencouraged to opt for the best available sites.
Criteria for site selection for teak plantations
should be refined, harmonized and widely
disseminated. Site management to sustain andenhance productivity may involve changes insilvicultural prescriptions, soil conservation
measures and fertilizer application. New
protocols, specifically for smallholders, need
to be developed for this purpose.

The smallholder teak growers across the
Mekong region face a host of problems inaccessing the best quality planting stock, inmanaging the crop to maturity, in growinginterim crops for regular incomes, inharvesting and transporting timber, inobtaining certification, and in fetching thebest prices for their produce. The changing
climate is also leading to increasing
incidences of fires, insect attacks and diseases
which often originate in adjacent large naturalforest areas. Besides, there are also newopportunities like the market and non-market
approaches of the Paris Climate Agreement
which have the potential of making the teakgrower more competitive in the market place.

Assured supply of high-quality planting
stock delivered at reasonable prices at
locations that are manageable forsmallholders is one of the most importantdemand of the small growers. The forestry
departments of the region may produce
certified high-quality teak planting stock
offering a good range of choices that are

Site quality has a dominant role in determining
the productivity, and profitability, of teak16

TEAK IN MEKONG

well advertised, and make it available
through a chain of outlets.

grass growth on the forest floor reducing
the carrying capacity for wild ungulates
which in turn affects the populations ofpredators. So a regular, but light, selection
felling of old, dead and dying teak trees
might be advisable in these forests.

The fear of losing control over land if
planted with teak trees is deep among thelandholders in the Mekong sub-region. The
reason a smallholder plants teak on his land
is maximization of his earnings and not for
inviting restrictions on his enjoyment of hisland assets. If any other ecological or social
objectives are to be added to his personalgoals in planting teak for public good then,as a matter of principle, the government
must be willing to compensate thesmallholder for the consequential losses
incurred by him. In the interest of
promoting teak planting by smallholders
every country in the region shouldincorporate this principle in their policies.

Higher prices in niche markets where
consumers are prepared to pay a premium
price for teak obtained from sustainably
managed areas are an incentive to produce
certified timber. But the costs ofcertification process are quite high andusually prohibitive for smallholders. And
also the niche markets willing to pay higher
prices for certified timber may not be
accessible to all small growers. The
governments in the region may help set up
autonomous independent certification
bodies that offer low cost certification
services to small growers.

Policies and legislation in some countries of
the region, introduced during colonial times
to protect government owned naturalforests from illegal felling, placing
restrictions on the transport of teakharvested from private lands act as severe
disincentive for smallholders who find it
difficult to obtain the required permissions
to transport their timber to the sawmills andmarket and often become victim of corrupt
practices. The task of protection of teak innatural forests is a duty of the State the costof which should be borne by the State andnot by individual smallholders who take toteak growing as a normal economic
activity. It is strongly recommended that the
governments of the countries in the
Mekong region may consider removing the
restrictions on transport of teak fromplantations altogether and instead rely on
in-situ protection of their natural teakresources using appropriate technologies.

Plantations located adjacent to thegovernment forests are often exposed tofires that originate within forests and cannot
be controlled by outside efforts. Less often
they face similar problems with tree
diseases and insect attacks too, thatoriginate within adjacent large sized
government forests. A clear expectation of
the smallholders is that reducing theselosses, and compensating them, if
necessary, is the responsibility of the State.
Teak prices are very closely related to wood
quality which is determined by dimension,bole shape in terms of roundness andstraightness, heartwood-sapwood ratio,
regularity of annual rings, number of knots,
colour, texture and the soundness of the butt
log. But since no common international log
grading rules exist it is very difficult for
producers of higher-grade timber to accessconsumers of those grades in distantmarkets. The ITTO is best placed tofacilitate the introduction of common
timber grading rules across the international
markets.

The outcome of total ban on teak felling in
natural forests enforced in Thailand and
Lao PDR is not without significant risks inhaving precious natural forests with large
number of old, diseased and decaying treesthat could become host to huge infestationsof insects and pests and greatly increase therisk of wildfires. In National Parks with toohigh a density of teak trees discourages

There are unsubstantiated claims of teakplantations having a deleterious effect on
the productivity of agricultural lands
17

TEAK IN MEKONG

downstream and even on the site quality offorests below. This needs deeper
investigations by forestry universities andresearch institutions in collaboration with
agricultural universities and quick
dissemination of the outcomes as they
emerge. Another potential area for
management research in teak is the impactof long, medium and short rotations in teaknatural forests and plantations on soil,
ground vegetation, water regime, and onteak production which have not yet beensystematically assessed and are subject tomuch speculation. This research task is also
best undertaken by forestry universities andresearch institutions in the region and ITTO
is well placed to facilitate this process.

development programs for development ofsustainable teak-based forest sector. As partof it, since 2019, a bimonthly online Teak
Mekong Newsletter was released throughthe TEAKNET webpage www.teaknet.org
and co-hosted by Kasetsart University,
Thailand and widely circulated to the global
teak community including the social media
platforms of Youtube and Facebook page.
The newsletter carries success stories andsupport sharing lessons of the project
results through short news release,occasional papers, project related teakbased research and development
information. So far 18 issues of newsletter
was released online.
TEAKNET in collaboration with FAO,IUFRO and ITTO co-organized three
World Teak Conferences in Costa Rica
(2011), Thailand (2013) and Ecuador(2015) that were attended by over 1,000
representatives of the major teak growing
countries in Asia/Oceania, Africa and Latin
America. Besides sharing the information
through the website and newsletters, theproject findings also will be disseminatedby co-organizing the 4th World Teak
Conference 2022 during 5-8 September,
Accra, Ghana in which ITTO project
partners will assemble for a special ITTO
side event planned. Thus, at the end of the
project, it is anticipated to accomplish
regional and international collaboration,
information sharing and knowledge
management, networking have beenstrengthened far beyond GMS region andcapable to extend its collaborative activities
to other parts of teak growing countries in
Latin America and Africa.

Regional and International
Collaboration, Information Sharing
Recognizing the importance of teak and thelack of a common platform to share themultifaceted problems faced by planters
and investors dealing with teak cultivationand management of natural and planted
teak forests, the International Teak
Information Network (TEAKNET)
established by FAO of the United Nations
currently functioning from the Kerala
Forest Research Institute is supporting the
global teak community by way of
producing and disseminating outreach andtraining materials, trade and marketing
information of teak exported to different
destinations etc through the web portal
www.teaknet.org. TEAKNET was a project
partner in the 2017 IUFRO publication No.
36 (Global Teak Study Report).
In the on-going ITTO Teak Mekong
project, TEAKNET is involved with thespecific objective of supporting andfacilitating teak networking in the Mekong
Sub-region through ITTO’s member
countries and partners such as collaboratingwith other regional cooperation
frameworks to promote the conservationand sustainable management of teak forest
resources, including legal and sustainablesupply chains to facilitate transformationalchange through integration into national

Overview of This Book
This edited book entitled “Sustainable
Management of Teak (Tectona grandis
L.f.) in the Mekong Region” aims todemonstrate a comprehensive assessmentof various aspects and activities of the teakproject that has been undertaken tocontribute to (1) the conservation of teakgenetic resources, sustainable management
and use of natural teak forests and market
18

TEAK IN MEKONG

accesses of teak from legal sources havebeen improved, and (2) to strengthen
capacity of communities, smallholdersof teak plantations and responsible
government institutions on legal andsustainable supply chains, as well as teakwood certification. In addition, (3) lessonlearned and experiences on the sustainable
management of teak forests, including
sustainable use of teak genetic resources areshared among multi-stakeholders in theregion.

information networking. In addition,
Chapter 27 The Way Forward - Teak in
Mekong for a Sustainable Future provides
some recommendations for future work
related to management of natural teakforests and plantations, conservation of teakgenetic resources and Considerations forTree Improvement, ccommunity-based
smallholders manage-ment, certificationand legality, and regional network andinternational collaboration.

This book contains 27 chapters in six
sections. Section One: Introduction (thischapter) summarize key finds andachievements of the project. Section Two:
Teak distribution across the Greater
Mekong Sub-region (7 chapters) presents
natural teak forests distribution, teakplantations and management in the five
participating countries. Section Three:
Silvicultural
practicesandteak
improvement (7 chapters) presents various
teak improvement techniques, silvicultural
practices and Insect Pests and their
Management in teak plantation not only in
the GMS but also in Malaysia, Indonesia
and Brazil. Section Four: Sustainable teakforest management and certification (4chapters) presents the share practices onsustainable teak forest management,
certification, wood consumption andinternational trade, and its contribution toenvironment such as carbon storage fromseveral countries. Section Five: Researchin teak genetics (3 chapters) presents ongoing both in theory and in practices ofgenetic conservation and improvement,
clonal test and good quality seedling
production in the Mekong region but notlimited to the five participating countries.
Section Six: Policy and regional/
international collaboration (5 chapters)
reviews relevant laws and regulations onsustainable production and trade of teak,and discusses governance concerns andmakes recommendation for sustainable teakforest management in particular forsmallholders in GMS, as well as explore
knowledge
management
and
teak

References
Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968). A
Revised survey of the forest types ofIndia:113-117, 181- 184. Manager of
Publications, Delhi, India.
FAO. (Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations) (2020). The Global
Forest Resources Assessment 2020.
Summary Report. Committee on Forestry.,
Rome, Italy.
Forest Department. (2000). Historicalreview of teak forestry in Myanmar- A
paper presented at the Third Regional
Seminar on Teak held from 31 July- 5
August 2000, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 13 p.
Gyi, K. K. & Tint, K. (1995). Management
Status of Natural Teak Forests, AsiaPacific Network on teak research anddevelopment. First Regional Seminar on
Teak Forest Department, Myanmar.
Kaosa-ard, A. (1979). Teak Seed Centre.
Annual Report No.1. Teak Seed Centre,
Ngao, Lampang, Thailand, 35 p.
Kaosa-ard, A. (1981). (Teak Tectona
grandis Linn.f.) its natural distribution andrelated factors. Natural History Bulletin of
the Siam Society, 29, 55-74.
Kermode, C. W. D. (1957). Teak. In:
Tropical Silviculture vol. 2, pp. 168-178.
FAO, Rome, Italy.
Kollert, W. & Cherubini, L. (2012). Teak
resources and market assessment. Planted
Forests and Trees Working Paper FP/47/E.
Edited by Food and Agriculture Organi19

TEAK IN MEKONG

zation of the United Nations. Rome.
http://www.fao.org/3/an537e/an537e00.pd
f (accessed 5 March 2021).

and environmental rehabilitation. Forests,
Trees and Livelihoods, 22(4), 241-256.
Seth. S. K. & Khan, M. A. W. (1958).
Regeneration of teak forests. In: All India
Teak Study Tour 1957-1958, pp. 107-120.
F.R.I., Dehra Dun.

Pierre, A. (1947). Enlargement of
Reforestation Modes by Intercalary
Agricultural Crops. Birth of Agroforestry in
Indochina.

Win, T. T. (2022). Overview of Genetic
Resources and genetic Conservation ofTeak in Mekong Sub-region. Final
Technical Report submitted to Forest
Department, Naypyidaw, Myanmar.

Roshetko, J. M., Rohadi, D., Perdana, A.,
Sabastian, G., Nuryartono, N., Pramono, A.
A., & Kusumowardhani, N. (2013). Teakagroforestry systems for livelihood
enhancement, industrial timber production,

20

TEAK IN MEKONGSECTION IITEAK DISTRIBUTION ACROSS THE GREATERMEKONG SUB-REGION

21

TEAK IN MEKONG

Chapter 2: Teak Management in Thailand
Sapol Boonsermsuk

Abstract

Introductioneak (Tectona grandis L.f.) is highvalue timber species native toThailand. Illegal logging and forest
encroachment over the past few decades,
and regulatory restrictions are key concernsof the teak wood industry in Thailand.
Thailand’s 20-year National Strategy(2018-2037) targetted at increasing theforest cover up to 40 percent of the landarea, followed by very significant
amendments to forest laws and regulations
enacted in 2019, is aimed at motivating
people to plant more trees for economic
benefits and enrich the timber trade. Teakis promoted as one of the top priority
species for planting in Thailand andexempted from the list of restricted species.
Genetically improved planting materials
are required to obtain good timbercharacteristics and enhance productivity ofteak from plantations for long-term
investment. This article highlights theindustry, trade and marketing information
related to teak Thailand that may be of use
in promoting investment in the teakplantation business.

eak (Tectona grandis L f.),family Lamiaceae, grows in tropicaldeciduous forests and its natural habitat islimited to Southeast Asian countries
of India, Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos
(Kollert & Cherubini, 2012).

T

T

Teak is a gregarious species found in mixed
deciduous forests of northern Thailand
provinces of Mae Hong Son, Chiang Rai,
Chiang Mai, Payao, Lamphun, Lampang,
Phrae, Nan, Sukhothai, Uttaradit,
Phitsanulok, Phichit, Phetchabun, Tak,
Kamphaeng Phet, Nakhon Sawan andUthai Thani. The southern boundary limitof teak in Thailand is 1630’ latitude and its
altitudinal range is mostly between 100-900
meters above mean sea level (msl.)(Mahaphol, 1954; Pandey & Brown, 2000)
though it is also found in patches in higher
altitudes of up to 1,300 msl as in“Nawamintara Rachinee teak forest"
located in the Pai River Wildlife Sanctuary,
Mae Hong Son Province (Photo 2-1) (RFD,2013).
Teak is a valuable tree because of thedesirable properties of its timber, such as
strength, durability, stability and noncorroding properties. The quality of teak inThailand is as same as teak in Myanmar,
which is considered the best Teak in theworld and is in high demand in the world
market. According to historical evidence
from the survey of archaeological sites,Thailand has been using teak from naturalforests for more than two thousand years(Pumijumnong, 1995).

22

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 2-1 Nawamintara Rachinee teak forest, Mae Hong Son Province

Teak forests generated a lot of income fromexports for Thailand in the past. Small-scale
teak logging concession was granted toChinese and Burmese traders in 1829, andlarge-scale trade rights were granted to
British Borneo Company Ltd in 1864
(RFD, 2013). Thai teak forests are underpressure, which have already suffered
severe over-exploitation, shifting
cultivation and more intensive modern
agriculture (Gajaseni & Jordan, 1990).
Kollert & Cherubini (2012) reported thatnatural teak forests in Thailand cover
approximately 8.7 million ha or 30 percentof the total global area of natural teakforests.

Only fragments of the original teak forests
remain at present, mainly in a few nationalparks and wildlife sanctuaries. Teak has
been planted in Thailand on a large scale
since the 1960s to substitute the rapid
decline of natural teak forests and tosupport domestic and international
demands. This chapter aims to provide anunderstanding of natural teak forest
management, teak plantations in Thailand,and examine the main gaps in sustainable
teak forest management, as well as provide
key recommendations

23

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 2-1 Thai Provinces with natural teak forests

Figure 2-2 Natural teak zonation in Thailand
Source: Kaosa-ard (1979)

24

TEAK IN MEKONG

Status of Teak Forest in Thailand

the annual incr ement of teak isapproximately 2 – 15 m3/ha/yr (FAO, 1956;
White, 1991). Kaosa-ard (1979) classified
natural teak forests in Thailand into 4 zones(Figure 2-2) using the P:T ratio moistureindex method, where P is annual rainfall in
mm, and T is annual mean temperature as
follows:

As mentioned earlier, teak occurs naturally
throughout the 17 provinces in northern
Thailand covering an area of approximately
170,000 km2 or 33% of the country’s landarea (Figure 2-1). However, it is confined in
the hilly or mountainous region of Mae
Hong Son, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Payao,
Lamphun, Lampang, Phrae, Nan, Tak,
Sukhothai, Uttaradit, Phitsanulok andKamphaneng Phet provinces. It wasestimated that the teak bearing forests
covered approximately 30,000 km 2
(Banijbhana, 1957).

Zone 1: dry-humid zone with the P/T ratio
smaller than 40,
Zone 2: medium-humid zone with P/T ratioof 40-50,
Zone 3: moist-humid zone with P/T ratio of
50-60, andTeak occurs naturally in a wide range ofclimatic conditions from dry areas with
only 500 mm annual rainfall up to the areas
with 5,000 mm annual rainfall. However,
optimum conditions of teak are in the areas
between 1,200 m and 2,500 mm annual
rainfall (Kaosa-ard, 1989). It requires a dry
period of 3-5 months for the production ofgood timber, but it usually avoids both
extreme dry and moist locations. Teak can
be grown in areas with 75-90% sunlight(Troup, 1921; Kermode, 1957; Kadambi,1972). The tolerance range of mean
temperatures lies between 15°C to 40°C,
but the optimal temperature ranges from
25°C to 35°C with the optimum annual
precipitation between 500 – 3,500 mm(Kaosa-ard, 1989). In addition, it shows
better performances on nutrient-rich, deepwell drained, sandy-loamy to clay-loamy
soils (Kaosa-ard, 1995) originated fromlimestone, schist, gneiss, shale (Kulkarni,
1951; Kaosa-ard, 1981) and pH 5.5 to 6.5(Seth & Yadav, 1959; Kaosa-ard, 1989;
Tewari, 1992). Under these conditions,

Zone 4: wet zone with P/T ratio of greaterthan 60.
Northern Thailand is recognized as thehome of teak in Thailand. Long-term forest
monitoring (RFD, 2020) reported that
forest cover in this region rapidly declined
from 68 to 43% from 1961 to 1998 (Figure2-3) except in protected areas, due toextensive logging in the past and the
expansion of agricultural land. It should be
noted that the new assessment showed that
forest cover in the year 2000 was 56% ( anincrease of 13% ) ( DNP, 2000) . However,the 2000 data might not be representative of
future trends because it was obtained by adifferent method of interpretation withhigher image resolution (Trisurat, 2007). In
addition, the forest cover from 2000 to 2020
still indicated a steady decline of forest
cover in the north. The Northern region isdominated by mixed deciduous forests(66%) and followed by evergreen forest(21%), dry dipterocarp (10%), while pine
forest and scrub are rare (DNP, 2000).

25TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 2-3 Forest area in northern Thailand (Source: Forest Statistics Report 1973-2020)

Teak Forest Management before Logging
Ban in 1989

ownership from the Chiefs or Community
Leaders and reduced the teak lease period
from 100 years to 12 years and divided into
two 6-year concession blocks and thecontractor allowed to work only in one halffor 6 years. In 1908, it was changed to 30
years and divided into 2 block periods.

Before the establishment of the RFD in
1896, teak forests in the north were private
properties of the Chiefs or Community
Leaders. Any person (mainly Chinese andBurmese merchants) who wished to exploit
teak had to obtain permission and pay
certain fees in exchange. Commercial teak
exploitation was started in 1864 (RFD,2013) by three major foreign companies,
namely, Borneo Co., Anglo-Thai Co., andBombay Burma Co. There were no
regulations to control timber harvesting andthe right to exploit forest areas was vested
with the ruler of each city (Banjibhana,1957). Later, some controls on teak fellingwere introduced by the Thai (SiamGovernment) under the Treaty of 1893 with
Britain. However, granting permission toforeign companies resulted in dispute andcomplaints from small companies andindividuals; these issues were brought to
the government to mediate and settle theconflicts.

In 1960, the Working Plan for Mae Ngao
Forest B.E. 2505-14 (1961-70) was
proposed by Champion (1968). This
comprehensive plan with more
modernized and intensive management
was implemented in 1964. In addition,
Brandis silvicultural system or “Modified
Selection System” was applied. Forest
trees below the specified girth limits was
not allowed to cut. The girth limit at 1.3 m
height level was 213 cm in the beginning,then changed to 190 cm during the 80’s
before being increased to 220 cm. The
Brandis method was stopped because yields
were low and fluctuating, and then selection
felling was adopted by girth limit.
Paosajja (1992) reported that averageannual teak wood production from naturalforests and plantations during 1962-1971
was 209,327 m3, reduced to less than
100,000 m3 in 1980, and further 50,000 m3
in 1984. In addition, the teak yield fromThe Royal Forest Department (RFD) wasestablished in 1886 mainly to operate teakconcessions in a systematic way. The
Government (RFD) took control of teak26

TEAK IN MEKONG

natural forest concessions in the north in1985 was only one-tenth that in 1971
(Gajaseni & Jordan, 1990). Teak wood
production was not sufficient for domestic
consumption and reprocessing for export
since 1980, therefore it has been substitutedby imported wood.

materials and utilizing less valuable
plantation species grown by smallholder
and contracted farmers, particularlyrubberwood. Currently, teak logging work
is allowed only in teak plantations by the
Forestry Industry Organization (FIO).
However, the demand of wood in Thailand
is expected to increase from 66 million m3
in 2005 to 128 million m3 in 2027 to support
national and international market (Facultyof Forestry, 2018) (Figure 2-4).

Thai forest manufacturing industry has
responded to the national logging ban in
1989 by shifting into imported wood

Figure 2-4 Thailand’s wood demand to support national and international market

Teak Plantation in Thailand

in the field in 1986 and 1995, respectively
which later developed to planting by
stumps (Thaiutsa, 2008). In early days,
the goal of teak plantation was to replacethose harvested from natural forest, nottaking into account the good variety atall. Currently, the main management
objectives of forest plantations ingeneral, especially teak can be classified
into three categories: production,
protection, and amenity. However, theprimary objective of teak plantations isfor commercial purpose to earn direct
benefits, both from wood and non-wood
products.

The first teak plantation was establishedin the year 1906 at Denchai District,Phrae Province in northern Thailandusing Taungya plantation model, amodel that had yielded good results in
Myanmar.
Previously, teak plantations were plantedby dibbling teak seeds. The planting
material changed from direct seeding tostump planting in 1935 after a successful
trial in Mae Hong Son Province. Planting
stock raised from tissue culture andcutting techniques were first planted out
27

TEAK IN MEKONG

The Forest Industry Organization (FIO) is
recognized as the main agency toimplement commercial plantations,followed by the Thai Plywood Company( TPC) , and several companies in theprivate sector. The FIO (established in1933) and TPC (established in 1951 andclosed in 2012) are state enterprises thatbegan to grow teak in 1968. FIO wasearlier a section under the Logging
Division of the RFD. It has been separated
from RFD as an independent organization(now under the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment) since 1956.
The initial rotation period of teak was 60
years and later shortened to 30 years.
Based on collective data from Graudal &Moestrup (2017), the total area of teakplantation in Thailand was ranked third(836,000 ha) after India (2.56 million ha),Indonesia (1.47 million ha) and contributes
12% of the total area of teak plantation (6.89
million ha). Of this the area planted by FIO was
99,200 ha (Patama Subwilai, personalcommunication). Most (86%) of the FIO’s teakplantations are in the north.
The strength of teak from Thailand andMyanmar makes it widely known
throughout the world as golden teak.
However, the weak point of teak plantationsin Thailand is low productivity compared toother countries. The highest mean annual
increment ( MAI) of teak planted on thebest site on a 50-year rotation was recorded
in Indonesia, followed by Myanmar, India
and Thailand. (Table 2-1).

Table 2-1 Mean annual increment of 50-year rotation of planted teak on the best sites within
its natural ranges
Country

MAI (m3/ha/year)

SourceIndonesia

17.81

FAO (2001)

Myanmar

12.00

FAO (2001)

India

10.00

FAO (2001)

Thailand (under bark)4.69

Chanpaisaeng (1977)

Thailand (over bark)

5.94

Suraphapmaitri (1985)

Compiled by Thaiutsa (2008)
Annual increment of teak plantation is largely
dependent on-site quality and the silvicultural
practices adopted. Chanpaisaeng (1977)
indicated that teak planted on good sites can
get yields of 143.56 m3/ha within 20 years, but
it would take 30 years to get yields of
140 m 3 /ha on medium sites, and 50
years for 142.44 m 3 /ha on poor sites.
Teak improvement in Thailand has been
carried out since 1957 at the Faculty ofForestry, Kasetsart University. Later, the first
Teak improvement Center in Lampang
Province was established in 1965 with thetechnical and financial support of Danish
International Development Agency(DANIDA). For over 50 years, the results
showed progress in genetic improvement
and resulted in improved teak varieties,
which grow faster, produce good quality
wood, and resist pests and diseases. In
addition, the knowledge on teak improvement
program has been developed, such as
development of cutting techniques,pollination technique, use of moleculartechnology and use of Index selection
together with Forward selection in
offspring test to establish the seedproduction areas which lead to modern
breeding strategy with high accuracy andefficiency.
28

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 2-2 A mother teak tree from Paa Sak Nawamindra Rachinee forest,
Mae Hong Son Province

Photo 2-3 Seedling production from good quality material
29

TEAK IN MEKONG

Teak’s Import and Export

and sawn-teak timber since 1957. The
imported volume increased from 10,000 m3
in 1957 to 30,820 m3 in 1989, and 291,761
m3 in 1991 largely from Myanmar as aresult of the logging ban in 1989. Paosajja(1992) estimated that the annual demand
for teak wood was around 300,000 m3.

The annual wood increment of planted teakforests alone is estimated at around 30
million m3 but only 1.5 to 2 million m3 arereported to be harvested from theseplantations annually besides 0.5
million m 3 harvested from naturalforests predominantly from Myanmar.
Rest of teak comes either from illegal
logging in natural forests or unrecorded
harvesting by small farmers and local
communities. India, Indonesia and
Myanmar contribute more than 90% of teakproduction. The production of teak fromnatural forests in India, Lao PDR,
Myanmar, and Thailand is low as most of
their natural teak forests grow withinprotected areas. In addition, Thailand
imposed a nationwide logging ban in 1989,
while Myanmar also has enforced the log
export ban since 1 April 2014 (Brown &Koller, 2017).

In the last decade, the global annual trade ofteak roundwood was more than 1 million
m3 with a value of USD 487 million a year.
The global demand for teak is expected to
grow at a high rate, especially from planted
teak. This is due to the shortage of native
teak supplies to meet the demand, while
population incomes and domestic demandin major consumer countries such as India
and China are steadily rising. The threemajor importing countries were India,
importing three quarters (74%), followed by
Thailand ( 16%) and China ( 10%) . Teak
imports to Thailand have substantiallydeclined in recent years, from a peak of
340,816 m3 in 2002 (90 million USD) to41,243 m3 in 2010, and only 6,194 m3 in2020 (8.3 million USD) (RFD Statistics
Report) (Figure 2-5). On the other hand,
China and India have increased their import
volumes.

The RFD reported that teak production in
Thailand mainly harvested from FIO’s
plantations ranges from 54,000-60,000 m3
annually. Therefore, the production is not
sufficient to meet domestic consumption
and export. Thailand has imported teak logs

30

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 2-5 Value of import and export of teak logs and sawn-teak timber

Figure 2-6 Value of import and export of timbers (all species) and teakSource: Forestry Statistics Report (RFD, 1996-2020)

31

TEAK IN MEKONG

In addition, the values of exported teak logs
and sawn-teak wood declined from 19
million USD in 2000 to less than 2 million
USD in 2015, and no export in 2020 (Figure2-6). Export of teak logs and sawn-timber inthe form of re-exports by private sectors has
been suspended since 1991. Teak is allowed
to be exported only as knock-down furniture
or veneer wood. Only FIO is allowed toexport certified teak timber (Photo 2-4).
Moreover, the export tax is set at 40% of theexported value,

which acts as a deterrence. Teak log andlumber are imported as raw materials forexport products such as fiberboard, plywood,flooring panels, and wooden furniture. The
values of exported wood products haveincreased steadily from 174 million USD in2000 to 605 USD in 2010 and 974 million
USD in 2020 (RFD Statistics Report). The
main partners of Thailand are China, Hong
Kong, the United States, Japan, Malaysia andSingapore.

Photo 2-4 Teak timbers in the log yard at the Forest Industry Organization (FIO)

Laws and Regulations Related to Teakproblem, RFD had tried to amend the forest law
to facilitate and incentivize people to growmore trees to increase green areas and help
increase the economy of the country via timbertrade. The new Forest Act of 2019 withdraws
the status of teak from restricted species toeconomic species. This amended Act regulates
tree species (including teak) planted in legal andownership (private land) can be cut but theowner still requires permission from the RFD
for transportation.

Important laws and regulations related to teakinclude Forest Act, B.E. 2484 (B.C. 1941)
amended in 2019 that is related to permission of
harvesting, moving or transporting and utilizing
process (wood processing, establishment ofwood processing mill, and trading). In the past,
due to the strict forest laws’ enforcement for
cutting and removal, teak wherever it grows in
the country is classified as a restricted species
causing people to have no motives to plant
because they cannot cut and sold. To solve this32

TEAK IN MEKONG

Besides, the Forest Plantation Act, B.E.
2535 encourages people to register forforest plantation, registration for theplantation seal, and to facilitate theissuance of a tree felling certificate,timber processing, transporting andutilizing following the Forest Act of
2019. According to the cabinet resolution
on January 11, 2000, only Forest Industry
Organization (FIO) was allowed to export
teak outside the Kingdom of Thailand butnow, with the anticipated boost in timbertrade, the monopoly of the Forest Industry
Organization on teak export has been
removed.

and data on domestic production or wood
utilization in factories. Data on the value ofimports and exports is available in a timely
manner in great detail. However, data on
domestic plantation resources, production,
overall wood demands and supply is rather
limited.
Species exemptions from regulations
Although article 7 of the amended Forest
Act 2019 exempts some species (especiallyteak) planted in the legal ownership (privateland), and recognizes as commercial timber
species like eucalyptus and rubberwood,timber owners still require permission fromthe RFD for transportation of felled timber
for processing. It becomes the main issue
created from laws and regulations. Under
current regulations, there are no simple
means for users of these species to document
legality unless a voluntary Certificate of Origin
is sought from the RFD.

National Forest Policies 2019 had set thetarget of forest area throughout the country
to be at least 40 percent of the country's landarea and classified 25% for conservation
forestry and the rest 15% forests for
economic returns. Together with Article 7of the amended Forest Act of 2019, no tree
growing on land with ownership or
possession rights under the Code Land Law
are classified restricted. This is expected toencourage and incentivize people to growmore trees. Since teak is a preferred species
by private planters, both small and large, it
is expected that the area of teak plantationsin Thailand will dramatically increase in thenear future.

Certification scheme
The major challenge for teak growers is to
produce quality wood that is acceptable ininternational markets and to establish legal
and sustainable wood supply chains
while improving national economy andlocal communities’ livelihood. Thailand’ s
voluntary certification scheme is a means
to give Thai industry a method to show tothe buyers the legal origin of wood they arepurchasing. However, with the complexityof the industry, high cost (particularsmallholders), only a few big companies
and FIO can afford the certification scheme.
It makes it difficult for a significant part ofThai wood industry to provide detailed
information on timber sources of supply tobuyers.

Besides teak plantations, most of the natural
teak forests are found in protected areas
such as national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries. The Thai Government hasestablished protected areas system covering
about 22% of the country land area (DNP,
2021). Therefore, it is most likely thatnatural teak forests are well protected.
Main Gaps
Data availability

Low-quality material: Teak improvementin Thailand has been practiced over 50
years to facilitate genetic improvement andgrow improved teak varieties which growfaster, produce good quality teakwood andresist pests and diseases. Most of the teakplantations either by the RFD, private
sectors and stallholders still use

The RFD is the main agency to generate andcollate data within the overall forest data on
private plantations and public plantations(RFD & FIO),

33

TEAK IN MEKONG

seedlings from unknown seed sources.
As the rotation period of teak is 30 years
and it requires long-term investments,
good quality planting material and proper
silvicultural practices are quite essential.

smallholders should have national
certification. ITTO/RFD used to document
CI & CoC scheme. This document andprocess should be authorized by the RFD.
The private sector will need to develop andinstall chain of custody systems in theirfactories and mills.

Main Recommendations
Establish computerized system

Use quality planting material

Gather and develop systematic datacollection and computer-based system ofdomestic markets and wood products
showing annual domestic production ofteak and sources of supply as well as
import and export data to make policy
recommendations.

The government (RFD) should increase
capacity and promote smallholders to use
good quality material for establishingplantations. In addition, the next approachto teak improvement program in Thailand isrecommended as follows; 1) Develop
strategies for teak improvement program inline with new technologies and accelerate
the development of breeding in the 2nd
generation including the development ofcross-breeding among origin in order to getgood breeds with high genetic diversity to
be selected in the next generation,2) Increase capacity building for personnel
in teak breeding by encouraging theexchange of expertise and personnel
between institutions and countries andinternational cooperation with variousorganizations and 3) Promote research on
wood quality improvement.

Facilitate wood utilization
According to the National Policy, Thailand
is aiming to increase production forestsfrom the current 8.2% of the country to
15%. It is necessary to implement acomprehensive teak plantation program
focusing on both the public and private
sectors. To facilitate the planting of teakand other tree species by the private sector,
Thai government had amended the Forest
Act in 2019 to remove restrictions thathinder the development of private teakplantations. Moreover, it also increases
economic and environmental benefits for thecountry and conserve teak, a plant of national
value, to be sustainable and last forever.

Conclusion
In Thailand, teak in natural forests is on
decline but since 1993 teak in forest
plantation is increasing and will rapidly
increase in the coming years after the newamendment of Forest Act 2019 that allows
all regulated tree species including teakplanted in private land to be cut and sold.
This will facilitate and incentivize people togrow more trees to increase green areas andhelp to increase the country’s economy via
timber trade. The Government’s role should
also be transformed from regulator tofacilitator. To achieve teak trade in the
future, some outdated forest policy needs tobe revised. For the long-term investment ofteak plantations, genetically improved
planting materials and vegetative
propagation techniques need to be

Proof of legality
Thailand’s timber industry needs to prepare
data on international trade and domestic
consumption. Accurate information on
species of wood, sources and legality isrequired. To achieve this, a number ofmeasures should be discussed: Teak timber
and wood products that are exported tointernational markets would benefit fromhaving a Certificate of Origin (CoO) andother documentation that confirms thelegality of harvest in the country of origin.
This will require coordination withcountries exporting wood and timber toThailand. In addition, teak for domestic
consumption mainly produced by34

TEAK IN MEKONG

improved to increase the productivity ofteak plantations. Finally, for sustainable
teak plantation management, legal sourceand supply chain control need to be strictly
enforced to obtain legal teak timber products
to support sustainable global market.

FAO (2001). The Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2000 Summary Report.
Committee on Forestry. Available Source:
www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/003/x9835e00.html#P469 24024, March 16, 2001.

References

Royal Forest Department (RFD). (2021).
Forestry Statistics Data, 2021. Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment.
Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand, 168 p.

Banijbhana, D. (1957). Teak forests ofThailand. In: Tropical Silvilculture, 2,
193-205. FAO, Rome.

Gajaseni, J. & Jordan, C. F. (1990).
Decline of teak yield in northern Thailand:
effects of selective logging on forest
structure. Biotropica, 114-118.

Brown, H. & Koller, W. (2017). Financial
Appraisal of Planted Teak Forest
Investments. The Global Teak Study.
Analysis, Evaluation and Future Potentialof Teak Resources. IUFRO World Series,
36, 90-94.

Graudal, L. & Moestrup, S. (2017). The
genetic variation in natural and planted
teak forests: Characterisation, use andconservation for the future. In The
Global Teak Study: Analysis, Evaluation
and Future Potential of Teak Resources(eds., W. Kollert, & M. Kleine), pp. 1929. International Union of Forest
Research Organizations (IUFRO).
IUFRO world series Vol.
36 http://www.iufro.org/
publications/series/worldseries/article/20
17/06/21/world-series-vol-36-the-globalteak-study-analysis-evaluation-andfuture-potential-of-teak-reso/

Champion, H. G. & Seth, S.K. 1968. A
Revised Survey of the Forest Types ofIndia:113-117, 181- 184. Manager of
Publications, Delhi.
Chanpaisaeng, S. (1977). Yield of Teak
Plantation. MSc. thesis, Kasetsart
University, Bangkok, Thailand. 97 p. (inThai with English abstract).
DNP. (2000). Forest Resource Utilization
Map 2000. Department of National Parks,
Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Bangkok,
Thailand.

Kadambi, K. (1972). Silviculture andManagement of Teak. Austin State
University, Texas, School of Forestry,
Bulletin, 24, 37.

DNP. (2021). Report on Status of Natural
Teak Forest in Thailand during 20062020. Forest Inventory and Assessment
Division Forest and Plant Conservation
Research Office, Department of National
Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation,
Bangkok, Thailand.

Kaosa-ard, A. (1979). Teak Seed Center.
Annual Report No. 1. Teak Seed Center,
Ngao, Lampang, Thailand, 35 p.
Kaosa-ard, A. (1989). Teak (Tectona
grandis L.f.) its natural distribution andrelated factors. Natural History Bulletin of
the Siam Society, 29, 55-74.

Faculty of Forestry. (2018). Strategy andAction Plan for Extension of Integrated
Economic Trees (2018-2036). Final Report
Submitted to the Royal Forest Department.
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.

Kaosa-ard, A. (1995). Management of teakplantations: Overview of problems in teakplantation establishment. Teak for future.
In: Proceedings of the Second Regional
Seminar on Teak. 29May-3 June 1995, pp.
49-59. TEAKNET Publication No.1, RAP
Publication 1998/5, Yangon, Myanmar.

FAO. (1956). Report of the First session of
the Teak Sub-Commission. Bangkok,
Thailand, 9-18 February 1956.
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Kermode, C.W.D. (1957). Teak. TropicalSilviculture, 2, 168-178. FAO, Rome.

RFD (Royal Forest Department). (2020).
Forest Statistics Data 2020. Royal Forest
Department, Thailand.

Kollert, W.& Cherubini, L. (2012). Teak
resources and market assessment. Planted
Forests and Trees Working Paper FP/47/E.
Edited by Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. Rome.
Available online at
http://www.fao.org/3/an537e/an537e00.pd
f, checked on 5/3/2021.

Seth, S. K. & Yadav, J. S. P. (1959). Teaksoils. Indian Forester, 85, 2-16.
Suraphapmaitri, S. (1985). Site Index andYield of Teak Plantation in Lampang
Province. Special Problem. Department ofSilviculture, Kasetsart University,
Bangkok. Thailand. 49 p. (in Thai withEnglish abstract)

Kulkarni, D.H. (1951). Distribution of teak(Tectona grandis L.f.) on the northernslopes of the Satpuras with special relation
to geology, pp. 254-263. In: Proc. 8thSilviculture Conference, Dehra Dun, India.

Tewari, D.N. (1992). A monograph onteak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.).
International Book Distributers, Dehra
Dun, India. 479 p.

Mahaphol, S. (1954). Teak in Thailand.
Royal Forest Department. Ministry ofAgriculture, Paper No. R.16, 30 p.

Thaiuta, B. (1992). Commercial Plantationin Thailand: A Case Study of the Forest
Industry Organization. In Proceedings ofthe FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry
Change in a Changing World, 17-20
November 2008, pp. 67-83. Kasetsart
University, Bangkok, Thailand.

Pandey, D. & Brown, C. (2000). Teak: aglobal overview. An overview of global
teak resources and issues affecting their
future outlook. Unasylva, 51(201), 3–13.
Paosajja, R. (1992). Economic forest. In:
Forest Research Center, Forest Resource
Development, Faculty of Forestry, pp.92110. Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand.

Trisurat, Y. (2007). Applying gap analysis
and a comparison index to assess protectedareas in Thailand. Environmental
Management, 39, 235-245.
Troup, R. S. (1921). The Silviculture ofIndian Trees. Vol. 2. Oxford University
Press. 300 p.

Pumijumnong, N. (1995).
Dendrochrnologie mit Teak (Tectona
grandis L.) in Nord-Thailand.
Dissertation, University Hamburg,
Germany.

White, K. J. (1991). Teak, some aspects ofresearch and development. RAPA
Publication 1991/17. FAO Regional Officefor Asia and the Pacific, FAO, Bangkok.
69 p.

RFD (Royal Forest Department). (2013).
Thai Teak Knowledge. Thailand’s
Agriculture and Co-operatives Printing
Ltd, Bangkok. Thailand. 302 p.

36

TEAK IN MEKONG

Chapter 3: Natural Teak Forests andTeak Plantations in Myanmar
Zar Chi Hlaing

Abstract

Introduction

eak is one of the most important
hardwood valuable species that isbeing planted extensively in several countries in
the Asia-Pacific region. Being indigenous to theregion, substantial experience has been gainedin the management of natural and man-madestands of teak. The reasons for the relatively
wide use of teak, where quality hardwoods
are planted, are its ease of propagation,
establishment and management, as well as
its excellent wood quality. It is also one of
the most valuable multi-purpose timbers of
the world. In Myanmar, natural teak forests
have been managed for many years withsustained timber production as the primaryobjective. Myanmar is the only country
producing large teak logs from naturalforest, which attract a price advantage
compared with small logs from plantations
and which is likely to continue in theforeseeable future. The forest resources ofMyanmar scientifically managed since1856 have been decreasing due topopulation pressure and rising demands forforest lands and products. Myanmar’s
forests vary in species composition andstand structure, and constitute a valuableecosystem due to their wide extent, varied
topography and different climatic conditions.
Myanmar is endowed with a forest covered
area of 42.19% of the country’s total landarea that shows Myanmar position as one of
the highest in the Asia-Pacific Region.
Myanmar Selection System or MSS in short,
has been the principal forest management
system applied in managing the naturalforests in Myanmar since 1856. Moreover,the extensive teak plantations were
established in the 1970s, and a further largescale plantation program was launchedcommencing from 1980. Teak plantations will
be formed only on locations with site quality
II/III and better.

eak (Tectona grandis L.f), is a
species of worldwide reputation as
paragon among timber trees belongs to thefamily Lamiaceae and is distributed
predominantly in tropical and subtropicalregions. Teak is one of the most important
hardwood valuable species planted
extensively in several countries in the AsiaPacific region. Being indigenous to theregion, substantial experience has been
gained in the management of natural andman-made stands of teak. The reasons forthe relatively wide use of teak, where
quality hardwoods are planted, are its easeof propagation, establishment andmanagement, as well as its excellent wood
quality. It is also one of the most valuablemulti-purpose timbers of the world. It isindigenous to only four countries in Southand South-East Asia, and dense naturalforests with big and beautiful admiralty
quality teak have degraded and shrunk so
rapidly that at present they are confined
only to Myanmar and to some extent to
India (Gyi & Tint, 1998).

TT

Even though teak once covered a large
percentage of India, Thailand and Myanmar
and a small area of Laos, there is now very
restricted distribution in each of thesecountries except Myanmar. In Myanmar,
natural teak forests have been managed formany years with sustained timber
production as the primary object. Myanmar
is the only country producing large teaklogs from natural forest, which attract a
price advantage compared with small logs
from plantations and which is likely tocontinue in the foreseeable future.
However, the area and quality of teakforests are declining with the increasing
population and greater pressure on forested
land for conversion to agricultural land and37

TEAK IN MEKONG

illicit cutting. Forest resources, thoughscientifically managed since 1856, havebeen decreasing gradually both in extend
and quality due to increased populationpressure and consequent rising demands fortimber for domestic and foreign uses.
Annual production of teak is estimated to beabout 450,000 m3 (1991-2000 average)
decreased to 230,000 m3 (2000-2011
average), in the form of logs and sawn
timbers, of which are mostly from naturalforests. From forestry sector, the total
foreign exchange earning of Myanmar
comes from export of timber (Soe, 2009),
about 90 % of which is derived from teak(Kyaw, 2003). Although there were plentyof teak trees in the natural forests, in
Myanmar, in various densities, teakplantations were established in acompensatory way up to 1962. In
Myanmar, extensive teak plantations wereformed in the 1970s, and a further largescale plantation program was launchedcommencing from 1980. It started with anannual target of 6,200 ha, increasing
gradually. The Forest Department (FD) of
Myanmar launched a special teak plantation
program in early 1998 in addition to theexisting teak plantation scheme. The
special program is incorporated with major
reforms placing emphasis primarily on
increased timber production and on
overcoming the environmental constraints
experienced by forest plantations. The

special teak plantation program would,
therefore, lead to the establishment of teakplantations over an area of 324,000 ha at theend of the 40-year rotation. A sustainableproduction of 572,000 m3 to 930,000 m3 ofteak is estimated to be available annualfrom 8,100 ha of these plantations by theend of the rotation. Teak plantations will beformed only on locations with site quality
II/III and better.
In Myanmar there are four broad ecologicalzones namely: Moist Humid (Northern
Hilly Region), Dry Humid (Eastern High
Plateau), Moist (Southern Plain, Hill and
Deltaic Area), and Dry (Central Plain).
Teak plantations are mainly concentrated in
the Bago Yoma Region, which falls inmoist ecological zones, a well-known placeof high-quality natural teak forests. The
area of teak plantations established in 1998
had already reached 195,043 ha,constituting about 41% of the total area ofall plantations established in Myanmar.
Forest Resources
Possessing a great variation of forest
ecoregions, there are six major forest types
in Myanmar. Areas of respective forest
types are shown in Figure 3-1 and Table 31. The majority of the forest area is coveredby mixed deciduous forest, and hill andtemperate evergreen forests, accounting for38.20 and 26.92%, respectively.

Table 3-1 Area of major forest types in Myanmar in 2020
No.

Major forest types

Area (ha)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Mangrove Forest
Tropical Evergreen Forest
Mixed Deciduous Forest
Dry Forest
Deciduous Dipterocarp
Hill and Temperate Evergreen
Scrub and Grass Land
Total Forest Area
Source: Forest Department (2020)

325,259.20
5,024,093.00
11,093,662.00
2,904,100.00
1,237,146.60
7,817,837.20
638,902.00
29,041,000.00

38% of forested area
1.12
17.30
38.20
10.00
4.26
26.92
2.20
100.00TEAK IN MEKONG
Distribution of Vegetation Types in Myanmar.

Distribution of Vegetation Types in Myanmar.

Source: A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers ofMyanmar. Contributions from the United States National
Herbarium. Volume 45: 1-590
Source: A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers of
Figure 3-1 Major Forest typesinMyanmar
Myanmar. Contributions from the United States National
Herbarium. Volume 45: 1-590
Source: Armstrong (2004)

The Forest Resource Assessment (FRA 2020) conducted by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in cooperation with the Myanmar Forest
Department has indicated that Myanmar is still endowed with a forest covered area of 42.19%of the country's land total area, one of the highest in the Asia-Pacific region. The status of forest
cover is shown in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2 Forest cover status of Myanmar
Category

Area (1,000ha)% of total country area

Closed Forest

11811.8

17.46

Open Forest

16283.61

24.07

Mangrove448.4804

0.66

Sub-total (forest)

28543.89

42.19

Other Wooded lands

18756.05

27.72

Others18386.8

27.18

Water

1971.14

2.91

Total

67657.88

100

Source: FRA (2020)

39

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 3-2 Forest cover of Myanmar

Table 3-3 Status of reserved forests, protected public forests and protected area system in
Myanmar
Legal classification

Area (ha)% of land area

Reserved forest (RF)12,020,022.42

17.77

Protected public forest (PPF)

5,224,278.13

7.72

Total RF & PPF

17,244,300.55

25.49

Protected area (PAs)

3,959,320.11

5.85

Source: Forest Department (2020)

40

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 3-3 Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) Area in Myanmar
Source: Forest Department (2020)

Forests are owned by the State and areforest areas under the management ofForest Department can be categorized
into two types legally as reserved forests(RF) and protected public forest (PPF)
that collectively constitute the permanent
forest estate (PFE), and that have beengazette through a legal process whichcontained 31.34% of total forested areaand public forests or unclassified forests(68.66%) (Table 3-3 and Figure 3-3). RF
is the best quality and higher commercial
value forest, where the public have noharvesting rights. PPF is of lower
commercial value, more accessible,

where the public have some harvestingrights. Forest Department also designates
protected areas (PAs) to preserve diverse
ecosystems and species richness of Myanmar(Figure 3-3). The extent of PFE and Pas isshown in Table 3-3.
Natural Teak Forests
Tropical Myanmar in the Greater Mekong
Sub-Region (GMS) is the only one country
still maintaining large proportion of natural
mixed deciduous forest which usually has
teak, one of the most valuable premierwoods, as the leading dominant species.
These teak bearing forests managed under41

TEAK IN MEKONG

the Myanmar Selection System (MSS)
since 1856 were once the main production
sources for the world teak export. The
forests in Myanmar are classified into six
major forest types. Natural teak distribution
occurs in the semi-evergreen forests, mixed
deciduous forests and deciduous
dipterocarp or Indaing forests (Table 3-1
and Figure 3-1).

Acacia catechu. Bamboos, as Thyrostachys
oliveri in northern Myanmar and
Dendrocalamus in the south, arealso associated with teak in this forest type.
In Indaing (deciduous dipterocarp) forest,
teak does not grow to a great size and is ofpoor quality. Regeneration is often abundant
and the species is found in association withDipterocarpus tuberculatus which may
comprise as much as 80%, or more of thecrop (Kermode, 1964). Semi-Indaing
forests are usually found with an abundanceof poor-quality teak. Regeneration is also
profuse; teak grows mixed with Pentacmesiamensis and Shorea obtusa.

Teak in the semi-evergreen forest is usuallyfound as scattered individuals or in small
groups with little or no regeneration present(Kermode, 1964). Trees are generally large
and may be associated with Michelia
champaca, Tetrameles nudiflora ,Dipterocarpus species, Eugenia species,
Cedrela species, etc. Undergrowth may
consist of bamboo such as Dendrocalamus
hami l t onii and Cephal ost achyum
pergracile and of small evergreen trees or
shrubs.

Management of Teak Forest
The forest flora in Myanmar is diverse
varying from sub-alpine in the norththrough dry and moist mixed deciduous totropical rain forest species in the south.
Teak, economically the most important
forest resource of the country, is recognized
as one of the most valued and sought after
tropical timbers in the world and it isasserted that at present extensive andbeautiful natural teak stands can be seen
only in Myanmar. It has mainly been due to
Myanmar's culture and affection attachedtowards the trees and the wildlife, thesystematic management of which has
already been exercised almost one and ahalf centuries now. In Myanmar, like inmany other tropical countries, the forest
resources are of paramount importance fornational economic development andenvironmental conservation. The forests
provide timber for both domestic use andexport. They are also a vital source of food,shelter, fuel and income for the rural poor
who constitute about 76% of the country's
total population of over 55 million.

In the lower mixed deciduous (LMD)
forest, teak may be found gregariously or inpatches. The species attains a large girthand height and trees are greatly fluted inthese forests. Teak is usually found inassociation with Anogeissus acuminata,
Homalium tomentosum, Terminalia
tomentosa, etc. Bamboo is almost absent inthis forest type.
The moist upper mixed deciduous(MUMD) forest produces teak with cleaner
and straighter boles (Kermode, 1964). Hereit is associated with Xylia xylocarpus,
Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Gmelina
arborea, Bombax insignis, etc. Bamboo
species, such as Bambusa polymorhpa andCephalostachyum pergracile, are found in
this forest type. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii
is also found in northern Myanmar.
The dry upper mixed deciduous (DUMD)
forest produces teak of poorer quality thanin the MUMD forests. Natural regeneration
is frequent. In this forest type, teak is
usually found associated with the same
species as in MUMD forests with a few
additional dry forest species, such as
Shorea obtusa, Pentacme siamensis andFor management purposes the forests areassembled as the "working circles"; 1) teakselection working circle (TSWC); 2) nonteak hardwoods working circle (HSWC);
and 3) local supply working circle (LSWC).
The working circles are formed on the basisof accessibility and also on the nature
42

TEAK IN MEKONG

and form of forest produce available.
Occasionally, TSWC and HSWC overlap
when non-teak hardwoods are also
extracted in TSWC. Both working circles
are worked under the Myanmar Selection
System (MSS). The working circles consistof a group of reserves, which are further
divided into felling series for theconvenience of working according to thedrainage and the geographical situation.
Again, they are sub-divided into
compartments on maps as well as on the
ground; these are the basic management
units. As for local supply reserves, annual
coupes are the basic management units.
They are similar to compartments, exceptthat they are marked only on maps and are
not permanently demarcated on the ground.
Teak extraction is organized under the
TSWC which includes all teak bearing forests.

managing the natural forests in Myanmar
since 1856. It involves adoption of a felling
cycle of 30 years, prescription of
exploitable sizes of trees, girdling of teak,selection making of other hardwoods,
felling of less valuable trees interferingwith the growth of teak, thinning ofcongested teak stands, enumeration of
future yield trees down to fixed sizes, andfixing annual allowable cuts (AACs) forteak and other hardwoods. Simple coppice
or coppice with standards systems are also
applied in the local supply forest reserves.
Under MSS, only mature trees are selected
and harvested. Harvesting of trees isregulated based on annual growth andcontrolled by girth limits prescribed
species–wise. Felling of exploitable trees iswithin the bounds of carefully calculated
Annual Allowable Cut (AAC). Fixing
AACs, therefore, accords the increment of
individual tree species, which has takenplace over the course of 30-year felling
cycle. AAC is thus a tool that ensures theharvest of timber yield on a sustained basis.
AACs for teak and for non-teak otherhardwoods are periodically revised andfixed based on the updated information.
Annual yield is estimated as

Notwithstanding ever-increasing pressureson the forest resources for both domestic
and export requirements, the forest
management in Myanmar has always
adhered to the principles of sustainable
forest management (SFM). It is manifestedby the wealth of the forest resources
Myanmar is still endowed with. Myanmar
Selection System, has been the principal
forest management system applied in

𝐴𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝑅𝑅 +

CI −

1
2

𝐹𝐶 ∗ 𝐴𝑅𝑅
LP

where ARR = annual rate of recruitment of Class II trees to Class I; CI = original no. of trees
in Class I; FC = felling cycle (i.e., 30 years); and LP = decided period to liquidate original CI
trees (usually 60 years).
The MSS is not a true Selection system. It
is a Stratified Uniform or Girth-limit
system (Dawkins et al., 1998) by which allcommercial species including teak above
minimum felling girths are harvested ateach felling cycle. The MSS has been being
applied in Myanmar practically to all typesof natural forests with virtually blanket
silvicultural prescriptions, although it iswell aware that silvicultural techniques are
sometimes highly site-specific. Now, theunsuitability of the MSS is evidenced by thedeteriorating stand structure, reduced
growing stock and declining composition ofteak, the principal species the wholemanagement system of Myanmar virtually
has been targeted (Kyaw, 2002). The extent
of the natural teak forests is shrinking, the43

TEAK IN MEKONG

quality reducing and the yield dropping(FD, 2000). In light of this, the urgent need
is obvious to either modify the MSS or to
implement a gradual transformation
method to convert the natural forests to theuniform system. For higher productivity
and economics, the current status of theteak forests undoubtedly highlights theneed for transformation. However,
Myanmar Forest Policy (1995) has clearlystipulated not to substitute natural forests
with plantations.

considerably. However, increased demand
for timber, combined with reduced
enforcement capacity and conflict in borderareas, have caused illegal logging leading toloss and degradation of forests. Realizing
the situation, the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environmental Conservation(MoNREC) is making significant efforts torestore sustainably managed forests
through the legality programme like
FLEGT (Forest Law Enforcement, Governanceand Trade), MTLAS (Myanmar Timber
Legality Assurance System), and otherpossible ways yet there are still limitations
and restrictions for the control of illegal
timber in the country.

Until recent decade, forestry sector
contributing about one third of the total
country`s export timber trade had played adecisive role in the forest sector policy, andhad exerted influence on the overallnational politics. This traditional forest
management regime and prescribed
regulations, as time passed by need to be
adjusted to cope with modern requirements
including social and plantation forestry.

Teak Plantations
Myanmar has a forest cover of about 33
million ha, which is almost half of its total
land surface area in 1989. The forest coverconsists mainly of natural forests, about 45% of which are teak bearing forests. The
forest resources, thought scientificallymanaged since 1856, have been decreasing
gradually both in extent and quality due toincreased population pressure andconsequent rising demands for timber fordomestic and foreign uses. Annual
production of teak is estimated to be about
450,000 m3 (1991-2000 average) in theform of total foreign exchange earnings ofMyanmar comes from export of timber,about 90% of which is derived from teak
(Htun & Hlaing, 2001).

In recent years, there have been substantialchanges in Myanmar forestry sector amidst
the global forestry trend of climate change
and carbon sequestration. A few
remarkable changes include an introductionof log export ban (LEB), in April 2014, topromote local processing following logging
ban policy in 2016, and modifying the MSS
putting emphasis on bringing conservative
silviculture into harmony with profitable
exploitation on a sustainable basis. Furthermore,
the 10-Year Myanmar Reforestation andRehabilitation Programme (MRRP) launchedin 2016 has stipulated a 10-year fallow
period in the natural forests of the Bago
Yomas Mountain range (“the home ofteak”). The objective of the MRRP is toincrease the forest cover by 5% within 10
years, by planting mainly teak andPyinkado (Burmese ironwood, Xylia
xylocarpa). In the rest of the country, theannual harvesting plan was set to harvest
only 55% of teak and 33% of non-teakhardwood, respectively of the fixed annual
yield. It is reported that, as a subsequent
result, the supply of logs to the national andinternational markets has declined

With a view to enriching the stocking in thenatural teak bearing forests in Myanmar,
teak plantations had been established in
Paletwa area of the Chin State in about theyear 1700 (FAO, 1956). The first attempt at
teak plantations by Taungya method, which
is world renowned today, was made in 1856
at Tharyawady in the Bago Region.
However, plantations in those days wereusually about 10 ha, with only one location
exceeding 40 ha, and were established morewith a view to increase the natural stock ofteak rather than to create fully stocked
stands. They were practiced to supplement
or compensatory the natural regeneration of44

TEAK IN MEKONG

natural forest and, therefore, were called
compensatory plantations. In thiscompensatory plantation concept, silvicultural
treatment, particularly thinning, was done up
to age of 40 years and plantations, after
heavy thinning at this age, were treated as
natural forests and placed under the
improvement felling schedules.

adequate to rely on natural forest
management with compensatory planting
without taking risk for a new venture onlarge scale plantation forestry.
Starting from early 1970s, block plantations
were formed in the areas with degraded
forests and poor stocking of teak and othervaluable commercial species. As of 2000,
293,782 ha of Teak plantations had been
established, i.e., 41% of total plantations
formed in Myanmar. In early 1998, theForest Department launched a special teakplantation program, which incorporates
new features such as adoption of 40-yearrotation, and management participation ofinterested and relevant communities. The
adoption of a definite 40-year rotationreflects a significant deviation from the oldconcepts and final harvest will be made byclear cutting at the end of the rotation. The
total teak plantations area is shown in
Figure 3-4.

After the establishment of the plantations inTharyawady forest division in 1856
plantation forestry continued and a total of
310 ha had been attained by 1867-68, and a
relatively large area of 1,370 ha wasreached by 1876. Between 1880 and 1900
the area planted annually increased from
400 ha to over 1,620 ha and there was amore definite effort at creating full stackeven-aged stands. Teak plantations
established up to 1906 totaled about 24,282
ha. By the turn of the century, theunsystematic ways in which plantations had
been formed became the subject ofconsiderable criticism and in response to
the proposal by the Chief Conservator ofForests in 1906 the Government imposed
limitations on the establishment ofplantations in favor of improvement fellingin the natural forests.

At present, the annual total plantation target
for 1990-2010 has been fixed at around
361,807 ha of which commercial
plantations constitute about 205,550 ha,
representing 57 % of the total plantations.
Amongst these commercial plantations,around 172,713 ha of Teak plantations havebeen established and 51 % of these teakplantations are being constructed underSpecial Teak Plantation Program, which
was commenced in early 1998 at Bago
Yoma Range. This special program has adefined rotation age of 40 years, and thisprogram is, in fact, a national endeavor tomaintain and increase the production ofteak for both domestic and export markets
with due consideration for social benefits
and environmental restoration of degraded
forests. With regards to establishing forest
plantations, it is better noted that plantation
forestry in Myanmar is not a substitute fornatural forests management, supplementary
as has been stipulated in the Myanmar
Forest Policy, 1995 (Myint et al., 1999).

After the First World War in 1918, theTaungya system was firmly established andever since, and it became the standardpractice in Myanmar plantation forestry. By
1920, more than 32,376 ha had been
established with teak. In 1937-38, theGovernment revised the policy to establish
600 ha of plantations annually. The total
area of plantations by 1940 was 56,130 ha.
No progress was made in plantations
afterwards, but rather, many were destroyed
during the Second World War. After thewar, scattered plantations were made toenrich teak stocking in annual planting rates
of no more than 20 ha. Plantation
establishment was curtailed during theperiod of insurrection from 1948-62 but
resumed in 1964. In those days it was45

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 3-4 Established Teak plantations area (from 1981 to 2021)
Source: Haling (2012) and Forest Department (2021)

Teak Improvement in Myanmar

Most of the rural community who depended
on natural forest for their daily needs, they
are more interested in utilization of forest
resources than in conservation of forest
genetic resources. For that reason, somelevel of ex situ conservation becomes
important. The followings ex situ
conservation activities are being conductedby the FD in Myanmar:

The conservation of forest species diversity
including Teak was started in 1984. The
major conservation of full stock of natural
Teak forests and Teak plantation are into
Seed Production Areas (SPAs), theestablishment of Teak Hedge Gardens (THGs),
Teak Clonal Seed Orchards (CSOs) and theProtected Area System (PAS). The conservation
efforts in Myanmar are in situ based andconcerned mainly with the protection offorests by the Forest Protection Law andLegislations.

• Establishment of teak provenance trials
to assess their variations by the locality

In situ forest diversity conservation programmes
and practices are as follow in Myanmar:• Establishment of Teak Clonal Seed
Orchard (CSO) and Teak Seedling Seed
Orchard (SSO) to conserve superior
germplasm• Strengthening protected Area System(PAS) for Forest Genetic Resources,• Establishment of Teak Hedge Garden(THG) to collect superior material• Enrichment planting, restoration andreforestation of degraded forests,• Planting of medicinal plants in Herbal
Parks and Medicinal Plant Garden• Enhancement of seed production areas(SPA), and• Tissue culture
Seed Production Areas• Selection and conservation of geneticallygood superior teak trees in the natural
teak bearing forests

The planting with good quality seeds wasconceived in Myanmar since the beginningof scientific forestry. The proper tree
improvement program was greatly debatedat the initiation of the East Pegu Yoma
Project (EPP) in 1980’s, and two clonal
seed orchards (CSO) (Table 3-4) and someAn important technique for long-term storageof genetic materials for further genetic
improvement programme and sustainable
development of species is ex-situ conservation.
46

TEAK IN MEKONG

seed production areas (SPA) were
established at that time (Gyi and Myint,2008). In 1996, The Director of theTraining and Research Development
Division issued a detailed instruction on theestablishment of SPA to the States andRegions. Until 2020, there are 6 species
such as Teak, Pyinkado, Padauk, Yemane,
Pinus and Mangrove species, with the total
number of 235 (Table 3-5). But the proper

conversion of plantations into SPA andthe management strategies are stillneeded to effective and efficient
successful SPA. Gyi and Myint (2008)
mentioned that SPA establishment
should be initiated as it is a quick andmost inexpensive way of getting quality
seed, and after that CSO can be followedwith the expertise as it takes time andmoney.

Table 3-4 Teak clonal seed orchard in Myanmar
Established year

Area (ha)Location

1981 -1982

34

Oktwin1988

6

Pyinmana

Table 3-5 Seed production areas (SPA) in Myanmar
No.

SpeciesNo. of SPAs

Area (ha)1.

Teak (Tectona grandis)

191

3,256

2.

Pyinkado (Xylia xylocarpa)

27

768

3.

Padauk (Pterocarpus marcrocarpus)

1

10

4.

Pinus sp.

9

111

5.

Yemane (Gemlina arborea)

2

20

6.

6 Mangrove species

5

89

Total

235

4,254

The production of high-quality teakthrough the genetic improvement is theimportant role to support the sustainable
forest management in Myanmar. As the
ex-situ conservation of Teak, Teakprovenance trials were established (Table 3-6).

Teak Provenance Trials
Apart from the quantitative production ofTeak plantation is quality. The improved
planting materials of superior genetic
quality is one of the factors for the
successfully plantations establishment.

47

TEAK IN MEKONG

Table 3-6 Teak provenance trials
Established year

No. of provenance

Location

1982

18

Pyinmana

1983

16

Oktwin1986

12

Pyinmana

1998

10

Oktwin2007

8

Pyinmana

2007

9

Kyaukdaga

Institutional Arrangementsof forest resource management andbiodiversity conservation are:Forest management in Myanmar developed
over centuries. Myanmar kings formulated
a complex system designed to maximize
revenue and control. The teak trade wascontrolled by regulating extraction from theforest under a system of girdling, andMyanmar's involvement in the teak tradepredated that of the Europeans. Systematicforest management was initiated in 1856,
and, until recently, the guiding principles
had been derived from a policy document
prepared in 1894 (Gyi & Tint, 1998).

1. Forest Policy (1995, revised in 2018);
2. Forest Law (1992, revised 2018);
3. Forest Rules (1995);
4. Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants
and Conservation of Natural Areas Law(1994);
5. Myanmar Agenda 21 together withEnvironmental Policy
6. Departmental Instructions for Forest
Officers in Myanmar 1955

The forest policy recognized andemphasized the following six imperatives:(1) the Protection of soils, water,
vegetation and wildlife, (2) Sustainabilityof forest resources to ensure perpetualsupply of both tangible and intangible
benefits accrued from the forests for thepresent and future generations, (3) the Basisneeds of the people for fuel, shelter, foodand recreation, (4) Efficiency to harness, ina socio-environmentally friendly manner,the full economic potential of forest
resources, (5) People's participation inforest management and biodiversity
conservation and utilization of forest
resources, and (6) the Awareness of thevital role of the forests in the well-being andsocio-economic development of the nation.

7. Working Plan Manual, Myanmar 1938
8. Standing Orders for Subordinates,
Forest Department 1959
9. Community Forestry Instructions 1995
(revised in 2019)
The policy prescribes, inter alia, thefollowing facts;
1) to gazette 30% of the total land area ofthe country as reserve forest and 5% undera protected area system;2) to introduce a system of environment
pricing based on the "polluter pays"
principle to compensate for environmental
and ecological degradation;3) to pursue a sound programme of forest
development through regeneration andrehabilitation operations to optimize
productivity from natural forest;

The Burma Forest Act 1902 and subsequent
amendments were in use until theGovernment promulgated new forest
legislation in November 1992. The
important instruments for implementation
48

TEAK IN MEKONG

4) to recognize that plantation forestry is nota substitute for natural forest management;

biodiversity. Under the organizational
structure of FD, the Forest ResearchInstitute (FRI) and Central Forestry
Development Training Centre (CFDTC)
have been conducting the research works
on genetic conservation and tree breeding
and improvement by use of in vitro and invivo propagation techniques.

5) to promote efficient harvesting andsustainable utilization of all forms of forest
produce; and6) to enlist people's participation in forestry
sector development activities in order toprovide "people-based development" andalso create public awareness and mass
motivation for the protection andconservation of forests.

Conclusion
About half of the land area of Myanmar is still
covered with forests, of which 38 % iscomposed of the mixed deciduous forest
types where Teak grows naturally well as
Teak bearing forest. The forestry sector has
contributed significantly to the country’s
economy and timber, especially Teak wood,has been major source of export earnings formany years. More than a century and a half ofscientific management the natural forests ofMyanmar are still in comparatively good
extent and condition. But much efforts areneeded which focused on the management of
natural forests to provide timber, andstrengthen the protective functions to ensure
environmental stability and ecosystem
integrity. Moreover, the large-scale Teakplantations are now being established throughthe application of modernized techniques andthe involvement of private enterprises, tocomplement the primary effort in the naturalforest management.

Moreover, the new Forest Law, in line with
the Myanmar Forest Policy, focuses on abalanced approach towards conservationand development issues implicit in theconcept of sustainable forestry. It describes
the decentralization of the management
system and opening up the opportunities tothe private sector investment in theplantation establishment. In addition, it
does highlight the environmental andbiodiversity conservation, and encourages
the community forestry and people's
participation in forest management but
prescribes more severe punishments forforest offenses.
Under the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environmental Conservation, theForest Department has the primary
responsibility for the administration andmanagement of the forestry sector. The
organizational structure comprises a
combination of government agencies suchas the Planning and Statistics Department,
the Forest Department, Myanmar TimberEnterprise, the Dry zone Greening Department,
the Environmental Conservation Department,
the Survey Department, University of Forestry
and Environmental Sciences, Department ofMines, Department of Geological Survey andMineral Exploration, No.1 Mining Enterprise,
No. 2 Mining Enterprise, Myanmar Gems
Enterprise, Myanmar Pearl Enterprise.
Among these departments, the Forest
Department (FD) is mainly responsible forthe research and development of forest
management and conservation of

The destruction of the natural teak forests is
a global concern. The issue is not confined
only to the countries where these forests
exist. The developing nations with low
financial development are simply incapableof just conserving and improving theforests, and they have to utilize the forest
resources for their economic and social
development. In this perspective,
multidisciplinary, multisectoral andmultinational approaches is essential toensure the sustainable management of
natural teak forests for continued supply of
quality timber to satisfy the needs of bothpresent and future generations.
49

TEAK IN MEKONG

References

Gyi, M. K.K. & Tint, K. (1998).
Management of Natural Teak Forest,
Natural Teak Forest management
Practiced Under the Myanmar Selection
System. In FAO, Teak for the FutureProceeding of the Second Regional
Seminar on Teak. Rome, Italy.

Armstrong, K. (2004). A Checklist of theTrees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers ofMyanmar. In: W. John Kress, Robert A.
De Filipps, Ellen Farr & Daw Yin Yin Kyi(eds.). Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Institution. Contributions from the UnitedStates National Herbarium, Vol. 45. 2003.
590 p. ISSN 0097 1618. Available free ofcharge while supplies last. Edinburgh
Journal of Botany, 61(2-3), 197-198.

Hlaing, Z.C. (2012). The growth of teakplantations (Tectona grandis Linn.f) in
Bago Yoma Range, Myanmar. MSc thesis,
Seoul National University, South Korea.
Htun, K. & C. Hlaing. (2001). A general
assessment of teak plantations in the Bago
Yoma region, Yangon, Myanmar. FRI
Leaflet No.8. Forest Science Research
Paper, Forest Department.

Dawkins, H.C. & Philip, M.S. (1998).
Tropical moist forest silviculture andmanagement: a history of success andfailure, 359 p.
FAO. (1956). Country Report on Teak,Rome. Italy.

Kermode, C.W.D. (1964). Some aspects ofsilviculture in Burma. Central Press,
Rangoon.

FD (Forest Department). (1997). Country
report- Union of Myanmar. Asia-Pacificforestry sector outlook study, Working
paper series. Working Paper, No:
APFSOS/WP/08.

Kyaw, N. N. (2003). Site influence on
growth and phenotype of teak (Tectona
grandis Linn. f) in natural forests ofMyanmar. Ph.D. thesis, Cuvillier Verlag,
Gottingen, Germany.

FD (Forest Department). (2000). Historicalreview of teak forestry in Myanmar In A
paper presented at the Third Regional
Seminar on Teak .31 July- 5 August, 2000,
13 p. Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

Kyaw, T. (2002). The present state of
growth, composition and structure of teakforests. AvH research paper, 21 p.
(unpublished).

FRA (Global Forest Resource
Assessment). (2020). Food andAgriculture Organization of the United
Nations. Myanmar Country Report, Rome.
Italy.

Myint, S., Htun, K. & Hlaing, C. (1999).
Evaluation of Commercial plantations in
Myanmar, Study 2, Yangon, Myanmar:
GCP/RAS/158/JAP.
Soe, K. K. (2009). Growth performance ofTeak (Tectona grandis Linn.f) plantations
in moist and dry ecological zones in
Myanmar. MSc thesis, University ofTechnology, Dresden, Germany.

Gyi, M. K. K. & Myint, Z. W. (2008).
Timbe for conservation Myanmar Teak.
Seminar on Teak Seed Production Area
Management and Tree Improvement,
ITTO Project PD 270/04 Rev. 2(F).
Naypyidaw, Myanmar.

50

TEAK IN MEKONG

Chapter 4: Natural Teak Forests and Plantationsin Lao PDR
Vongvilay Vongkhamsao, Baisone Inthirath andBounthavy Chaleunsouk

Abstract

First National Forest Conference held in
1989 declared the rapid pace of forest
degradation in the country had created acrisis situation which must be resolved
through active rehabilitation of naturalforests and establishing new forest
plantations (Gilmour & Tsechalicha, 2000).

L

ao PDR forms the easternmost limitsof the natural distribution of Teak in
the world. The largest natural areas in Laos
occur in the Sayabouly Province, where
there may be 10-20,000 ha of mixed
deciduous forests with significant presenceof teak. Small areas of teak are also foundin the Bokeo Province. In order to conserve
natural teak forest, Government of Laos has
both policies and regulations in place andseveral projects are under implementation
to manage teak and ensure its sustainable
use. Teak has long been grown by small
farmers in northern part of Laos, especiallyin Luang Prabang with an average parcel
size of less than 1 ha. Larger areas, up toaround 20 ha, are often owned by absentee
owners or acquired overtime byentrepreneurs. For many of these plantation
owners securing land use rights is theprimary benefit. The planting of teak has
been promoted by Government policies
since the 1980s in recognition of its highvalue and its potential to provide
opportunities for generation of farmincome. The so-called ‘2+3 model’
encouraged by the government, in which
the smallholder provides land and labour
while the plantation company is responsible
for technology, finance and marketing, hasbeen quite successful in attracting
investment in teak planting.

Acting on its recommendations theGovernment of Lao PDR has been strongly
encouraging all relevant stakeholder suchas state authorities, entrepreneurs andindividual local villagers to protect theexisting forests and grow more forests.
Teak is a large deciduous tree and amember of the family Verbenaceae. Teak is
a very suitable species for farmers to plant
because its growth is initially fast and it isfire resistant (Kaosa-ard, 1989). Teak isindigenous to central and south India,
Burma, northern Thailand and in two small
areas in northwestern Laos (Hansen et al.,1997). Teak has been planted in a small andmoderate scale in other tropical countries
such as Bangladesh, east and west Africa,
Central and South America and on manyislands of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian
Oceans (Kadambi, 1972).
Teak (Tectona grandis) is one of manynative tree species that have been selected
for planting across the country. According
a national survey of forest plantation in
Laos during September and December
1990 carried out by Forest inventory andManagement Office, Department ofForestry there were 6,250 ha, about 3,000
ha was classified as stock planation, nearly
50% of planation area was teak (Tectona
grandis) while eucalypt plantation was 6%of the total area (Mounda, 1995). Teak isvery popular among local villagers,
especially in Luang Prabang Province, due
to its shorter harvesting rotation of 15 years

IntroductionL

ao PDR (or Laos) has a rich naturalforest resource base which plays asignificant role in the country’s economic
development with tree logging and exportof timber to external markets in Vietnam,
Thailand and China being an importantsource of income enhancing thediversification of national economy. The

51

TEAK IN MEKONG

and highly valued golden wood used tomake furniture, housing material and etc.
both for internal market and for export toexternal markets particularly China.

naturally in the northwestern provinces of
Xayyabouly and Bokeo along the Lao-Thaiborder (Kaosa-ard, 1989) . Till a few
decades back these natural forests withsignificant presence of teak used to extend
over more than 30,000 ha but are limited toabout 16,000 ha now (Midgley et al., 2015).
The largest natural areas occur in the
Sayabouly Province, where there may be
10-20,000 ha of mixed deciduous forest
with inclusion of teak with smaller extents
spread over the Bokeo Province (Antilla,2016).. Natural teak forests play animportant role in ecological system andenvironmental protection and form an
important source for supply of seed forplantations. In 2000-2003, the Lao Tree
Seed project established 102 tree seed
sources across the country of which 76 seed
sources remain operational till date (Figure4-1). Among these currently operational
seed sources, nine serve the demand forteak seeds in the country one of which islocated in natural teak forests(Khamphoumi et al., 2017) and one issupported under the ITTO Teak Project inMekong.

In Lao PDR, teak occurs naturally only inthe provinces of Sayabouly and Bokeo
bordering Thailand and Myanmar, but has
been planted extensively in the provinces ofLuang Prabang, Sayabouli, and Champasak(Nahuel et al., 2019). Luang Prabang is oneof many provinces where teak tree ispopularly planted by local people in large
numbers. It began very small with just 3 hain 1975 growing to 7,837 ha in 1999
(Kolmert, 2001) and by 2012 the extent ofland covered by teak plantations had risen
to 26,500 ha (Midgley et al., 2015). Most ofthese teak plantations were in annual crop
farmlands located along both road side,rivers and mountain valleys, from flat lands
to steep slopes, from lower elevations tohigher reaches in the mountains.
Natural Teak Forests
Lao PDR forms the easternmost limits of
the natural habitat of teak where it occurs

52

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 4-1 Map of teak tree seed sources in Lao PDR

Teak Plantations in Lao PDR

country bringing the area under teakplantation from a mere 2,937 ha in 1990 to
40,000 ha in 2012 (DoF, 2013).

With the sharp drop in area under teak innatural forests it is recognized today as a‘special tree’ and attracts specificprotection under the national legislation.
The planting of teak by smallholders has
also been promoted by government policies
since the 1980s in recognition of its highvalue its potential to provide opportunities
for generation of farm income, and toincrease lands under permanent productionof highly valued teakIn northern Lao PDR, the expansion ofsmallholder teak plantations in the past
decade has contributed to a transition fromswidden farming landscape to a forested
landscape, in line with the government
policy objectives to eliminate swidden
agriculture and increase the nation’s forest
cover. Driven by a range of incentives, teakplantations have become increasingly
prominent in the province of Luang
Prabang, especially in villages close to
Luang Prabang City. Both smallholders andurban-based landowners are now involvedin small-scale teak plantations, either byplanting land they previously used forswidden agriculture or by acquiringexisting teak stands (Newby et al., 2014).

instead of temporary cultivation of paddy
under shifting cultivation on steep hillslopes. Demonstration of teak propagationand plantation began in 1915 on small scale
in Luang Prabang province and then was
taken up at commercial scale beginning1942 (Midgley et al., 2015). The civil war
brought the progress to a halt between 1975
to 1996 after which the Laotian governmenthas been promoting teak planting across theLuang Prabang provincial authorities had
considerable success in their efforts to53

TEAK IN MEKONG

promote teak plantations with the hope ofgetting good amount of valuable teaktimber at the harvesting rotation of 15 to 25
years. But the teak output in quality andquantity was not as per the expectations as
due care of the seed source and the soil
quality of the planting sites was not taken.
Planting was often undertaken on lands
between elevation of 700 to 1000 metersand seeds were collected from unknown
mother trees (Hansen et al., 1997).
Moreover, most plantations had highstocking of 1600 – 1700 trees per ha
without a prescribed regime for thinningthat led to the production of a large
proportion of low-quality trees and poor
returns (Dieters et al., 2014).

Luang Prabang is one of many provinces
where teak tree is popularly planted by
local people over shared plantation area ofcommunity owned lands, a practice thatbegan at very small scale in 1975 and rose
to 7,837 ha in 1999 (Kolmert, 2001) andthen up to 26,500 ha in 2012 (Midgley etal., 2015). Most of these plantations havebeen raised under the Taungya system withteak intercropping with annual crops suchas upland rice, maize and sesame in the first
three years followed by annual weeding
once a year until 7th year. The spacing
advised is 2 x 2 m and 3 x 3 m in order topromote teak stem growth in height morethan the diameter. Most of these plantations
are on lands that were used to grow annual
agriculture crops located along road sides,
and along rivers and mountain valleys, onflat lands to steep slopes, from lower tohigher elevations. There has been aconcerted program of plantation
development in Lao PDR since 1975
(Figure 4-2) and rates of establishment havegenerally increased in the past 40 years. By
2015 there were an estimated of 446,000 haof plantations in the country (DoF, 2015).

Teak woodlots and agroforestry systems
represent approximately 11% of the planted
forest area in Lao PDR, and 42% of theplantation timber resource; there are over
15,300 hectares of teak in Luang Prabang
Province alone. Farmers own a large
proportion of planted teak. The average
plantation parcel size is small, at around0.75 hectares (Smith. et al.,2017).

54

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 4-2 Annual plantation establishment in Lao PDR 1975-2015r

Figure 4-3 Comparison of planted tree species

Of the current plantation area, over 50% isrubber plantation with smaller areas of teak,eucalyptus and acacia, agarwood, andother, mostly indigenous species (Figure 43). Tree plantations are being established ina variety of planting patterns andsilvicultural arrangements including
monospecific plantations with one single
tree species, mixed plantations with two or

more tree species, tree intercropping withcoffee etc, and scattered and boundary tree
planting on agriculture lands. Besides,
complex agroforestry with multiple wood
producing and non-wood producing
trees/plants established over an area
resulting in a multi-layered structure is also
sometimes practiced.

55

TEAK IN MEKONG

The main known sources of plantation
grown wood are smallholder teakplantations (Tectona grandis; ‘mai sak’) and
Eucalyptus and Acacia from largely
investor owned/managed plantations.
Other species grown in plantations
such Agarwood (Aquilaria crassna; ‘maiketsana’), Benzoin (Styrax tonkinensis,‘mai nyarn’) and Yang (Nothalphoebe
umbellifiora, ‘mai bong’) are not typicallygrown for timber products, but rather are
harvested for aromatic wood, resin or barkfor processing into incense or oil. Pink
Mampat (Cratoxylum formosum andCratexylon prunitfolium, ‘mai tiew’) isgrown typically under a coppice system forwhite charcoal. Other native species thathave been planted include Pterocarpus
macrocarpus, Afzelia xylocarpa andAlstonia scholaris although their exact
areas and production volumes are notknown.

Several of these species are promoted
for planting during National Arbor Day but
precise records of actual planting andsurvival are not kept.
Rubber is established principally for latex,
and there is currently no formal value chain
for rubber wood in Lao PDR, although
anecdotally rubber wood logs are being
exported to China from northern Lao PDR,
where plantations are being harvested due
to low latex prices. Around 54,000 ha ofnew plantations are needed to beestablished between 2016 and 2020 to reachthe 500,000-ha target.
In addition, the government has introduced
different types of ownership patterns toencourage foreign companies to invest on
tree plantations, the most common of whichis “2 + 3 model”. In this model the farmer
contributes land and labor (2) while thecompany/investor is responsible for technology,
finance and markets (3) as described below:

Table 4-1 Types of Plantation Ownership
Ownership models
Smallholder (5+0) with own
capitalSmallholder (5+0) withgovernment officials
Contract Farming 4+1
smallholders (credit)
Contract Farming 3+2
Contract Farming 2+3
Contract Farming 1+4
Concession Farming

Land●

Labour●Capital Market Technology
●
●
●

●

●

●

●

◆●

●

●

●

◆●

◆

●
●
●
◆

●
●
◆●
◆

◆●
◆
●
◆

◆
◆
●
◆

◆
◆●
◆●
◆

Note: ● = farmer inputs; ◆company inputs
Source: Phimmavong et al. (2009)

Smallholder plantations are also diverse.
The majority of teak plantations are owned
by individual famers, with an averageparcel size of less than 1 ha (Smith ,2016).
It is estimated that there are possibly over
15,000 plantation owners in Luang
Prabang.

Larger areas, up to around 20 ha in size may
be owned by absentee owners, who may beeither farmers who have recently moved
into more urban centres or which have beenacquired overtime by entrepreneurs. For
many of these plantation owners securing
land use rights is a primary benefit.

56

TEAK IN MEKONG

Demand for Teak Woodcalled the Luang Prabang Teak Program(LPTP). This program suspended its FSC
certification in 2016 but continues tooperate to provide support to teaksmallholders.

Teak wood is consumed locally, as well asprocessed domestically and exported. The
volume of wood that is consumed locally,
by households and within villages, is notknown. The bulk of log and wood exports
from Lao PDR are either unprocessed logs
or basic sawn wood and planks, with minor
quantities further processed into
components, strip parquet flooring,furniture and various other secondary
products. Midgley et al. (2011) found that
Lao exports of timber derived fromplantations were dominated by teak, a large
proportion of which was in the form ofsquared logs. The main markets are China,
Thailand and Vietnam, and India is
emerging as a purchaser of Lao teak(Midgley et al., 2015). Keonakhone (2005)
estimated that about 95 % of the teak wood
produced in Luang Prabang was exported
and only 5% is used locally, which includes
teak residues produced in preparation ofsquared logs. Teak thinning is sold as poles
although this is not a formally recognised
wood product in regulations. Teak is usedby domestic wood processors and furnituremakers, although volumes are low (ACIAR
FST/2010/012 unpublished data) and there
is still a dependence on and preference forwood from natural forests. Estimateddomestic demand for teak in Lao
PDR is about 30,000 m3 per year
(Soulignamath, 2020).

Wood Supply
Precise statistics on wood production in
Lao PDR are difficult to obtain, and thereare
discrepancies
inproduction,
consumption and export data. There are no
consolidated statistics on wood production
from Eucalyptus or Acacia plantations.
Data on yields and harvesting are held byindividual companies.
Commercial tree planting is on the rise,with a total investment of more than 1.5
billion USD, of which foreign investment is
1.4 billion USD. In addition, investment intree plantation in degraded forestland andbarren forestland in government-allocatedproduction forest areas or in the land of
individuals, legal entities or organizations
with land allocated by government is being
promoted. Regulations on the management
and use of plantations including logging,transportation, trade and export ofplantation wood have been improved in a
coherent way.
With respect to teak harvesting, theavailable statistics are not always reliablebecause of internal inconsistencies. In 2006
it was estimated that over 7000 m3 ofplantation-grown teak were harvested in
Luang Prabang Province and 20,000 m3 in2010 (Savathvong, 2010). Midgley et al.,(2015), however, noted that substantiallyhigher volumes are reported by importing
countries than those recorded in official
Lao trade statistics. In 2012, for example,
combined teak imports into China,
Thailand and Vietnam from Laos werereported as 10,670 m3 while exports from
Lao were recorded as 3,655 m3. Similarvariations were also found for 2013.

The annual harvesting of planted trees isincreasing but remains limited because
demand from consumers in developed
countries is constrained by t herequirements of certification. The
perceived strong demand for certified
products in the US and Europe coupledwith maturing teak resources in northern
provinces resulted in a program for Forest
Stewardship Council or FSC group
certification of smallholder teak plantation
The absence of mapping, inventory, andappropriate growth and yield models forteak and other naturally occurring species
has meant that predicting volumes andlong-term supply has been difficult.
Research being undertaken by two other
ACIAR projects is addressing this issue.
For example, in Luang Prabang Province

57

TEAK IN MEKONG

over 15,000 ha of teak plantation has been
mapped and classified down to 0.35 haparcels. Combined with field-based
inventory and the application of growth andyield models, to be undertaken during thenext phase of that project, a better picture of
the nature of that resource will be
developed (Boer & Seneanachack, 2016).
In addition, the Luang Prabang Teak
Program that began in 2008 has attempted
to empower local farmer in charge ofimprovement of silvicultural practice,plantation fluctuations, certification by
Forest Stewardship Council and woodprocessing and trading. Till 2014 teakplantations over 220 ha had been registeredand received certification by FSC, but most
local villagers have been selling standing
trees to local traders getting low price due
to lack of quality classification even thoughprovincial forestry offices have issued
guidelines for grading round logs. Local
wood processing entrepreneurs have theirown quality grades that includes woodcolor because of premium on golden color
in export markets though domestic teakmarket does not have this requirement yet.
Challenges, Opportunities andRecommendation•

Forest fires•

Lack of regular monitoring andmaintenances of teak plantations raisedover the years. The boundaries of theplantations are often indistinguishable.
Weedings are not carried out in time.

•

There is till lack of awareness about theimportnce of timber certifcation andplantation regsitaration among farmers
as a result of which they do not getmarket prices for their timber andtimber products.

•

Demand for processed wood from theplantations is limited to the small
domestic market. Export is mostly inround logs.

•

Consumer’s access to m arket
information related to wood quality,
specifications, designs, standards,
requirement of certification in
consumer country, flucuations in price,
etc is limited.

•

Changes in regulations, such as ban onexport of round longs, also restrict
market access to the teak planters.

•

Policies for plantation andrehabilitation of forest have not been
implemented and elaborated inaccordance with the law.

Challenges
There have been several serious efforts on
the part of the Laotian government insupport of sustainable management of thenatural and planted teak resources of thecountry reflected in a number of poicies andstrategies developed over the years but
there are many weak areas that need special
care. Some of these challenges are listed
below:•

Land encroachment in natural teakforests for agriculture, roads, buildings
and other infrastructure is a serious
challenge for future management.

•

Difficulty in protection of Mother trees
identified for seed production•

Lack of markets for seeds, no seed
networks

Opportunities
1.

2.

58

The Government has brought out anumber of poicies and strategies tosupport sustainable forest management,such as Forest-2035 andVision 2050,
aiming to increase forest cover to 70%
of tatal land area of the country andmanaging it sustainably.
Commercial tree planting is on the rise,with a total investment of more than 1.5
billion USD, of which foreign
investment is 1.4 billion USD. In
addition, investment in tree plantation indegraded forestland and barren
forestland, and on government-allocatedproduction forest areas to individuals,
legal entities or organizations is being

TEAK IN MEKONG

3.
4.

5.

promoted. Regulations on the management
and use of plantations including logging,transportation, trade and export ofplantation wood have been improved in a
coherent way (FS2035).
There is high and increasing demand
for teak wood from both local andinternational markets.
Application of science, technology andinnovative research results in management,
monitoring and inspection of forests andforestlands is growing and being
developed.
Cooperation and technical supports
and funding from domestic andinternational development partners havebeen received, as well as investment inforestry from individuals, legal entities
and domestic and foreign organizations
are on the rise.

3. Disseminate rules and regulations forteak conservation areas and seed
sources
4. Provide training to local authorities andfarmers on seed collections, seedhandling and storage.
5. Strengthen public-private collaboratives
action6. Improve the availability of high-quality
teak germplasm for use in newplantations and agroforestry systems,
test teak provenances, and establish
orchards to produce better quality seed.
7. Conduct research and development oftechniques for tree improvement, seedprocurement and nursery production;
8. Promote better establishment andmanagement practices that will improve
returns to farmers and industry including
training on silvculture techniques,
pruning, thinning, harvesting and volume
calculation of wood for selling.

Recommendations
Based on this review a number ofpreliminary recommendations can be madeas a basis for further analysis anddevelopment for conservation of natural
teak forests and for the promotion of teakplantations as follows:

9. Simplify regulations to make it easierfor farmers to legally register, harvestand sell their teak trees to improve theefficiency of the value chain

1. Clearly define boundaries of teakconservation areas and continue toprotect and maintain them raisingawareness for the need for it among thecitizens,

10. Clearly separate tree plantation policy
and regulations from those governing
management, harvest and use of woodfrom natural forests
11. Promote local processing enterprises,
since these are more likely to increasefinancial returns to teak farmers.

2. Establish tree seed sources and promoteutilization of seeds from establishedseed sources, set up tree seed networks
for sharing information, improve tree
seed quality, and enhance accessibility
to high quality seeds to the remotest
farmer

12. Consider potential financial mechanisms(such as levies on plantation area or timber
production and processing) to support
cooperative research between theprocessing industry and teak planter.

59

TEAK IN MEKONG

Conclusions

References

Lao PDR is one of the few countries inworld that have a rich natural forest
resource which is playing a significant rolein the development of the country over the
past several decades. Natural teak forest
plays an important role in ecological systemand environmental protection and provides
high quality seeds for planting teak.
Currently there are nine teak seed sources,
one from natural teak forest and one ofthem has been supported by ITTO Teak
Project in Mekong. In order to promotesustainable use of natural teak forest, it isimportant to get local people to get benefits
and involvement in various activities suchas seed collection for sale, building
capacity for them and raising awareness of
the role of natural teak forest for theirlivelihood.

Antilla, J. P. (2016) Implications of
middlemen in smallholder teak production
systems in Northern Lao People's
Democratic
Republic(Lao
PDR),
Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Faculty ofAgriculture and Forestry, Department ofForest Sciences, University of Helsinki.
Boer, K. & Seneanachack, H. (2016)
MappingandCharacterisationofPlantation Teak in Luang Prabang
Province, Lao PDR. Objective 1: Final
Report. Completed as a component of theAustralian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR) funded
Project FST/2010/012 Enhancing Key
Elements of the Value Chains for Plantation
Grown Wood in Lao PDR, 22 p.
Dieters, M., Newby , J., Cramb. R. &Sexton, G. (2014). Enhancing on-Farm
Income through Improved Sericulture
Management of Teak in Luang Prabang
Province of Lao. PDR. Australian Centre
for International Agricultural Research,
Canberra, Australia.

Teak has long been grown by farmers innorthern part of Laos, especially in Luang
Prabang Province. The planting of teak has
been promoted by Government by policies
enacted since the 1980s in recognition of its
high value, its potential to provide
opportunities for generation of farm income
and to promote permanent production.

Department of Forestry (DoF). (2013).
Annual report on achievements of forestry
implementation. Vientiane, Lao PDR.

Teak woodlots and agroforestry systems
represent approximately 11% of the planted
forest area in Lao PDR, and 42% of theplantation timber resource; there are over
15,300 hectares of teak in Luang Prabang
Province alone, 39% of mapped teak issmall in size (less than 15 cm diameter at
breast height); only 4% is bigger than 25 cm
or commercial size. Farmers own a large
proportion of planted teak. The average
plantation parcel size is small, at around0.75 hectare

Department of Forestry (DoF). 2015.
Unpublishedplantation
statistics.
Vientiane, Lao PDR
Gilmour, D. & Tsechalicha, X. (2000).
Forest Rehabilitation in Lao PDR: Issues
and Constraints. IUCN Laos, Vientiane,
Lao PDR, 96 p.
Hansen, P.K., Sodarak, H. & Savathvong,
S. (1997). Teak Production by Shifting
Cultivators in Northern Lao PDR. Lao
Swedish Forestry Program, Luang Prabang,
Laos.

Research and development for improving
good materials for future teak plantation isvery importance. Government policies forteak forest conservation and promoting
plantation are very crucial, especially land
use planning, plantation management,
harvesting, processing, trading.

Kaosa-ard, A. (1989). Teak (Tectona
grandis L.f.) its natural distribution andrelated factors. Natural History Bulletin of
the Siam Society, 29, 55-74
Kadambi, K. (1972). Silviculture andManagement of Teak. Forestry Bulletins
60

TEAK IN MEKONG

Savathvong, S., Newby, J.C., Souliyasack,B., Keoboualapha, B. & Dieters, M.J.
(2019). Initial spacing of teak (Tectona
grandis) in northern Lao PDR: Impacts on
the growth of teak and companion crops.
Forest Ecology and Management, 435, 7788.

No.24.https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/fores
trybulletins/23 (accessed 30 December2021).
Khamphoumi, B., Thammavong, B.,
Vongkhamhor, S., Xayavong, S. &Vongkhamsao, V. (2017). Tree seed source
management and utilization assessment in
the Lao PDR. Lao Journal of Agriculture
and Forestry, 37, 132-148.

Newby, J.C., Cramb, R.A.
& Sakanphet, S. (2014) Forest Transitions
and Rural Livelihoods: Multiple Pathwaysof Smallholder Teak Expansion in Northern
Laos. Land, 3, 482–503.

Keonakhone, T. (2005). A holistic
assessment of the use of teak at a landscapelevel in Luang Prabang, Lao PDR.
Unpublished Master thesis, Departments ofForest Soils and Soil Sciences, Swedish
University of Agricultural Science.
Uppsala, Sweden.

Phimmavong, S,, Ozarska, B,, Midgley, S,& Keenan R. (2009). Forest and plantation
development in Laos: History, development
and impact for rural communities.
International Forestry Review

Kolmert, A. (2001). Teak in Northern Laos.
Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences: Uppsala, Sweden.

Savathvong, S. (2010). Report on theProcess of Imposition of Taxes on Planted
Teak Transactions – A Case Study in Luang
Prabang
Province.
Souphanouvong
University, Faculty of Agriculture andForest Resources, Lao PDR.

Midgley, S., Bennett, J., Samonty, X.,
Stevens, P., Mounlami, K., Midgley, D. &Brown, A. (2011). Scoping Study Payments
for Environmental Services and Planted
Log Value Chains in Lao PDR. ACIAR
projects FST/2011/003 and FST/2010/012.

Smith, H. (2016). Making Smallholder
Plantation Owned Wood legal: Alternatives
to Plantation Registration. Final Report for
Objective 1.2a Completed as a componentof the Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR) funded
Project FST/2010/012 Enhancing Key
Elements of the Value Chains for Plantation
Grown Wood in Lao PDR, 45 p.

Midgley , S., Mounlamai, K., Flanagan, A.,
Phengsopha, K. (2015). Global markets forplantation teak; Implication for Grower in
Lao PDR. Australian Centre forInternational
Agricultural
Research:
Canberra, Australia.
Mounda, B. (1995). Eucalyptus in Lao
PDR. https://www.fao.org/3/AC772E/
ac772e0a.htm#TopOfPage (accessed 2
January 2022)

Smith, H F., Dieters, M., Newby, J.,
Kanowski, P., Keenan, R. & Bartlett. T.
(2017). Smallholder Teak Woodlots andAgroforestry Systems in Lao PDR. ACIAR
Policy Brief Research Findings with policy

Nahuel, A., Pachasa. A., Sakanphet . S.,
Soukkhy, S., Soukkhy, O., Lao, M.,

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Chapter 5: Teak Plantations in Cambodia
Say Sinly, Chheang Dany, Kim Sobon,
Lim Sopheap, Hort Sothea and Pang Phanit

Abstract

Cantonment; Kratie Forestry Administration
Cantonment; Kampot Forestry Administration
Cantonment.

T

he Cambodia ITTO Project Team
expresses its appreciation to everyone
involved in reviewing the National Reporton Teak Plantation in Cambodia.

The collective efforts of Cambodia Project
Team in preparing the report includes Dr.
Chheang Dany, Dr. Dennis J. Cengel,
Mr. Say Sinly, Mr. Hort Sothea, Ms. Lim
Sopheap, Mr. Kim Sobon, Mr. Pang
Phanit, Mr. Neab Keng, Mr. Vann Vean,
Mr. Phoung Sophea, Mr. Kong Kongkea,
Mr. Buor Vuthy, Mr. Sin Chandara, Mr.
As Brosden, Mr. Nuon Sithun, and Ms.
Ouch Sineth are acknowledged.

The production of this report was funded by
the International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO) through the ITTO
Project “Enhancing Conservation andSustainable Management of Teak Forestsand Legal and Sustainable Wood Supply
Chains in the Greater Mekong Sub-region”
is gratefully acknowledged.

Finally, we would like to express ourappreciation to all of the other specialists
who took their time to review this report.

This chapter would not have been madepossible without the support and encouragementof the Forestry Administration in Phnom
Penh, especially H.E. Dr. Keo Omaliss,
Delegate of the Royal Government of
Cambodia, Director General of Forestry
Administration, as well as other Senior
Officials of the Forestry Administration.

Introduction
Global Distribution and Production ofTeakT

eak plantations disperse in over 70
countries. The natural teak forest was
found only in India, Laos, Myanmar andThailand, later it was discovered that teak
was introduced in Indonesia between 400
and 600 years ago and get naturalised. Teakhas become a major source of income forthe forest economy, especially by private
sector investment in countries in Asia,
Africa, Latin America and other countries(FAO, 2015; Pandey & Brown, 2000;
Verhaegen et al., 2010).

It is important to recognize the assistanceand cooperation of Mr. Keo Kosal andGrandis Timber Co., Ltd, especially Mr.
Cheat Vichit, who assisted the project teamin establishing demonstration plots andcollecting measurement data quarterly
during the course of this project. Also, it is
to concede the inputs from Mr. Chhun
Virak, the owner of Teak Wood FurnitureCambodia, who shared information andphotos of teak products from his own teakwood manufacturing craft.

Global estimates put the natural teak forestat 29.04 million ha, almost half of which is
in Myanmar, and 4.35 to 6.89 million ha ofcultivated teak plantations, of which
Myanmar is 0.39 million ha (Third in theworld) (Kollert & Cherubini, 2012).

We acknowledge as well, the active
participation of Provincial Forestry
Administration Cantonments for kindly
providing input data related to teak farm
plantations in respective provinces including
Kampong Cham Forestry Administration
Cantonment; Tboung Khmum Forestry
Administration Cantonment; Ratanakiri
Forestry Administration Cantonment;
Kampong Spue Forestry Administration

The size of the teak plantation had
increased from the 1990s to just 2.25
million ha, since reduction in export of teakfrom the natural forest, especially the ban
on teak business in Myanmar, India, Laos
62

TEAK IN MEKONG

and Thailand. Since 1980s, teak plantations
have been expanded in countries in Africa(0.47 million ha), tropical America (0.27
million ha), and Latin America could
become a major source of planted teak
(Pandey & Brown, 2000; FAO, 2009;
Kollert & Cherubini, 2012).

Before 1963, Cambodia had been underFrench colony during which politicalcontrol and territory administration were
fully supervised by French. In 1930s,
French commenced to carry out
agroforestry system trials in Indochina forthe enrichment of natural forests byintercropping method, which was applied
throughout Southeast Asia-birth ofagroforestry practices in Indochina(Allouard, 1947).

According to the FAO, the demand andtrade of tropical industrial timberworldwide is about 15 million cubic meters
per year in 10 years (2005-2014), and theteak roundwood contributes more than 1
million cubic meters per year, equivalent to
7%, while teak sawnwood averaged 0.12
million cubic meters per year during thesame period. The countries that export andsupply teakwood include Myanmar (43% ofteak roundwood and 50% of teaksawnwood) and countries in Latin America(Ecuador, Costa Rica, Panama andColombia) and Africa (Ghana, Côte
d'Ivoire, Benin, Togo and Nigeria). Major
importers include India, Thailand, China,
Taiwan, South Korea, USA, Europe andother Asian countries. The price of teakwood in the international market is between
350-1,000 USD per cubic meter (FAO,
2015; ITTO, 2020).

Enlargement of reforestation modes byinter-cultivation of agricultural crops (Thepractices by French):
In dense forest vegetation, all trees were cut
down, and removed off what could be
useful (lumber, firewood or charcoal., etc.),
burned down whatever remain in place.
In this soil fertilized by ashes, trees weresown or planted. The local inhabitants wereallowed to come for two years to cultivate
agricultural crops on this land. Annually,
the provided trees were maintained on suchfertilized soil, often they obtained
magnificent harvests; but after two years it
was necessary to leave the place because
the beneficial effects of burning would begone. The trees grew to various sizes ofbrushwood which was not too troublesome,because during the first two years, the trees
overcame the growth of these brushwood.
The locals just had to wait until the trees
had reached their diameter one another.

History of Teak Plantation Development
in Cambodia
Teak was introduced to Cambodia in 1936
in Han Chey commune, Kampong Champrovince, as an agroforestry system(Allouard, 1947). Many decades later, theexpansion of teak has been made to otherprovinces such as Pursat and Ratanakiri
Province (Narong et al., 2014).

This method applied in many countries inSouth-East Asia had started to beexperienced in Indochina (Cambodia) since
1936.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 5-1 Teak plantation with cotton and corn in Han Chey commune, Kampong Cham province, 1936
(Source: archives forestières du Cambodge)

At the start of the first crop of the second
rainy season, 1-year old teak trees wereplanted, and in the second crop of thesecond rainy season, Angkanh (Cassia
siameca Lamk.), a fast-growing fuelwood
species was grown to create afforestation.

in these areas was to plant not only forest
trees with annual agricultural crops but
complemented by fruit trees of medium
height and useful shrubs to create a set ofplants (of agricultural interest or analog) in
the form of the four stages of tropicalvegetation of the dense forest type. This iswhat the local populations in Java had beenpracticing for a long time and that wasagroforestry principle they were trying todevelop in all tropical countries.

It has been called the elimination ofreforestation methods by intercropping or
birth of agroforestry in Indochina. Suchkind of reforestation-enrichment operations
taken into consideration: (1) all quantities
of wood harvested would lead to more orless uninhabited areas; (2) it would result inlabor problems with the obligation to set up
new villages, and create stable semiagricultural areas, in addition to shifting
cultivation previously used. The objective

The future large trees were for timber
production, while in the middle of theselarge trees, other smaller ones could be fruit
trees, rubber trees, etc.; in red: shrub-likeplants were plants to provide fruit (banana,
papaya…etc.), or to produce for other64

TEAK IN MEKONG

various uses (coffee, fodder for livestock,etc.); in flat green: plants living at groundlevel could be tubers, pineapples, cane sugar
etc.

The area was cleared, and everything wasburned in March, before the arrival of rainyseason. The green trunks abandoned on the
ground were logs without having any value
which resisted fire.

The principle is as follows: the forest was
felled and cleared in the dry season, thenwhat had been felled was burnt, and trees
were planted through seedlings or seeds
between annual agricultural crops. In
general, it costs almost nothing to the forest
service, because the local people werealways volunteers to do the job for free,including maintenance for 2 years. Indeed,this work was largely compensated by the
miraculous crops due to the fertilizing
effect of the ashes, which also benefit trees.
After two years, it was given up, and there
was hardly any maintenance until thinning.

A young teak in the foreground with corncrop recognizable by its large leaves of 4months, seemed not yet to be well because
the corn gave it shade (Photo. 5-1). Bean
cultivation in the middle, a young 4-month
teak taller than the other. The planned
afforestation would be made of teak mixed
with Angkanh trees (Cassia siameca.)
which were already 2 meters high, withleaves not resembling to those of acacia
species (Photo 5-1).
Within two years of intercropping
agriculture (two crops per rainy season),afforestation was attempted. The expansionof teak planting through the above practices
was no longer carried out from 1960 to1980s due to continuous civil war inCambodia.

The downside is the momentary depletionof the soil due to blowing. It may seem
unexpected to see foresters advocating thisapparently anti-ecological method, while
they denounced cultivation on the burnt as
the main culprit in the desertification oftropical forests. Repeatedly, here, there wasreally no problem, the damage was quickly
recovered because of an increasingly
intense forest cover and above all, because
cultivation on the burnt was not practiced
once, therefore, it was not regenerated.

Current Situation of Teak Plantation in
Cambodia
Distribution of teak plantations
Cambodia
Since 1990s, the afforestation in Cambodia
was resumed, and the vast majority of tree
plantations were conducted by the public
institutions. In 1993, teak plantations were
established at Teuk Chhar with more than
60 ha of land, and at Tboung Khmum atabout 300 ha, and subsequently planted
along the national road in Chlong district of
Kratie province and near Ratanakiriprovince in the following years. Nevertheless,there was no available statistics.

The place chosen to set up this test was partof the Hanchey Reserve, close to MekongRiver, not far from Kompong Champrovince center. The place is near to the
Pagoda, whose educational support to the
locals was very useful, as always. The
species of trees planted were teak (one of
the best tropical woods) and Angkanh(Cassia siameca), a fast-growing tree used
as fuelwood.

65

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 5-2 Study visits to private teak plantation in Han Chey commune, Kampong Cham province
and teak nursery at Grandis Timber Limited in Aoral district, Kampong Spure Province

In Cambodia, teak plantations currently exist
between 6,200 and 7,000 ha equivalent to
7.2-10 million scattered trees in someprovinces. The number of major teakplantations reported is 6,100 ha recorded in
6 provinces including Tbong Khmum,
Kampong Cham, Kratie, Ratanakiri,
Kampong Spure, and Kampot (Table 5-1 &Figure 5-1). However, the some otherprivate teak plantations have not beenreported, including teak trees that have beenplanted on public areas, especially at
pagodas’ compound and local public
institutions’ areas. These teak trees havebeen planted by local people as such
agroforestry forms as living fence andintercrop, which are observed scattering insome other provinces such as Stueng Treng,
Mondulkiri, Pursat, Battambang, and Prey Veng.
The rapid increase in teak plantations overthe last two decades is on account of aninvestment by private sector and thegovernment campaign via distribution ofteak seedlings by local forest
administrations to local communities forplanting as tree plantations, agroforestry
plantations (living fences and public areas).

Table 5-1 Teak Plantation in Cambodia
No

Area1 Administrative Location
(ha)

Name

1 Grandis
Limited
2 Teak Farm

Timber 4848 Aoral and Phnom Srouch
district, Kampong Speu
province
350 Aoral district, Kampong
Speu provinceType of Land Date ofOwnership planting
startedEconomic land 2014
concession
Privatecompany

2018

3 US Teak Plantation

300

Tboung Khmum district,Tboung Khmum province

Privatecompany

2000

4 Chamkar Maisak
Kampot128

Dang Tung district,Kampot province

PrivatecompanyNA

The data of teak plantation were obtained from respective provincial Forestry Administration cantonments andowners of private teak plantations, while the shape file of those teak plantations (on the map) were received
through geo- referencing and tracking at the fields.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

No

Name

5 Green Island

Area1 Administrative Location
(ha)
100

Sambor district, Kratie
province

Type of Land Date ofOwnership planting
startedEconomic landNAconcession

6 Teak Wood FurnitureCambodia

90 Lamphat district, Ratanakiri Private naturalprovince
person2001

7 Han Chey Teakplantation

87 Kampong Siem district,Kampong Cham province

Private natural
person2008

8 Tboung Khmum stateteak plantation*

88 Tboung Khmum district,Tboung Khmum provinceState tree
plantation

1993

9 Teuk Chhar Teak
Plantation

55 Prey Chhor district,Kampong Cham provinceState tree
plantation

1993

10 Stueng Trang Teak
Plantation

11 StuengTrang district,Kampong Cham province

Private natural
personNA

11 Other

50 Kampong Siem district,Kampong Cham province

Public land(pagoda)

NA

Total

6,100

Note: * Tboung Khmum state teak plantation was first started with planting teak trees in 1993,
and the total area was 300 ha. Since the government handed over this area to Tboung Khmum
province for setting up provincial town and built-up area, there are about 88 ha of teakplantation remained.
Kampong Speu province is the predominantteak plantation in Cambodia. Grandis
Timber Co., Ltd is an economic land
concession (ELC) and Teak Farm (a private
Israel company) have planted about 4,848
ha and 350 ha of teak trees since 2014 and2018, respectively.

97 ha of private teak plantation (planted
since 2008), 55 ha of Teuk Chhar State
Teak Plantation (planted since 1993), and11 ha of Teak on Hanchey pagoda.
In Kampot province, there are 128 ha ofteak plantation, while there are about 100
ha of teak plantation that belongs to Green
Island Company (ELC) in Kratie province.
Last, in Ratanakiri there are 90 ha of private
teak plantation belonging to Mr.
ChhunVirak, the owner of Teak Wood
Furniture Cambodia.

In Tbong Khmum province, there are 388
ha of teak plantation including 300 ha of US
Teak Plantation (planted since 2000) and 88
ha of State teak plantation (planted since1993). In Kampong Cham province, there
are 163 ha of teak plantation consisting of67

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 5-1 Map showing disperse teak plantations in Cambodia

Photo 5-3 Measuring and Monitoring of the Target Teak Demonstration Plots belonging to Mr. Keo
Kosal, the owner of a private teak plantation in Han Chey commune, Kampong Cham Province

Silvicultural practices and teak wood
products

pruning and thinning, and maintenancesuch as fertilizer application to teakplantations. Therefore, the cycle of abusiness can also vary according to thegrowing status of teak trees. In India, theaverage dbh range of teak growth is 11.714.7 cm at the age of 10, 27.4-38.4 cm at 30
years old, and between 45.0-60.7 cm at 60

The various conditions that may affect thegrowth of teak include climate different
between the regions, application ofcultivation techniques (space and cropping
systems), silvicultural techniques including
68

TEAK IN MEKONG

years old (Tewari, 1992). In Vietnam, themean annual increment (MAI) of teak in thefirst 20 years increased 4.0-11.5 m3/ha/year(MoF, Vietnam). In Lao, the MAI range of
dbh was between 1.14-1.34 cm/year at theage of 1-15 years, 1.02 cm/year at 16-25
years and grew more slowly at 0.7-0.4
cm/year from 26 to 40 years old (MoAF,
Lao). In Indonesia, the MAI of teak was
about 14 m3/ha/year at 5 years of age(average diameter at 18 cm) (Rimbawanto,2021). A study of teak plantations in India
revealed that juvenility in plantation grownteak extends up to 15, 20 - 25 years dependingon the property, growth rate and individual
tree and plantation site, with a specificgravity of 0.63 between the ages of 13-35 and0.64 at the age of 55 years (Bhat et al., 2001).

silvicultural practices was not taken into
consideration. The spacing of planting teak
was just 2x2 m. or 2x3 m. interval which
limits the growth of teak trees and low
economic returns. The measurement of 20
teak trees planted in 1993 at Teuk Chhar
Teak Plantation provided small dbh, (27.62
cm, on average) at the age of 28 years, orthe mean annual increment (MAI) of dbh
growth was approximately 1 cm., while theaverage MAI of dbh of another 20 teak trees
planted in 1996 in the same location was
25.56 cm at the age of 25 years. Anothermeasurement of teak dbh at Teak Wood
Furniture Cambodia in Ratanakiri province
provided average dbh around 20 cm,
planted in 2001 (20 years old) with 2x2m.
spacing, which did not show significant
difference between locations. However, the
MAI seemed to be similar to those in theabove-mentioned countries.

In Cambodia, government-owned teakplantations have been established since 1993
and at that point of time, the effectiveness of

Photo 5-4 A study comparing the growth between planting without pruning and pruning andmaintenance (thinning and pruning) and monitoring the mean annual average growth of teak(mean annual increment-MAI)

Recently with financial support from ITTO
Teak Project in Mekong, demonstration
plots on teak silvicultural practices were
established with 10 plots and 12 plots
located in Kampong Cham and Kampong
Speu provinces, respectively, and 11 of
those plots in each province were treatedwith pruning, while another 11 was control
plots (non-silvicultural practice).

The measurements of teak demonstration
plots were conducted four times-at baselinein October 2019, the second measurementin early June 2020, and the third in October
2020 (Photos 5-3, 5-4). Consequently, the yearly
growth of teak dbh with pruning treatment was
2.19 cm, which was significantly higher thanthat of the control plots that was just 0.55cm(the trial plots in Kampong Cham). For
demonstration plot in Kampong Speu
province, the teak growth of pruning
69

TEAK IN MEKONG

treatment and the control appeared nonsignificant in terms of both dbh and height.

maintenance undertaken. The measurement
conducted in 2020 revealed that the average
DBH of teak planted at Grandis Timber Co.,
Ltd. was 6.35 cm. (3.2x2.5 m. of spacing) and8.41 cm. (4.0x2.5 m. of interval) with the ageof 2 and 3 years- old, respectively.

The density and spacing of teak planting,which significantly affect the growth ofteak are taken into consideration to coincidewith both economic effectiveness and trials.
The Grandis Timber Co., Ltd. that has
planted teak since 2014 and Teak farm thatstarted establishing teak plantation since
2018 set up demonstration plots to conduct
experiment of teak growth at different
treatments such as various intervals tested,silvicultural techniques applied, and intensive

Currently, the 8-10 years of teak cultivars
can be harvested using intensive silvicultural
practices applied at teak plantations in
Kampong Speu province by Teak Farm andGrandis Timber and through genetic
improvement and cloning, like what has
been done in Indonesia.

Photo 5-5 Nursery breeding, experiment in the nursery, using technology (Sensor) to record formonitoring the growth of teak trees at Teak Farm's in Kampong Spure Province(Credit: Teak Farm, Cambodia)

The demonstration plots of teak trees
planted in 2018 (1,5-2 years old) at Teak
Farm showed a rapid growth of teak with 12
cm. in DBH and 8 m. in height (Photo 5-5).
Teak wood is medium density, hard,
yellowish brown, fragrant and oily that
repel insects. It is one amongst other local
timber species that are considered good
luxury wood for construction, furniture,home decoration, musical instruments,
railroad, etc. ( Phon, 2000; Orwa et al., 2009).

The price of teak sawnwood in the local
market (Cambodia), as assessed by theowners of local private teak plantations andteak wood processing factories varies
between 800-1,500 USD per cubic meter,
depending on the quality, length, anddiameter of the wood. This price seems tobe higher than in international market, andthat may be a reason teak is uncommon inmost of the local wood processing factories
or handicrafts.
70

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 5-6 Teak products--wooden furniture made of teak in Lamphat district, Ratanakiri Province(Credit: Mr. ChhunVirak)

Since there is not much supply of teak wood
originated domestically from various sourcesin Cambodia, the made-of-teakwood products
and furniture could hardly be found both inlocal markets and at wood processing
factories. In 2021, a wide range of made-ofteak wood products are seen extensively
promoted for marketing sales on social media(Photo 5-6). Teak Wood Furniture Cambodia
is a local wood processing factory that has
just started its own wood processing
business for 6 months, and all teak wood
products are processed from teakwood
harvested from their own teak plantation
established since 2000. There are numerous
types of teak wood products getting purchasingorders, including round and rectangle wooden
tables, foldable wooden tables, wooden
armchairs, complete set of wooden sofa, manykinds of wooden furniture, wooden decorationmaterial for construction, long wooden dinnertables, wooden beds, teak plywood, andother types of teak sawnwood. Such businessis flourishing well with piles of pre-orders in asatisfactory manner.
Challenges for Teak Plantation Development
There are some challenges that may
undermine the development of teakplantation in Cambodia, including theshortcomings as follow:• Investment in teak plantations requiresconsiderable capital for start-up andoperation which is a long-term business (atleast 20-25 years). Some teak plantations
already established many years ago haveexperienced lack of resource for the long
duration business cycle. Even though they
could collect economic benefits from someshort-term cash crops during the first few
years and once the canopy growth of teaktrees reach one another, another 15-years
was needed depending on market demand
until teak could be harvested atsuitable/accepted DBH;

71

TEAK IN MEKONG

Large-scale investment in forest plantations
establishment and development on publicforest land has been initially promoted
through public-private partnerships. In
2017, this was further promoted through the
Declaration
on
Tree
Plantation
Development that facilitates the procedureof private forest registration and encourages
private sector involvement, especially on
legal private land. To contribute to theachievementofthesustainable
development goal by which forest cover
would be maintained at 50% by 2030 asdefined as the national target in the
Framework for Cambodian Sustainable
Development Goals, the Royal Governmentof Cambodia (RGC) has promoted theimplementation of sustainable managementof all types of forests, halt deforestation,
restore degraded forests and promoteafforestation and reforestation. With themost recent declaration in the Agricultural
Strategic Development Plan (ASDP) 20192023, the Forestry Administration has set atarget of at least 10,000 ha of forest
plantations to be established annually,
inclusive of 9,000 ha by the private sector.
It also plans to distribute 10 million tree
seedlings per year under its Conservation of
Genetic Resources from Forest andEstablishment of Seed Sources for Planting
Program. In pursuit of this ambitious goal,
the Forestry Administration has identified
degraded forests and other degraded lands
that are available for restoration andintroduced initiatives for investing in theestablishment of private forest plantations onstate land by forging partnerships between
various private sector entities.

• Lack of financing with low interest rates
in the long run. Teak plantation needs
substantial financial investment, especiallyin the first few years for establishing teakplantation. Then maintenance and preventative
fire protection measures are quite necessary.
Many small- and medium-scale investors are
not capable of seeking long-term
financing/loan from the existing commercial
banks and Micro Finance Institutions(MFIs) due to the ambiguity of bothinvestors and bankers in relation withuncertain economic return and fluid market
fluctuations; few raised their concerns
about break-even point (BE) in which
duration and internal rate of return (IRR)
must be ensured, otherwise their businesswould become bankrupt in the halfway ofoperation.
• Poor knowledge on techniques for improving
and conserving genetic resources throughsilvicultural practices to foster the growthand quality of teak, and to improve the teakmarket supply chain; some teak plantation
owners complained about having noexpertise resources although they haveenough capital and strong interest in sucharea of investment.
• There is sufficient technology development
and innovations in the production and woodprocessing industry (especially made-ofteak wood products) to add value to wood
products (post-harvest) for export and tocompete in international markets (value
chain).
Promotion of Private Teak Plantation
There is no specific incentives related toteak plantation investment, but the below
enabling policies and regulations are for thepromotion of private forest plantation andtree plantation development in Cambodia.

In September 2005, RGC issued a Subdecree on the implementation of theAmendment to the Law on Investment. In
this regard, section 2 of Annex 1 of the Subdecree sets the minimum amount or otherconditions of investment projects in various
fields, which are required for granting the
incentives. Production of furniture andfixtures, that do not use natural wood andthe production of paper and paper productswith capital investment larger than USD

There are a number of specific incentives
stated in the laws, sub-decrees and regulations
in Cambodia for incentivizing and supporting
forest plantation establishment anddevelopment. The incentives include royalty
exemption, export tax reduction, and othertaxes and fees.
72

TEAK IN MEKONG

500,000.00 are among the fields which are
eligible for incentives such as profit tax
exemption, duty free import of production
equipment, construction material and 100%
exemption of export tax.

cognizance of the need to protect theenvironment. Species considered include
Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata,
Azadirachta indica, rubber trees, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Acacia auriculifomis, Acacia
mangium and Sesbania grandiflora.

Granting of large-scale plantation: A Subdecree on Economic Land Concessions was
issued on December 27, 2005, that provides
the criteria, procedures, mechanisms andinstitutional arrangements for initiating andgranting new economic land concessions,for monitoring the performance of all
economic land concession contracts, andfor reviewing economic land concessions
entered into force prior to the effective dateof the sub decree for compliance with
the Land Law of 2001. Economic land
concessions are granted to grow foodand agro-industry crops including tree
plantation, animal farm and aquaculture,
construction of enterprises and factory
facilities as well as instalment of equipment
for processing of domestic raw materials.

In 2012, the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries and the Ministry of
Economy and Finance issued a Joint
Declaration on the Provision of PublicService associated with the forestry sector,
especially fees and permits for forestry. The
specific services stated in the Declaration
include service fee for export of timber andnon-timber forest products, permits
for transportation, transport quotas,
establishment of a timber depot to sell,
distribute forest products & by-products,
establishment of a forestry industry,sawmill, or forest products & by-products
processing facility, use of any type ofchainsaw to harvest forest products & byproducts, premium (reforestation, forest
maintenance and export fee) for all woodspecies, detailed service fees charged on
timber and non-timber forest products is in
Table 5-2.

The FA’s efforts to create enabling
conducive environment to develop
plantation forestry has focused on multipurpose tree plantations, which have apotential to supply domestic timber needs,
increase incomes of local communities,
and improve the environment throughwatershed protection and erosion control.
These plantations will be developed to meetcurrent and future market demands, taking

Export tax for timber and non-timber forest
products is fixed at 1% of the total cost in
the permit (FoB reference price). Since log
exports are currently banned, these taxes
apply only to timber and non-timber forest
products.

Table 5-2 Service fee for timber and non-timber forest products
Description
1. Timber and non-timber export tax
2. Permit for timber and non-timber forest
products− Transport quotas− Transportation− Establishment of a stock place to sell,
distribute and processing enterprise− Establishment of a forestry industry andsawmill− Use of chainsaw (per unit)
73

Service fee (USD)
1% of the total costin the license

Valid (year)
Date in permit

25
10
250

1
Date in permit
1

250

1

15

1

TEAK IN MEKONG

Description

Service fee (USD)
2.5/m3
5% of timber and
NTFPs

3. Reforestation
4. Forest maintenance fee

Valid (year)

and are encouraged. In this respect, theForestry Administration would provide
technical training services for afforestationand plantation management. Transportationof wood products originating from private
forests to supply customers or the local
market does not require a letter of permit(LP). Prior to harvesting timber in a private
forest plantation, the owner of the private
forest shall notify the competent local
forestry administration in writing theharvesting activities undertaken and be
responsible for inspecting the amount oftimber collected.

In order to encourage participation in tree
planting and development as plantations,
Article 46 of the Forestry Law (2002) statesthat “Individuals who plant trees on private
land or on state forest land that has been
granted the right to use have the right tomaintain, develop, use, sell and distribute
their products," and subsequently, the Rules
on private forests have been promulgatedby Prakas of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries to encourage
individuals to cultivate and maintainplantations.
Recently, the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries has allowed theForestry Administration to plant fastgrowing tree species such Acacia sp.,
Eucalyptus sp., and Tectona grandis (Teak)as state forest plantations from 2020
onward. The aim is to ensure thesustainability of fuelwood supply fordomestic consumption and the market
demand for industrial processing.

However, Article 61 of the Forestry Law
states that "the rules for granting the right touse state forest land for afforestation shallbe determined by sub-decree", by whichplanting trees on degraded forest land
where partnership in planting trees between
the State and the private sector (Public
Private Partnership (PPP) shall beauthorized by the Royal Government of
Cambodia as referred to a letter No. 120
S.C.N.K.S. dated 08 February 2017 of the
Office of the Council of Ministers.

In this context, the Forestry Administration
has developed and released a Guideline forSite Selection and Tree Planting in
Cambodia since 2005. The FA also
provides an inclusive approach forpractitioners and investors on how to
prepare plans for tree planting, including
sites identification, to ensure their successin forest plantation establishment anddevelopment.

Private forests are defined as plantations ortrees that grow naturally on land that isregistered and privately owned under statevalid procedures and laws. Private forest
refers to plantation established by natural
persons or private juridical persons who
own land on their private land with the rightto occupy in accordance with the land law
and are registered as private forest
according to the regulations of the Forestry
Law and the Prakas No. 327 PRK dated 26
May 2017 on the Private Forest Rule.

In 2017, the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries issued a Prakas on
the "Private Forest Rules" that sets out thescope, requirements and procedures in theprivate forest registration process inCambodia, classifying private forests
according to the size of land planted or
proposed, as well as outlines the many
benefits that private forest owners receive

With the current practices of establishment
and registration of private forest plantationin compliance with forestry policies, laws
and regulations, the MAFF promulgates the74

TEAK IN MEKONG

Declaration on the Establishment of Private
Forests to promote and incentivize
individuals or juridical persons to plant
trees on their own legally acquired land asa means of increasing timber production
and fuelwood supplies for domestic
consumption and export. The provisions of
the regulation elaborate the procedure, legal
requirements,
andprocesses
fromapplication to harvesting of the tree
plantations.

products originating from tree plantations
to encourage tree-planting investors as such
below benefits as:• 50% export tariff reduction on wood
products sourced from domesticallyplanted trees or local tree plantations;• The imposed export tax of all furnitureand other finished wood products madeof locally grown wood is state-in-charge.
• The expertise authority shall certify theexport license with the scientific andlocal names of the timber species andshall certify it as "locally grown timber"or "a wood product made of domesticallygown-tree".

Private forests are categorized according toland sizes, as follows:(i) household private forest: less than 10ha;

A natural or juridical person who planted
trees on private land or state forest land thathas been granted the rights to use that land
has the rights to maintain, develop, use, selland distribute their products derived fromtheir tree plantation. In addition, a natural
or juridical person who owns private landon which trees have been planted andregistered as a private forest shall hereby
receive many incentives from the Royal
Government of Cambodia, such astechnical advices, not mandatory forpremium payment, and those that have been
set forth above.

(ii) small-scale private forest: 10-100 ha;(iii) medium-scale private forest: morethan 100 ha to 1,000 ha; and(iv) large-scale private forest: more than
1,000 ha.
The guidelines provide guidance to assist
landowners or juridical persons wishing toregister their private forests, either
plantations or natural plantations covering:• the process of establishing and registering
private forests;• knowledge and skills in caring forprivate forest plantations;• effective monitoring of the progress of
responsible private forest management;and• the importance of plantations and thepotential of private plantations in
improving the livelihoods of local people
and communities, as well as contributing tosocio-economic development andenvironmental protection.

Conclusions andRecommendations
Teak plantations not only provide forest
cover, land cover, prevent erosion, restore
soil erosion and wilderness, but
agroforestry practices (especially degraded
forest areas in community forests) andsmall-scale private plantations will help
contribute forest rehabilitation throughafforestation and private forest plantations.
The agricultural crops mixed with teakplantation will not just provide short-term
profit during the course of teak plantation,
but also improve food security through thecultivation of maize, soybeans, cassava,
and intermittent weeds will be easily
controlled. The intercrops harvest from teak

The Guidelines on Private Forest
Registration emphasizes the incentives toencourage the establishment of small-scale
private tree plantations as set forth inchapter 1. It stresses that the Council of
Ministers on behalf of the Royal
Government of Cambodia issued a letterNo. 1704, dated November 18, 2019, on
reducing the export tax rate on timber75

TEAK IN MEKONG

plantation can increase economic
productivity for local communities in boththe short and long-term. In addition, teakplantations will play an important role incontributing to the supply of sustainable
construction timber in rural areas,
especially the wood processing, furniture
and wood industries, which can help reducethe dependencies on natural forest
resources.

Bailleres, H. & Durand, P. Y., (2000). Nondestructive techniques for wood quality
assessment of plantation-grown teak. Bois etForêts des Tropiques, 263 (1), 17-29.
Bhat, K. M., Priya, P. B. & Rugmini, P.
(2001). Characterisation of juvenile wood inteak. Wood Science and Technology, 34, 517532.
Council of Ministers. (2019). Reduction ofExport Fees for Products and Processed
Products from Forest Plantation in
Cambodia, Cambodia.

There are some recommendations to create a
conducive environment for teak plantation
development and promotion of teak plantation
investment as follow:

FAO. (2009). Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2010. Brazil Country Report,
Rome.

• Conduct further researches on techniques
for the improvement and conservation ofgenetics, teak, agroforestry and silvicultural
practices, plantation management, growthmodels, policy and technicalrecommendations, information on pricetrends and supply of teak wood in theinternational market.
• Develop modalities for public-private
investment in forest plantation
establishment, especially teak plantationand teakwood product value chain,facilitate timely access to market
information, especially on prices in theinternational markets.
• Enhance technical capacity and humanresource related to improvement andconservation of genetics, teak,agroforestry and silvicultural practices,plantation management, market andvalue chain, and development.

FAO. (2015). Global teak trade in theaftermath of Myanmar’s log export ban. In
FAO Planted Forests and Trees Working
Paper FP/47/E. (eds. Kollert, W. & Walotek,
P.J. ). Rome, Italy.
http://www.fao.org/forestry/plantedforests/6
7508@170537/en/
Forest Resources Department. (n.d.).
Management of Teak Plantations.Chiang Mai
University, Thailand.
https://www.fao.org/3/AC773E/ac773e08.ht
m#TopOfPage (accessed 10 July 2021).
ITTO. (2020). TTM Report 24 (7): 1-15
April 2020.
Kollert, W. & Cherubini, L. (2012). Teak
resources and market assessment 2010. FAO
Planted Forests and Trees Working Paper
FP/47/E, Rome.
Kollert, W. & Kleine, M. (eds.) (2017). The
Global Teak Study. Analysis, Evaluation and
Future Potential of Teak Resources. IUFROWorld Series Volume 36, Vienna. 108 p.

References
Allouard, P. (1947). Enlargement of
Reforestation Modes by Intercalary
Agricultural Crops. Birth of Agroforestry in
Indochina. Pierre Allouard, 1952. engineer
from the Ecole Forestière de Nancy, served in
Cambodia as 1930 to 1947.

MAFF, MoEF & MoC (2009). Joint
Ministerial Declaration on Imposition ofStanding Timber Royalties for National
Revenues, RGC
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (n.d.).
Teak in the Lao People’s Democratic
Republic, Lao.
http://www.fao.org/3/AC773E/ac773e0e.ht
m (accessed 10 July 2021)

Alvarado, A. (2013). Condiciones de sitio y lasilvicultura de la teca. In Plantaciones deTecaMitosy Realidades, (eds. R. Camino &R.P. Morales (eds.). CATIE, Turrialba, Costa
Rica.
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Ministry of Forestry (n.d.). The management
and prospects of teak in Vietnam, Vietnam.
https://www.fao.org/3/AC773E/ac773e0i.h
tm (accessed 10 July 2021).

Royal Government of Cambodia. 2000.
Sub-Decree on Economic Land
Concession (2000).
Royal Government of Cambodia. (2002).
Law on Forestry (2002).

Narong, N. & Sobon, K. (2014). Review ofbiological and silvicultural characteristics oftimber trees planted in Cambodia, Cambodia

Tewari, D.N. (1992). A Monograph on Teak
(Tectona grandis Linn. f.), Int. Nat. Book
Dist. Dehra Dun, 479p.

Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt, R., Jamnadass,
R. & Anthony, S. (2009). Agroforestree
Database: a tree reference and selection guideversion 4.0. World Agroforestry (ICRAF) .
Nairobi.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries. (2019). Agricultural Strategic
Development Plan (ASDP) 2019-2023.
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Pandey, D. & Brown, C. (2000). Teak: aglobal overview. An overview of global teakresources and issues affecting their future
outlook. Unasylva, 51(201), 3–13.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries. (2017). Prakas on Establishmentof Private Forests. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
The Royal Government of Cambodia(2019). Framework for Cambodian
Sustainable Development Goals. Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.

Phan, D. P. (2000). Dictionary of Plants Usedin Cambodia. Olympic Publish House,
Phnom Penh.
Rimbawanto, A. (2021). Teak Community
Forests for Improving Livelihoods. ITTOBMEL project, 3rd Webinar 29th March 2021

Thulasidas, P. K., Bhat, K. M. & Okuma, T.
(2006). Heartwood colour variation in homegarden teak (Tectona grandis) from wet anddry localities of Kerala, India. Journal of
Tropical Forest Science, 18, 51-54.

Royal Government of Cambodia. (2001).
Land Law (2001)

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Chapter 6: Teak Plantations in Vietnam
Dang Thinh Trieu, Tran Lam Dongand Nguyen Van Bich

Abstractand describes the current situation of teakplantation in Vietnam. It provides the soundunderstanding on germplasms, silviculture
management, the potential and challenges,
those will be basic information for
promoting development and teak plantationin Vietnam.

Teak, introduced to Vietnam in early
20th century, has high adaptation to awide range of climate condition from theNorth to the South in Vietnam. It can beplanted as a homogenous plantation, asagroforestry crop, and as enrichment
planting in the deciduous degraded
dipterocarp forests across Vietnam. Teakhas been planted mainly as a monoculture
plantation (89.3%) and only occasionally as
mixed species plantation (10.7%). The
productivity of teak in Vietnam ranged 7-16
m3/ha/year across different ecologicalconditions. The economic return of teakplantation is significantly higher comparedto those of short rotation species such asacacia and eucalypt. However, thechallenges for development of teak in
Vietnam are its long harvesting rotation andlack of improvement in seed resources. For
development of teak in Vietnam, research on
improvement of germplasm andestablishment of the seed and mothermaterial production areas is highly
recommended. Research on improvement ofsilviculture technology to boost its growthability which shorten the harvesting rotationis also very important, especially when it canbe used as a demonstration model toencourage tree growers. For smallholders
who cannot afford to invest in long-rotation
crops, teak based agro-forestry is a potential
model which can help them earn significant
incomes in the years before harvesting.
Although teak timber value is much higher
than acacia and eucalypt timber in Vietnam,
the value chain of teak timber in Vietnam isstill disadvantaged in comparison withacacia and eucalypt timber. Research on
value chain and promotion of using teaktimber in the wood industry in Vietnam may
increase the demand for teak timber and its
plantations. This article reviews the history

History of Teak in Vietnam

V

ietnam has a total geographical area of
331,235 km², nearly three-quarters ofwhich is in hills. Between 1943 and 1990,
the years of wars and much destruction,
Vietnam’s Forest cover declined from 43%
to just 27.2% (Jong et al., 2006). Withsustained efforts over the past three decades
the country’s forest cover has now increased
to 41.89% comprising 10.28 million
hectares of natural forests and 4.4 million
hectares of plantations (MARD, 2020). The
increase of forest cover was mainly
contributed by the expansion of plantationsof more than sixty tree species that havebeen planted throughout the country. While
more than 60% of the trees planted are of
exotic Acacia and Eucalyptus, teak has also
been planted in the regions of Northwest,
Central Highland and Southeast Vietnam(MARD, 2014).
Teak is not native to Vietnam. It was first
introduced to Vietnam in 1889 by the French
and this introductory planting continued till
1910 (Dinh, 1964). Between 1939 and 1940,
teak was planted extensively in many
provinces from the North to the South (Quat,
1995). Some trees of this period are stillfound along the roads and parks in many
towns and cities, but no clear records of theplanting sites, extent of area covered, or theseed sources are available.
A teak plantation over 4 ha was establishedin 1952 in Central Highland (Do et al., 1995)
but its seed source was also not recorded. A
decade later in 1961 and 1962, teak78

TEAK IN MEKONG

plantations were established in Southeast
Vietnam using seeds from Thailand andLaos (Do et al., 1995). The exact extent ofarea planted in that period is not known but
about 166 ha of these plantations still
survive which are now managed as seedproduction plantation in Dong Nai province
extending over a total of 171 hectares(Do et al., 1995). Teak plantations were alsoestablished in 1960s in the mountainous
areas in the North Vietnam (Dinh, 1995).
Data related to their extent is not available,
but it has been reported that 4532 kg of seeds
collected from these plantations were used inraising fresh plantations (Dinh, 1995).

Photo 6-1 Teak seed production plantation established in 1961-1962 in Dong Nai province(Credit: Tran Lam Dong)

During 1986 - 1992, the total area of teakplantation in Vietnam was 4,670 hectares(Hoang, 1995), mainly in La Nga (Southeast)
with 1,800 hectares (Dinh, 1995) and Buon
Gia Vam (Central Highland) with 860
hectares (Phong & Sac, 1995). In December
1995, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development (MARD) organized the First
National Seminar on Teak Planting in
Vietnam. Based on the presentations anddiscussion,theseminarparticipants
recognized that teak was a potential tree
species for planting in Vietnam with meanannual increment (MAI) ranging from
9-15m3/ha/year. The workshop recommended

that the MARD should have a plan of teakplantation development of 500,000 - 1,000,000
hectares in the following 10 - 15 years (Vietnam
Forestry Association, 1995).
During the period 1993 to 2010, teak was in thelist of the major tree species for planting in thetwo national large-scale forestation programs,
namely Re-greening Barren Land and Hill
(known as the 327 Program between 1993 1998) and Five Million Hectare Reforestation
Project (known as the 661 Program between
1998 - 2010) (Jong et al., 2006). However, lackof research and extension on the species limited
its large-scale adoption by the farmers.
79

TEAK IN MEKONG

Even though teak was one of the first
forestry species chosen for planting in
Vietnam and considered suitable for all sites
across the country, the scale of plantations
undertaken were not achieved as per
expectation. Data from national forest
inventory 2016 compiled in FORMIS II
Project (2017) showed that only about 6,600
hectares, about 0.15% of the country’s
plantations, was under teak. This isnegligible comparing with more than two
million hectares of acacias, an exotic species
introduced into Vietnam only in the 1980s.

total height and bole height were assessedover an area of 350 hectares. Based on thedendrometry performance of the candidate
trees 25 Plus trees were selected forestablishment of seed orchard using grafting(Hoang & Nguyen, 1996). Teak Plus trees
numbering 31 in total were also selected incentral highland and southeastern region
based on superior dbh and height growthcompared to the means of standard deviationof the stands (Tran, 2001). A teak orchard
was established based on seedlings andgrafting sourced from the selected Plus trees.
A trial was also conducted using indole
butyric acid (IBA) in powder and liquid
forms as rooting hormone (Tran, 2001).
However, the results were not successful
with rooting ratio ranging from 0 - 24.5%,
depending on the source material and timeof treatment. During the period 2006 to
2010, Doan & Le (2010) continued
researching on tree improvement of teakwith progeny tests. Three years after
planting, the results indicated that the originof the individual trees in the progeny test hadsignificantly affected the performance of thefamilies. The rooting was affected byhormone type, cutting age, and rooting
media. The rooting ratios of the besttreatment was more than 90%.

Research on Teak in Vietnam
As mentioned above, teak was planted in
Vietnam in the early 20th century mainly inthe south and central highland which fell
under the South Vietnam before thecountry’s reunification in 1975 and notmuch information on the research conductedhere on teak in those war years is available.
Documents of early research on teak areaccessible only from the North Vietnam.
Research on genetic improvement
In early 1960s, the forestry sector in the
North Vietnam started establishing teakplantation. Since seed sources wereinsufficient initial studies were conducted onteak seed orchard. Branches from healthy
well grown trees older than 20 years wereused as mother material for grafting and
90% of grafted trees provided fruits. The
seeds from those fruits were tested forweight and germination though no
information about the production of
seedlings from those seed lots are available
now (Dinh, 1995).

Research on silvicultural technique and others
Beside genetic improvement, silvicultural
techniques for growing teak have also beendeveloped in Vietnam. Based on experienceand reference documents from overseas.
Dinh (1995) developed silvicultural
guideline including site preparation,
planting season, and tending for teakplantation in the North and in 1994 researchon silvicultural techniques for teak was
carried out by Quat (1995) to establish teakplantations for veneer. The study examinedthe effects of soil type, soil preparation
method, fertilizer type and type of plantationon the growth of the teak in Central
Highland. Based on the results, a set ofrecommendations were developed for teakagroforestry model with soybean, sugarcane
and peanut as cash crops in fertile soils, andAfter country reunification in 1975 theforestry sector continued to pay attention to
genetic improvement in teak. In 1983, aprovenance trial was conducted in Dong Nai
province with 16 seed sources (Hoang,1983). Unfortunately, the results of that trial
are also not available. In 1993, a study on
selection of teak plus tree and establishmentof seed orchard in southeast Vietnam wasconducted and growth performance
including diameter at breast heigh (dbh),80

TEAK IN MEKONG

protocols for ploughing and fertilizer
application in infertile soils.

Research on pest and disease of teakplantation

Teak was also used for testing enrichment ofdegraded dry deciduous dipterocarp forest inCentral Highlands (Bao et al., 2018) and,five years into experimentation, teak wasreported as a potential species forenrichment planting in degraded deciduous
forests. Factors that affected the growth ofteak include waterlogging, altitude, forest
stand volume, soil type, percentage of sand,and P2O5 concentration in the soil (Bao et al.,2018). Based on assessment of growth ofplantations in five sites and destructive analysisof 48 individual trees, Bao et al. (1996)
classified soil index and estimated stock
volume of teak in the Central Highlands.
Yield tables of teak plantation weredeveloped by Dao et al. (2001), based on dbh
and total height of teak plantation in
temporary sample plots in Central Highlands
and Southeast regions. The timber yield
tables were developed for teak plantations with
25 years and 50 years rotations suggestingyields ranging from 7 - 16 m3/ha/year
depending on rotation and planting.

According to Bao et al. (1998), there were
10 pest species found in the teak plantations,but the most common were Hapalia
machoeralis and termite. There are eight
diseases found in teak plantation, of which
fungus named Vercitilium sp was the mostcommon. Leave of teak were also attachedby Olivea tectona Thirum.
Current Situation of Teak Plantation in
Vietnam
Plantation area
Teak plantation area in Vietnam is about
6,665 ha (FORMIS, 2017) spread across thecountry but with larger areas in theSoutheast, Central Highland and Northwest(Figure 6-1). Teak plantations establishedduring 1991-2001 under the 327 Program(1993 - 1998) and the 661 Program (19982010) occupy 50.3% of teak area plantations
in Vietnam.

Figure 6-1 Distribution of teak plantation in Vietnam in 2016

81

TEAK IN MEKONG
4000

Plantation area (ha)

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

>40

30-40

20-30
Age (year)

10-20

<10

Figure 6-2 The area of teak plantation across age classes in Vietnam in 2016

especially in the Southeast, Central Highlands
and Northwest with a total area of up to 1
million hectares.

Seed source
There have been several teak improvements
studies in Vietnam as mentioned above, but noseed orchard were established. In 1990s, theMinistry of Agriculture and Rural Development
decided to use a 166 ha of teak plantation raised
between 1961 - 1962 as seed production area. As
the result most young teak plantations in
Vietnam established after 1990s have been using
seeds sourced from that plantation. Some teakplantations, however, have also been establishedfrom unknow seed sources (VNFOREST,2019).
Silviculture management• Plantation establishment
Teak plantations in Vietnam were establishedeither as monoculture (89.3%) or mixed species(10.7%) with Chukrasia tabularis, Azadirachta
indica, Khaya senegalensis, Dipterocarpus sp,
Acacia sp, and Pterocarpus macrocarpus etc.
Although no hard data for evaluating the mixed
plantation with teak is available, mixed
plantations have generally been observed as lesssuccessful. This failure is probably due toselection of species for mixed planting with teak.
For example, in the mixed plantation of teak andAcacia hybrid in Thanh Hoa province(Northcentral), teak could not compete with
Acacia three years after planting. As a result theforest owner removed Acacia but this resulted inalmost teak trees becoming bent (Photo 2). Thisis due to high light competition between teak andacacia occurring at early stage, which led to
weak ability to stand by itself after thinningacacia. Teak as the main tree in agroforestry
models has been more successful. In northwest
and central highlands of Vietnam where teak has
been planted as a shade tree for coffee, plum or
as intercrop with maize and upland rice it has
provided significant benefits by way of windbreaks and additional income from timber after
about 20 years.

• Site selection
conditions described above, teak can Plantingsite conditions for teak in Vietnam have been
described by the Vietnamese Academy ofForest Sciences (VAFS, 2005). The favorite
temperature for teak is between 22oC to 27oC
with average maximum temperature of thehottest month of 40oC, minimum averagetemperature of the coldest month of 13oC.
Rainfall ranges from 1250 to 2500mm/year and
3-5 dry months of rainfall less than 40mm/month.
Teak prefers a well-drained, sandy clay loam
soils derived from basalts, granite rocks withmore than 50 cm in deep and light neutral orslightly acid pH (6.5-7.5). With the site begrown in many regions across the country,82

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 6-2 Teak plants unable to stand straight following removal of Acacia hybrid in Thanh Hoa
Province (Credit: Dang Thinh Trieu, 2019)

Photo 6-3 Agroforestry model of teak and coffee in Son La province(Credit: Tran Lam Dong)

83

TEAK IN MEKONG

1.2 m/year, giving MAI ranging from 7.0 16 m3/ha/year depending on age and site
conditions (Table 6-1). It seems that thegrowth of teak in Vietnam was not muchdifferent among ecological regions.

• Growth and productivity of teakplantation
Measurements on increments of dbh in teakplantations of Vietnam ranged from 0.9 cm 1.3 cm/year and on height ranged from 0.5 -Table 6-1 Growth and productivity of teak plantation in Vietnam
EcologicalregionAge ofIncrement Increment
plantation of dbh
of height(cm/year) (cm/year)

MAI(m3/ha/year)

Northwest

13

1.1 - 1.2

0.9 - 1.0

Not available

Hoan & Hinh
(2013)

40

0.9 - 1.3

0.7 - 1.2

7 - 16

Bao (1995)

20
51

1.0
0.9

0.8
0.5

Not available
Not available

Nguyen (1995)
Nguyen (1995)

CenterHighlandSoutheast
Southeast

Sourcelarge dimension timber. Teak is a potential
tree species due to its wide adaptation
across ecological condition throughout thecountry. Teak also meets the criteria ofreducing the risk of pests and diseases aswell as storm and wind resistance (Vietnam
Forestry Association, 1996). The price ofteak timber is increasing because of
shortage of large size timber supply in
Vietnam. The forest owners have alreadystarted using species other than acacia andeucalypt for their plantation, including teakand some native tree species. Teakpromises to be a valuable and suitable tree
species for large dimension timber
plantation regime in Vietnam.

Economic expectation
Dinh (1995) estimated that a 40-year teakplantation could bring the value of 1700
USD/year, much higher than that of
eucalypt and acacia plantation in Southeast
Vietnam. Bao et al. (1998) who estimatedeconomic return of teak in Central
Highland reports that IRR for 25 years (formedium timber size) and 50 years (for large
timber) rotation was 18.0% and 15.0%, andthe NPV of the rotation was USD 2,312.7
and USD 3.038.9, respectively. Investigation
by Dang et al. (2019) in Thanh Hoa and Son
La province has shown that, price of teaktimber at harvestable age (between 20 - 30
years) was 8 - 14 times in comparison withprice of acacia timber (harvest at 5 - 7-yearold).

Major challenges for developing teakplantation in Vietnam include lack of
capital resource of the growers and its longrotation (Trieu et al., 2020). This isespecially so with smallholder forest
owners who currently manage
approximately 70% plantation area in
Vietnam with average of 2-3ha perhousehold. Lack of improvement of teakresource is another challenge fordeveloping teak plantation in Vietnam.

Opportunities and challenges
Vietnam has developed acacia and eucalypt
plantation regime for up to 4 successive
rotations mostly providing wood chip, pulp,
veneer and small saw-log timber. Some
problems reported include low economic
efficiency, risk of pests and diseases, anddamage from natural disasters (Tran, 2018).
In recent year, growers have beenencouraged by the Government to produce
84

TEAK IN MEKONG

Conclusion and recommendation

First National Workshop on teak in
Vietnam, pp. 77-83. Hanoi, Vietnam.

Vietnam has a long history of teak planting
going back more than 100 years. However,the development of teak was limited over
only about 6697 ha by 2017 distributed
mainly in Northwest, Southeast and Center
Highland. Teak has been planted mainly asa monoculture plantation (89.3%) and only
occasionally as mixed species plantation(10.7%). The productivity of teak in
Vietnam ranged 7-16 m3/ha/year acrossdifferent ecological conditions. The
economic return of teak plantation issignificantly higher compared to those of
short rotation species such as acacia andeucalypt. However, the challenges fordevelopment of teak in Vietnam are its long
harvesting rotation and lack ofimprovement in seed resources.

Bao, H., Nguyen, V.F. & Nguyen, T.K.L.
(1998). Research on scientific basic tomanage teak plantation. Report of the
project No B96-30-ĐT, University of Tay
Nguyen, Vietnam.
Bao, H., Pham, C.T. & Tran, T. (2018).
Assessment of enrichment planting of teak(Tectona grandis) in degraded dry
deciduous dipterocarp forest in the Central
Highlands, Vietnam. Southern Forests: a
Journal of Forest Science, 80(1), 75-84.
Dang, T.T. & Tran, L.D. (2019). Current
status of Teak planting in Thanh Hoa and
Son La province. Unpublished report.
Vietnam Academy of Forestry Sciences,
Hanoi, Vietnam.
Dao, C.K., Bao, H., Dang, V.T., Phan,
M.S., Bui, T.H., Hoang, V.T.& Nguyen,
T.D. (2001). Developing growth and yield
tables for plantation of Eucalyptus
urophylla, Acacia mangium, Tectona
grandis, Pinus merkusii and checking yield
tables of Rhizophora apiculate andMelaleuca cajupti. Forest Science Instituteof Vietnam, Vietnam.

For development of teak in Vietnam,
research on improvement of germplasm andestablishment of the seed and mothermaterial production areas is highly
recommended. Research on improvementof silviculture technology to boost its
growth ability which shorten the harvestingrotation is also very important, especiallywhen it can be used as a demonstration
model to encourage tree growers. For
smallholders who cannot afford to invest in
long-rotation crops, teak based agroforestry is a potential model which can help
them earn significant incomes in the years
before harvesting. Although teak timbervalue is much higher than acacia andeucalypt timber in Vietnam, the value chainof teak timber in Vietnam is still
disadvantaged in comparison with acacia
and eucalypt timber. Research on value
chain and promotion of using teak timber inthe wood industry in Vietnam may increase
the demand for teak timber and its
plantations.

Dinh, D.D. (1995). The experiences ofplanting teak in La Nga. In: Proceeding ofFirst National Workshop on teak in
Vietnam, pp. 72-76. Hanoi, Vietnam.
Do, D.S. & Nguyen, N.B. (1995). The
solution for Agro-Forestry for teal inCentral Highland. In: Proceeding of First
National Workshop on teak in Vietnam,
pp. 62-67. Hanoi, Vietnam.
Doan. T.M. & Le, S. (2010). Tree
breeding with Melia azedarach andTectona grandis for large timber planting.
Project report. Forest Science Institute ofVietnam, Vietnam.
FORMIS. (2017). Project of Developmentof Management Information System for
Forestry Sector - Phase II (FORMIS II).
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland
and the Government of Viet Nam.

References
Bao, H. (1996). Growth and yield of teakplantation in Dak Lak. In: Proceeding of85

TEAK IN MEKONG

Hoang, C, & Nguyen, T.H.T. (1996).
Selection of teak plus tree andestablishment of seed orchard inSoutheast. Project report No. KN 03-03.
Forest Science Institute of Vietnam,
Vietnam.

2019 (Decision No.1423/QD-BNN-TCLN(15/4/2020). In Vietnamese.
Nguyen, C.H. & Vu, T.H. (2013). Studyon growth of teak (Tectona grandis Linn.
F.) in Son La Province. In Proceeding of
5th National Conference on Ecology andEcological Resources, pp. 1341-1350,
Vietnam.

Hoang, C. (1983). Provenance trial of teakin Dong Nai. Project report. Forest Science
Institute of Vietnam, Vietnam.

Nguyen, X.Q. (1995). Site selection andland use for teak plantation in Vietnam. In
Proceeding of First National Workshop on
teak in Vietnam, pp. 53-61, Hanoi,
Vietnam.

Hoang, H. (1995). Opening speech of thechairman of Vietnam Forestry Associationin the First Workshop on Teak in Vietnam.
In Proceeding of First National Workshop
on teak in Vietnam, pp. 7-8. Hanoi,
Vietnam.

Tran, L.D. (2018). Conversion of Shortrotation to Long-rotation Acacia
Plantation for Production of Saw logs.
Report of the Science and Technology.
Research Project. Vietnamese Academy ofForest Sciences, Vietnam.

Jong, D.W., Do, D.S. & Treu, V.H.
(2006). Forest Rehabilitation in Vietnam:
History, Realities and Future. Center forInternational Forestry Research, Bogor.,
Jakarta, Indonesia

Tran, V.S. (2001). Selecting teak cultivar
for Southeast and Central Highland.
Information on Forest Sciences andTechnology. Forest Science Institute ofVietnam. 2, 24-29.

Lam, C.D. (1962). Produce teak seedlingusing grafting. Forestry Research Instituteof Vietnam, Vietnam.
Lam, C.D. (1964). Planting timber forests
for industry. Rural Publishing House,
Hanoi, Vietnam.

Trieu, V,H., Pham, T..T & Dao T.L.C.
(2020). Vietnam Forestry Development
Strategy: Implementation results for 20062020 and recommendations for the 20212030 strategy. Occasional Paper 213.
Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR.

Le, H.P. & Ho, V.S. (1995). Planting teakin Buon Gia Vam Forestry Enterprise. In
Proceeding of First National Workshop on
teak in Vietnam, pp. 68-71, Hanoi,
Vietnam.

VAFS. (2005). Technical guideline on
planting of Teak (Tectona grandis Linn.
F.) http://vafs.gov.vn/vn/quy-trinh-kythuat-trong-rung-tech/.

MARD. (2014). List of Main Species for
Planting in Production Forest Land in
Eight Forestry Ecological Regions(Decision No.4961/QD-BNN-TCLN(17/11/2014). In Vietnamese.

Vietnam Forestry Association (1996). The
recommendations In: Proceeding of First
National Workshop on teak in Vietnam,
pp. 100-101, Hanoi, Vietnam.

MARD. (2020). Announcement of theCurrent Status of the National Forest in86

TEAK IN MEKONG

Chapter 7: Mapping of Natural Teak Forests and Teak
Plantations in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region
Chakrit Na Takuathung

Abstract

are rainfall and soil moisture (1,250-2,500mm/annum associated with a marked dry
period of 3-5 months), temperature ranging
from 27-36 °C during day time and 2030 °C during night, bright light (75-95% offull day-light), with the soil conditions (soilderived from volcanic origins such as trap,
basalt and granitic-gneiss) and soil pH 6.57.5 with a large amount of calcium (Kaosaard, 1981). Teak can grow faster in deep,
fertile, well-drained soils and soil derived
from limestone (Tanaka et al., 1998).

T

his chapter assesses the status of
natural teak forests that are the sourceof genetic diversity in teak, and teakplantations for which diverse high quality
genetic material is in increasing demand.
The data were gathered from theparticipating countries of ITTO’s teakproject for the up-to-date maps of teaknatural forests and teak plantations of
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand
and Vietnam. Largest extent of natural teakforest area occurs in Myanmar where they
are managed under the Modified Myanmar
Selection System (MMSS). In Lao PDR,
the only natural teak forest left is in thenorthwest over an area of 1,100 ha. In
Thailand, the natural teak forests are
distributed in the north and the west with anarea of 1.3 million ha. Attempts have been
made to secure the status of natural teakforests in Thailand and Lao PDR by placing
ban on logging. Teak has been extensively
planted in all these countries. The highest
extent of teak plantations is in Myanmar
following by Thailand, Lao PDR,
Cambodia and Vietnam spread over 411.7,
277.3, 29, 6.5 and 3.3 thousand ha,
respectively.

Natural teak forests cover the Indian
Peninsula, Myanmar, northern and western
Thailand as well as northwestern Lao PDR
along the northern Thai border. Teak is
distributed from 73°E in India to 104°30´E
in Thailand and from about 25°30´ N in the
Kachin State of Myanmar to its southernboundary from 9°N in India through 15°16°N in Myanmar to 16°30´N in Thailand(Tanaka et al., 1998). The estimated area of
natural teak forests in India, Lao PDR,
Myanmar and Thailand is 29.04 million ha,
almost half of which is in Myanmar (13.5
million ha). Teak was introduced to Java,
Indonesia some 400 to 600 years ago(Pandey & Brown, 2000). As per FAO’s
teak resources and market assessment(Kollert & Cherubini, 2012), Myanmar,
India, Thailand, and Indonesia dominate in
the production of teak with more than 95%
of the world’s natural and more than 75%of the world’s planted teak forests. The
plantation area shows an increasing trend
from 2.25 million ha in 1975 (Pandey &Brown, 2000) to 4.35 million ha in 2010
(Kollert & Cherubini, 2012).

IntroductionTeak (Tectona grandis L. f.) is a
deciduous tree of the Lamiaceae
family. Its wood quality makes it a highdemanding species in the luxury market,
construction industry and furniture
manufacture (Kollert & Walolek, 2017).
This species is one of the most important
tropical timber both in natural and planted
forests (Graudal & Moestrup, 2017). The
growth of teak is controlled by manyfactors. Although it can be grown under awide range of climatic conditions, theimportant factors with the optimum values

It is speculated that genetic bottlenecks
combined with selection pressures under
different growing conditions have led to theformation of distinct landraces; thishypothesis is supported by results from87

TEAK IN MEKONG

international provenance tests (Hansen etal., 2017). The area and growing stock ofnatural teak forests in their natural habitat
have been gradually decreased (Khaing etal., 2017). The log export ban in Myanmar,
the main supplier of the world teak fromnatural forest, since 2014 has led toincreased interest and investment inestablishing and managing teak plantations(Kollert & Walotek, 2015). In this context,
it is necessary to determine the status of
natural teak forests which are the main
source of genetic diversity and plantation
areas - the source of genetic materials
demand.

dataset was available, the raw data with
Province names was utilized.
2. Synthesized and consolidated thedatasets to prepare up-to-date natural teakforests and teak plantations with QGIS
software and designed proper datavisualization. Cambodia, Thailand and Lao
PDR are visualized as polygons of forestand plantation while Vietnam is visualized
as polygons of the province with the color.
3. In the case of Thailand, the distribution
map of mixed deciduous forest with teak in1990 reported by (Graudal et al., 1999) was
overlayed with the mixed deciduous forest
in 2018 reported by the Royal Forest
Department and total forest fragmented
areas that overlapped with the teak forest
area in 2018 was estimated. The result of
natural forest distribution was validatedwith the forest inventory data of
THAIFORM project (Trisurat et al., 2020).
The teak plantation data were derived fromthe Forest Industry Organization (FIO,
2021) and land development department(LDD) (Land Use Analysis Group, 2021).
The general flow of the analysis procedureis shown in Figure 7-1.

Material and Methods
1. Gathered data from the participating
countries of ITTO’s teak project for up-todate maps of teak forest types and forest
plantations in Cambodia, Lao PDR,
Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. The data
is defined according to the report of Kollert& Cherubini (2012) for all country
representatives to follow the same direction(Table 7-1). The data includes GIS datasetsof natural teak forests and teak plantations
and its total estimated area. Where no GISThailand

Forest industry organization
teak plantation map

mixed deciduous forest
with teak in 1990 map

analyzeoverlay

THAIFORM
inventory data

Land development
department teak plantation
map

mixed deciduous
forest in 2018 map
validate

Cambodia
Lao PDR
Distribution maps

MyanmarSubmit data

VietnamSynthesize andconsolidate

visualize

Figure 7-1 The general flow chart of the analysis procedure88- Natural teak forest- Teak plantation

TEAK IN MEKONG

Table 7-1 Definition of data
Types

Definition

Natural teak forest

Forest of native/indigenous species with a share of teak of 30
percent or more in its growing stock.

Teak plantations

Forest of teak established through planting or seeding for the
production of wood or non-wood products and/or for theprovision of environmental services. The share of teak in thegrowing stock is above 30 percent.

Sources of Data
We received data from the country representatives except for Myanmar as follows.
••••

Cambodia – Chheang Dany (Forestry Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries)
Lao PDR – Vongvilay Vongkhamsao and Bounchanh Mekaloun (National Agriculture
and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI)
Thailand – Chakrit Na Takuathung and Pattama Sangvisitpirom (Kasetsart University).
Vietnam - Dang Thinh Trieu (Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences -VAFS).

Results
Current Distributions in the GMS
The potential natural distribution area are derived from the current forest area overlayed by
the natural distribution zone from Kaosa-ard (1981) (Figure 7-2). The area statistics ofnatural teak forest and teak plantation are presented in Table 7-2 andTable 7-3. The distribution maps by country are shown under the country topics.

89

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 7-2 The potential natural teak distribution in 2021

Table 7-2 Area of natural teak forests (1,000 ha) as on 2021
Country/year

1954*

1976/1979**

1993*

2010**

Present

Lao PDR
MyanmarThailand

2,324

70
14,600
5,850

1,880

1.5
13,4798,744

1.1 (2021)?
1,353(2018)

Remarks:* after Sumantakul & Sangkul (1998)**after Graudal & Moestrup (2017)
Table 7-3 Area of teak plantations (1,000 ha)
Country/year

1998*

2009**

2010**

2015**

Cambodia

Present
6.46 (2021)

Lao PDR0-15

29 (2018)

Myanmar

0

390

390

411.712 (2020)

90

TEAK IN MEKONGCountry/year

1998*

2009**

2010**

2015**

Present

Thailand

806

836

128

836

277.288 (2021)

Vietnam

3.3 (2019)

Remarks: The numbers in the first row are the data published year
*after Sumantakul & Sangkul (1998)**after Graudal & Moestrup (2017)
Cambodia(ELCs). One good example of the ELC
project is the 70 years contract with aforeign company granting it concession
over 9,820 ha in the rugged hills of
Kampong Speu for replanting with teak
(Becker, 2012). Besides block plantationsof teak there is also scattered planting of 7.2
to 10 million teak trees across the country
that would be equivalent of about 6,200 and
7,000 hectares of block plantations. Also,
teak planting is sparsely distributed inagroforestry systems (small/household
scale: 100-1,000 trees).

Natural teak forests do not occur in
Cambodia, but the establishment of planted
forests has been promoted by the Ministryof Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries(MAFF) (Photo 7-1). The National
Development Programme in Cambodia put
efforts to create multipurpose tree
plantations and to develop plantation
forestry with the potential aim to supply
domestic timber needs and increase theincomes of local communities. The main
species being established include rubber,
Eucalyptus spp., Acacia spp. and teak(Global Forestry Services et al., 2014). The
plantations usually cover degraded lands orformer forestlands that were somehow
deforested a long period ago. During 19852006, forest plantations have been
established over an area of 16,825 ha(Forestry Administration, 2008) most ofwhich are in the six Provinces of Tbong
Khmum, Kampong Cham, Kratie,
Ratanakiri, Kampong Speu, and Kampot.

Data on teak plantation were obtained
from respective provincial Forestry
Administration cantonments and owners ofprivate teak plantations, while the shape fileof those teak plantations (on the map) was
received through geo-referencing andtracking at the fields. The area of the shape
file may be larger than the actual report, at
6,460 ha and 6,100 ha, respectively, and it
is because the shape file takes into
consideration both the land that has beencleared for planting teak and lands alreadyplanted with teak (Figure 7-3).

The main supply of timber in Cambodia
comes from Economic Land Concessions

Photo 7-1 Teak plantations in Cambodia

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 7-3 Distribution of teak plantations in Cambodia

Lao PDR

harvesting is largely limited to old logs left
in the forest from earlier logging operations(Midgley, Mounlamai, et al., 2015). In
addition, teak has been established byprivate companies and rural communities inplantations and agroforestry production
systems (Photo 7-3). Large plantations ofaround 29,000 ha are located in the Northin the Luang Prabang and Xayabuly
Provinces (Figure 7-4). The small areasof teak plantations were also planted inVientiane, Salavan and Champasack
Provinces (Smith et al., 2018).

Teak is one of the most valuable tree
species in Lao PDR. In the 1970s thecountry had about 70,000 ha natural teakforests, but in 2010 only about 1,500 ha areleft (Graudal & Moestrup, 2017). They aremainly located in Provincial Protected
Areas in Paklai District, Xayabuly Province
in the Northwest (Photo 7-2) and are closed
to logging. Data collected now suggests thecurrent area may be only about 1,100 ha.
Harvesting teak from natural forests isseverely restricted by the government, and92

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 7-2 Natural teak forests in Xayabuly Province, Lao PDR

Figure 7-4 Teak plantations in Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR
Source: Feuerborn (2018)93

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 7-4 Teak distribution in Lao PDR

Myanmarpublications the total extent of teakplantations in the country in 2020 is
4,11,712 ha of which government teakplantations are spread over 395,492 hawhile private teak plantations cover 16,220
ha (Forest Department, 2020)

Myanmar is a teak heavyweight, playing asignificant role in the global teak trade. It
has the largest area of natural teak forests
holding almost 50 percent of the 29 million
ha globally and is the number one producerof teak logs in the world. Natural teakforests are traditionally managed under the
Myanmar Selection System (MSS) and theModified Myanmar Selection System(MMSS). After India and Indonesia, thecountry has the third-largest planted teakarea in the world (about 390,000 ha) in2010 (Kollert & Cherubini, 2012; Midgley,
Somaiya et al., 2015).

ThailandThailand has the second largest area of
natural teak forests (after Myanmar) at an
estimated 8.7 million ha (Kollert &Cherubini, 2012). There are no virgin teakforests left in Thailand. Selective logging
has taken place in all native teak forests(Photo 7-4). The remains are fragments,
mainly in a few protected areas (Graudal etal., 1999). The natural teak forest area in
Thailand has declined as shown in Table
7-2. The area looks increasing in 2010 but
it is likely an overestimate. As teak isgenerally limited to mixed deciduous forest,
and the area of this forest type reported in

Unfortunately, the current project could not
get data from the official representative of
Myanmar so there is no official project
update on teak forest and plantation
distribution map of Myanmar. However, as
seen from Myanmar Forest Department
94

TEAK IN MEKONG

2000 and 2018 by the Royal Forest
Department of Thailand (RFD) were 8.7
and 7.5 million ha respectively, so it ispossible that all mixed deciduous forests
were counted as teak bearing forests. In
2021, we used the distribution map of
mixed deciduous forest with teak in 1990
reported by (Graudal et al., 1999) overlayedwith the mixed deciduous forests in 2018 asreported the RFD. Calculated this way thesum total of all the forest fragments withteak in 2018 adds up to 1.3 million ha(Table 7-2). Validation by inventory data of
THAIFORM project showed theaccuracy of 79.3%.

plantations (Photo 7-5). Teak forest
plantations were first established in
Thailand in 1906 (Sumantakul & Sangkul,
1998). The plantation area reported washigh in the past (Table 7-3). It could be dueto the inclusion of replanting done in thenatural forest under the conditions ofConcession. The current plantation area in
2021 is 277,280 ha. The data are derived
from Forest Industry Organization (FIO)
which is the main teak plantation owner inThailand and the small-scale plantation
data from the Land Development
Department (LDD)’s land use status report.
The latter data might be of low accuracy as
the teak area was not the main objective ofthe data analysis. The distribution of natural
teak forests and teak plantations are shownin Photo 7-5.

A complete ban on logging in naturalforests was introduced in 1989. The timbercan be legally harvested only from

Photo 7-4 Natural teak forests in Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand

95

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 7-5 Teak plantations in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand

96

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 7-5 Teak distribution in Thailand

Vietnam

1975-1990 bringing the total area of teakplantations up to 4,700 ha (Photo 7-6).
Subsequently some of these were harvested
and the total plantation area reported in2019 by Dong & Ha (2019) was 3,300 ha
spread over Northwest, Central highland
and Southeast Vietnam. Most recent survey
on teak plantations in Vietnam has been
carried out by counting the number of trees
instead of measuring the area and thesurvey results in Thanh Hoa and Son La
Districts were 15,480 trees (Figure 7-6).

Teak was introduced in Vietnam by the
French at the turn of the century - largely inparks and along roadsides. Most plantations
have been established in the Taungya
System as a mixture of food crops (rice,maize, green bean, soya) (Forest Science
Sub-Institute of Southern Vietnam, 1998).
The first trials were established in the Northand South of Vietnam in 1930. Teakplanting was carried out widely during
97

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 7-6 A 70- years old teak plantation in Dak Lak Province, Vietnam

Figure 7-6 Teak distribution in Vietnam by zone98

TEAK IN MEKONG

Implications

References

The results of this study show the
distribution pattern of teak in the Greater
Mekong Subregion (GMS). The naturalforest area has decreased continuously overthe past which indicates decrease of thegenetic resource base of teak. Many
countries have already taken different
measures to protect the area, but illegal
felling is still prevalent. Teak wood supply
can be increased by establishing more
plantations in all GMS countries as isalready being done but of the diverse andgood genetic materials would become
scarce in the future if this trend of declineof natural forests continues. It is importantto establish several teak seed production
areas in the region with exchange of goodquality genetic materials between GMS
countries and promote tree improvement
programs to support good quality teakplantation.

Becker, S. A. (2012). Largest teak nursery
in Cambodia | Phnom Penh Post.
https://www.phnompenhpost.com/postplus/largest-teak-nursery-cambodia(accessed 12 January 2022).
Dong, T. L. & Ha, D. H. (2019). Teak
Plantation in Vietnam.
https://teaknet.org/download/ITTO Project
2019/Regional Workshop
Myanmar/Vietnam.pdf. (accessed 12
January 2022).
Feuerborn. (2018). Teak Forest, Hiking
Trail, Ban Nong Heo Village, Luang
Prabang District, Laos.
flickr.com/photos/travfotos/26967373277/i
n/photostream (accessed 12 January 2022).
FIO (Forest Industry
Organization) .(2021). Economic Tree
Plantation boundary of Forest Industry
Organization. Government Data Catalog :GD Catalog.
https://gdcatalog.go.th/en/dataset/gdpublis
h-dataset-11_06 (accessed 12 January2022).

Conclusions
The status of natural teak forests in the
Greater Mekong Sub-region, except
Myanmar, has been secured by the ban on
harvesting in natural forests. Even thoughlatest update of data from Myanmar arelacking, we believe that the largest natural
teak forest area is in Myanmar. In Lao PDR,
the only natural teak forest left is in the
Northwest with an area of 1,100 ha. In
Thailand, the natural teak forests are
distributed in the North and the West withan area of 1.3 million ha. The area underteak plantations has increased in all the
GMS countries and the current status ofteak plantations in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao
PDR, Cambodia and Vietnam is about
411700, 277300, 29000, 6460, and 3300
hectares respectively.

Forest Department. (2020). Forestry in
Myanmar 2020. Forest Department,
Bangkok, Thailand.
Forest Science Sub-Institute of Southern
Vietnam. (1998). The management andprospects of teak in Vietnam. Teak for the
Future. https://innoteak.vn/themanagement-and-prospects-of-teak-invietnam-difficulties/ (accessed 30 March
2022).
Forestry Administration. (2008). Kingdomof Cambodia Country Paper on Forestry
Outlook 2020. Phnom Pehn, Cambodia.
Global Forestry Services, Forestry
Administration of Cambodia & EU
FLEGT Facility. (2014). Understanding
timber flows and control in Cambodia inthe context of FLEGT. Phnom Pehn,
cambodia.
Graudal, L. & Moestrup, S. (2017). The
genetic variation in natural and planted99

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teak forests: characterisation, use andconservation for the future. In Global Teak
Study (Vol. 36) (eds. W. Kollert. & M.
Kleine), pp. 19–29. IUFRO World Series
Volume 36, Vienna, Austria.

Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
Midgley, S., Mounlamai, K., Flanagan, A.
& Phengsopha, K. (2015). Global Markets
for Plantation Teak; Implications for
Growers in Lao PDR. Australian Centre
for Internaltional Agricultural Research.
Canberra., 74.

Graudal, L., Kjær, E. & Suangtho, V.
(1999). Conservation of genetic resourcesof teak (Tectona grandis) in Thailand.
DFSC Series of Technical Notes, 52, 38.

Midgley, S., Somaiya, R. T., Stevens, P.
R., Brown, A., Kien, N. D. & Laity, R.
(2015). Planted Teak: Global Production
and Markets, with reference to Solomon
Islands. Australian Centre forInternational Agricultural Research(ACIAR), 92.

Hansen, O. K., Changtragoon, S., Ponoy,
B., Lopez, J., Richard, J. & Kjaer, E. D.
(2017). Worldwide translocation of teakorigin of landraces and present genetic
base. Tree Genetics and Genomes, 13(4).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11295-017-1170-8
Kaosa-ard, a. (1981). Teak its natural
distribution and related factors. Nat His
Bull Siam Soc, 25, 55–74.

Pandey, D. & Brown, C. (2000). Teak: aglobal overview. An overview of global
teak resources and issues affecting their
future outlook . Unasylva, 51(201), 3–13.

Khaing, N., Min Oo, M., Tun, N. T., Lwin,O. & Minn, Y. (2017). CHAPTER 4.
Natural Teak Forests – Silviculture andStand Management. In: The Global Teak
Study: Analysis, Evaluation and Future
Potential of Teak Resources (eds. Kollert,
W. & Kleine, M.), pp. 39–48. IUFROWorld Series Volume 36. Vienna.

Smith, A. H., Ling, S., Barney, K. &Kanowski, P. (2018). Advancing enhanced
wood manufacturing industries in Lao
PDR and Australia Value Chain
Assessment : Interim Summary Report Teak plantations in Northern Lao PDR.
Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research, Australian Capital
Territory, Australia.

Kollert, W. & Walotek, P. (2015). Global
teak trade in the aftermath of Myanmar’s
log export ban. Planted Forests and Trees
Working Paper, 49(49), 20.

Sumantakul, V. & Sangkul, S. (1998).
Teak resources in Thailand. Teak for the
Future.
https://www.fao.org/3/AC773E/ac773e0h.
htm

Kollert, W. & Walotek, P.J. (2017).
Economics, World Teak Resources,
Production, Markets and Trade, Chapter 7
Economics, Production, Markets andTrade. In: The Global Teak Study.
Analysis, Evaluation and Future Potentialof Teak Resources (eds. Kollert, W. &Kleine, M.), pp.83-89. IUFRO World
Series Vol 36, Vienna.

Tanaka, N., Hamazaki, T. &Vacharangkura, T. (1998). Distribution,
growth and site requirements of teak.
Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly,32(1), 65–77.
Trisurat, Y., Eiadthong, W.,
Khunrattanasiri, W., Saengnin, S.,
Chitechote, A. & Maneerat, S. (2020).
Systematic forest inventory plots and theircontribution to plant distribution andclimate change impact studies in Thailand.
Ecological Research, 35(5), 724–732.

Kollert, W., & Cherubini, L. (2012). Teak
resources and market assessment 2010
(Vol. 3, Issue January). FAO Planted
Forests and Trees Working Paper FP/47/E.
Land use analysis group. (2021). Land use
status report 2020. Division of Land use
Planning and Policy, Land Development
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Chapter 8: Climate Change Impact on Natural TeakForests in the Greater Mekong Sub-region
Yongyut Trisurat, Sapol Boonsermsuk, Vongvilay Vongkhamsao
and Zar Chi Hliang

Abstract

factors (climate and soil) make it versatile(Kaosa-ard, 1991), thus it can be used for awide variety of indoor and outdoor purposes.

T

his chapter reviews climate change
impacts of native teak and seeks topredict the future geographical distributionof native teak in the Greater Mekong Subregion as influenced by the climate change.
Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model was
employed to generate present and predicted
species range in 2050 under the CMIP6
scenarios. A total number of 383
georeferenced occurrences of teak fromvarious sources were used to model its
distribution under the baseline and the four
CMIP6 scenarios: SSP1-26, SSP2-45,
SSP3-37, and SSP5-85. Key predictor
variables were evapotranspiration, tree
density, aridity index, elevation, andlatitude. Model results predict teak’s
current natural ranges would either gain orlose suitable habitats of 10% of the existing
ranges by 2050. Some forest patches inwestern Lao PDR and southern Myanmar
are likely to disappear and its future climate
suitability would shift toward semievergreen
forests in northern Myanmar. The
remaining suitable habitats at present coverabout 19 million ha or two-thirds of the area
estimated in 2010. About 40% of theremaining teak occurrence is insideprotected areas in Thailand while less than
5% are under strict protection by Myanmar
and Lao PDR.

Teak is a deciduous tree species, which
occurs both in mixed deciduous forests aswell as evergreen and semi evergreen
forests, but it does not appear as singlespecies forests as monocultures (Kollert &Cherubini, 2012). Natural teak forests
occur within a latitudinal range of 10° to
25°N (Gyi & Tint, 1995) in South andSoutheast Asia, especially India, Myanmar,
Thailand and Lao PDR (Kollert &Cherubini, 2012). Teak is able to develop
under a wide range of annual rainfall: from(600 mm to 5,000) mm, (Mascarenhas etal., 1987; Kaosa-ard, 1991). The tolerance
range of mean temperatures lies between
13°C to 43°C, but the optimal temperature
ranges from 25°C to 35°C. Teak grows bestin light exposed areas and in hilly areas
below 900 meters (Pandey & Brown,2000). In addition, it shows better
performances on nutrient rich, deep welldrained, sandy-loamy to clay-loamy soils(Kaosa-ard, 1991) although it is also foundin nutrient poor acidic soils.
Besides natural teak forests, teakplantations are spread worldwide topartially accommodate the constantdemand for teak wood. The establishmentof teak plantations has a long tradition
across continents and countries. The firstteak plantations were established in Javaand Muna, Indonesia in the seventh century(Gyi & Tint, 1995). Currently, teakplantations are found worldwide undervaried climatic – edaphic conditions, e.g.
Caribbean Islands from 1880, (Deval et al.,2003) Central and South America, West
Africa, and other Southeast Asian countries
such as Vietnam and Philippines (Orwa etIntroductionTeak (Tectona grandis) is one of
the most valuable tropical hardwood
species in the world due to its captivatingwood quality and aesthetics, which finds
application in various high-quality
products. In addition, its properties likeattractive grain and color, medium weightand dimensional stability, easy processing
and resilience to different biotic and abiotic
101

TEAK IN MEKONG

al., 2009). About 83 % of the global teakplantation area is located in Tropical Asia,
followed by Tropical Africa (11 %) and 6%
in Tropical America and less than 1% in
Oceania (Kollert & Walotek, 2017).

Nearly half of these forests are located in
Myanmar, while teak forests in Thailand
are estimated at 8.7 million ha.
Climate factors
In addition to human interference, climatechange and extreme events have become athreat to tropical forests, including teakforests (Corlett & Lafrankie, 1998; Trisurat
et al., 2009; Patasaraiya et al., 2018).
Recent studies indicate that the Indian
subcontinent could be subjected to an
average of over 4°C rise in temperature by
2085 for SRES A2 scenario ( Alexander etal., 2006). Besides, the climatic conditionsin the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB)(Myanmar, Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia
and Vietnam) are also affected by El
Nin˜o– Southern Oscillation ( or ENSO
events) on an approximately 10-year cycle( Rasanent et al. , 2016) . The downscaled
climate data derived from SimCLIM
indicated that annual rainfall in the LMB is
expected to increase from 1697 mm at thebaseline to 1,831 mm in 2030, and to 1,968
mm in 2060 under the wetter overall
general circulation model (GCM) forecast.
The maximum increment of 344 mm, or
20% from the baseline, is predicted in
Vietnam in 2060. In contrast, substantial
loss of annual rainfall is expected innortheast Thailand in 2030 under the
combined drier condition and medium
emissions (Representative Concentration
Pathways - RCP 4.5), and in 2060 under thedrier condition and high emissions ( RCP
8.5). Low emissions (RCP 2.6) would also
increase temperature about 0.4 C across the
LMB. Rising temperatures (by 1.5 and 3 C)are expected for the medium emissions (RCP
4.5) and medium climate sensitivity, and forhigh emissions ( RCP 8. 5) and high climate
sensitivity, respectively (MRC, 2011).

In this chapter, we assess the potential
impacts of climate change on native andnon-native teak, in particular in the Greater
Mekong Sub-region (GMS). The observed
and predicted impacts include response ofphysiological constraints, change indistribution, and change in ecosystemprocess and services. In addition, thecurrent efforts on protection measures areincluded.
Drivers of Impacts on TeakNon-climate factors
Forest cover in the GMS forests havedeclined dramatically over the past few
decades due to a range of factors. These
include rapid economic growth, theconversion of forests to cash crops andplantations, unsustainable logging, as wellas infrastructure development. Total forest
cover for GMS (excluding Yunnan) has
declined from 99.0 million ha (49% of the
GMS area) in 1990, to 82.8 million ha(43%) in 2020 or annually ( FAO, 2020) .
All countries except Viet Nam and China
have reported falling forest cover, with
Cambodia and Myanmar reporting thehighest rates of deforestation (-1.17%
annually).
Likewise, natural teak forests diminish
constantly due to unsustainable logging andencroachment for agriculture (Kollert &Cherubini, 2012). The highest loss ofnatural forest area during 1976-2010 was
found in India with 2.1 million ha, followed
by Myanmar with 1.1 million ha. The
reduction rate is likely to have changed as aresult of the logging ban imposed in India,
Lao PDR, Thailand and Myanmar, and thegovernments allowed only a limited
sustainable harvest from natural forests(Roshetko et al., 2009). The total global
area of natural teak forests in 2010 was
estimated to account for 29 million ha.

The sixth phase of the Coupled Model
Intercomparison Project (CMIP6), which
combined the scenarios of two pathways, aShared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) andan RCP was recently published in 2019
(Durack, 2020). The future climate in 2050
under the SSP1-26, SSP2-45, SSP3-70 and
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TEAK IN MEKONG

SSP5-85 scenarios generated by CMIP6
downloaded from WorldClim ver. 2.1(https://www.worldclim.org/data/cmip6/c
mip6climate.html) predicted that annual
mean temperature will increase
approximately 2.3, 2.4. 3.1, and 3.5 C fromthe baseline (Annexes 1, 2), respectively. In
contrast, the temperature in the coolest
quarter will substantially decline .
Precipitation in dry months (driest andwarmest quarters) will decrease approximately
36, 35, 45, 65 mm, respectively (Annex 3).
These phenomena imply more extreme
climatic conditions by 2050.

teak ring width value following the socalled 1997–98 El Niño of the century,
which was one of the most severe droughts
in the past ∼300 years history in Myanmar.
This evidence is consistent with tree-ringrecords in Thailand.
Lumyai & Duangsatha porn (2018)
monitored ring width of 52 teak trees
extended back 127 years (1886-2012) at
Umphang Wildlife Sanctuary in Tak
Province. The ring-width index showed apositive correlation with total rainfall
during wet months (March and June). The
ring width increased during a wet period
occurred in 1887-1895 and gradually
decreased to a stable pattern in 1927-1945
with a further decline during the dry periods
occurring in 1896-1926, 1946-1955, 19651981 and 1982-2012.

Climate Change Impacts on Physiology
and Ecological Processes
Climate change poses a severe threat to theforest ecosystems by impacting its
productivity, species composition andforest biodiversity at all levels. Teak is atropical tree species which requires
alternating rainy and dry seasons to produce
high-quality wood. Species traits have also
been used to estimate the potential climatechange impacts. Among all proxy archives,
tree rings are a highly promising indicatorof ecological and environmental processes
because they are highly sensitive to climatic
variation. Muangsong et al. (2020) revealed
that the tree-ring inter- and intra- annual
stable oxygen isotope ratios (δ18 O) of
146-year-old teak in northern Thailand,
spanning between AD 1871 and 2016, aremodulated not only by the local rainfall
amount, but also by large-scale convection,
which varies between different seasons andover time.

For India, monsoon rains usually occur
during June–September, and post monsoon
duringOctober–November.
Monthlyrainfalls show an increasing trend during
monsoon months, and pronounced
decreasing trend in post monsoon rainfall
towards inland. However, this pattern isdifferent from the coast primarily due tomoisture availability from sea. Sengupta etal. (2018) revealed that ring width data
show moderately positive response tomonsoon rainfall and negative response tosummer temperature due to moisture deficit
in hot summer. The increasing moisturestresses during months of the early growing
season is crucial for determining the growthof teak trees (Upadhyay et al., 2021).
Nevertheless, intense precipitation inmonsoon affects ring growth pattern atcoastal location.

Similar studies were conducted by using
dendrochronological techniques across theregion. D’Arrigo et al. (2011) measured
ring width chronology of teak spanningfrom 1613–2009 at the Maingtha forest
reserve north of Mandalay, Myanmar. The
research result indicated that teak growth ispositively correlated with rainfall anddrought variability during and prior to the
May–September monsoon season, and the
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The

Ngoma et al. (2019) studied the effects ofchanges in temperature, rainfall ,atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 )concentration, solar radiation, and number
of wet days on net primary productivity(NPP) of the Zambian Zambezi teak forests
along a rainfall gradient. The dynamic
vegetation model, LPJ-GUESS, wasemployed to simulate the growth of103

TEAK IN MEKONG

Zambian forests along the annual rainfall
gradient of between 700 and more than
1,000 mm. The projected NPPs by the endof the 21st century (2070–2099) under
RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios werecompared with the baseline (1960-1989).
The model results predicted that the future
NPP would increase by 0.69-1.77 % at thewettest site, and by 0.10-0.44 % at theintermediate wet site under RCP8.5 and
RCP4.5 respectively, by the end of the 21st
century. However, at the drier site, NPP
would respectively decrease by 0.01 % and0.04 % under RCP8.5 and RCP4.5, whichwere resulted from the reduced rainfall
coupled with increasing temperature. This
study implies that precipitation, especiallyin dry months, is a limiting factor in thedrier sites. The result is different from thearea where rainfall is sufficient and quite
stable (>1,00 mm per year). Patasaraiya etal. (2018) used time series data provided byLandsat MODIS and NDVI (Normalized
difference vegetation indices) to detectchanges of Teak and Sal Forest of Satpura
tiger reserve in central India as the result ofclimatic variation between the period 2017
and 1990. The study found an increasing
trend in the average annual NDVI of Teakand Sal forests as the result of increasing
annual mean temperature. However, Sal ismore sensitive to mean temperature,
whereas Teak is more sensitive to change inmaximum temperature.

The laboratory analyzes showed thatmoderate and severe drought stress reduces
the rate of photosynthesis, transpiration,
stomatal conductance and leaf relative
water content of teak seedlings (Galeano etal., 2019). An increase in free proline(amino acid) levels and intrinsic water use
efficiency was found when comparedto the control treatment. Furthermore,biochemical adjustments in leaves andgenetic changes in roots were observed andbecome a limiting factor for teak seedlings’
growth.
Projected Climate Change Impacts on
Teak Distribution
The 5th Assessment Report (WGII AR5SPM) stated that many biomes, ecosystems
and species have shifted their geographic
ranges, seasonal activities, migration
patterns, abundances, and species
interactions in response to ongoing climatechange (IPCC, 21 2014). Deb et al. (2017)
reported that changes in annual precipitation,
precipitation seasonality and annual mean
actual evapotranspiration may result in shifts
in the distributions of native teak and teakplantations across tropical Asia. The
generalized (ecoregion-based) suitable areas
predicted in 2050 are dramatically different
with 2070 extreme scenarios. Substantial
losses of suitable climate were predicted for
deciduous teak forests of Myanmar, Laos andThailand under RCP6.0 and RCP8.5
scenarios (Figure 8-1). In contrast, someecoregions in central and northern India arelikely to become suitable for teak in future.
The finer resolution modeling results basedon the regional climate model of the Hadley
Center (HadRM3) projected mixed patternsof gain and loss in suitable areas. It showedthat about 30% of teak grids in India will
become vulnerable to climate change underboth A2 and B2 SRES scenarios(Gopalakrishnan et al., 2010). For teakplantations, Pirovani et al. (2018) indicatedthat the reduction in monthly rainfall and anincrease in average air temperature by 2.1 °C
reduce suitable cultivation area of teak in
Brazil. This is consistent with the model

Changes in light intensity causes effect on therate of photosynthesis. It has been reported
that teak requires a light intensity between
50-75% of full sunlight for optimum growthand development (Nwoboshi, 1972) andbetween 40-80% for optimum growth of teakseedlings (Moonchun et al., 2017). As
climate change has contributed to treemortality and a reduction in plantcommunity, as well as a sudden light change
due to a gap opening. Recent study indicatedthat the teak seedlings do not go well either
under shade, or in full sunlight, but it
performs well under moderate shade at least
10% sunlight (Leksungnoen et al., 2021).
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TEAK IN MEKONG

results conducted in teak plantations in northeastern Bangladesh (Deb et al., 2017).

Figure 8-1 Predicted suitable ecoregions of natural teak and changes in climate space by 2050 and
2070 under RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 scenarios
Notes: Blue – remaining habitat; Red – loss of climate space; Green – Gain of suitable area
Source: Deb et al. (2017)

Modeling Teak Distribution andClimate Change Impacts in GMS

systematical forest inventory plots (854records or 54% of the total records; Trisurat
et al. (2020). After filtering the locality data
to avoid spatially auto-correlated
occurrence, the occurrence points werereduced to 383 records (Figure 8-2, Figure8-3). Of this number, 221 records werelocated in Thailand, followed by Myanmar(133 records) and Lao PDR (29 records).

As mentioned in the introduction section,
this chapter emphasized on the potential
impacts of climate change on native teakforests situated in Myanmar, Lao PDR, andThailand. These three countries account for
approximately 1.4 million km2 or 61% of
the total land area in the GMS. Vietnam andCambodia do not have natural teak forests,
but have teak plantations approximately
50,000 – 60,000 ha.

The occurrence data were correlated withenvironmental variables directly or
indirectly affect the native teak distribution
at an environmental heterogenous scaleusing the maximum entropy method(MaxEnt) (Phillips et al., 2006). The
MaxEnt was chosen because it works wellwith only-present data of environmental

With the collective efforts of the project
staff from the participating countries, thetotal number of teak occurrences of 1,579
records were gathered from a variety ofsources, largely from ITTO/Thailand’s
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TEAK IN MEKONG

variables that were developed. Physicalvariables include altitude (from Shuttle
Radar Topography Mission -SRTM), andslope. Soil characteristics were obtained
from FAO/IIASA/ISRIC/ISSCAS/JRC(2012) and ISRIC-World Soil Information
version 2.0. Other variables include theannual Aridity Index (AI) (Trabucco& Zomer, 2019), and reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) (Subburayan et al.,2011). In addition, mean tree density per km2
was also downloaded from Crowther et al.
(2015) version 2. Ten uncorrelated
bioclimatic variables from WorldClim ver.
2.1(https://www.worldclim.org/data/cmip6/c
mip6climate.html) based on averages of
1970-2000 at 30-second resolution(approximately 1 km) were used as thebaseline (Table 8-1) to determine the current
distribution. For the projected distribution in
2050, we treated other variables stable andchanged only climatic variables to the same

bioclimatic variables projected by four
CMIP6 SSPs: 1-26, 2-45, 3-70 and 5-85
processed from (CanESM5 and GFDLESM4). All environmental variables were
resampled to 30 seconds or 1 km resolution,
which is appropriate for analysis at thenational level.
The model results revealed that key
predictor variables for natural teak
distribution were ETo (23.56%), followed
by tree density (18.54%), AI (11.46%),
elevation (10.4%), and latitude (8.12%)(Table 8-1). The results also highlight thatclimate seasonality (temperature of wettest
quarter [B8] and warmest quarter [B10],
precipitation of wettest [B18] and coolest
quarter [B19]) rather than the mean annual
climate (annual mean temperature [B1] andannual precipitation [B12]) is more
important for the distribution of natural
teak.

Table 8-1 Variables and their contributions in the MaxEnt models for teak (Tectona grandis)
Variable

Description

BIO1
BIO8

Annual mean temperature
Mean temperature of wettest
quarter
Mean temperature of driest
quarter
Mean temperature of warmest
quarter
Mean temperature of coldest
quarter
Annual precipitation
Precipitation of wettest
quarter
Precipitation of driest quarter
Precipitation of warmest
quarter
Precipitation of coldest
quarter
Aridity index
Reference evapotranspiration
Elevation
Slope
Latitude
FAO soil unit
Soil depth

BIO9
BIO10
BIO11
BIO12
BIO16
BIO17
BIO18
BIO19
AI
ETo
DEM
SLOPE
LAT
SOIL
BLDTICM

106

Contribution to the MaxEnt models (%)
%
Min
Max
SD
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.64

3.00

6.40

1.48

0.12

0.00

0.30

0.10

2.14

0.10

4.30

1.58

0.36
0.60

0.30
0.00

0.50
1.60

0.08
0.70

0.98
0.60

0.20
0.00

1.90
1.40

0.68
0.58

3.82

2.60

6.00

1.25

2.38
11.46
23.56
10.04
3.36
8.12
5.24
2.78

1.70
9.10
19.40
8.60
0.20
6.00
3.80
1.60

2.90
15.80
27.20
12.40
6.30
10.20
8.60
4.10

0.52
2.53
2.53
1.35
2.45
1.47
1.79
0.90

TEAK IN MEKONG

Variable

Description

BLDFIE
Soil bulk density
TREE_DENS Tree density per km2

Contribution to the MaxEnt models (%)
%
Min
Max
SD
1.06
0.30
1.70
0.63
18.54
16.40
20.80
1.68

The predicted distribution of native teak atpresent covered an area of 38.10 million haor 25.91% of the study area. Of this figure,22.02 million ha (49% of the total suitablearea) was predicted in Myanmar, 16.43
million ha (38%) in Thailand, and 5.68
million ha (13%) in Lao PDR (Table 8-2).
Suitable areas are mainly clustered between
latitudes 17° to 22°N across the borders of
the three countries (Figure 8-2, Figure 8-3).
Northern Myanmar dominated by semievergreen forests shows less suitability, andteak does not grow to a great size andusually scattered individuals or in small
groups (Gyi & Tint, 1995) compared tomixed deciduous forests. Using the existingland use map from Copernicus Global Land

Service (Buchhorn et al., 2019), it waspredicted that the remaining teak areas in2019 covered 18.90 million ha or 13.29%of the study area, which was substantiallydifferent with the estimation by Kollert &Cherubini (2012). About 43% of the totalremaining teak occurrence was predicted in
Myanmar, whereas 41% and 16% arelocated in Thailand and Lao PDR,
respectively. Substantial loss has been
detected in Myanmar due to unsustainable
logging (Forest Department, 2020; FAO,
2020). Less reduction was estimatedThailand. This is due to forest cover inThailand is quite stable after 2000 becauseof the increased efforts of forest protectionand expansion of protected areas.

Table 8-2 Estimated extend of occurrence, gain, and loss in the suitable range.
Scenario

RemainGain(mill ha) (mill ha)

SSP2-45

Suitable area
(mill
%
ha)
38.10
25.91
39.08
26.61
37.18
25.28

SSP3-70
SSP5-85

38.02
37.02

Baseline
SSP1-26

25.84
25.22

Loss
(mill ha)Remaining suit area
(mill ha)
%

35.08

4.04

2.99

18.90
19.78

33.82

3.36

4.24

18.53

13.09

34.58
33.52

3.44
3.57

3.49
4.55

19.25
18.50

13.59
13.01

107

13.29
13.98

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 8-2 Potential suitable habitats at baseline

Figure 8-3 Remaining suitable habitats at baseline(Masked by land use map)

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TEAK IN MEKONG

The predicted distribution areas under thefour CMIP6 scenarios show that thesuitability of native teak will be stable at
20% of the total study area, except theCMIP6 SSP12-6 and SPP5-85 scenarios.
However, its current natural ranges would
either gain or lose suitable habitats of 10%of the existing natural ranges by 2050
(Table 8-2, Figure 8-4). Some forest
patches in western Lao PDR and southern
Myanmar are likely to lose climate
suitability, whereas some patches situatedin semi-evergreen forests in northern
Myanmar are likely to become suitable in
the future.

The species distribution models show
excellent performance to predict the current
and future teak distributions.
The key predictor variables for natural
teak distribution were annual reference
evapotranspiration, followed by tree
density, aridity index, elevation, andlatitude. Although teak has a wide climatic
tolerance range, climate seasonality shows
more important than annual precipitationand mean temperature because teak prefers
distinct wet and dry climate seasons.
The model results predicted the potentiallysuitable areas at the baseline and under thefour CMIP6 scenarios cover about 38
million ha or 25% of the total study area.
The current habitats inside the remaining
forest cover encompass about 19 million haor 13% of the total study area. Great loss isestimated in Myanmar due to unsustainable
logging and changing climate patterns.
Protected areas in Thailand contributeabout 40% of the remaining suitable area ofthe country, whereas its contribution is lessfor Myanmar and Lao PDR. Its current
natural ranges would either gain or lose
suitable habitats of 10% of the existing
ranges by 2050. Some forest patches inwestern Lao PDR and southern Myanmar
are likely to disappear and its future climate
suitability would shift toward northern
Myanmar.

The Protected Planet(https://www.protectedplanet.net/en)
indicates that the extent of protected areas
in Myanmar, Thailand, and Lao PDR coverabout 3.43, 3.60 and 11.03 million ha or 5,
15, and 21% of the country land area,
respectively. The model results reveal that
0.35 million ha, 0.26 million ha, and 5.36
million ha of suitable areas are found insideprotected areas of Myanmar, Lao PDR and
Thailand, respectively. These imply that thepercentage of protected area contributions
are approximately 2, 5 and 40%, respectively.

Conclusion
A total number of 383 georeferenced
occurrences of teak from various sourceswere used to model its distribution underthe baseline and the four CMIP6 scenarios:
SSP1-26, SSP2-45, SSP3-37, and SSP5-85.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 8-4 Predicted climate change impact on teak distribution by 2050 under CMIP6 scenarios

110

TEAK IN MEKONG

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Annex 8-1 Predicted climatic condition under CMIP6 scenarios
2000

SSP1-26

Variable

Min

Max

Mean

BIO1

-4.5

28.9

24.15

BIO8

1.9

29.7

25.58

BIO9

-10

28

21

BIO10

1.9

31.4

26.81

BIO11

-11.1

27.5

BIO12

581

5722

BIO16

251

BIO17

2

BIO18
BIO19

SD

Min

Max

Mean

3.268

-1.2

29.8

2.39

5.9

30.5

4.23

-7.2

2.83

5.9

20.39

4.25

1792.5754

3807

1016.4

391

37.7

143

2445

4

2958

SSP2-45
Max

Mean

SSP3-70
SD

Min

Max

SSP5-85

SD

Min

Mean

SD

Min

Max

Mean

SD

25.4

3.3

-0.7

30.8

26.5

3.2

0

30.1

27.7

3.2

.0

31.5

27.2

3.2

26.7

2.3

6.4

5.5

30.9

27.6

2.3

6.4

30.8

27.1

6.1

31.8

28.3

6.1

29.4

22.4

4.2

-6.3

30.3

23.4

4.1

-6.1

30

22.8

4.2

-5.4

30.8

24.1

4.1

32.6

28.3

2.8

5.5

34.2

29.4

2.8

6.4

32.9

28.6

2.8

9.0

35.3

30.3

2.9

-7.2

29.4

22.4

4.2

-7.8

29.2

22.7

4.2

-8.8

28.3

21.7

4.3

-5.1

29.7

23.4

4.2

646

58.69

1769.2

790.5

677

5963

1880.9

821.4

621

5623

1722.2

749.9

666

5998

1887.6

832.1

545

329

4190

1026.4

584.9

369

4356

1085,9

590.2

317

3748

999.1

540.3

377

4437

1107.2

597.7

369

3

367

32.9

29.8

3

378

33.9

31.8

3

365

31.7

28.2

3

351

33.6

29.9

567.7

351.8

114

2391

536,5

388.8

129

2739

539.5

372.5

112

2254

528.3

356.6

111

2892

507.2

383.6

67.6

135.9

6

3352

75.5

199.1

5

3760

76.6

213.8

4

3593

77.1

221.3

5

3893

77.4

226.9

Notes: BIO1 = Annual Mean Temperature; BIO8 = Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter; BIO9 = Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter; BIO10 = Mean Temperature of
Warmest Quarter; BIO11 = Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter; BIO12 = Annual Precipitation; BIO16 = Precipitation of Wettest Quarter; BIO17 = Precipitation of Driest
Quarter; BIO18 = Precipitation of Warmest Quarter; BIO19 = Precipitation of Coldest Quarter

Source: https://www.worldclim.org/data/cmip6/cmip6climate.html

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Annex 8-2 Predicted climate change in annual mean temperature by 2050 under CMIP6 scenarios

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Annex 8-3 Predicted climate change in annual precipitation by 2050 under CMIP6 scenarios

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TEAK IN MEKONGSECTION IIISILVICULTURAL PRACTICES ANDTEAK IMPROVEMENT

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Chapter 9: Teak Plus Tree Selection and Its Propagation
Techniques Used In Thailand
Chumnun Piananurak

Abstractof clones but only a few seedlings per clone
are involved, budding technique may be
used to first rejuvenile mature materials andthen undertake rooted cutting of the
rejuvenile shoots to produce seedlings. In
the case of mass production of elite plants,
it is preferable to use tissue culture to
produce juvenile stock plants for rooted
cutting. When there are enough stock
plants, rooted cutting is more useful thantissue culture.

C

haracteristics to selection of Plus trees
are dependent on the end use of thewood produced. Since teak fetches highest
prices when usable as veneer, marine
decking, furniture, etc., its stem form andwood texture are the most important traits
for selection. Once plus tree is selected it
could be propagated both by seed andvegetative means. Propagation by seeds isthe easiest technique used by small farmers
and, therefore, there is a need to establish
more seed orchards to produce enoughhigh- quality seeds for plantation. Teak canbe vegetatively propagated by budding,rooted cutting and tissue culture each ofwhich has both advantages anddisadvantages and suitable technique
should be used in order to gain the highest
benefit. Budding technique by Open-twoflap was used for a long time until Chippatch technique was developed which lends
itself to very fast paced application.
Budding is most successful when
propagating mature material because
budded shoots are rejuvenated and become
suitable for carrying out rooted cutting or
tissue culture. The technique is, therefore,
recommended for application in first stage
propagation of Plus trees subsequent towhich other techniques can be used asneeded. It is not advisable to use budded
seedlings to directly establish clone bank,clonal test, or CSO due to the concerns ofincompatibility and possible contaminationof root stock plants if budded shoots havenot been monitored properly. Rooted
cutting is the cheapest, most successful, andeasiest method to propagate juvenile
material of teak but is less successful whenmature materials are used. In theestablishment of clone bank, clonal test, or
clonal seed orchards, where a large number

IntroductionT

eak is one of the most preferred
species for plantation in Thailand
creating huge demand for high quality
planting stock across the country. Planting
stock across the country is produced bythree agencies, namely, farmers, Forest
Industrial Organization (FIO), and theRoyal Forest Department (RFD). A largepart is produced by the Reforestation
Promotion Office under the RFD producing
almost 4 million seedlings per year. The
second agency is small farmers in
Lampang, Khonkan, Uttaradit andPhitsanulok provinces totaling more than 2
million seedlings. The last agency is the
FIO whose central nursery for teak seedling
production is located at Mae Mohplantaion, Lampang, producing 450,000
seedlings per year. Most of seed sources forfarmers in Lampang are from unidentified
seed sources in Serm-ngam district ofLampamg province. None of the small
farmers use seed from improved seed
sources such as clonal seed orchard. Thereis one private company that uses teakseedlings from tissue culture of selectedmother trees but their number is not known.
The FIO produces 50,000 seedlings from its
tissue culture facility using genetically
improved material mostly for its own
plantations but the rest of 400,000 seedlings
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TEAK IN MEKONG

produced by it for sale are from unidentified
sources. The RFD uses mostly seeds fromunidentified sources for its nurseries with
only a small amount of seeds originatingfrom clonal seed orchard that are largely
used in its own plantations.

Good offspring, therefore, must come fromselected parent trees. In order to obtain thedesired characteristic of trees in plantations
the seedlings to be planted must be
propagated from Plus trees. Characteristics
of Plus trees selection are dependent on theend use of the wood produced from theplantations. Since teak fetches highest
prices when usable as veneer, marine
decking, furniture, etc., its stem form andwood texture are, therefore, important traits
for selection. The criteria to select stem
form are straightness, clear bole and axis
(Piyapant, 2001). Trees that are straightwith long clear bole, cylindrical axis, withless taper are desirable. Branchcharacteristics that affect stem form are size
and angle. Smaller bra nch andperpendicular angle trend to better prune
naturally resulting in longer clear bole.
Wood texture could be identified by thepattern of bark. Straight stripe patterndetermines the desired straight grain ofwood inside while spiral pattern indicates
twisted grain of wood that degrade thewood quality. Sample of plus tree andselection process is shown in Photo 9-1.

Thus, only a very small portion of teakseedlings use in Thailand is from genetically
improved seed sources. Fortunately, in 2018
the Research and Development Bureau
under the RFD initiated a scheme under the
ITTO Teak in Mekong training program toproduce 70,000 clonal seedlings from top
ten Plus trees selected after full-sib progeny
test for their growth and tree forms. These
seedlings are meant for small farmers in
Ban Huad sub-district group as stock plants
for producing their own new high-quality
seedlings. The ITTO Teak in Mekong
training program not only benefits the
project country partners but also a timely
help for small farmers to learn and practice
how to produce their own high quality
seedlings.
Plus Tree Selection
Passing the discrete units of inheritance,or genes, from parents to offspring is afundamental theory of inheritance(Miko, 2008).

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TEAK IN MEKONG

a

b

c

d

Photo 9-1 Plus tree selectiona) Natural teak forest as genetic resourceb) Sample of plus treec&d) Safety climbing to collect branch of plus tree for propagation

High buttress is more difficult to log whenharvesting and also leads to increased
harvesting losses in wood volume. No, or
low buttress, is, therefore, the desired trait
for selection. The buttress, however, often
occurs where a tree grows on loose soil inorder to provide stronger anchor which is a
desired trait.

borer attack or fungi attack are avoided.
Another important character is the growthof the tree which is easier while selecting
Plus trees in old plantations that enable
comparison of relative growth in candidate
trees because they are the same age and insame environment, except for the border
trees which grow bigger because of lesscompetition. Selection from natural forest,on the other hand, is less reliable due todifferent environment the candidate plus
trees encounters since germination until
selection. The biggest and the highest tree
is chosen giving due importance to the

When selecting Plus trees the selector must
look closely on the tree trunk from all
directions, from near and afar. Health of thetree is also taken into consideration whenselecting Plus trees. Trees with signs of120

TEAK IN MEKONG

height up to which marketable timber canbe obtained. At least 15 meter commercial
height is prescribed for Plus trees. The
location of the Plus tree selected should bedigitally recorded by using GPS and theinformation shared with field staff with
instructions to avoid any damage to the tree
and prevent its removal.

Application in teak improvement program
Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule
in mother, after fertilization by pollen fromthe father (Anon, 2019a). Genetic values inseeds are, therefore, inherited from bothfather and mother trees. The offspring
performances vary depending upon what
aspects are controlled by the parent gene.
The progeny can thus both be worse or
better than its parent in some specificrespects. This fact is utilized in tree
improvement when better off springs are
selected for next generation the seeds ofwhich are the end products of the programand are used to produce seedlings for theestablishment of seedlings seed orchard(Piyapant, 2001). Seeds from these seedorchards then become the main genetic
materials for plantation.

The phenotype of Plus tree selected is theoutcome of its genetic traits x environment
interactions during its growth. Therefore,
after selection, the Plus tree must be
examined to verify its higher genetic values
in clonal tests. A total of 636 plus trees wereselected in Thailand from both plantations
and natural forests throughout the country.
These Plus trees were propagated and planted
in clonal banks, tested through clonal tests,
established in clonal seed orchards, and tested
for their progeny performance in the form offull-sib and half-sib progeny tests.

Vegetative propagation
Seedlings propagated using other parts ofplant besides seed, or cloning, will maintainthe same genetic characteristic as motherplant (Anon, 2019b). These techniques,
therefore, does not improve genetic traits ofplants but can be used to multiply the already
improved ones. There are many techniques tovegetatively propagate teak such as budding,rooted cutting and tissue culture. Eachtechnique has advantages and disadvantages
and, therefore, suitable technique should be
used in order to gain the highest benefit.

Propagation Techniques of Teak Usedin Thailand
Propagation by Seed
Propagation by seed is the easiest techniqueto propagate teak because it is the natural
method of propagation (Kaosa-ard, 1983a).
Majority of plantation in Thailand were
propagated by seeds using both bare rooted
and containerized seedlings. Bare root
seedlings are called “stumps” which areprepared from 1-year-old seedlings raised inseed beds by cutting the stem and lateral roots
off retaining only the tap root with one or two
buds (Lauridsen, 1973; Lauridsen & Kaosaard, 1973). When the climate is more stableand plantation site is far from motorable road,stump planting is more practical and popular.
Nowadays, potted seedlings, produced
directly from seeds or from stumps, are more
often used due to variable weather. Potted
seedlings can be produced from stumps sized
less than 0.7 cm in diameter which is notsuitable for direct planting. Direct sowing ofseeds to produce potted seedlings is possible
but needs greater care and carries high risk offailure in germination and therefore, not a
popular method among small farmers.

Budding technique is the method that uses
grafting scion bud onto stock plant. The newplant is developed from the scion bud using
root system of the stock plant. T-budding
was the first technique used in Thailand
before Forkert and Open-two-flap techniques
were developed. Open-two-flap technique isused with bigger and more succulent buds
from the clone bank. Open-two-flap wasvery successful and used for a long time until
Chip-patch technique was developed whichlends itself to very fast paced application andis mostly in use now (Keiding & Boonkird,
1960a; Keiding & Boonkird, 1960b;
Bryndum, 1969; Hedegart et al., 1974;
Sumantakul, 1980; Kaosa-ard, 1983b).
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TEAK IN MEKONG

characteristic than the one taken from innercrown (Boonkird, 1964). Branches that
contain suitable buds are harvested andbrought back to nursery for grafting, kept ina sack and stored in cool place. They can be
kept under moist rice husk for a monthwithout damage (Piyapant, 2001). When
grafting on root stocks, the buds are cut inthe same shape and size as the chip-patch of
the root stock and then placed on to the slit
part of the stock. The two parts are then tied
together by plastic sheet leaving only thebud exposed (Pianhanurak et al., 1996).

Planting stock for teak budding
At the beginning of the Teak improvement
program stock plants were planted in clone
bank and clonal seed orchard 1 year prior to
budding procedure. The success was very
low and uneven. Later stumps of 1- year oldseedlings were successfully used asplanting stock (Hedegart et al., 1974). Sizeof stump should be the same size as scion.
To prepare stumps for budding, 1–3-yearold-seedlings are taken from seedling beds,
lateral roots pruned, and stem topped atabout 20-25 cm height. Chip-patches, about
3-5 cm long, are slit just above root collar
and grafted with scion bud patch(Pianhanurak et al., 1996). Stump can be
stored up to 3 days covered with moist sandbefore budding (Piyapant, 2001).

Raising of budded stumps
After planting the budded stumps incontainers, the buds are covered with asmall plastic bag to prevent moisture loss
from the bud (Pianhanurak et al., 1996).
The budded stumps are then raised in anursery with 50 percent shade (RFD, 2013).
Watering must be done regularly until thebuds sprout in about 1-3 weeks and all
shoot sprouts must be removed from theroot stock. When the scion buds sprouts, theplastic cover bag should be removed to let
the new shoot grow freely and prevent
sunburn (Piyapant, 2001). The budding
technique is shown in Photo 9-2.

Scion bud
The most suitable bud for grafting is the onethat just starts to sprout. Selection of Plustree, therefore, must be done during March
to April when the bud of teak starts tosprout (Hedegart et al., 1974). Buds takenfrom newly flush shoots (1-2 years) areeasier to graft and the buds taken from outercrown produce shoots that shows more twig

122

TEAK IN MEKONG

a

b

c

d

Photo 9-2 Teak budding process by patch grafting techniquesa) Preparation of root stock from 1 year-old bare root seedlingsb) Graft scion bud patch onto slit stock and tie with plastic ropec) Cover the budded seedling with plastic bag and planted in media then kept in nurseryd) Remove plastic bag after budded sprout, and get rid of buds sprouted from root stock

technique is not preferred. Budding
technique is not recommended for
propagation in a clonal test because the rootsystem does not belong to the tested plant.

Disadvantages of budding technique
Incompatibility due to the different growthrate of stock plant and scion, or fungal
infection at the joining part, sometimes
slow down the growth rate and even kill thescion shoot (Piyapant & Pianhanurak,
1994). Regular removal of sprout fromstock plant must be carried out to make sureno sprout from stock grows over the scionshoots.

Rooted cutting: A piece of the stem or rootof the source plant is placed in a suitablemedium such as moist soil. If the conditions
are suitable, the plant piece will begin togrow as a new plant independent of theparent, a process known as striking. A stem
cutting produces new roots, and a root
cutting produces new stems (Anon, 2019c).
In teak it is more difficult to induce root inmature branches than in juvenile material.
For propagation by cuttings of old Plus
trees, the branch identified for cutting mustfirst be rejuvenatedApplication of budding technique in teakimprovement program
Thailand has often used budding techniqueto establish clone bank, seed orchards, andclonal test but where rooted cutting andtissue culture of teak is possible, budding
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TEAK IN MEKONG(Pianhanurak et al., 1996) through serial
budding, tissue culture, serial cutting, or
hedging. For maintaining juvenile nature ofstock plants, hedge orchard of teak must be
planted in small plastic bag instead ofplanting in the field (Pianhanurak &Pianhanurak, 2000; Pianhanurak &Pianhanurak, 2002; Pianhanurak,
2002; Piyapant, 1999). The quality of cut
material in the controlled environment is a
critical factor affecting rooted cutting of teak.
The cutting materials must be juvenile, age
not more than 4 weeks after pruning, size ofstem less than 0.5 cm in diameter, leaves thin,
soft and covered with hair (Pianhanurak,
2002). To prepare cuttings, leaves aretrimmed to about one-third size to reducetranspiration, then apply rooting hormone for
10 second before being kept in rooting media.

Environment control
Non-mist propagators consisting of
bamboo frame covered with plastic sheet
are used to control relative humidity of the
air around the cuttings. Moisture content inrooting media is controlled by watering
until very wet before striking the cutting.
Temperature is controlled by providing
shade by a plastic sheet around the rooting
chamber and spraying water during the day
when the weather is hot. It is more desirable
to do cutting in rainy season since theweather is suitable for plant growth. If
nothing goes wrong roots will develop after
one month (Pianhanurak, 2002). The rooting
procedure is illustrated in Photo 9-3.

Photo 9-3 Rooted cutting processes of teak from rejuvenated materialsa) Preparation of rejuvenated shoots by trimming off half leaves and applied rooting hormoneb) Preparation of rooting media in non-mist propagatorsc) Temperature and humidity controlled during rooting periodd) Gradually remove shade to get full sunlight when the seedlings establish

124

TEAK IN MEKONG

2006. 200,000 seedlings were tissue
cultured as parent materials thenpropagated by cutting to produce up to
1,000,000 seedlings of the special trees togive out to people.

Application of rooted cutting technique inteak improvement program
After the success of the rooted cutting ofteak, it was applied in many occasions.
1. Prepare seedlings for 5 sets of clonal tests
which aim to evaluate the genotypic valueof plus trees by planting a range of them inthe same environment (thus removing“environment” as a factor in determining
their physical properties). The genotype
×environment interactioncan be examinedby replicating the clonal test at different
sites. Ultimately, the top-ranking clones canbe selected and propagated, for either
deployment in plantations or additional
improvement.

4. At present when new improved materials
were selected, tissue culture is used to
produce stock plants then cutting is themain activity to mass propagate teak for
distributing seedlings to farmers.
Tissue culture is a technique in whichsmall tissue pieces or organs are removed
from a donor plant and cultured asepticallyin a nutrient medium (Anon, 2019d). There
are four steps to do tissue culture of teak.
First step is sterilizing of explants into
initial stage medium. Second is the initialstage when the tissue adjusts to newenvironment to be ready for themultiplication stage and rooting stage.
Third is the multiplication and rooting stage
with a growth hormone added to the media
when the tissue becomes plantlet ready to
be multiplied or rooted. The last stage istransferring of plantlet to potting soil forfurther growth in the greenhouse as normal
plants (Kyte, 1990).

2. Clone bank where collection of plus trees
are planted, plus trees number 1 – 400 were
propagated by budding technique, fromnumber 401 and so on were propagated by
cutting technique. 3 clone banks that
established in 2009, the seedlings were also
propagated by rooted cutting.
3. The technique was used in combination
with tissue culture to produce special teakthat harvested to build the Giant Swing in125

TEAK IN MEKONG

a

b

c

d
Photo 9-4 Tissue culture processes of teaka) Sterilize technique of young shootb) Sterilize technique of young seedc) Teak tissue in multiplication staged) Out planting of plantlets to nursery

Explant of teak could be young seed,mature seed, axillary bud or shootmeristem. Each explant needs different
technique to sterilize and manipulation
during initial stage. Once the tissue reachmultiplication stage they all need the same
treatment (Pianhanurak, 2003). Medium for
culturing teak is Murashige and Skoog(MS) media (Murashige. & Skoog, 1962)
with Benzene Adenine Purine (BAP) 0.5
mg, Kinetin (Kn) 0.25 mg per liter and 7
percent agar for multiplication and without
hormone or with Indole Butyric Acid (IBA)
1 mg or Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA)
about 0.5 mg per liter in rooting stage(Pianhanurak, 2003) When transferring tonursery, however, the plantlet does not needroot. It is easier and more effective to cut
plantlet above agar level and root theplantlet in planting media. The sameenvironment control as rooted cutting isrequired for transplanting the plantlet. The
process of teak tissue culture is illustrated
in Photo 9-4.
Application of tissue culture technique inteak improvement program
The technique requires skill, experience,high technology equipment and high cost.
Plant to be propagated by this technique
should have high genetic value and selected
for planting on large scale since mass
production will reduce its cost. There arealso risks due to cleanliness of thelaboratory and stabilization of electric
supply to the laboratory. If these risks are
not controlled, the lab may lose a lot oftissue to contamination with microorganisms. It
is suggested to use tissue culture to produce
juvenile stock plants for rooted cutting.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Lessons Learned and Recommendations

possible contamination of root stock plants
if budded shoots have not been monitored
properly. This is best carried out incombination with rooted cutting or tissue
culture. The main purpose of budding is
to rejuvenile mature materials before
exposing to cutting or tissue culture forlarge scale multiplication of planting stock.

Plus tree selection is the most important
step of tree improvement program. Criteria
and standard of selection should be set up
carefully based on each country’s situationand expectations. The number of Plus trees
to be selected should be as large as possible
depending on the budget and humanresources. Selection should be done
throughout the available genetic resources,even exchanging the genetic material acrossthe countries of the Mekong sub-region, inorder to provide widest genetic base to theimprovement program. Training in
vegetative propagation by budding
technique should be organized before theselection of Plus trees so as to collectmaterials for propagation as soon as a Plustree is selected deep in remote forests toavoid frequent visit to the Plus tree again
soon after selection.

Rooted cutting is the cheapest, mostsuccessful, and easiest method to propagate
juvenile material of teak. It is lesssuccessful when mature materials are used.
In the establishment of clone bank, clonaltest, or clonal seed orchard where a large
number of clones but only a few seedlings
per clone are involved, it is recommended
to use budding technique to first rejuvenate
mature materials and then undertake rooted
cutting of the juvenile shoots to produce
seedlings. In the case of mass production ofelite plants, it is recommended to use tissue
culture to mass produce juvenile stock
plants for rooted cutting. When there areenough stock plants, rooted cutting is more
powerful than tissue culture.

Propagation by seeds is the easiest
technique and it plays an important role in
the improvement program as small farmers
use this technique to produce theirseedlings. It is, therefore, recommended toestablish more of high quality seed sources
such as seed orchard to produce enoughhigh quality seeds for plantation. Often
small farmers use seeds from unidentified
seed sources even as seeds from Clonal
Seed Orchards (CSO) remain stored in seedcenters until their viability is lost. To
promote use of CSO seeds, they should begiven free of cost, or at very low costs, tothe farmers.

Conclusion
Selection of plus trees should be done
carefully and thoroughly to cover all
available resources. Criteria and standard
for selection must be set up properly to get
the right trees for improvement program.
Using the right technique of propagation in
every step of improvement program is the
key to the success of genetic improvementof teak. Budding technique by Chip-patch
technique is the most successful when
propagating mature material. Budded
shoots are rejuvenated and become suitablefor carrying out rooted cutting or tissue
culture, the technique is, therefore,
recommended for application in first stage
propagation of Plus trees subsequent towhich other techniques can be used asneeded. It is not advisable to use budded
seedlings to directly establish clone bank,clonal test, or CSO due to the concerns ofincompatibility and possible contamination

Teak can be vegetatively propagated byvarious techniques. Budding is the mostsuccessful when propagating maturematerial because the budded shoots are
rejuvenated and become suitable forcarrying out rooted cutting or tissue culture.
The technique is, therefore, recommended
for application in first stage propagation of
Plus trees subsequent to which othertechniques can be used if needed. It is notadvisable to use budded seedlings directly
to establish clone bank, clonal test, or CSO
due to the concerns of incompatibility and127

TEAK IN MEKONG

of root stock plants if budded shoots havenot been monitored properly. Rooted
cutting is the cheapest, most successful, andeasiest method to propagate juvenile
material of teak but is less successful whenmature materials are used. In theestablishment of clone bank, clonal test, or
clonal seed orchards, where a large numberof clones but only a few seedlings per clone
are involved, it is recommended to use
rooted cutting of the rejuvenile shoots to
produce seedlings. In the case of mass
production of elite plants, it is preferable touse tissue culture to produce juvenile stock
plants for rooted cutting. When there areenough stock plants, rooted cutting is more
useful than tissue culture.

2 May 1983. Silvicultural Research SubDivision, Royal Forest Department,
Bangkok, Thailand.
Kaosa–ard, A. (1983b). Teak Improvement
Programme Annual Report. Nos. 15–16.
October 1980–September 1982.
Silvicultural Research Sub-Division,
Royal Forest Department, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Keiding, H. & Boonkird, S. (1960a).
Vegetative Propagation of Teak. Unasylva,
14, 193-194.
Keiding, H. & Boonkird, S. (1960b).
Budding and grafting of teak. Document,
third session of the Teak Sub-commission,
New Delhi, India.
Kyte, L. (1990). Plant from Test Tubes.
Timber Press, Portland.

References

Lauridsen, E. B. (1973). Teak plants
survive and grow well after storage. T.I.C.
Report 1973, TIC, Ngao, Lampang.

Anon. (2019a). Seeds.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed.
(accessed by 20 August 2019).

Lauridsen, E. B. & Kaosa-ard, A. (1973).
Underground storage of teak stumps.
T.I.C. Report 1973, TIC, Ngao, Lampang.

Anon. (2019b). Cloning.
https://www.thaibiotech.info/what-iscloning.php (accessed 20 August 2019).

Miko, I. (2008) Gregor Mendel and theprinciples of inheritance. Nature
Education, 1(1), 134.

Anon. (2019c). Plant Cutting.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Cutting_(plant) (accessed 20 August2019).

Murashige, T. & Skoog, F. (1962). A
revised medium for rapid growth andbioassays with tobacco tissue cultures.
Physio Plant, 15(6), 473-497.

Anon. (2019d). Tissue Culture.
https://www.shutterstock.com/th/
search/plant +tissue+culture?page=2(accessed 20 August 2019).

Pianhanurak, C. (2003). Teak Tissue
Culture Techniques. Academic documents
accompanying requests for assessment of
persons to be forest academics positions 8
W. Technical group, Protected Areas
Regional Office 13, Department of
National Parks, Wildlife and Plant
Conservation, Bangkok, Thailand. 107 p.

Boonkird, S. (1964). Progress report on thefirst teak tree-show in Thailand. Natural
History Bulletin of the Siam Society, 20(4),243-256.
Bryndum, K. (1969). Budding of teak.
Indian Forester, 95(3), 155-157.
Hedegart, T., Wangtara, B. &Yingvanasiri, T. (1974). Budded/Potted
Teak Stock. The Vanasarn, 32(4), 337341.

Pianhanurak, P. & Pianhanurak, C. (2000).
Special Techniques and Some Important
Factors on The Success of Mature Teak
Cutting in Non-mist Propagators. In
Annual report on Silvicultural Research
year 2000., pp. 177-189. Silvicultural

Kaosa–ard, A. (1983a). Nursery
Techniques of Teak. Forestry Review, No.
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Research Division, Forest Research Office,Royal Forest Department, Bangkok,
Thailand.

documents accompanying requests forassessment of persons to be forest
academics positions 7 W. Silvicultural
Research Division, Forest Research Office,Royal Forest Department, Bangkok,
Thailand.

Pianhanurak, P. & Pianhanurak, C. (2002).
Hedge Orchard Management for Rooted
Cutting of Teak Plus Tree. In 7th
Silvicultural Research Seminar
Proceeding on Silvicultural Practice for
Economics Plantation, 12-14 December
2001. Silvicultural Research Division,
Forest Research Office, Royal Forest
Department. Bangkok, Thailand.

Piyapant, P. (1999). A Preliminary Studyon Rejuvenationof Teak by the budding
technique, pp/ 9-16. Academic documents
accompanying requests for assessment of
persons to be forest academics positions 7
W. Silvicultural Research Division, Forest
Research Office, Royal Forest Department,
Bangkok, Thailand.

Pianhanurak, P. (2002). Rooted Cutting
Technique for Genetic Improvement of
Teak. Academic documents accompanying
requests for assessment of persons to beforest academics positions 8 W.
Silvicultural Research Division, Forest
Research Office, Royal Forest Department,
Bangkok, Thailand. 77 p.

Piyapant, P. (2001). Teak Improvement inThailand. Academic documents
accompanying requests for assessment of
persons to be forest academics positions 8
W. Silvicultural Research Division, Forest
Research Office, Royal Forest Department,
Bangkok, Thailand. 179 p.

Pianhanuruk, P., Piyaphan, P. &Pianhanuruk, C. (1996). A Preliminary
Study of Rejuvenation of Teak by the
Budding Technique. ASEAN Forest Tree
Seed Centre, Saraburi, Thailand. 7 p.

RFD (Royal Forest Department). (2013).
Thai Teak Knowledge. Thailand’s
Agriculture and Co-operatives Printing
Ltd, Bangkok. Thailand. 302 p.

Piyapant, P. & Pianhanurak, C. (1994).
Effects of clones on budding methods on
Incompatibility and Fungal Infection in
Teak (Tectona grandis Linn.) at 4
Different Ages, pp. 1-8. Academic-

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Chapter 10: Technique for Controlled Hand-Pollination ofTeak (Tectona grandis L.f.)
Suwan Tangmitcharoen

Abstract

approximately 2 016 ha of seed orchard exist,
the demand for improved quality seed andplanting stock far exceeds supply.

Teak plantation has been expanding
rapidly, resulting in an increased
demand for the high-quality seed. Thailand
has begun a tree improvement program
since 1965. Although seed orchards exist,
the demand for improved quality seed andplanting stock exceed supply. Plus tree
selection and clonal tests were establishedthroughout the range of Thailand.
Fortunately, efforts have been made tobreed and test these selected clones. To
accomplish the breeding strategy, effective
and cost-efficient techniques for controlled
pollination are necessary. This paper isbased on controlled pollination of teakconducted since 1992 mainly at theASEAN Forest Tree Seed Centre inSaraburi province and a teak seed orchard
at Phayao. It provides information on
background information i.e. phenology,
pollination fruit set, seed development,materials and supplies required for handpollination, planning the pollination
activities, hand-pollination technique,monitoring of fruit set including practicalconstraint and recommendations. Theseshould be of benefit to all breeders or
researchers involved in teak improvement
programs and related research. The
information also could provide field staff
with the current knowledge of teakflowering and to serve as a “how-to" guidefor controlled hand-pollination of teak.

The clonal orchards have been established bybud grafting and cutting techniques selectedindividuals from native stands throughout
the range in Thailand. Effort has been madeto breed and test these selected clones. The
RFD also plans to test over 500 selectedclones, and strategies have been designed topromote hybrid vigor and to test thebreeding population using full-sib and halfsib mating. To accomplish this, effective
and cost-efficient techniques for controlled
pollination are necessary.
This chapter on controlled hand-pollination
is based on controlled pollination of teakconducted from 1992 to 1996 at two
locations, a plantation near the ASEAN
Forest Tree Seed Centre (AFTSC) in
Saraburi Province and a teak seed orchard
at Payao in northern Thailand, under a study
involving production of full-sib families fromcontrolled-crossing pollination of teak(Tangmitcharoen et al., 2001) and from a
review of existing literature. The objective
is to provide field staff with the current
knowledge of teak flowering and to serve asa “how-to" guide for controlled handpollination of teak.
BackgroundPhenology of teak
The phenology of teak varies across its
natural range depending on the climaticconditions. In India, for example, new leaves
appear in June and July followed by theflowering period during September andOctober. Fruit development ends inNovember and maturation in March while
fruit shed occurs during April and May(Seth & Kaul, 1978). In Indonesia,
flowering occurs in February and March,

IntroductionTo meet the fast-increasing demand forhigh-quality seed in Thailand, theRoyal Forest Department (RFD) has begun
an intensive tree improvement program
based on the extensive seed orchards andseed production areas established innorthern Thailand since 1965. Although
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followed by fruit development in April andMay. Fruits mature during June throughAugust and fruit is shed in September(Palupi, 1996). In Thailand, teak flowering
occurs during July and August and thefruits mature from November throughFebruary with seed fall occurring in Marchand April (Hedegart, 1976).

Floral morphology
Unlike most other tree species, teak begins
fructification with an inflorescenceemerging on the main axis of a young tree
(Syrach-Larsen, 1966). The inflorescence is alarge panicle containing up to a few thousand
flower buds. As only 1-3% of the flowers in an
inflorescence bloom each day, anthesis for theentire inflorescence occurs over a 1-to-2month period, depending on the size. Flowers
are small (6-8 mm in diameter), whitish,
actinomorphic, and hermaphroditic. The
lower half of the corolla is undivided,
forming a tube to which 6-7 stamens areattached (Photo 10-1). The pistil iscomposed of a hairy ovary containing 4
ovules and a long (6.55 mm), narrow,bifurcate style with a forked stigma. The
forked stigma is of the wet papillate typewith unicellular papillae (Bryndum &Hedegart, 1969; Tangmitcharoen & Owens,
1997a).

The source of the planted stand growing at the
AFTSC in Muak-Lek, and used for this study,
was northeast Thailand. In Muak-Lek, leaf
shedding occurs November through January
and the trees remain leafless through the hot,dry season. The new leaves appear in April
through June. The trees begin to flower a monthearlier (in June) than in the north. Floweringcontinues through the first half of the rainyseason and ends in August. The fruit maturesfrom September to February and is shed during
the hot, dry season from March to April.
Bryndum & Hedegart (1969) have suggested
that since flowering occurs during the rainyseason, heavy rains are likely to have adeleterious effect on pollination.

Photo 10-1 Inflorescence and flower: Large panicle of teak inflorescence showing high rate of fruit abortion,
which commonly occurs in self- and open pollination (left); Teak flowers at receptivity showing six
stamens and petals and straight style; and, one day after receptivity after corolla abscised (right)

The peak receptive period for teak flowers is1100 to 1300 h. The bent style is the first organ
to emerge as the flowers open. It fully extends
between 1100 and 1300 h and exceeds thelength of the anthers. Corollas begin to abscise
about 1900 h, or earlier in windy conditions,and about 95% of the open corollas are shed by
2300 h.

Receptivity and stigma development
The phenology of individual teak flowers
during the day of receptivity is provided in Box
1. Individual flowers are weakly protandrous.
Anthesis begins at 0700 h with anthers starting
to dehisce at 0800 h, approximately 3 hours
before the corolla is completely open andstigma receptivity begins (11.00 h).
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Box 1 The phenology of individual T. grandis flowers during the day of receptivity.
Time of day Events
0400
flowers closed; style coiled
0500
nectar forms within the lower part of the corolla
0700
flowers begin to open
0800
anthers begin to dehisce
1100-1300
peak receptive period•corolla completely open
•style straight•stigma reflexed and turgid•hydration of pollen on stigma
1500
post-receptive period-stigma tip dry and collapsed
1700
anthers collapse, nectar disappears
1900
corolla begins to shed
Source: Tangmitcharoen & Owens (1997a)
pollinators, although various kinds of flies
and butterflies are also implicated (Bryndum &Hedegart 1969). Tangmitcharoen & Owens(1997a) found that the major pollinators are
Ceratina sp., which carry teak pollen on mostparts of their bodies, but especially on the tibia.
They collect pollen by foraging on several
newly opened flowers in one inflorescenceand travel among inflorescences and trees.
Most, however, tend to forage and stay on
the same tree for a long period of time.

Pollen morphology and pollen
germination
Pollen is medium tricolpate but varies
somewhat in size and shape dependingon the amount of hydration. Dehydrated
pollen is semiangular, ranging in size
from 12-29 µm (average 19.94 µm) as seenin polar view, and oval, perprolate to prolate,
ranging in size from 24.24-48 µm (average
39.79 µm) in equatorial view. Shortly after
landing on the stigma, pollen hydrates andexpands due to secretion presented by thestigma papillae. Hydrated pollen isspherical to oblate or suboblate in bothpolar and equatorial views, and ranges insize from 16.8-36 µm (average 28.84 µm).
Pollen kitt (a sticky coating) is often found on
the mature teak pollen surface, particularly
during the early receptive period (1100 h).
Pollen released at 1100 h (4 hours after
anthesis) has the highest viability (92.2%).
Pollen viability gradually decreases after 1100
h. Three days (84 hours) after flower opening,pollen is no longer viable (Tangmitcharoen &Owens, 1997b).

In large teak plantations, low populations ofpollinators and self-pollinations are thought
to be the causes of poor pollination success.
In trees located near roads in roadsideplantations, and in agricultural fields, fruit
production can be high, possibly as a resultof a greater number of pollinators,
favorable site conditions (Suangtho &Lauridsen, 1990), and a higher incidence ofcross-pollination.
In general, fruit production following open
pollination is low compared to that obtainedin controlled cross-pollination. Based oninvestigations carried out at the Teak
Improvement Center (TIC) during 1962-72,
natural open pollination resulted in only 0.4 5.1% (average 1.3%) of flowers developing
into fruits. Studies on controlled pollinationin teak were pioneered by Bryndum &Hedegart (1969) who described a procedure
for controlled pollination using small bags
to isolate single flowers and large bags

Pollination and fruit production
Many studies have reported that teak is insectpollinated (Horne, 1961; Bryndum &Hedegart, 1969; Cameron, 1968; Egenti,
1974; Kedarnath, 1974). In Thailand, two bee
species, Heriades binghami and Ceratina
hirrglyphica are reported to be the main132

TEAK IN MEKONG

stretched over a bamboo frame to isolate an
entire inflorescence. The first success ofcontrolled hand-pollination was reported by
Hedegart (1973). He indicated that withhand-pollination, the percentage of flowers
developing into fruits increased from 6 to
60% (average 20%). Tangmitcharoen &Owens (1996) also reported success of handcontrolled cross-pollination (14.54%).

pollination when the cotyledons become thickand fill the ovule cavity. Fruit moisture
content is declining during this period,
indicating the end of the seed development
stage and the beginning of the maturation
stage.
The period from flowering to fruit maturationin Thailand varies between 4 and 7.5 months,
which is similar to that in northern India (78 months) (Seth and Kaul 1978), and that inIndonesia (6 months) (Palupi, 1996). In all
three locations, flowering occurs during therainy season and fruit reaches maturation in
the dry season. In northern Thailand, fruits
develop to full size approximately 50 days(about 7 weeks) after pollination and another70-150 days (10-21 weeks) is required formaturation, for a total of about 120-200
days (17-28 weeks) (Hedegart, 1976).

Fruit and seed development
Palupi (1996) found that fertilization
occurs within 24 hours of pollination.
The early endosperm develops soon after
fertilization and fills the whole embryo sac
within 1 week after pollination. The zygote
starts to develop into a proembryo 3 days
after pollination.
The major cause of fruit and seed abortion is
failure in endosperm development.
Undeveloped early endosperm causes zygote
abortion, and a lack of, or abnormal,
endosperm development results in embryo
abortion. Palupi also suggested that failure
in endosperm development may be
attributed to selfing. Teak ovules reach
their maximum size 8 to 11 weeks after
pollination, which coincides with the
maximum fruit diameter. The maximum
embryo size is reached 14 to 16 weeks after

Types of pollination
Natural or open pollination implies nohuman interference, while controlled
pollination requires some human input.
Though controlled pollination can be
conducted in various ways depending upon
the objectives, hermaphroditic flowers are
generally subjected to the following
treatments:

Type of pollination

Treatments

Natural (open)

no human manipulation

Controlled•flowers isolated from foreign pollen by bagging•flowers bagged and emasculated (anthers removed)

Self —autogamous—geitonogamous

flowers not emasculated, pollen from the same flower applied
flowers emasculated, pollen from different flowers of thesame tree applied
flowers emasculated, pollen from another tree applied

Cross —allogamous

Materials and Supplies Required for
Hand-Pollination

supplies is critical to ensure a smooth
operation. Access to flowers must be
ensured and pollination supplies must be
available and prepared.

Controlled hand-pollination activities are
fairly complex and are usually conducted inareas, such as clonal seed orchards, where
immediate access to equipment, materials andsupplies is limited. Advanced planningand purchase of required materials andReaching the flowers with scaffolding
To conduct controlled pollinations, it isnecessary to have easy access to the flowers
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and to be able to spend time safely andreasonably comfortably within theflowering crown. Fixed scaffolding isprobably the most effective method.
Scaffolding can be made of bamboo or
steel. Bamboo is an inexpensive material;
however, it is rather difficult to erect andusually deteriorates after about 1 year ofuse. On the other hand, steel scaffolding(Photo 10-3) is more expensive initially, but

is easy to erect, is very secure, and does notdeteriorate with time. It is more economicalin the long run. The number of sections
required depends on the height and form of
the tree, intensity of inflorescence in the
canopy, and size of inflorescence. Eachsection provides about 1.7 m of height. An
adjustable base, which allows easier andmore secure scaffold installation, is highly
recommended.

Photo 10-2 Access to flowers of 40 year-old teak using street scaffolds which should be elected soonafter emerging of flower bud (July)

Isolating the flowers with pollination bags

Identifying and marking flowers forpollination

To exclude natural pollinators and ensure only
the chosen pollen is available to the flowers to
be bred, the flowers must be isolated with
pollination bags. Of the various types ofpollination bags, cellophane or fine mesh nets
has been found to be appropriate. It can also
be obtained easily from an ordinary
stationery store.

Inflorescences and flowers within
inflorescences must be identified and wellmarked or tagged so that there is no doubt
about the pedigree of the fruit when it ismature. The tags must be unique and durable
so that the identity of the pollen parent is known
throughout the process. Color-fast, lightweight, pliable yet durable crochet string has
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been found to be suitable. The yarn comes inspools of many colors. The string should be
cut into approximately 6-in. lengths to easetagging work. If colors are limited, acombination of two or more pieces of the samecolor or a combination of colors can be used toincrease the number of individual labels.

take several years. The orchards will have tobe well mapped with each tree clearly
identified by clone and provenance oforigin. In addition, it is important thatdetailed phenology of each clone beavailable. To date there is no information forpollen storage of teak so controlled
pollination will be with fresh pollen.
Synchronization of the flowering period ofpollen donor and mother tree is obviously
an important consideration when selecting
clones for each year's pollination program.
The annual breeding plan must clearly
outline which clones are selected as pollen
donors, which clones are selected as mothertrees, and which pollen parents are to be
crossed with each selected mother tree. To
ensure an adequate number of seeds areavailable for progeny testing, each specificcross has to be repeated many times overthe course of a breeding season.

Handling and manipulating flowers withforceps
Teak flowers, particularly the stamens,
anthers, pistils, and stigmas are very small andfragile. The recommended way for handlingand manipulating the flowers is by using
forceps. Forceps should be approximately
4-5 in. long with a fine point and should be
nonsticking.
Observing pollen on stigma
Observation of pollen adhering to thestigma may be required to ensure thesuccess of pollen application and toinvestigate the success of emasculation toensure no contamination with self-pollen oneach stigma The use of a 10x magnifying glassin the field will help determine pollination
success. Flowers may be collected and taken
to the field office where the use of a zoom
stereo microscope will provide a clear
image of the stigmatic surface.

Selection of ramets
The breeding plan will outline which clones
are to be tested each year. Within eachclone, a number of ramets are available andchoices must be made. Criteria for ramet
selection will vary depending on materials
and supplies available. The following
should be considered when choosing
ramets:• pollen parents and mother trees should
be reasonably close as travel between thetwo will be required• ease of accessibility to the trees andflowers, i.e. near road or trail and on
reasonably level ground to facilitate
scaffold construction• sufficiently mature with a history offlowering in the recent past so that
adequate numbers of inflorescences arelikely to be produced. It may be that
more than one ramet of each clone will
be required to ensure an adequate
number of inflorescences. The use of
substantial branches on mature ramets isessential to complete fruit maturation.
Small branches of recent grafts may not
be capable of providing sufficient

Planning the Pollination Activities
Controlled pollinations conducted within
breeding programs are very time sensitive. The
window for pollination is often short soadvanced planning of all aspects is critical.
A mating or breeding plan which identifies
clones to be tested must be in place, ramets
must be selected; access to adequate
numbers of inflorescences and flowers
achieved, and staff training in thepollination techniques must be provided.
The breeding plans
The strategies for the breeding and testing ofclones within the tree improvement program
must be clearly defined. Conducting
controlled hand-pollinations is a very timeconsuming operation and it is likely that only
a few clones can be bred and tested each year.
To test the entire available population may
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nutrients throughout the 4 to 7.5 monthsof fruit development.
• crown size and height of tree should bereasonable to facilitate access.

better to use new inflorescences each day to
avoid damaging the previously pollinatedflowers.

Timing and erection of scaffolding

Cellophane or fine mesh nets is appropriatematerials for making pollination bags.
Cellophane is available in sheets of 31 x 34 in.
To make pollination bags, the cellophane sheets
are cut in 2 pieces (31 x 17 in.) and each pieceis folded to produce a bag of 15.5 x 17 in. The
two sides are held together with transparent
tape. A few smaller sized bags should also be
prepared for use on smaller panicles.

Preparation of pollination bags

Scaffolding must be erected on both pollen
donor tress and mother trees so flowers forpollen can be collected, and controlled handpollination can be conducted. Although theclones and the ramets will have been
selected in advance, it is recommended that
scaffolding be erected after the appearanceof sufficient inflorescences to complete thepollination work. Setting up scaffolding
prior to visible inflorescences is risky sincesome selected ramets may not produce
sufficient flowers to meet needs.

The number of pollination bags to be prepared
will depend on the number of trees to be tested
and the number of inflorescences per tree
available for pollination on a daily basis. The
cellophane pollination bags can be used
twice but are prone to breakage with greateruse. The required number of bags per tree will
be about 75 (5 inflorescenes x 30 day ÷2). It isbest to ensure that more than enoughpollination bags are available for thepollination program.

The scaffolding should be erected and placedso that an adequate number of inflorescence(10 to 20) is easily accessible, and the
climbing and pollination work can be
conducted in an unhindered fashion. Wooden
platforms should be installed at appropriate
levels on the scaffolding to provide some
comfort, and the scaffold structure should
be firmly attached to surrounding trees with
guy-wires if height exceeds 7 m (4 sections)to ensure complete safety. Guy-wires
should be well flagged to prevent injury.

Record keeping
Keeping accurate and detailed records of all
pollination activities and having excellent
clone maps is an absolute necessity. The
truism" if in doubt, throws it out" should never
be heard. Detailed records, i.e., a diary, should
be kept on a daily basis. Initially, all activities
and problems encountered, as well as
weather, should be recorded. During theperiod of pollination, details on daily pollen
donors, pollen collection time, mother trees
selected, inflorescence and flowers chosen,cross-pollinations made with identifying
string colors, time of emasculation andpollination, weather at the time ofpollination, and any problems (e.g. withequipment or supplies) should be recorded
as well. A well-kept diary may help to
explain variation in seed set, will ensure thepedigree of all genetic material (mature
fruit), and will be of great benefit insubsequent years to reduce operational
problems.

How much can be accomplished in a day?
Due to the short daily receptive period(1100-1300 h - see Box 1), one person can
expect to hand-pollinate only about 30-60
flowers a day depending on experience.
Approximately 7 -15 flowers per
inflorescence open each day. Thus, aroundfive inflorescences on a single mother tree
should be selected for every day ofpollination. Selection and marking
of inflorescences and flowers within
inflorescence will be completed in the earlymorning. As only 1-3% of the flowers in an
inflorescence bloom each day, pollination
work will likely be done every day forabout 1 month to complete the breedingplan. Inflorescence can be repeatedly used,
due to newly opening flowers; however, if
sufficient inflorescences are available, it is136

TEAK IN MEKONG

Training staff in pollination techniques

Marking flowers

Hand-pollination of teak is meticulous andtedious work. Staff cannot become skilled
and effective quickly. It is necessary toclearly demonstrate the technique both in
the lab and in the field prior to pollination
activities. Special emphasis and care must beplaced on the emasculation, bagging, andpollen application procedures. Intensive
training at the beginning will lead to successful
pollinations.

Individual flowers must be marked torecord the pedigree of the cross. As
recommended earlier, flowers should bemarked, tagged, or labeled using coloredstring. At the time of selection in the earlymorning (by 0700 h) on the day ofpollination, the appropriate colored string istied to the pedicel (Photo 10-3) of each
unopened flower that is to be pollinated.
Different colors are used to identify bothpollen parent and day of pollination.
Tagging should be done carefully andlightly to avoid damaging fragile flowers.

Pollination successTangmitcharoen & Owens (1997b) suggested
that pollination success was greater in flowers
which opened during the early and peakflowering seasons than in those which openedat the end of the flowering season. As such,to catch the early flowering season, all the
preparations, including the breeding plan,
selection of ramets, staff training,equipment and supplies, must be completed
in advance and be fully operational as thetrees begin to flower.
Hand-Pollination Technique
The following tasks are listed in order ofdaily occurrence:

Photo 10-3 Marking flowers using coloredstring tied to the pedicel of an unopened
flower. Marking should be completed
by 07.00 h

Selecting inflorescence and flowers on themother tree
As pollination success is greater during theearly and peak flower seasons, pollination
should be done only on those flowers which
bloom in these seasons, i.e. only on thoseflowers on the innermost or proximal portionof the inflorescence. The most distal flowers
on an inflorescence should not be pollinatedas little success will occur. Selection of
flowers on an inflorescence should be done
prior to flower opening, i.e. by 0700 h.

Installing pollination bags
The pollination bags of various sizes havebeen prepared in advance. The purpose ofpollination bags is to isolate the flowers thatare to be pollinated that day frompollinators so there is no chance ofcontamination. The cellophane pollinationbags are placed over the group of open
flowers (approximately 7 - 1 5 flowers per
inflorescence) to exclude all potential
pollinators (Photo 10-4).

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Collecting flowers from the pollen donor
Though pollen released at 1100 h has thehighest viability (92.2%) (Tangmitcharoen& Owens (1997b), flowers should be collected
as they open, i.e. 0800 - 0900h. As dry windy
weather will cause pollen to dehisce, earlycollection of pollen-donor flowers ensuresthat the pollen will remain in the anthers.
Early collection also provides time toprepare for pollination activities.
Flowers are carefully and gently cut at thepedicel using fine forceps. Removal offlowers should be done gently to avoid
dispersion of pollen from the anthers.
Ensure that more than enough flowers arecollected to pollinate all the flowers on eachmother tree. Pollen-donor flowers are used
only once so it is necessary to collect atleast one pollen-donor flower for eachmother-tree flower to be pollinated thatday. Collected flowers from the same tree
can be stored together in a small plastic
container. The container must be handled
and stored carefully to avoid contamination
by insect visitors or damage from wind andrain. The container can be stored at ambient
temperature in the shade without any
special treatment since pollen viability
remains high until approximately 1 5 0 0 h(Tangmitcharoen & Owens, 1997b). The
container must be well identified with thepollen parent.

Photo 10-4 Pollinated flowers are enclosed ina cellophane bag to exclude all potential
pollinators. The bag should be removed thefollowing day

Emasculating treatments
Anthers of flowers to be used as female
parents have to be removed prior to bagging toeliminate the possibility of self-pollination.
Using fine forceps, the undehisced stamens
are removed from the newly opened flowers
between 0600 and 0700 h on the day ofpollination. Emasculation should be
conducted gently and carefully to avoid
dispersion of pollen from anther to stigma of
the same flower.
Pollination bags should be attached as soon
as possible after emasculation and markingof flowers to prevent pollen contaminationfrom any insect visitors. If more than one bag
is contemplated (maximum 2) on an
inflorescence, great care must be taken to
avoid breaking inflorescences and thepollination bags should be positioned on
opposite sides. Plastic wrapping string is used
to secure the bag to the inflorescence and to
close the open end of the bag.

Pollination treatments
All receptive flowers (7 - 1 5 ) within eachbag will be given the some treatment.
Within each bag, all the flowers will becontrols (pollen excluded), self-pollinated,or cross-pollinated. During the time thepollination bag is off the flowers, it isimportant to keep natural pollinators awayfrom the flowers.

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Reinstall pollination bag
After applying pollen, pollination bags arereinstalled. It is necessary to reinstall thebags immediately upon completion ofpollen application to each individual groupof flowers to avoid contamination. To
prevent build up or heat, which would
damage the stigma, the bag and pollinatedflowers should not be in contact with one
another. After reinstallation, the next
inflorescence can be pollinated.
Removal of pollination bag
Since fertilization occurs within 24 hours
after pollination, the bag should be
removed the day following pollination.
Monitoring of fruit set
After controlled, self-or cross-pollination, theflowers are observed through fruit
development until maturity (every day for the
first month and every week thereafter). The
purpose of regular monitoring is to record fruit
set, fruit abortion, and, if possible, the causesof fruit abortion. Generally, the rate of fruit
abortion is relatively high during the first two
weeks following pollination and possible
causes of fruit abortion (insect damage, wind,heavy rain) can usually be determined. During
this time, fruit development should bemonitored and recorded daily. After fruit
reaches full size (5 0 days), fruit abortion
gradually decreases. Observation can be done
every week thereafter until fruit maturation
Causes of fruit abortion should be recorded
throughout the study.

Photo 10-5 Controlled pollination by brushingan anther against the stigma of a receptive
flowerPollen application at mother tree
Pollen application should be conducted at
the peak of the receptive period, i.e.1100 h(Box 1). Each bag is temporarily removed,
one at a time, from the receptive flowers forabout 10-15 minutes for hand-pollination.
A pollen-donor flower is grasped by thecalyx with the forceps. The anthers are thenrubbed on the receptive stigmas of themarked flowers to be pollinated (Photo 105). To ensure that sufficient pollen istransferred, all six anthers on a flower are
rubbed on the receiving stigma. The pollendonor flower is then discarded. This
operation is repeated using another pollendonor flower on another marked flower
until all open marked flowers in the bag
have been pollinated.

Practical Constraints
Loss flowers or fruit after pollination
Premature loss of fruit after pollination canoccur for different reasons. Common
events, causes, and some suggestion to
reduce loss are identified in Box 9-2.

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Box 9-2 Causes and suggestions to reduce premature loss of flowers and fruit
EventsBroken inflorescences with
pollen bag
attachedCausestrong wind, heavy rain

Fruit damage

insects feeding on fruit

Unusual loss of pollinatedflowers

using the outermost flowersof the inflorescence at theend of flowering season

Suggestion• choose light material formakingpollination bag, i.e.
cellophane• remove bags the day after
all ofthe open flowers in the bag
arepollinated• support inflorescenceweight bytying inflorescence to mainbranch• apply insecticide to inflo
rescence• use flowers which open
duringthe early and peak floweringseasons• use only flowers which
occur inthe main body of
inflorescence

Ideally, fruit set from cross-pollination
should be high. This, however, may not betrue for many tropical forest species. Poor
fruit set may be caused by three factors: anartifact of hand-pollination (Bawa et al.,1985), a predetermined abortion rate (Bawa& Webb, 1984), and inbreeding depression
from close relative cross-pollination (Haber& Frankie, 1982). In teak, these factors may
have contributed to relatively high (80-85%)
fruit abortion with cross-pollination(Hedegart, 1973; Tangmitcharoen & Owens,
1997b; Tangmitcharoen et al., 2001).

receptive period. As such, the controlled
pollination operation should be flexible tocoincide with anthesis and receptivity.

Delay of pollination operation due to poor
weatherConclusion

Worker expertise
Hand-pollination of teak flowers is tediousand time-consuming work. Success of fruit
set can vary depending on the attention andexpertise of personnel who are conducting
pollination Personnel effectiveness can beenhanced with proper training, good support,
and a secure platform on which to work.

Controlled pollination is one of theprocedures of teak breeding program
essential to produce new breeds of selectedclones for producing upgraded genetic
materials. Therefore, effective and costefficient techniques of controlled-handpollination are necessary. RFD has

Since the peak of the flowering season ofteak occurs during the rainy season, rain
is an unavoidable obstacle to pollination
work On a rainy day, hand-pollination cannot
be conducted Cloudy weather may delay
flower-opening time, anthesis, and the140

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conducted teak controlled pollination since
1992 and already successfully produces ten
new breeds and producing some of these
improved genetic materials to the tree
farmers. This paper which composed ofmajor activities of hand controlledpollination such as information related topollination, materials and supplies requiredfor hand-pollination, planning ofpollination activities, hand-pollination
technique, fruit set monitoring including
practical constraints could be supported asa manual on conducting controlled-crosspollination. It also could provide field staff
with the current knowledge of teakflowering and to serve as a “how-to" guidefor controlled hand-pollination of teak andshould be benefit to all breeders involved inteak improvement programs and related
research.

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Pollination of Leuken (Tiliaceae) in Costa
Rican deciduous Forest: significance ofadapted and non-adapted pollinators.
Ecology, 63, 1740-1750.
Hedegart, T. (1973). Pollination of teak(Tectona grandis L.) 2. Silvae Genetica,
22(4), 124-128.
Hedegart, T. (1976). Breeding systems,
variation and genetic improvement of teak(Tectona grandis L.f). In Tropical trees,
variation, breeding and conversation,
Linn. Soc. Symp. Series 2. (eds. J. Burley& B.T. Styles), pp. 109-124. Academic
Press, New York, USA.
Horne, J. E. M. (1961). Teak in Nigeria
Nigerian Forestry Infor. Bull. (New series)
16.
Kedarnath, S. (1974). Genetic improvementof forest tree species in India. India J.
Genetics. Proc. 2nd General Congress,
Sarrao, New Delhi, India. 34p.

References
Bawa, K. S. & Webb, C. J. (1984). Flower,
fruit and seed abortion in tropical forest
trees: implications for the evolution ofpaternal and maternal reproductive
patterns. American Journal of Botany,
71(5), 736-751.

Palupi, E. (1996). Reproductive biology ofteak (Tectona grandis L.) in East Java,
Indonesia. MSc thesis. University ofVictoria, B.C., Canada.
Seth, S. K. & Kaul, O. N. (1978). Tropicalforest ecosystem in India: The teak forest
in tropical forest ecosystems. Natural
Resources Research, XIV, UNESCO,
Paris.

Bawa, K. S., Perry, D. R. & Beach, J. H.
(1985). Reproductive biology of tropicallowland rain forest trees. I Sexual systems
and incompatibility mechanisms.
American Journal of Botany, 72(3), 331345.

Suangtho, V. & Lauridsen, E. B. (1990).
Flowering and seed production in Tectona
grandis L. Report on the DANIDA
Training Course on Tree Improvement
Program. Changmai, Thailand. 33 p.

Bryndum, K. & Hedegart, T. (1969).
Pollination of teak (Tectona grandis L.f).
Silvae Genetica, 18, 77-80.

Syrach-Larsen, C. (1966). A teak tree
show. Nat Hist Bull. of the Siam Society,
Bangkok, Thailand.

Cameron, A. L. (1968), Forest tree
improvement in Papua New Guinea. In
Proceeding from the 9th Commonwealth
Forestry Conference. New Delhi, India.

Tangmitcharoen, S. & Owens, J. N.
(1996). Floral biology, pollination andpollen-tube growth in relation to low fruit
production of teak (Tectona grandis
Linn.f.) in Thailand. In Tree Improvement
for Sustainable Tropical Forestry (eds.
M.J. Dieters, A.C. Atheson, D.G. Nikles,

Egenti, L.C. (1974). Preliminary studies
on pollinators of teak (Tectona grandis
L.f.). Research Paper No.29. Research
Paper Forest Series. Federal Dept. For.
Res, Nigeria.
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C.E. Harwood, & S.M. Walker), pp. 265270. Proceedings of QFRI-IUFROConference, 27 October- 1 November.
Queensland Forestry Research Institute,
Gympie, Caloundra, Queensland,
Australia.

growth following controlled pollinationand their relation to low fruit production inteak (Tectona grandis Linn.f.). Annals of
Botany, 80, 401-410.
Tangmitcharoen, S., Ponoy, B. &Pianhanuruk, P. (2001). Producing of fullsib families from controlled-crossing
pollination of teak (Tectona grandis
Linn.f.), pp.128-138. Silvicultural
Research Report 2001. Silviculture
Research Division, Forest Research
Office, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok(in Thai).

Tangmitcharoen, S. & Owens, J. N.
(1997a). Floral biology, pollination, pistil
receptivity, and pollen-tube growth of teak(Tectona grandis L.f.). Annals of Botany,
79, 227-241.
Tangmitcharoen, S. & Owens, J. N.
(1997b). Pollen viability and pollen-tube

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Annex
Glossary of terms used in the in text
Definition marked *, #, and @ are adapted from the Chambers Biology Dictionary, W & R
Chambers Ltd and Cambridge University Press, 1989; The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Botany, Oxford University Press, 1992; and the Penguin Dictionary of Botany, Market House
Books Ltd, 1984, respectively.
Actinomorphic

Radially symmetrical.

@ Allogamy(Syn cross-fertilization, exogamy) Fusion of female and male gametes
derived from genetically dissimilar individuals of the same species.

*

Fertilization involving pollen and ovules from (1) the same flower orsometimes(2) the same plant or genetically identical individuals (same genet orclone).
The transfer of pollen from the anthers of one individual of the same
species.
Fertilization involving pollen and ovules from different flowers on the

Autogamy@ Cross-pollination*

Geitonogamy@ Hermaphroditic@ Panicle@ Papillate@ Pedicel#

Perprolate
ProlateProtandry#

Raceme@ Racemose
inflorescence#

Self-pollination@ Tricolpate

same individual plant (ramet) or from the same clone (genet).
Having both male and female reproductive parts in the same flower.
A racemose inflorescence in which the flowers are formed on stalks(peduncles) arising alternately or spirally from the main axis. The term isalso sometimes used to describe any type of complex, branchedinflorescence.
A projection from a cell, usually of the epidermis. Papillae are often swollen
and covered with wax. In xerophyte, a plant adapted to dry habitat, where
growth may be limited by water shortage.
The stalk attaching individual flowers to the main axis (peduncles) of the
inflorescence.
The pedicel may act as a temporary storage organ forsugars prior to seed development.
Elliptic shape (more oval than prolate).
Elliptic shape.
The maturation of the male reproductive organs before those of thefemale. For example, in many members of the Legumenosae the pollen isreleased from the anthers before the stigma in the same flower is
receptive.
A racemose inflorescence in which the flowers are formed on individual

pedicels on the main axis (peduncle).
An inflorescence in which meristematic activity continues at the apex of
the main stem and primary laterals and flowers are developed from theaxillary meristems. Different types of racemose inflorescence include
panicle, corymb, raceme, umbel, and spike.
The transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of the same tree (either of thesame flower or of a different flower but always of the same individual).
Describing a pollen grain having three colpi (oblong to elliptic germinal
apertures), as is commonly found amongst most dicotyledon species.

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Chapter 11: Teak-Based Pest and Disease Managementin Myanmar
Thant Shin, Zaw Min Aye and Myo Htet Aung

Abstract

In natural forests the teak pests are kept
under control by ecological balancing by
the natural enemies of these pests but withthe proliferation of teak plantations theinsect and pest problems has attained
serious proportions. Major pests in teakplantations in Myanmar are leaf
skeletonizer, teak bee-hole borer, and teakleaf defoliator. In the raining season of2021, an extensive teak leaf skeletonizer
outbreak was reported from the central
region of Myanmar including the Bago
Yoma Region. Fungus diseases, such rust,
powdery mildew, have also been observedin the nurseries of Pauk Khaung Township,
Pyay District during the field trip to theproject site in January 2022. Mistletoe has
also b e c o m e a big problem especially foraged teak plantations.

M

ajor teak pests in Myanmar are leaf
skeletonizer, teak bee-hole borer,
and teak leaf defoliator. In natural forests
the teak pests are kept under control
through ecological balancing by the natural
enemies of these pests but with theproliferation of teak plantations the insect
and pest problems has attained serious
proportions. Teak leaf skeletonizer, Eutectona
machaeralis Walker, is the biggest concernthat reduces growth rate of teaksignificantly. Is larva feeds on the green
leaf tissue between the networks of veins,leaving the skeleton of veins intact.
Partially damaged leaves are not shed andeven the fully skeletonized leaves are
retained by the tree for some time. Teak beehole borer (Xyleutes ceramicus Walker) is
another major insect pests of teak in bothnatural forests and plantations. Application ofjaggery solution near the larvae to attract theants is an often practiced biological control.
Rust caused by Olivea tectona and leaf blightcaused by the fungus Rhizoctonia solani also
causes significant damage during the earlystages of the plant. Mistletoe, a hemi-parasite,which can be controlled only by labour
intensive branch cutting, has become a major
problem for teak plantations in Bago Yoma
Region of Myanmar.

Major Pests in Teak Plantations andManagement
Teak leaf skeletonizer
Teak leaf skeletonizer, Eutectona
machaeralis Walker, is one of the major
pests of teak plantations in Myanmar. The
larva feeds on the green leaf tissue between
the networks of veins, leaving the skeleton
of veins intact. Partially damaged leaves are
not shed and even the fully skeletonizedleaves are retained by the tree for a shortperiod of time. This pest decreases thegrowth of teak trees. The life cycle fromegg to the moth ranges from 17 to 18 days.
In Myanmar, 13 generations are completed
per year under the laboratory condition(Myint et al., 2016). The female mothusually lays the eggs singly on theunderside of teak leaves from 203 to 374 inaverage and a maximum of 500 to 550(Nair, 2007).

Introduction

Serious efforts to raise large scale teakplantations in Myanmar began in the
1970s and in 1998 the “Special Teak
Plantation Program” was launched across thecountry with the specific objective of planting
teak on a very large scale to ease pressure on
the natural teak forests. In 2007 private forest
plantations were also allowed throughout
Myanmar and since then private teak planting
at commercial scale has picked up.

The most feasible control measure is tocollect the infected leaves and burn them.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Solution of 200 oz of dry tobacco leaves
and 50 oz of vegetable soap in the ratio of
4:1 in 100 gallons of water stored for 24hours could also be used as a biologicalinsecticide (Beeson, 1941).

impossible to apply effectively andeconomically. In nursery, the infected
seedlings can be segregated and kept inisolation. Severely infected and deadseedlings can be burnt away from thenursery to prevent the spread of the disease.
The disease may be controlled in thenursery by the application of sulphur based
fungiside (Sulfax) on both sides of theleaves.

Teak bee-hole borer
The teak bee-hole borer (Xyleutes
ceramicus Walker) is one of the mostserious insect pests of teak in both naturalforests and plantations. The larvae
penetrate the teak stems about the size ofthe bee’s head, and hence the name “teakbee-hole borers”. The larvae and silkworm
life are spent inside the trunk. The adult
bee-hole borers get out of the stem and start
the life cycle again. While they come out
from the trunk, part of their body is left
hanging at the hole.

Leaf blight
This disease caused by the fungus
Rhizoctonia solani. The disease develops
on teak leaves particularly under humid
conditions by producing reddish-purple or
tan spots that coalesce to form large lesions.
Developments of greyish brown blotches
increase in size with the advancing fungal
hyphae and ultimately spread on the entire
leaf blade. The disease is spread by wind
and is highly infectious under prolonged
periods of high humidity.

One management option is applying 100
EC Malathion on a cotton swab to close thehole of this pest. The larvae can also bekilled by inserting a galvanized wire into
the hole. As biological control, sugar or
jaggery solution is applied near the larvae
to attract the ants, their natural enemies.

Mistletoe
Mistletoe, a parasitic plant, belongs to theLornthus genus. However, they are
beneficial as a key species that fill in theecological niche for wildlife, especially forbirds. They penetrate into the teak branches
and absorb the food and water of the teakplant, and they also photosynthesis bythemselves. Mistletoe in teak plantations
belong to the “hemi-parasite” family. They
decrease the growth and stamina of teak andthen kill the teak plants. They spread bythrowing the seeds from eating the colorful,sticky fruit of the parasites which werepreferred by the birds and also throughfaeces.

Major Diseases in Teak Plantations andManagement
Rust
The rusts caused by Olivea tectona are agroup of fungal diseases affecting the teakleaves. The main method of disease spread
is via spore movement, mostly by wind or
through transport of infected material. This
fungus penetrates through lower surface ofleaves which gets covered with brightorange spores within a short period of time.
Brown to grey angular areas of dead tissues
appears on the upper surface of leaves
corresponding to spores masses on the lower
surfaces of leaves (Osorio et al., 2019).

Their spreading rate can be reduced by
cutting the infected branches of teak trees.
However, this control measure is verylabour intensive and costly and rarely
carried out on large scale. Therefore,
mistletoe have become a major problem forteak plantations in Bago Yoma Region of
Myanmar.

Measures that could be taken to eradicate
this disease from old growth, the use offungicides, would be highly undesirablefrom an environmental and social
perspective and they would be virtually

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 11-1 Teak Plantation damaged by Eutectona machaeralis Walker

Photo 11-2 Young teak stem and branch damaged by Xyleutes ceramicus Walker

Photo 11-3 Adult Eutectona machaeralis Walker

146

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 11-4 Young teak stem and branch damaged by Xyleutes ceramicus Walker

Photo 11-5 Rust disease

Photo 11-6 Teak tree affected by Mistletoe

147

TEAK IN MEKONG

Conclusion

References

For successful implementation ofcommercial teak plantations, the priority
should be given to the research activities ofpest and disease. The working groups ofpest and disease control should also beorganized for at all levels of forest
administration, i.e. Township, District,
State and Divisional Forest Department.
The participation of private forest owners is
also important as a key stakeholder.

Beeson, C. F. C. (1941). The Ecology andControl of the Forest Insects of India andthe Neighboring Countries. Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi, India.
Myint et al. (2016). Effective Control
Measures of Some Major Insect Pests in
Young Teak (Tectona grandis Linn. F.)
Plantations. Yezin Forest Department,
Myanmar.
Nair, K. S. S. (2007). Tropical Forest
Insect Pests: Ecology, Impact, andManagement. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
Osorio, P. R. A., Leão, E. U., Ferreira, T.
P. D. S., Alves, M. V. G., Sarmento, R. D.
A. & Santos, G. R. D. (2019). Morphology
and infection process of Olivea
neotectonaein teak leaves. Arquivos do
Instituto Biológico, 86(2), 1-5.

148

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Chapter 12: Insect Pest Management in Teak Plantationsin Thailand
Wattanachai Tasen and Decha Wiwatwitaya

Abstract

Teak is an economically important timber
both for household sector and the forestry
industry. For the past couple of decades,
investments in teak plantations has
attracted large-scale private plantation
developers. The pest problem of teak has
been reported in many areas from theseedling stage to the felling cycle. There areabout 3 0 0 species of pests and diseases
recorded in teak, including order
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera,
Hemiptera, Isoptera, Diptera andHymenoptera (Beeson, 1961; Hutacharern
et al., 1988; Hutacharern & Tubtim, 1995;
Nair, 2007). These insects attack all stagesof teak growth (Roychoudhury & Mishra,2021) hence, special care is required fromthe first year of planting. Insects that attack
include termites, caterpillars, ants and some
aphids. In India, Roychoudhury & Mishra(2 0 2 1 ) reported that a teak pest of thegenus Holotrichia spp. (Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae) or white grubs has invaded
teak seedlings in nurseries, teak defoliator,
Hyblaea puera Cramer (Lepidoptera:Hyblaeidae) and leaf skeletonizer,
Eutectona machaeralis (Walker)(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), are considered as
major pests of teak in plantations andnatural forests. Another group of insect
pests such as defoliators, stem and branchborers also destroy teak and its final yieldand productivity as well.

T

eak beehole borer and teak insect
defoliator are the most important pestsof the teak plantations in Thailand. A study
on sustainable teak pest management in theforest plantations was carried out innorthern Thailand. The objectives were toprovide update of the teak pest incidence
and control measures to reduce the insect
population in teak plantations. The growthand destructive behavior of teak beeholeborers and teak defoliator were
investigated. The design of protection andcontrol measures suggested in this study
can be used to solve the problem of teakinsect pests more effectively.

IntroductionTeak (Tectona grandis; Family
Lamiaceae) is one of the famous andthe most important commercial timber
species in many tropical countries in Asia
(Thailand, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Indonesia,
Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and India); West
Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast,
Senegal, Togo and Benin); East Africa(Sudan and Tanzania); Central America(Trinidad and Tobago, Puerto Rico, Panama
and Costa Rica); and South America (Brazil
and Ecuador) (FAO, 1957; FAO, 2001;
Kaosa-ard, 1981; Kaosa-ard, 1995; Keogh,
1996; Pérez Cordero & Kanninen, 2003).
Teak is a high-priority planting species forplantations in the Asian region, especially in
India, Myanmar, Indonesia and Thailand(Kaosa-ard, 1995). At present, the demand
for teak timber and green space is increasing
year by year. The supply so far met from theremaining natural forest is fast depleting andthreatens its natural resource base. One
solution to overcome the present shortage isto establish more teak plantations in suitable
habitats.

Current Scenario of Teak Pests in
ThailandIn Thailand, there are about 72 species ofteak pests (Hutacharern et al., 1988;
Hutacharern & Tubtim, 1995), of which
about half a dozen species of teakdefoliators, stem borers, flower and fruit
eating insects are more important causing
significant damage to the teak. The
classification of forest pests is based on the149

TEAK IN MEKONG

intensity of infestation which Chaiglom(1966) organized into seven groups offorest pests, namely, leaf feeders or
defoliators, trunk and branch borers or
beehole borers, root feeders, inflorescence
destroyers, shoot borers, sap suckers, andseed and fruit insect pests. The insect pests
that cause the most damage are usually
stem-damaging insects or teak beeholeborer and defoliating insects. A research
project, Plant Genetic Conservation Project
under the Royal Initiation of Her RoyalHighness Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn(RSPG), has been initiated to prepare
guidelines to manage, prevent, control andreduce pest populations to a level that does
not cause economic damage to teakplantations. It focuses on two major insect
pest groups namely, teak beehole borers
and defoliators.

The beehole borer female may lay upto
50000 eggs that have an incubation period
of about 7 days and may live in the wood aslarva for 1-2 years. Pupation takes placeabout 2-3 weeks before the emergence of an
adult depending on the location; forexample, Sukhothai province during
February and Lampang Province in March.
The life cycle and destructive behavior ofteak beehole borer in some locations arestill unclear. This study focused on growthand destructive behavior of teak beeholeborer in Northern Thailand (Wang Chinteak plantation in Phrae Province and Mae
Li teak plantation in Lamphun Province)
was conducted in 2018-2019. The related
environmental factors in each month werealso investigated.
Beehole borer impact on teak plantations
The growth of beehole borer in north-east andnorth-west plantations had different growthstages. Its growth is faster in North-east
indicating the pupate stage in November thanin north-west plantations where it was still in
the pupa stage. The emergence of the adults
began in December at north-east part of theWang Chin Forest Park. Hutacharern &Tubtim (1995) found that teak beehole borers
become adults during February -March. The
borer is found in the North-west plantation
between December and January and in
North-east plantation between January and
April. The caterpillar stage is observed fromJanuary to April of the following year. In the
North-east plantation, the larvae persists for alonger period. As the radial growth of teak atnorth-east plantation was found faster, it was
believed that the caterpillars received more
food from the younger tissues and become
adults within a short time.

Observation Updates and Management
Practices
Teak beehole borer
Teak beehole borer (Xyleutes ceramicus,
Family Cossidae, Order Lepidoptera) is
considered the most important pest in the teakplantations causing extensive damage towood texture ultimately reducing market
demand and forcing sale at discounted prices.
This wood borer has been recorded only onteak (Wiwatwitaya, 2000) and widelydistributed in many countries where teak isplanted such as Burma, Thailand, Indonesia,
Malaysia and India (Beeson, 1961;
Hutacharern et al., 1988). The insect leavesa
large hole in the wood about 8-12 mm indiameter and 20-38 cm long (Chaiglom,1966). The penetration is cumulative,
indicating its recurrence every year. As aresult, the teakwood quality is lost and thetimber cannot be sold at premium prices(Wiwatwitaya, 2000). In infestations reported
in 3-year-old teak and older, the occurrenceof penetration can be from close to the groundto the top of the trunk. Chaiglom (1966)
found that this insect reaches adult stage
during February - May.

The 4th larvae stage destroyed the heartwood
to a greater extent during the active growing
season between May to November. The
sapwood was destroyed between March andAugust. During the dry season between
December to April, there was no destructionof wood. The long bore tunnel in theheartwood remain in the trunk and sawnwood
recovery is affected.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 12-1 Study on teak beehole borer in plantation

The natural enemies of teak beehloe borer
are mostly ants, followed by tachinid flies
and parasitoid wasps. Wiwatwitaya (1996)
reported that ants Crematogaster spp. andAnoplolepis longipes were most dominantpredators of the borer. Mortality of teakborer was more pronounced in the earlystage, the fifth stage, and the pupa stage.
Mortality was highest at the time when thelarva is about to pupate because at this time
it reaches near the exit point where its
natural enemies can enter the hole. This isalso the period of dry summers when no
fresh tissue develop to cover the woundaround the sapwood and the holes are notclosed unlike when the teak plant is still
growing.

the use of pesticides for elimination, theproblem of defoliation has not subsided.
Interactions with researchers and field staff
of many forest plantations suggests there
are on-going outbreaks in many areas, inparticular, the teak defoliator Hyblaea
puera of the family Hyblaeidae. The teakskeletonizer, Eutectona grandis (Family
Pyralidae), was found in northern areas ofLampang and Phrae and Phayao provinces.
The biology and behavior of this insect
epidemic group may have got modified dueto the climate change as well. Alteredinteractions with natural enemies may be
another factor affecting the population
dynamics of teak defoliators.
Insect defoliators completely eat up the
fresh emerging teak leaves causing
retardation of the growth of the tree andwood production. Kritsanamara (1982)
found that if teak lost 100 percent of theleaves, it would lose 87 percent of the wood
growth for that period. About 28 species ofdefoliators have been reported

Teak defoliators
There is another group of insect pest
defoliators that requires constantmonitoring and prevention in teakplantations. Despite several researchstudies over the past many decades the
biology, ecology, its natural enemies and151

TEAK IN MEKONG(Hutacharern et al., 1988 Hutacharern &Tubtim, 1995) causing considerable
damage to teak leaves. Hyblaea puera is
widely found in teak plantations throughout
the north and other parts of Thailand. In
addition to teak leaves ashost, H.puera arealso found to feed on other plants such as
mangroves like Rhizophora sp., Aviceniasp., Bruguiera sp., Millingtonia hortensis
L.f. and Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz as
well as Fernandoa adenophylla (Wall. ex
G.Don) Steen, Markhamia stipulate Seem,
Vitex canescens Kurz, Vitex glabrata R.Br.
and Vitex peduncularis Wall.ex Schauer(Lakanavichian & Napompeth, 1990).
Hyblaea puera completes its life cycle in 4
stages, taking a total of 2-4 weeks. Its
outbreak usually spreads in late April –Mayduring pre-monsoon rains when fresh leaves
emerge and eat away the leaves leaving behind
only the central and large veins.

parasitic leafworm ( Deliashyparate
indica), the pine borer (Dioryctria abietella),
and D. sylvesstrella (Wiwatwitaya, 2000).
There are reports of studies on the use of
biocontrol agents in the prevention of teakdefoliators (Sudheendrakumar, 1986),
in addition to pathogens that invade thedefoliator such as Bacillus thuringiensis,
Enterobacteraerogenes, Serratiamarcescens
and Pseudomonus aeruginosa, and bacteria
used to help eliminate teak insect pests.
(Sudheendrakumar et al., 1988). Sakchowong(1998) studied two fungi, Beauveria bassianaand Metarhizium anisopliae, which cause
disease on teak caterpillars.
Natural insect enemy of teak defoliators
A number of studies were carried out on
the efficacy of natural insect enemies on
decreasing population of teak insect
defoliators in teak plantations in thenorth-western province of Lampun and in
the north-east plantation sites in the Phrare
province during 2018-2019. The damage
caused by teak insect defoliators wereclassified in three separate categories offree feeding, skeletonizing, and stipping.
The damage toteak defoliator at Mae Liteak plantation (28.50%) was higher than in
Wang Chin teak plantation (25 %).

Eutectona grandis (Family Pyralidae) finds
hosts in the leaves of several species
including Callicarpa arborea Roxb and isoften found to infest teak later at the end of
the rainy season between August to
November. In the caterpillar stage it begins
by eating the leaf surface until only the leaf
veins are left forming a mesh like structure.
When infestation is severe, the leaves will
be reddish brown which is the color of dry
teak veins. Outbreaks occur during therainy season every year. Several natural
enemies of teak defoliators H. puera and E.
machaeralis are reported such as parasitoid
wasps in the family Braconidae, Genus
Apanteles, including A. hyblaeae, A.
malevolus, A. puera, as well as in the genus
Cotesia and Dolichogenidea. The chalcid
wasps of the Chalcididae family are
Brachymeria euploeae and B. lasus ofwhich B. lasus has been reported as anatural enemy of the teak defoliator H.
puera and E. machaeralis, and also themahogany borer (Hypsipyla robusta), theTotal number of natural insect enemies
enumerated were 54 species belonging
to 25 families and 8 orders. The highest
number of species was in Order
Hymenoptera followed by Coleoptera,
Diptera, Hemiptera, Blattodea, Mecoptera,
Neuroptera and Dermaptera (21, 14, 10, 5, 1,
1, 1 and 1, respectively). The largest amountof natural insect enemies were found innorth-west plantation (65.22 %) than innorth-east plantation (34.78 %). This study
showed that different land-use ecosystems
influenced both quantity and species
diversity of natural insect enemies andteak insect defoliators.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 12-2 Defoliator damage; A-B) Free feeding C) Skeletonizing and D) Stipping

Conclusions

was found in north-west plantations
compared to north-east plantations. There isdifferences between the areas affected,
number and diversity of natural enemies ofteak insect defoliators. With the increasing
incidence of insect defoliators, it isimportant to find new natural enemies toprotect the teak plantations. For this insect
surveys are required to be carried out todetermine the impact of pest problem fromteak seedling stage to the felling cycle.

The destruction of the sapwood by the teakbeehole borer was observed between Marchand August while the destruction of theheartwood was found to occur during May
to November. Its most common natural
enemy are the ants, especially
Crematogaster species. Most mortality ofthe teak borer was found in the early stage,
the fifth stage, and the pupa stage. The main
natural enemies of the fifth stage and in thepupa, stage are parasitoid insects. Most
death in pupa stage were caused by theparasitic tachinid flies. The data obtained
from the study can be used to design more
effective prevention and elimination of teakborer that suit the infestation and growth
periods in teak plantation.

References
Beeson, C. F. C. (1961). The Ecology andControl of Forest Insects of India andNeighboring Countries. Government
Printing Office, India.
Chaiglom, D. (1966). Teak beehole borer
and control research in Thailand. Natural
History Bulletin of the Siam Society, 21,
1957-1960.

Insect defoliator showed three types ofdestruction, namely 1) free feeding (2)skeletonizing, and 3) stippling. Theirnatural insect enemies recorded are 54
species belonging to 25 Families under 8
Orders. Higher number of Hymenoptera
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FAO. (1957). Report on Teak Growing
under Exotic Conditions. FAO/TSC-57/3,
FAO, Rome, Italy.

Nair, K. S. S. (2007). Tropical Forest
Insect Pests. Ecology, Impact, andManagement. University Press,
Cambridge, U.K.

FAO. (2001). State of the World’s forests.
Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome,
Italy.

Pérez Cordero, L. D. & Kanninen, M.
(2003). Heartwood, sapwood and barkcontent, and wood basic density of young
and mature teak (Tectona grandis) trees
grown in Costa Rica. Silva Fennica, 37(1),45-54.

Hutacharern, C. & Tubtim, N. (1995).
Check Lists of Forest Insects in Thailand.
Royal Forest Department, Bangkok,
Thailand.

Roychoudhury, N. & Mishra, R. K.
(2021). Major insect pests of teak and their
management-an update. Pestology, 45(7),24-31.

Hutacharern, C., Choldumrongkul, S.,
Eungwijarnpanya, S., Choldumrongkul, A.
& Pholwicha, P. (1988). Check Lists ofForest Insects in Thailand. Royal Forest
Department, Bangkok, Thailand.

Sakchowong, W. (1998). Effect ofentomopathogenic fungi Beaveria
bassiana (Balsamo) Vuilemin andMetarhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff)
Sorokin on teak defoliators (Hyblaea
puera Cramer; Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae).
In Proceedings of the IUFRO/FAO
Workshop on Pest Management inTropical Forest Plantations, pp. 105-110.
Chantaburi, Thailand.

Kaosa-ard, A. (1981). Teak (Tectona
grandis Linn.f.) its natural distribution andrelated factors. Natural History Bulletin of
the Siam Society, 29, 55-74.
Kaosa-ard, A. (1995). Management ofTeak Plantations; Overview of problems inteak plantation establishment. In: Teak forthe future - Proceedings of the Second
Regional Seminar on Teak, pp. 45-59. 29
May - 3 June 1995, Yangon, Myanmar.

Sudheendrakumar, V. V. (1986). Study on
the natural enemies of teak pest,
Hyblaeapuera and Eutectonamachaeralis.
KFRI Research Report No.38 St. Joseph’s
I.S. Press, Trichur, India.

Keogh, R. M. (1996). Teak 2000. A
Consortium Support for Greatly
Increasing the Contribution of Quality
Tropical Hardwood Plantations to
Sustainable Development. International
Institute for Environment andDevelopment (IIED), London.

Sudheendrakumar, V. V., Mohamed A. M.
I. & Mohanadas, K. (1988). Study on
Bacteria pathogens associated with theteak defoliator, Hyblaea puera Cramer. In
Proceedings of the IUFRO/FAO Workshop
on Pest Management in Tropical Forest
Plantations, pp. 1-4. Bangkok, Thailand.

Kritsanamara, R. (1982). The effect of leaf
loss on the growth of teak plants. MSc
thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand. (in Thai)

Wiwatwitaya, D. (1996). Predatorants ofteak bee-hole borer, Xyleutes ceramicus
Walker (Lepidoptera: Cossidae). Kasetsart
Journal of Natural Sciences, 30, 330-335.

Lakanavichian, S. & Napompeth, B.
(1990). Ecological Study of Teak
Defoliators. Hyblaea puera (Cramer) andEutectona machaeralis (Walker) in
Thailand. IUFRO Regional Workshop on
Pests and Diseases of Forest Plantations.
13 - 15 June 1988, Royal Forest
Department, F/FRED Projectand FAO,
Bangkok, Thailand.

Wiwatwitaya, D. (2000). Insect Pest ofForest and Shed Tree in Thailand.
Department of Forest Biology, Faculty ofForestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand. (in Thai)154

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Chapter 13: Indonesia’s Teak Resources, Breeding andBiotechnology
Anto Rimbawanto and ILG Nurtjahjaningsih

Abstract

naturally in India, Myanmar, Lao PDR and
Thailand, and it is naturalized in Java,
Indonesia, where it was most likely planted
around the seventh century, and in Muna
Island, Southeast Sulawesi around thesixteenth century (FAO, 2009). Since teakwood supply from old-growth and highquality stands have already depleted, there
has been a growing interest in establishingteak plantations. Plantations have been
established in Asia, as well as in Africa,
Latin America, the Caribbean and in the
Pacific region (Pandey & Brown, 2000).

Teak occurs naturally in India,
Myanmar, Lao and Thailand, and has
naturalized in Java where it was most likely
planted around the seventh century and now
covers more than 1.5 million ha acrossIndonesia. Teak genetic structure studies inJava suggest a narrow genetic base that is
likely to have originated in southeast Asia.
With growing interest in planting teakgenetically improved seeds or clones are
now available in Indonesia under the brandnames of Super teak, Superior teak, Golden
teak, JUN (Nusantara superior teak), JPP(Perhutani Plus teak), and Jumbo teak etc.
The JUN clone has attracted particularattention from farmers as it can be
harvested after 6-8 years even though wood
quality is inferior to fully mature teak. DNA
markers are rapidly being developed andapplied for the genetic study of teak, suchas genetic conservation of teak, and genetic
improvement. The same technology canalso be used to verify the legality of thetimber.

IntroductionTeak (Tectona grandis) is renowned for
its wood qualities such as medium
strength and lightness with durability,
dimensional stability, and resistant totermite and fungus, antioxidant andhydrophobic properties (FAO, 2009). Teakhas existed in Indonesia since hundreds ofyears ago. Because of its long history, teakis often considered a native species to Javaalthough recent scientific evidence proved
it otherwise (Pandey & Brown, 2000;
Verhagen & Fofana, 2010). Teak occurs

Photo 13-1 Remnant of century-old teak at
Napabalano Nature Reserve in Muna,
Southeast Sulawesi(Credit: A. Rimbawanto)

Since teak is not native to Indonesia, there
has never been any wild growth teak. Teakfrom Java is considered comparable tonatural teak from Myanmar because it was
harvested from well matured plantations
155

TEAK IN MEKONG(over 100 years old trees). However, in the last
25 years, teak from well-matured plantations
have disappeared due to excessive logging andreplaced by teak from much younger resources.
Subsequently, demand for teak is fulfilled byyounger trees from recently establishedplantations.

Biotechnology such as tissue culture has
had some impacts on teak. This technique
has been used to propagate selected teak orortet commercially (Gupta et al., 1980; Goh& Monteuuis, 2001; Chia, 2003). In recent
years, teak has also benefited from theadvance of molecular (DNA) techniques,that can support higher yield teakplantations and shorter rotations, improvewood quality, resistant to pest and disease,adaptability to changing environment, andsupport Forest Law Enforcement,
Governance and Trade (FLEGT).

Perhutani, a state-owned company,
manages forest plantation on public land inJava, with a total area of around 3 million
hectares, of which around 1.0 million
hectares is teak. This plantation is also an
important source of income, especially inthe densely populated island of Java. It isestimated that more than 500,000 people(including family members) depend on teakas a source of income (Perhutani, 1993).
Harvests from teak plantations today
support a rapidly expanding furnitureindustry and teakwood products are
directed to export markets.

This chapter highlights the conditions ofteak genetic resources in Indonesia, thebreeding programs to improve plantation
productivity, and the application ofmolecular techniques on teak.
Teak Resources in Indonesia
In Indonesia, teak plantations are foundmostly in Java, covering over 1 million
hectares of public and private land, and inSoutheast Sulawesi, particularly inKonawe, Muna, and Buton. Total teakplantation in Indonesia is estimated ataround 1.5 million hectares of various age
classes. Over the last few decades, as
community participation in planting teak is
growing due to the increasing demand, teakis also being planted in other parts ofIndonesia such as in Sumatera, Bali, West
Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara,
Kalimantan, and Sulawesi. These
plantations form the backbone ofIndonesia's teak-based furniture business.

Since teak is a slow-growing species in later
years, well-matured teak may be
harvestable at 60 or more years, highproductivity plantation is significant (Kjaer& Foster, 1996). Genetic improvement andappropriate silviculture treatments of teakare critical for the success of the teakplantation. Genetic improvement isdependent on a species’ existing pool ofgenetic variation (Zobel & Talbert, 1984).
This means that understanding genetic
variation patterns is important for matchinga well-adapted seed source to a suitablephysiographic location.

156

TEAK IN MEKONG

planting stock, and the germplasm used)during establishment and subsequent
maintenance and protection of theplantation. In Java, teak grows well on
several soil types, including lime and marlformation as well as volcanic and alluvial
soils (Beekman, 1949). Good soil drainage
is also important for optimum growth.
Good quality teak comes from an area witha distinct difference between dry and wet
seasons, with optimum temperature
between 22-27 oC and annual rainfall
between 1250-3750 mm (Perhutani, 1993).
Teak is one of the popular species plantedby smallholder farmers. Teak seedlings
with various brands, such as super teak,superior teak, golden teak, JUN (Nusantara
superior teak), JPP (Perhutani’s teak plus),
and Jumbo teak, are available in response to
the growing interest in teak planting. JUN
clone has attracted attention from farmers
as it can be harvested after 6-8 years. Even
though the wood quality is inferior to fully
matured teak (some say over 80 years), it
fills a supply-demand gap for the local
furniture sector.

Photo 13-2 Clonal plantation of Jati Unggul
Nusantara (JUN) 8-years old at Gunung
Kidul Yogyakarta(Credit: A. Rimbawanto)

Contrary to the popular view of the strong
relation between teak in Java with Indian
origin, a recent study found that Indonesianteak plantations are mostly linked
genetically to those from Laos, Thailand,and Myanmar (Prasetyo et al., 2020). The
study revealed genetic structure of teakplantations across regions is weak,
implying that most plantations were started
using plant resources from a particular partof the natural population.

In the southeast Sulawesi islands of Muna
and Buton, teak has also become
naturalized. However, it's also debatable
where this teak came from. The historical
record shows that teak has been in Buton
since 17th century. A 21 m flagpole made ofteak in the Sultanate of Buton Palace in Bau
Bau is believed to have been erected in
1712 by Sultan Saikuddin Darul Alam. The
flagpole is still standing up till now andamongst popular tourist attractions in the
Sultanate fortress.

To maximize the potential yield and qualityof logs, teak plantation requires integrationof silviculture management (including site
selection, site preparation, quality of157

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 13-3 Flagpole made of teak more than 300 years old and the background board(Credit: A. Rimbawanto)

The accompanying board describes the
background of the flagpole, which say“Founded during the Sultan Sakiuddin
Darul Alam's rule in the 17th century. The
Sultanate of Buton's flag will be flown fromthis mast. The flagpole is made of teak woodand stands 21 meters tall. During Sultan
Muhammad Isa Kaimuddin's rule in the1870s, the flagpole was struck by lightningand damaged. The flagpole was repaired
and is still standing strong today”.

Photo 13-4 Teak stand at Bau Bau, Buton Island (Credit: A. Rimbawanto)
158

TEAK IN MEKONG

Genetic Improvement

relatedness in the population is important toavoid interbreeding between relatives,
which can result in reduced plant growth.

Genetic improvement refers to theapplication of forest genetics principles
within a given silvicultural system toimprove the genetic quality of the forest. Its
purpose is to improve the genetic value ofthe population while maintaining genetic
diversity (Zobel & Talbert, 1984). In
intensely managed plantations, the use ofgenetically improved planting materials is
crucial. Improved planting materials will
not only ensure high productivity, but it canalso reduce the risk of pest and disease
infestation.

Genetic studies using plant materials
originated from international provenancetrials established in the early 1970s(Keiding et al., 1986; Kjaer et al., 1996)
have been conducted. Between 1973-1977,
a total of 75 provenances were under test on
over 50 sites in 16 countries (Keiding,1978). Results from the first and second
assessments of the individual trials suggestthat different seed sources performdifferently in different regions (Kjaer et al.,1996).

Natural teak populations have several
attributes that influence their economic,
ecological, and environmental values.
Natural distribution across a wide range ofedaphic and climatic conditions has huge
potential for capturing adaptive genetic
variation for genetic improvement. Hence,
any teak improvement program must havea pool of genetic diversity from different
populations. Further research andcharacterisation of teak genetic variation inplanted and natural populations are criticalto ensure high-quality planting material forbreeding and mass propagation from welldocumented and reliable sources. Thoseaiming to maintain or benefit fromplantation should strengthen genetic
diversity since a highly varied population
has a much better chance of containing the
optimal combinations of alleles capable ofsurviving a new disease.

Teak genetic improvement in Indonesia
initially began in early 1932, when thecolonial rule implemented a provenancetrial of 13 ecotypes/provenances of India(Malabar, Central province dan Godavari),
Indo China (Hinh, Kay, Kuoai, dan Kouoc),
Muna Sulawesi and Java (Cepu, Pati,
Ponorogo, Gundih, Kesamben), and 3varieties in 3 different areas in Java.
Assessment in 1958 reported that teakoriginated from Malabar and Java (Pati,
Cepu and Ponorogo) are well adapted to thegrowing sites (Daryadi, 1959).
In the 1980s a major tree improvement
program for teak was initiated following acollection of genetic materials from over
600 parent trees selected from well-matured
plantations in Java and other islands. These
genetic materials become the basis toestablish progeny trials, clonal banks, andclonal seed orchards of the species. The
first open-pollinated progeny trial wasestablished in 1997. Subsequently, infusionof new materials from outside of Java wascarried out to increase the genetic pool.
Nowadays, genetically improved seeds orclones are available to the public.

A study on genetic diversity of teakresources in Indonesia reported that genetic
diversity among 30 populations of teak wasmoderate with He 0.184 and mean genetic
distance between populations 0.441, andthese populations were divided into 3
groups, firstly Burma (Myanmar), secondly
Java, India, Indo-China, Thailand, andthirdly Southeast Sulawesi (Widyatmoko etal., 2013). Information on genetic

The published data on teak productivity
ranges from 5 to 10 m3/ha/year under longrotation (up to 60 years) and 10 to 20
159

TEAK IN MEKONG

m3/ha/year under short rotation (up to 20
years), with a productivity of 0.03
m 3 /tree/year in a suitable condition(Cheliah et al., 2021). In Java, theproductivity of selected clones is between
0.028 to 0.043 m3/tree/year (Adinugraha &Pujiono, 2014). A trial in west Java of JUN
clone (Nusantara superior teak) shows MAI
of 0.039 m 3 /tree/year (Supriono &Setianingsih, 2012).

Win et al. (2015) reported a study on thegenetic diversity of the teak natural
population in Myanmar using microsatellite
markers, which found that when comparedto other native origins, teak populations
from Myanmar have the highest genetic
diversity, allelic richness, and moderate
genetic divergence. Myanmar teak genetic
resources should be prioritized for in situ
conservation efforts. More recently, agenetic study of teak in a plantation in Java
using single-nucleotide polymorphism(SNP) markers was reported by Prasetyo etal. (2020), which found that the Indonesianplantations had less genetic diversity
compared to provenances of India,
Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos.
Furthermore, since the plantations in Java
have a weak genetic structure acrossregions, it was concluded that plantmaterials from a single part of the natural
teak distribution were used to establish
most of the plantations.

Application of DNA Techniques
DNA markers have progressed at aphenomenal pace over the last four
decades, owing to advancements inmolecular biology technology, particularly
since the invention of the PCR (Polymerase
Chain Reaction) instrument in 1983. RAPD
(Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA)(Williams et al., 1990) is the first PCRbased marker to be developed and widelyused for agricultural, horticultural andforest crops. Other markers that aresequence variation based include AFLP
(Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism)(Voss et al., 1995) which is a combination of
RFLP and RAPD, and SCAR (Sequence
Characterized Amplified Region) (Watanabe
et al., 2004; Widyatmoko & Shiraishi, 2019),
minisatellites, and microsatellites (Fofana etal., 2009).

Hansen et al. (2015) using neutral DNA
markers, investigated the genetic diversityand differentiation of teak provenancesacross their natural distribution range. Most
genetic diversity was found in provenancesfrom India's semi-moist east coast, while
the lowest was found in provenances from
Laos. The further east the provenance was
located, the less genetic variation there wasin the eastern part of the natural distribution
range, which comprised Myanmar,
Thailand, and Laos. Overall, thedistribution of genetic diversity supports
the theory that teak originated in India anddrifted eastward from there. Vaishnaw et al.
(2014) revealed two distinct centres of teakdiversity, namely central India, andPeninsular India.

DNA markers are rapidly being developed andapplied for the genetic study of teak. Genetic
conservation of teak, as well as genetic
improvement, can benefit from theadvancement of DNA technology.
Understanding genetic diversity in the natural
populations is critical for conservation work.
Other studies used a variety of molecularmarkers, including AFLPs (Vaishnaw et al.,2014; Minn et al., 2016), Inter Simple
Sequence Repeats (ISSR) (Ansari et al., 2012),
and microsatellite markers (Hansen et al.,2015; Win et al., 2015) to examine thepopulation genetic structure and genetic
variation of teak.

Watanabe et al. (2004) reported the use of
RAPD analysis to discriminate among teakplus tree clones and to improve themanagement of teak clones in Java. Clonal
identification is important to ensure the160

TEAK IN MEKONG

identity of the clone, more importantly forclones used in a breeding program.

method. These findings demonstrate thatwhile paperwork may not always preciselyreflect timber origins to specific trees,
larger genetic provenance testing methods
indicate valid timber origins from thespecified plantation location (Dormontt &Lowe, 2019).

For tree improvement, three major areas
have always been important for molecularmarker applications: (a) the determinationof genetic diversity within, between andamong populations; (b) verification andcharacterization of genotypes; and (c)marker–assisted selection (MAS) (Haines,
1994; Krutovsky & Neale, 2005). Using
microsatellite markers, Alcantara & Veasey(2013) reported the genetic diversity of teakgenotypes used in Brazilian plantations.

In another attempt to understand the genetic
structure of naturalized and plantation
stands in Indonesia, Nurtjahjaningsih et al.
(2021) sampled leaf material for DNA
analysis from landrace populations at
Konawe, Muna, Buton, and one plantation
at Gunung Kidul Java. Genetic structure
analysis revealed that Java and Southeast
Sulawesi were composed of different
genetic structures, while teak at Southeast
Sulawesi has a similar genetic structure.

Using a combined Next Generation
Sequencing technique on the Illumina
MiSeq system with genotyping on the
Agena MassARRAY iPLEXTM platform,
novel single nucleotide polymorphism(SNIP) loci for teak (Tectona grandis Linn.
f.) were detected (Dunker et al., 2019). A
total of 156 SNP markers has been detectedthat is suitable for population genetic
studies of the species. For cost-effective
genotyping a subset of 142 of these SNPs
have been multiplexed into three groups.

Conclusion
In the tropics, teak has been and willcontinue to be a popular timber species forhigh value wood products. The durable
wood fetches high price in the timbermarket remains the major factor that attract
people to plant this species. Teak plantationin Indonesia, with a long history of teakcultivation will continue to expand
particularly in smallholder plantations. Its
rich genetic resources are important for
further improving the genetic quality of thespecies. Smallholder farmers should be able
to access the improved genetic material ofteak so that the productivity of theirplantations and the quality of the timber canbe improved, which eventually will
increase their income. Advanced
technology such as DNA markers is now
available to accelerate the genetic
improvement of teak. The same technology
can also be used to verify the legality of thetimber.

Cross-fertilization is the primary mode of
reproduction for this species. The
outcrossing rate in different te ak
populations was between 89 and 95 percent
by Kjaer et al. (1996). Using RAPD,
Changtragoon & Szmidt (2001) foundsimilar outcrossing rates (82 percent to 97
percent) in Thai teak populations. The
outcrossing reproductive system seen inteak allows for significant amounts ofgenetic variation within teak populations,
given that outcrossing encourages
recombination.
DNA markers are also being used tosupport timber legality, such as
distinguishing species, the population of a
species and individuals of the same species(Dormontt et al., 2015). Teak timber wasverified via a supply chain within Perhutani
at Cepu using a DNA chain of custody161

TEAK IN MEKONG

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23(21), 4407-4414.

Widyatmoko, A., Rimbawanto, A. &Chasani, A. A. (2013). Genetic
Relationship among Teak (Tectona
grandis) Populations Based on RAPD
(Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA)
Markers (in Bahasa). Jurnal Pemuliaan
Tanaman Hutan, 7(3),151-166.

Watanabe, A., Widyatmoko, A.,
Rimbawanto, A. & Shiraishi, S. (2004).
Discrimination of teak (Tectona grandis)
plus trees using selected random amplified
polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers.
Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 16(1),17-24.

Williams, J. G. K., Kubelik, A. R., Livak,
K. J., Rafalski, J. A. & Tingey, S. V.
(1990). DNA polymorphisms amplified byarbitrary primers are useful as genetic
markers. Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 6531–
6535.

Widyatmoko, A. & Shiraishi, S. (2019).
Development of SCAR markers for
identification of teak clones. In: AIP
Conference Proceedings. International
Conference on Biology and Applied
Science (ICOBAS) (13–14 March 2019),
pp. 030001-1 - 030001-7. Malang,Indonesia.

Win, T. T., Watanabe, A., Goto, S. &Hirao, T. (2015). Genetic diversity of teakpopulations in native regions andplantations in Myanmar detected by
microsatellite markers. Bull. Univ. ofTokyo For, 132, 1-15.
Zobel, B. & Talbert, J. (1984). Appliedforest tree improvement. Wiley, New
York.

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Chapter 14: Effects of First Thinning on Growth andStem Form of Teak Plantations in Thailand
Tosporn Vacharangkura

Abstract

thinning intensity. Live-crown ratio,
slenderness ratio and absolute form factorof the trees in the stand were affected bydifferent thinning intensities. Live-crownratio increased with greater thinning
intensity. On the other hand, slenderness
ratio decreased with greater thinning
intensity. The absolute form factor was
smallest in control plots, and different
thinning intensities had clear effects on theabsolute form factor. Thus, thinning
intensity resulted in improved growth andyield of stands after as well as individual
tree size and tended to have positive effects
on stem form.

T

he effects of first thinning on growthand stem form of teak stand were
examined in Uttaradit Province, northern
Thailand. In this study, a randomized
complete block design with 3 replications
was used and thinning from below (lowthinning) was applied as the first thinning.
The thinning treatments were as follows:
removal of basal area at the level of 0%(control), 30% (light), and 50% (moderate).
The measurement period after thinning was
4 years. The results of the study revealed
that moderate thinning provided the largest
mean basal area and mean stem volume ofindividual trees in the stands compared withthe other treatments. The total stand volume
increase in production per hectare waslargest in light thinning plots and differedsignificantly from control plots, but nosignificant difference was noticed inmoderate thinning plots. The light andmoderate thinning intensities reduced theannual stand volume increment by 23% and64%, respectively, related to the mean standvolume increment of thinned stands before
thinning was executed, whereas those incontrol plots reduced by almost 99%.

Introduction

C

ontrol of stand density by thinninghas been the major tool in regulating
tree growth and improving timber quality.
Although thinning from below may
increase the merchantable volume of astand, usually it does not increase the total
volume increment per unit area (Hasenauer
et al., 1997; Zeide, 2001). Many studies
have revealed that the stand volume
increment of various tree species does notdecline with decreasing stand density(Hamilton, 1981; Horne et al., 1986). This
indicated that thinning from below (or low
thinning) redistributes the increment of
individual trees from small trees to larger
ones, and a smaller number of trees wasable to produce the same volume increment
per unit area.

Part of total stand volume production ofcontrol plots was lost through natural
mortality. In the thinned plots, natural
mortality was considerably low comparedto the control plots. The mean diameter(DBH) increment of all trees as well as themean DBH increment of the dominant trees
was enhanced with increasing thinning
intensity, but there was no significant
difference among the thinned and control
plots. However, the mean DBH incrementof all trees in control plots was similar to
those in light thinning plots. In contrast,
total height increment of all trees and thedominant trees were not affected byThinning practice also affects wood
properties, such as heartwood proportion,
wood density and stem form. Stem form isdefined as the rate of taper of a stem. Taperis the decrease in diameter of a stem of atree or of a log from base upwards. The
potential change in stem form as a result ofthinning is important with regard to volume
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TEAK IN MEKONG

and product recovery prediction. Most
variation in stem form may be traced to thechange in size and distribution of the live
crown on the stem and to the length of the
branch-free bole (Larson, 1963).

stand basal area was around 1.90 m2rai-1(11.88 m2ha-1). There was no othersilvicultural interventions such as pruning
applied to the plantation prior to thinning.

The objective of this study was to relatethinning intensity of the first thinning
operation with diameter, height, volume
increment and stem form on the basis ofpermanent long-term experiments withthinning from below (or low thinning) inteak plantation in Thailand. It is an
opportunity for us to investigate total stem
volume production, thinning removal aswell as changes in stem form, during thewhole rotation.

The experimental design consisted ofrandomized complete blocks, with threetreatments and three replicates. Prior tothinning each treatment consisted of 200
trees. (Including dead trees) in square
blocks of 1,600 m2 (20x10 trees under aspacing of 2x4 m),

Experimental design and treatments

excluding the buffer zones consisting of
two lines of trees, each of them thinned
according to the corresponding treatment
they were bordering. (Figure 14-1).
Thinning from below or low thinning(defined as the thinning method that favors
the tallest trees in the stand by removal the
lower crown class) with different thinning
intensities was applied to each treatment
based on the percentage of the stand basal
area prior to thinning. The trees removed ineach treatment were also selected based oncrown class, i.e., dominant, co-dominant,intermediate, and suppressed and also
based on characteristics of tree, e.g., nodefects, some defects, weak and standing
dead. All trees in each thinned stand weredivided into five classes and the trees in thefifth class (or the lowest class, i.e.,
consisting of weak trees, dead trees, andfallen trees) were selected before the others
until the target basal area removal in eachtreatment was reached. The thinning
treatments were removal of initial basal
area at rate of 0% (unthinned or control),30% (light) and 50% (moderate).

Materials and methods
Study site
The thinning trial was established in a
private teak plantation at Tha Sao District,
Mueang Sub-District, Uttaradit Province,on a site with a tropical monsoon climate,and mountainous region in northern
Thailand. The mean annual temperature isapprox. 27.7 C with minor daily andannual fluctuations. The annual
precipitation is 1,432.6 mm with six dry
months. The study site was located at analtitude of 105 m a.s.l., at 17o 41’ 25.5” N,and 100o 17’52.8” E. In an area original
cleared for agricultural crops, a 47 rai(7.52 ha) Tectona grandis plantation wasestablished in May, 2005 with initialspacing of 2x4 m (1,250 tree ha-1). The firstthinning was conducted in May, 2011 when
the teak plantation was 6 years old. The
pure teak stand presented canopy closure
but severe competition was not evident. The

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 14-1 Layout of experimental plots

Basal area and volume were calculated foreach tree and stand total basal area and total
volume were calculated by summing thevalues of all trees in the measurement plot,
and then these values were converted to onerai (1,600 m2 or 0.16 ha). The stem volumeof each tree was calculated at the thinningtime, just after thinning and 1 year afterthinning from the stem volume equation forthis species presented by Vacharangkura(2001):

Measurements
Prior to thinning, the experimental plots were
measured and re-measured again just afterthinning was conducted. Following thinning
the tree sizes were measured and surviving
trees were surveyed in each plot every year.
The measurement period was 4 years. At thetime of the last measurement, stand age was
10 years. All living trees in each treatment
were numbered and marked at breast height(1.37 m) for annual measurement of stem
diameter at breast height (DBH), total height(H), and height to crown base (Hb), using a
diameter tape and measuring pole. Digital
hypsometer was used when total tree height
was more than 15 m.

V = 0.00009734 DBH1.99583 H0.64695
Where V is the over bark volume (m3),
DBH is the diameter at breast height overbark (cm) and H is the tree total height (m).
Because thinning affected stem form
(shape) of any tree in stands, different stem
volume equations were calculated for eachstand with different treatments. The
nonlinear model used to calculate
individual stem volume was:Two years after thinning, the stem diameterof 10 randomly-selected trees per treatment(control, light thinning and moderatethinning) was measured, using electronic
BAF-scope/dendrometer (CRITERION RD
1000). The diameter of a standing tree attarget points along the stem and total heightof the tree were measured and recorded. The
data was used to construct the allometricequation for calculating individual stem
volume of trees in each treatment.

V = a(DBH2H)b
Where a and b are constants. Mean basal
area and mean stem volume of eachtreatment were calculated to examine treesize. Annual increment was calculated as
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Results

the difference between successive
measurements divided by the number ofyears between the measurements.
Dominant trees were based on 100 trees by
diameter (DBH) of the largest trees per
hectare (16 trees per rai). Total volume
production and stand volume increment
were calculated to examine the effects ofthe thinning operation.

Effects of the thinning on tree size
ANOVA showed that there was no
significant difference (p≥0.05) among
treatments in terms of mean DBH, meanheight, stand basal area, or stand volume.
This means that the plantation had
homogeneous structure even though there
were slight differences in stand density inthe moderate thinning plots comparedwith the light thinning and control plots(Table 14-1).

In order to evaluate the effect of thinning onstem form, the three parameters wereapplied to investigate the attributes of trees
in each treatment at the time before andafter thinning was performed. These
parameters were:Just after thinning, mean DBH was not
significantly different between thinned plots,
but the thinned plots were different from thecontrol plots. There was no significant
difference among treatments in term of meanheight. Stand basal area differed significantly
in all treatments (p≤0.05). There was no
significant difference in stand volume in thelight thinning and moderate thinning plots,
both the thinning type plots were significantly
different from the control plots. The densityof trees differed significantly because of thedifference in thinning intensities (Table 14-1).

(1) live-crown ratio (the ratio between
crown height and total height (H-Hb)/H)(2) slenderness ratio (the H/DBH ratio)(3) absolute form factor (defined as the ratioof the volume of a tree or its part to thevolume of a cylinder having the samelength and cross section as the tree).
These parameters were calculated for eachtree at the time before and after thinning,
and then the average in each treatment wasused to examine the effect of thinning onstem form.

By the final measurement at 4-year afterthinning, the differences in stand density
among treatments had changed. There wereno significant differences in stand density
among treatments because mortality was highin the control plots owing to the severe
competition between trees. Mean diametersof the residual stands increased significantlyin thinned plots and differed significantly
from control plots. On the other hand, there
was no significant difference in mean height
among treatments. Stand basal area washighest in the control plots (10.06 m2 ha-1)
but was not significantly different from plotsthat had received light thinning. There was no
significant difference in stand basal area in all
thinned plots(p≥0.05). Four years afterthinning, stand volume had increased in all of
the thinned plots but decreased in control
plots. There was no significant difference instand volume among the treatments (Table
14-1)

Statistical analysis
The effects of thinning intensity on treesize, individual growth rate growth rate ofstand and quality of stem form wereanalyzed. ANOVA was applied to examine
statistical significant of the differencesamong treatment. The mean differencecomparison, using Tukey HSD were
performed to compare the means among
treatments. In the tables and figures, thetreatments marked with the same letter are
not significantly different (p > 0.05).

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Table 14-1 Stand characteristics of Den Dan plantation before, just after and 4-year after thinning
Before thinning

TreatmentLight

No. of trees (tree ha )Mean DBH (cm)Mean Height (m)Stand basal area (m ha-1)
Stand Volume (m3 ha-1)
Just after thinning
No. of trees (tree ha-1)
Mean DBH (cm)Mean Height (m)Stand basal area (m ha-1)
Stand Volume (m3 rai-1)
4-year after thinning
No. of tree (tree ha-1)
Mean DBH (cm)Mean Height (m)-1Moderate

Unthinned

1219
10.15
10.94
11.88
73.75

(+1.00)(+1.06)(+1.31)(+0.30)(+2.38)

a
a
a
a
a

1206
10.33
11.01
12.06
74.25

(+1.00)(+0.81)(+1.00)(+0.23)(+1.79)b 1225 (+0.58) aa
9.99 (+1.00 aa 10.44 (+1.44) aa 11.15 (+0.30) a
a 70.56 (+2.35) a

769
11.58
12.45
8.31
52.5

(+8.98)(+0.58)(+0.48)(+0.21)(+1.49)

b
a
a
b
b

506
12.17
12.54
5.94
38.00

(+4.04)(+0.34)(+0.24)(+0.12)(+0.78)caacb

750 (+11.01) a
13.16 (+0.70) b
13.42 (+0.89) a

494 (+6.11) a
14.50 (+018) a
13.95 (+0.11) a

1225
10.82
11.17
11.75
70.69

(+0.58)(+0.87(+1.32)(+0.28)(+2.40)abaaa1088 (+5.86) a
12.49 (+0.45) b
12.83 (+0.37) a

Stand basal area (m ha1)
8.75 (+0.26) ab
7.88 (+0.11) b 10.06 (+0.17) a
3-1Stand Volume (m ha )88.69 (+3.28) a
55.69 (+0.72) a 63.44 (+1.01) a
Thinning ratio
No. of tree (%)
36.91
58.20
0.00
Basal area (%)
30.32
50.77
0.00
Remarks: BA = basal area
Treatments marked with the different letters in row are significantly different (p≤0.05);
standard deviation in parentheses
The corresponding basal area and stem
volume development of trees in the stands
at the time of thinning to 4 years afterthinning are presented in Figure 14-2 andFigure 14-3 respectively. The mean basal
area in moderate thinning plots was thelarger year by year after thinning. At the ageof 10 years (4-year after thinning) the meanbasal area in moderate thinning plots
differed significantly from those in lightthinning plots and control plots. There wasno significant difference in mean basal area
between light thinned plots and control
plots.

This result indicated that thinning promoted
larger stem diameter in the stands andheavier thinning intensity tended toencourage larger stem diameter of trees.
The corresponding mean stem volume ofthe stands was significantly different
among treatments by 1-year after thinning.
From 2-year after thinning, the mean stem
volume in both light and moderate thinningplots were not significantly different, butwere significantly different from the control
plots. The results clearly demonstrated thatthinning promoted larger tree size.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 14-2 Mean basal area 4 years after thinning. Letters signify individual statistical differencesamong treatments in each measurement time, based on the ANOVA.
The treatments marked with the different letters are significantly different. (p≤ 0.05)

Mean stem volume (m3)Mean stem volume (m3/tree)

Unthinned

Light thinning

0.140

a

0.120
0.100
0.080
0.060

Moderate thinning

a a a

ab
b

a

c

b

a

a

b

a

a a

a

b

b

3 years

4 years

0.040
0.020
0.000

Before Just afterthinning thinning

1 years

2 years

Figure 14-3 Mean stem volume 4-year after thinning. Letters signify individual statistical differencesamong treatments in each measurement time, based on the ANOVA. The treatments marked with thedifferent letters are significantly different. (p≤ 0.05)

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TEAK IN MEKONG

The mean annual increment of thedominant trees was the largest in moderatethinning plots, followed by those in lightthinning plots and unthinned plots. The testof mean annual increment of the dominants
revealed the same result as for all the trees.
This result indicated that thinning intensity
had no clear effect on annual DBH
increment of the dominant trees in theresidual stands (Figure 14-4).

Effects of thinning on tree growth
The mean annual DBH increments of alltrees in moderate thinning plots were thelargest, followed by those in unthinnedplots and light thinning plots (Figure 14-4).
The differences among thinning intensities
were not statistically significant in alltreatments. The mean diameter increment
was also calculated for the dominant trees(defined as 100 largest tree by DBH per
hectare).

DBH increment of all trees

DBH increment(cm yr-1)

DBH increment(cm yr-1)

0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40

a

0.30
0.20

0.10
0.00

0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

Light thinning

Moderate thinning

Unthinned

DBH increment of dominant treesaLight thinning

Moderate Thinning

Unthinned

Figure 14-4 Mean annual DBH increment of all trees and dominant trees. Letters signify individual
statistical differences among treatments in each measurement time, based on the ANOVA. The
treatments marked with the different letters are significantly different (p≤ 0.05)
171TEAK IN MEKONG

In the case of mean height of all trees andmean annual height increment of thedominant trees, the results were alignedwith the results in mean annual DBH
increment presented above. The meanannual height increment of all trees and thedominant trees were the largest in thecontrol plots, followed by the moderatethinning plots and then the light thinningplots. The heavier thinning plots seemed toshow a greater annual height increment of
all trees and the dominant trees, but there
was no significant difference (Figure 14-5).

Height increment of all trees
Height increment(cm yr-1)

0.70

0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

0.80
Height increment(cm yr-1)

aLight thinning

Moderate thinning

Unthinned

Height increment of dominant trees

0.70
0.60
0.50

a

0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

Light thinning

Moderate Thinning

Unthinned

Figure 14-5 Mean annual height increment of all trees and dominant trees. Letters signify individual
statistical differences among treatments in each measurement time, based on the ANOVA. The
treatments marked with the different letters are significantly different (p≤ 0.05)
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TEAK IN MEKONG

moderate thinning plots and control plots.
The number and volume of dead trees incontrol plots were much larger than those inboth thinned plots, because of severe
competition in control plots. The number
and volume of dead trees was smallest inmoderate thinning plots. This result may becaused the larger volume of production inmoderate thinning plots than those incontrol plots. This result indicated thatthinning prevented regular tree mortality.

Effects of thinning on stand growth
The volume production of the residual
stands calculated from the year of thinningwas examined only in the fourth year afterthinning, and the data are presented inTable 14-2. Total of volume production ineach stand consisted of the volume ofthinned trees, the volume of dead trees, andcurrent volume production. The total
volume production was the sum total of
those three parts. The total volume of
production in light thinning plots was thelargest (112.16 m2 ha-1), followed by the

Table 14-2 Stand volume production (m3 ha-1) in stands with different thinning intensities
Treatment

Volume ofthinnedtrees

Volume ofdead trees

Current volume
production

Total
volumeproduction

No. of deadtrees (tree)

Light

21.21

2.27

88.69

112.1646

Moderate

36.77

0.94

55.71

93.42

19

Unthinned

0.00

7.85

63.47

71.32

227

The annual stand volume increment waslarger in light thinning plots than those inmoderate thinning plots, but there was no
significant difference between the twothinning intensities. Compared with thecontrol plots, the annual stand volume
increment in light thinning plots differedsignificantly. In contrast, annual standvolume increment in moderate thinningplots was not significantly different fromthe control plots (Figure 14-6).

The total stand volume production waslargest in light thinning plots, followed bymoderate thinning and then control plots.
The differences between the thinning
intensities were not statistically significant.
The total stand volume production inmoderate thinning plots was not
significantly different from that in thecontrol plots (Figure 14-7). These results
were in accordance with the results ofannual stand volume increment.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Stand volume increment

Volume increment(m3 ha-1yr-1)

14.0

a

12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0

ab

4.0

b

2.0
0.0
-2.0

Light thinning

Moderate thinning

Unthinned-4.0

Figure 14-6 Mean stand volume increment. Letters signify individual statistical differences among
treatments in each measurement time, based on the ANOVA. The treatments marked with thedifferent letters are significantly different. (p≤ 0.05)

Total stand volume production
Volume production(m3 ha-1)

160.0
140.0

a

120.0

ab

100.0

b

80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0

Light thinning

Moderate thinning

Unthinned

Figure 14-7 Total stand volume production. Letters signify individual statistical differences among
treatments in each measurement time, based on the ANOVA. The treatments marked with thedifferent letters are significantly different. (p≤ 0.05)

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Annual stand volume increments on thethinned and control plots during the wholemeasurement period were also examined inrelation to the mean volume increment ofcontrol plots (Table 14-3). As expected,
annual stand volume increment decreased
with increasing thinning intensities. This
result was in accordance with the result of
current volume production. The moderatethinning intensity decreased the annual
stand volume increment by 64% comparedwith the mean volume increment of thecontrol plots prior to thinning. The lightthinning intensity decreased the annual
stand volume increment by 23%, whereas
control plots showed a decrease in annual
stand volume increment of almost 99%.

Table 14-3 Decrease in annual stand volume increment
Treatment
Light thinning

Annual stand volume increment (m3ha-1yr-1)
Just after
4 years after
Decrease of annual volume
thinning
thinning
increment (%)
12.29
9.62
-22.51Moderate thinning

12.38

4.79

-64.30Unthinned

11.80

0.13

-98.86

year after thinning. The slenderness ratio inmoderate thinning plots clearly showed lower
values than those in the light thinning plots
and control plots, although the differences
between the moderate thinning and control
plots were not clear (Figure 14-8).

Effects of thinning on stem form
The effect of thinning on live-crown ratio
was observed from the year thinning was
performed 4th year after thinning. The livecrown ratio in thinned stand was larger thanthose in control plots from 1-year afterthinning. Among thinned plots the livecrown ratio in moderate thinning plots waslarger than those in light thinning plots by
2-year after thinning and clearly differedfrom 3-year after thinning (Figure 14-8).

Absolute form factor clearly differedamong treatments from 3-year afterthinning. The form factor in light thinningplots yielded more cylindrical trees thanthose in moderate thinning plots and control
plots. The form factor of all thinned plots
was larger than those of control plots(Figure 14-9).

On the other hand, slenderness ratio(slenderness coefficient) in the control plots
was larger than those in thinned plots from 1-

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Live crown ratio(%)
Unthinned

Light thinning

Moderate thinningLive crown ratio (%)

68

66
64
62
60
58
56
54
52
50

Beforethinning

Just afterthinning

1 year

2 years

3 years

4 years

Slenderness ratio(%)
Unthinned

Light thinning

Moderate thinning

Slenderness (%)

110
108

106
104
102
100
98
96
94
92
90

BeforeJust afterthinning

1 year

2 years

3 years

4 years

Figure 14-8 Live-crown ratio and slenderness before and after thinning

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Absolute Form Factor
Light thinning

Moderate thinning

Unthinned

0.7

Form Factor

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
Beforethinning

Just afterthinning

1 year

2 years

3 years

4 years

Figure 14-9 Absolute form factor before and after thinning

The effects of thinning on the threeparameters contribute to the quality of stem
form by 4-year after thinning, and theresults are presented in Table 14-4.

In contrast, the ANOVA results clearly
indicated that there was no significant
difference in slenderness ratio among thetreatments. The slenderness ratio inmoderate thinning plots was markedly
different from the others because the value
was less than 100%, whereas thecorresponding values were higher than
100% in the other treatments.

The ANOVA results indicated that there
were significant differences in live-crownratio among treatments. The live-crownratio in moderate thinning plots was larger
than those in light thinning and control
plots; however, there was no significant
difference between moderate thinning plots
and light thinning plots. Compared with thecontrol plots, but the live-crown ratio inlight thinning plots was not significantly
different.

As shown in Table 14-4, the absolute form
factor in light thinning plots was the largest,
followed by those in moderate thinningplots and control plots. The ANOVA results
clearly showed that there were significant
effects of thinning intensity on the absoluteform factor.

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Table 14-4 Parameters of tree attributes associated with quality of stem form: 4 years
after thinning
Treatment

Live-crown ratio(%)

Slenderness ratio(%)

Absolute form factor

Light thinning58.11 (+3.96)

ab101.65 (+3.56) a

0.61(+0.0200)aModerate thinning64.45 (+2.43)

a

97.31

(+1.91) a

0.48(+0.0005)b

Unthinned

52.45 (+5.60)

b103.73 (+1.71) a

0.39(+0.0050)c

Treatments marked with the different letters are significantly different(p≤ 0.05); standard deviation in parentheses.
difference among thinned and control
stands. The differences in diameterincrement, basal area and volume inreaction to thinning can be explained bydifference among tree species, site, standage, tending practices, thinning type, andintensity (Hamilton, 1976). The resultsfrom our study support known information
about the effects of thinning on standproduction.

Discussion
The plantation responded to the firstthinning, and the largest diameterincrement occurred after moderate thinning(Figure 14-4). The results of this study weresimilar to the results of many other studies,
especially in broad leaved stands (Hibbs etal., 1995; Rytter, 1995; Kerr, 1996;
Clatterbuck, 2002; Meadows & Goelz,
2002). The increase in diameter growth inresponse to thinning was associated with anincrease in photosynthetic rate and waterand nitrogen use efficiency among thinned
trees (Wang et al., 1995).

The total stand volume increment per unit
area (per hectare) did not very much
between the light thinning plots andmoderate thinning plots, but there wassignificant difference from the control plots(Figure 14-7). The main reason was thedense control stands consumed morecarbon for respiration than thinned stands;
thus, net production will be reduced indense stands (Savill et al., 1997). However,stand volume increment in the moderatethinning plots did not differ significantly
from the control plots because a large
number of trees were removed. The total
stand volume production in the control
plots was the smallest compared with thethinned plots (Table 14-2) because part of
the total stand volume production was lost
owing to severe competition in the stand.
Therefore, thinning prevents natural
mortality. The results in this study revealed
that increasing thinning intensity resulted inonly a small reduction in total stand volume

Height increment was not affected bythinning intensity in light or moderatethinning plots (Figure 14-5). Similar results
were found in young stand of teak in Costa
Rica after the first thinning was performed
at 4 years (Kanninen et al., 2004). It is awell-known fact that the stand density has
significant effects on diameter growth, but
not on height growth, except for very highand very low stand densities. Our study
results concurred with this finding.
The results clearly demonstrated that theremaining trees can rapidly occupy thegrowing space released by the thinned trees,
especially in the light thinning plots. The
DBH and height increment of all trees aswell as that of the dominant trees clearly
increased but there was no significant
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TEAK IN MEKONG

production (from 112.16 m3ha-1 in lightthinning plots to 93.42 m3ha-1 in moderatethinning plots) (Figure 14-7). However, theDBH increment of the remaining trees wasclearly increased by thinning.

total height/DBH ratio (slenderness ratio)of 1:1. However, there have been no similar
studies in teak plantations for comparison.
The absolute stem form factor was largest
in the light thinning plots and differedsignificantly from the moderate thinningplots and the control plots. The control plots
had the smallest value (Table 14-4). The
larger stem form factor provided a morecylindrical volume of a tree. The result of
this study confirmed this; the mean stem
volume of individual trees at 4 years afterthinning in the light thinning plots waslargest compared with the others. Pérez &Kanninen (2005) reported in young teakplantations in Costa Rica that moderate
early thinning yielded more cylindrical
trees (average form factor of 0.46) than latethinning and control (unthinned) (averageform factor 0.43 and 0.44, respectively).
The result of our study in the moderatethinning plots provided a similar value ofstem form factor found in early moderatethinning stands from their study.

The results in this study revealed thatthinning had a positive effect on stem form.
Live-crown ratio in moderate thinning plots
was largest and differed significantly fromthe control plots (Figure 14-8). It meant thatmoderate thinning expanded the crown sizeof the tree. Because we know that the crowncontained the foliage which is thephotosynthetic structure that provides
carbohydrates for the growth anddevelopment of the whole tree (Larson,
1963; Leites & Robinson, 2004). The stemof a tree was strongly influence by its crownsize and position (crown length, crown ratio
and crown height). This result was
confirmed in our study, whereby the mean
stem volume of the individual tree in thecontrol plots was the smallest comparedwith those in the thinned plots.
The slenderness ratios (or slenderness
coefficients) of trees in the control plots werelarger than those in the light thinning plots
and moderate thinning plots, even though thedifference among treatments was notstatistically significant (Table 14-4). The
slenderness ratio has been widely used as anindex of the stability of trees, especially theresistance of a tree to windthrow. The
preferred slenderness ratio of a tree waslower than 100%. In this study, theslenderness ratio was lower than 100%
(97.31%) only in the moderate thinningplots. It meant that the trees in moderatethinning stands may be at low risk for
windthrow compared with the others.
However, for teak Pérez & Kanninen(2005) reported from their study in a young
stand of a teak plantation in Costa Rica,
intensive thinning had a positive effect on
the stem form, inducing the development oftree with desired proportion of DBH andtotal height. Trees suffering highcompetition in the control and lightthinning treatments will hardly reach theConclusion
The moderate thinning intensity (50%
based on basal area) applied at the age of 6
years gave the largest values in terms ofmean DBH, mean height, mean basal area,and mean stem volume of the individual
trees, whereas the control showed thesmallest values. The total height was notstatistically different among treatments,
although the mean height in the control
treatment was smaller than that of the othertreatments. The current stand basal area andstand volume at 4 years after thinning was
the largest with light thinning intensity,whereas those with the moderate thinning
intensity were the smallest.
The results from this study indicated thatthe mean DBH increment of all trees, aswell as the mean DBH of the dominant
trees, increased with increasing intensity,
but there was no significant difference
among thinned and control stands. The
mean DBH increment of all trees in the179

TEAK IN MEKONG

control stands was similar those in the lightthinning stands. On the other hand, theheight increment of all trees and of thedominant trees was not affected by thinning
intensity. The mean stand volume
increment produced per hectare was largest
in the light thinning stands and differedsignificantly from the control stands,
however, it did not differ significantly fromthe moderate thinning stands. In case total
stand volume production at 4 years afterthinning, the results was in accordance withthe results of the mean stand volume
increment.

Hamilton, G. J. (1976). Effects of line
thinning on increment. Forestry
Commission Bulletin, 55, 37-45.
Hamilton, G. J. (1981). The effects of highintensity thinning on yield. Journal Forest,
54, 1-15.
Hasenauer, H., Burkhart, H. E. & Amateis,
R. L. (1997). Basal area Development inthinned and unthinned loblolly pine
plantation. Canadian Journal of Forest
Research, 27, 265-271.
Hibbs, D. E., Emmingham, W. H. &Bondi, M. C. (1995). Response of redalder to thinning. Western J. Applied
Forestry, 10, 17-23.

The light and moderate thinning intensities
reduced the stand volume increment by
23% and 64%, respectively, in relation to
the mean stand volume increment of thecontrol stands, whereas the stand volume
increment in the control stand decreased byalmost 99%. However, part of the total
stand volume production of the control
stands was lost because of natural mortality.

Horne, R., Robinson, G. & Gwalter, J.
(1986). Response increment: a method toanalyze thinning response in even-aged
forest. Forest Science, 32(1), 243-253.
Kanninen, M., Pérez, D., Montero, M. &Viquez, E. (2004). Intensity and timing of
the first thinning of Tectona grandis
plantations in Costa Rica: results of athinning trial. Forest Ecology andManagement, 203(1-3), 89-99.

Thinning intensity had effects on tree(stem) attributes that contributed to qualityof stem form. Live-crown ratio increased
with increasing thinning intensity. On theother hand, slenderness ratio decreased
with increasing thinning intensity. The
absolute form factor was clearly affected bythinning intensity. The form factor was
significantly different among treatments,
and control stands gave the smallest form
factor; therefore, thinning practice tended
to have positive effect on stem form even ina young stand of teak.

Kerr, G. (1996). The effect of heavy on‘free growth’ thinning on Oak (Quercus
petraea and Q.robur). Forestry, 69, 303317.
Larson, P. R. (1963). Stem form
development of forest trees. Forest Science
Monograph, 5, 1-42.
Leites, L. P. & Robinson, A. P. (2004).
Improving taper equations of loblolly pinewith crown dimensions in mixed-effects
modelling framework. Forest Science,50(2), 204-212.

References
Clatterbuck, W. K. (2002). Growth of a
30-year cherrybark oak plantation 6 years
after thinning. In Proceedings of theEleventh Biennial Southern Silvicultural
Research Conference (ed. K. W. Outcalt),
pp. 189-192. USDA Forest Service. Gen.
Tech.Rep, SRS-48, Asheville, North
Carolina, USA.

Meadow, J. S. & Goelz, J. C. G. (2002).
Fourth years effects of thinning on growthand epicormics branching in a red oaksweetgum stand on a minor stream bottomsite in west-central Alabama. In:
Proceedings of the Eleventh Biennial
Southern Silvicultural Research
Conference (ed K. W. Outcalt), pp 201-180

TEAK IN MEKONG

208. USDA Forest Service, Gen Tech
SRS-48, Asheville, North Carolina, USA.

Vacharangkura, T., Mungklarat, J.,
Kheannak, P., Wattanasuksakul, S.,
Nongnueang, S. & Krongkitsiri, V. (2001).
Growth and yield prediction of economic
forest plantation. Final Report
Silvicultural Research Group. Forest
Research and Development Bureau Royal
Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand. 61
p. (in Thai).

Pérez, D. & Kanninen, M. (2005). Effectof thinning on stem form and woodcharacteristics of teak (Tectona grandis) ina humid tropical site in Costa Rica. Silva
Fennica, 39(2), 217-225.
Rytter, L. (1995). Effects of thinning on
the obtainable biomass, stand density, andtree diameters of intensity grown greyalder plantations. Forest Ecology andManagement, 73, 135-143.

Wang, J. R., Simard, S. W. & Kimmins, J.
P. (1995). Physiological responses of
paper birch to thinning in British
Columbia. Forest Ecology andManagement, 73, 177-184.

Savill, P., Evans, J., Auclair, D. & Falck,J. (1997). Plantation Silviculture inEurope. Oxford University Press, New
York, USA.

Zeide, B. (2001). Thinning and growth: afull turnaround. Journal Forest, 99, 20-25.

181

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Chapter 15: Silviculture Aspects of Large-Scale Teak
Plantations in Brazil
Sylvio de Andrade Coutinho and Fausto Hissashi Takizawa

Abstract

mainly of the exotic species of eucalyptus
and pines for meeting the wood demandfocused on energy and cellulose.

Brazil has long been a world leader in
eucalyptus and Pinus productivity
with MAI of 35.7 and 30.5 m³/ha/year,
respectively. Teak trajectory in Brazil inrecent years has also tended to follow thesame path of these two species after the
adoption of clonal technology for raising
teak plantations followed by best forestry
practices resulting in more than 30%
productivity jump over the average of 15
m3/ha/year of the main commercial nonclonal teak plantations. Technologies andforestry practices adopted range from theclonal technology adoption, appropriate
selection for planting teak location, soil
preparation, nutrition, weed control,
pruning, thinning, forest protection andother forestry aspects. This article describes
a case study of a large-scale teak plantationcompany in Brazil that seeks to follow thesimilar pattern of forest management
adopted by eucalyptus and pine. Forest
practices, technologies adopted and themain factors to produce teak wood in alarge-scale plantation are described.

Meanwhile, high quality tropical timber
supply and market, such as mahogany,
Swietenia macrophylla, was sourced from
native forest species, largely from theAmazon and was relatively abundant. This
may explain, in part, the little interest inteak in Brazil at that time, even after it was
introduced in the early 20th century.
Experimental teak planting results carriedout at the “Escola Superior de Agricultura
Luiz de Queiroz” (ESALQ) in Piracicaba,São Paulo state, showed that Tectona
grandis development was superior to thatsome native species that produce wood ofhigh commercial value (Sampaio, 1930;
Mello, 1963). Since then several otherexperimental teak plantations were raised
across Brazil prominent among which are
the teak plantation at Usina Tamoio,
Araraquara, in São Paulo state; at Aracruz
Florestal S/A, in Aracruz, Espírito Santo; atJarí Florestal, in Monte Dourado, Pará; andin “Comissão Executiva do Plano de
Recuperação Econômico-Rural da Lavoura
Cacaueira (CEPLAC)”, Porto Seguro,
Bahia (Matricardi, 1989).

Teak in Brazil

Until the end of the 20th century, Brazil
had been using native forest resources
as if they were inexhaustible. Rapidly
growing demand for wood for industrial
purposes and the increased risk ofdestruction of native forests led to theenactment of Law No. 5106 of September
2, 1966, enabling growing investments inforest plantations by Brazilian forest-basedindustries. This policy, in force between
1966 and 1987, was responsible fortriggering an intense virtuous cycle ofplanting at mass scale, expansion,development and forestry research in theSouth and Southeast regions of Brazil,

The first initiative to establish teak stands
for commercial purposes took place in
Cáceres, Mato Grosso, in 1968, after tests
with teak, mahogany and several otherhigh-value native species were carried out
by Cáceres Florestal S/A. This teakplantation soon became known for the highprice of its wood in the international market(Florestal, 2006). Its success led to theestablishment of several large commercial
teak plantations in the North and CenterWest regions of Brazil, namely, small teakstands intercropped with black pepper in
Tomé-Açu, Pará state; teak plantation in
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Brasnorte, Mato Grosso state, by the
Berneck company, a traditional leader inpine cultivation in the south of Brazil; teakplanting in Pimenta Bueno, Rondônia state,by the Sulmap company; teak planting in
Jangada and Rosário Oeste, Mato Grosso
state, by Floresteca.

1992 to 7,560 ha in 1998 (Caldeira, 1999),
to 14,000 ha in 2001 (FAO, 2001). Then it
rose sharply to 45,000 ha by 2007 and65,240 ha in 2009 as registered and updated
by the “Associação Brasileira de Produtoresde Florestas Plantadas- ABRAF” (Brazilian
Association of Planted Forest Producers)(ABRAF, 2007, 2009, 2011; Shimizu et al.,2007). Most recent records place the extent
of teak plantations in Brazil at 93,957 ha in2018 (IBÁ, 2019).

Teak area expansion in Brazil took place
predominantly in Mato Grosso state where
it increased from just about 1,480 ha in

Figure 15-1 Teak planted area evolution in Brazil.
Based on the numbers of Midgley et al.
(2015), in which South America has
278,000 ha of teak plantations, Brazil,
therefore, represents around 34% of theplanted area in this continent. Mato Grosso
and Pará are the two states with the largest
teak planted area and production of teakwood in Brazil, representing more than
90% of teak in Brazil. The remaining teakplantations are located in Rondônia, Acre,
Tocantins, Amazonas, Goiás, São Paulo,
Minas Gerais, Bahia, and Pernambuco
states.

Since 2013, however, there has been some
slowdown in expansion, even reversal insome situations, with several areas being
converted to farming after the rotational
harvest due to favourable situation for
agricultural commodities in theinternational markets. On a smaller scale,there has also been a replanting of teakplantations after first rotation using clonaltechnology. The future trend of teakplantations in Brazil is towards stability
with a slight decrease in planted area,
predominance of clonal plantations, andsearch for new areas where there is nocompetition with agricultural commodities.
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the FSC® (Forest Stewardship Council®).
Their operations comprise a complete cyclein the teak production enterprise: genetic
development and production of clonal
seedlings; acquisition and selection of areasfor planting; soil preparation and planting;forest maintenance and management;
harvesting, transport and logistics;
processing and marketing (Figure 15-2).

Characterization and Overview of the
Teak Resources Company (TRC) of theCase Study
The following case study was carried out ina company that has just over 40,000 ha ofteak plantations established from 1994
onwards that are spread over 100,000 ha ofland including more than 29,000 hectares ofconservation areas, with forests certified by

Figure 15-2 Operations of the company of the case studied.
In 2020, 150,000 m3 of logs were produced,
with a projection to produce 250,000 m3 in
2022. Its forestry operations cover 36 farms
between the Pará and Mato Grosso states, 1
industrial unit for the sawn teak wood
production in Mato Grosso, with anadministrative office in São Paulo state,and sales offices in Singapore andTaiwan (Figure 15-3), more than 800
direct jobs, indirectly impacting morethan 3,000 people.

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Figure 15-3 Forests and office location of the company of the case studied.
Managed plantations of the company began
in 1994, in Mato Grosso. Forest
certification management, according to theprinciples and criteria of the FSC®, wasintroduced in 1998 and clonal technology

has been in use since 2001. Sawmill wasestablished in 2003 and the company began
exporting its product at scale in 2005. By
2006 the company was able to sell its CO2
credits generated.

Figure 15-4 Planted area evolution and history.
Silviculture and Forest Management

proportion, resistance to diseases and adapted
to the site and climate conditions (Bhat & Ma,
2004). Genetic improvement is the primarystrategy applied by this company to increase
and maintain the productivity and quality ofteak wood, as well as to mitigate
phytosanitary and climatic risks.

Genetic improvement
A teak genetic improvement program seeks
to ensure supply of high-performance
genetic materials, higher productivity, goodstem quality, wood and heartwood
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In 2001 the company introduced superior
teak clones using genetic materials
originating from a laboratory in Malaysia.
Since then, it has intensified the actions of
its teak genetic improvement program in
Brazil that include:

more than 200 genotypes in its genetic
improvement program;✓ Establishment
andconductofprovenance, progeny and clonal tests;✓ Application of techniques to achieve
controlled cross pollination (Photo 15-3)
and early flowering;✓ Enlargement of its genetic base from themass selection of superior trees in its
commercial plantations of seminal
origin (Photos 15-1 and 15-2) andintroduction of teak genetic material(genotypes) from different families andgeographical origins. There are currently✓ Development of the genomic analysis
technology that can be applied to teakgenetic
improvement
includingcomplete genome sequencing to obtain
the punctual variations along the DNA.

Photo 15-1 Superior tree selected for 72 cm dbh
at 20 years rotation

186

Photo 15-2 Micro cuttings from geneticallysuperior trees rejuvenated and multiplied

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 15-3 Pollen collection and controlled pollination in teakPhoto 15-4 Mini clonal garden to produce mini cuttings of superior genotypes
187

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Photo 15-5 Mini cuttings into tube for rooting

The mother plants originate from provensuperior genetic materials and properly
rejuvenated. Mini cuttings are placed into
tubes (Photo 15-5) with a capacity of 55
cm3 containing a commercial substrate ofturf, vermiculite, organic residue(carbonized rice straw), to which a slowrelease fertilizer is added. The substrate
must be well aerated, free of pathogens andcontaminants to ensure healthy and quality
seedlings production.

Seedling production
Its nursery is located on the side of a little
river and supplied by an artesian well,obtaining quality water for all its
irrigation, with an installed capacity to
produce 600,000 clonal seedlings per year.
Clonal seedlings production process
begins with the collection of mini-cuttingsfrom mother plants from mini-clonalgarden (Photo 15-4). A mother plant can
produce a huge number of cuttings
throughout the year and at each collection
event between 2 to 4 mini cuttings arecollected. Generally, each cutting will giverise to a new plant or seedling.

Mini cuttings root easily under specificgreenhouse conditions, then transferred toa shady place (Photo 15-6), and finally put
under direct sunlight. Clonal seedlings
become ready (Photo 15-7) for definitiveplanting after about 90 days in the nursery.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 15-6 Greenhouse for rooting mini cuttings

Basalt, Tonalite and others), prior analysis of
the soil, physical, and chemical characteristics,
a field survey and elaboration of thematicmaps, indicating the soil characteristics and its
main limitations (Figures 15-5, 15-6 and 157), being key information for recommending
the best use of available soils, preparation, andcorrection of chemical and physical soil
conditions.

Planting site selection
Planting site selection suitable for teak follows
criteria based on soil characteristics, climaticconditions, topography, transport and logistics
infrastructure, energy, and human resources
availability. The selection areas procedure toplant teak involves an analysis of thegeological origin of the soils (Granodiorite,

Figure 15-5 Soil water influence
depth thematic map

Photo 15-7 Seedlings ready forplanting in the field

Figure 15-6 Soil texture thematic
map

Maps are also generated to plan
implementation and planting operations,
including teak stands design, roads,
firebreaks, facilities, and infrastructure
for supporting, as well as the delimitation
and respect for conservation andenvironmental protection areas. Special
attention is given to the maintenance andprotection of the remaining forests within

Figure 15-7 Soilaluminium thematic map

the property and conservation ofrepresentative samples of the ecosystem
and areas that must be protected by law.
Sites choice and recommendation of the
improvements in the physical andchemical conditions of the soil are
relevant and decisive for the success ofestablishment and development of a highyield and quality teak stand.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

vegetation of the old pasture (Photo 15-8);
in some situations a pre-emergenceherbicide based on oxyfluorfen is also
applied to control emergence of weeds infuture. After those planting lines aredemarcated and a subsoiler implement isused to break top layer of soil compaction.
There are cases of soils with greater
physical restrictions in which an implementwith both subsoiler and plough disks is used
(Photo 15-9) building a soil bedding on theplanting line further increasing the volume
of soil exploited by teak roots.

Soil improvement and planting
Soil improvement activities make physicaland chemical soil conditions suitable forplanting, establishment of teak seedlings
and the people and machines transit in
future management activities into the stand.
It is carried out using the minimal tillage
technique, in which the soil is only rolled
along planting line, keeping old pastureresidues between planting lines to protect
the soil. It consists of an herbicide
application based on glyphosate fordesiccation of the grasses and herbaceous

Photo 15-8 Old degraded pasture being
prepared for teak planting

Photo 15-9 Bedding plough with subsoiler

At this stage maintenance of existing roads
and new roads constructions are carried out
for easy access to different stands
compartments for future management,
harvesting and wood transport. Based on
the soil chemical analysis sources ofCalcium and Magnesium are added forcorrection and maintenance of soil fertility
purpose at least 2 months before planting.
These sources could be dolomitic limestoneor/and plaster, to correct soil acidity andneutralize Al (Aluminium), in addition toproviding Ca (Calcium ) and Mg(Magnesium). The planting operation takes
place at the beginning of the rainy season inorder to maximize rainy season window fora good start of initial growth.

Planting is carried out manually, with thesupport of an equipment called “matraca”,
using selected high quality, healthy andsuperior genetic seedlings (Photo 15-10).
Workers are trained so that there is noexcessive covering of the seedlings stem bysoil, a failure that can drown the collar anddelay the growth of seedlings besides
possibly causing phytosanitary problems infuture. The spacing varies between 5x5
meters, 6x4 meters and 7x4 meters,
according to the region and soil and slope
conditions. During planting it may benecessary to apply fertilizers with adequate
sources of P hosphorus to keep planting
mortality very low, usually below 5%. The
practices adopted have allowed for a goodinitial start and uniform seedlings growth(Photo 15-11).

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 15-10 Teak manual planting with“matraca”

Photo 15-11 Teak clonal stand, good anduniform initial growth startTime between seedlings shipment from thenursery until effective planting does notexceed 15 days during which period theseedlings are kept in a shaded place andreceive constant irrigation.

Currently, the company plants only seedlings
originated from clonal material with provensuperior genetics. Compared to seed originmaterial of the first stands, the oldest clonalmaterial, at 17.5 years old, presents 60%
higher individual volume (Figure 15-8) and
20% increase in dbh (Figure 15-9).

Figure 15-8 Growth in individual volume, comparing clone and seed, 17.5 years

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 15-9 Growth in dbh, comparing clone and seed, 17.5 years

The company prioritizes productive use andhas expanded into old pastures areas,
generally degraded, improving andoptimizing land use, with no conversion offorests and native vegetation to teakplantations, even if permitted by law.

that herbicide does not reach teak leaves(Figure 15-5). When the teak plants reach aheight above 1.5 m it is possible to apply
herbicide without protection, as the risk of
the herbicide reaching the teak leaves is low.

Forest Maintenance/Management
The first years of teak stand demand greaterattention, with greater intensity, frequency
and need for manpower. Weed control,
fertilization and pruning are the main
activities in the early years. In the first 3
years, weed control is essential to ensure
good initial development and growth,because a failure in this activity causes
growth loss due to weed competition forwater, nutrients, and light; it can be
performed manually, mechanically, or
chemically. Manual weeding is carried out
in the planting row, weeks after planting,when seedlings are still small and young.
Mechanized weeding is carried out between
the rows, usually with mechanized brushcutters. Chemical weeding with glyphosate
application is preferred. However, when theseedlings are still small, below 1.5 metersin height, proper protection is necessary, so

Figure 15-12 Chemical weeding in theplanting line

Fertilization (Figure 15-13) assumes thatchemical and physical soil analysis results
indicate the need for it. The supply andbalance of the main essential nutrients (N,P, K, Ca, Mg, B, Zn etc.) guarantee theproper start and maintenance of teak growththroughout its rotation. The decision onsources, dosages and timing of fertilizer
application is based on soil analyses, stand192

TEAK IN MEKONG

maintenance. It is important to emphasizethat chemical products use, such as
herbicides and insecticides, is always instrict compliance of the FSC® pesticide
policy.

growth results and visual foliar diagnosis ofsymptoms associated with nutrition.

Forest harvesting
Forestry planning offers necessary support
for decision making in order to optimize
financial returns and ensure thesustainability of quality teak wood supply
to the market. Currently, the final harvest
adopted by the company is carried out
between 18 and 20 years, with 3 or morethinnings throughout the rotation, according to
the stand growth monitoring results.

Figure 15-13 Application of fertilizer in theteak standContinuous forest inventory system anddecision support tools provide important
indicators for understanding teak standgrowth dynamics, wood stock evolution,different scenarios simulation, etc. These
form the basis for guiding decisions such as
the appropriate age and intensities ofthinning and final cutting to achieve
optimal forest management.

Pruning ensures a good quality stem
conduction, minimizing defects caused bydead knots in the wood, a necessary activity
throughout the rotation, but drasticallyreducing its intensity and frequency fromthe tenth year onwards. It is performed
manually with a pruning saw and in a semimechanized way with a combustion
equipment called pole prune saw (Figure15-14). For heights above 2 meters, suchtools and equipment are coupled to a poleallowing reach up to 5 meters. The heightof the pruning is limited to half of the totalheight of the trees and seeks to concentrate
the pruning during the dry period of theyear, mitigating the potential diseases risks
that affect teak trunk.

For thinnings, trees selection and marking
are carried out following preset guidelinesthat ensure removal of diseased, crooked,
and bifurcated trees as well as smaller
diameters allowing uniform spatial
distribution among the remaining trees. It isthrough selection and marking activity thatthe future trees of the final harvest arechosen that will bring better wood quality
and greater economic returns.
Harvest (Figure 15 -10) starts from adetailed operational planning using drone
images using geographic information
system, pre-determining machines routeand points to locate wood piles, helping to
do harvest operation more efficient andlower cost. Performed primarily in amechanized way, minimizing accidents
risk, preserving the workers health andsafety, it consists of harvesters and feller
bunchers to felling trees, logs forwarding
and loading which are mechanized with
self-loading tractors and forest loaders, andwood transport is carried out in trucks
adapted for the transport of logs.

Figure 15-14 Pruning with a pole prune saw

Other activities are also carried out during
forest maintenance, such as controlling
leafcutter insects, and roads and firebreaks
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Figure 15-10 Activities carried out in the harvest

Logs measurement and labelling are
performed manually ensuring theaccuracy of length and circumference formore than 50 different measurements andtypes of logs.

integrity, stability, efficiency, andtraceability throughout the supply chain,delivering products at the destination.
All transport track, from road (Photo 1515), rail (Photo 15-16) and sea, as well assome services along the logistics chain is
outsourced (Photo 15-17).

Production and log market
Procedures adopted in the teak wood
harvesting and transport guarantee the194

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 15-15 Logs being transported by truck

Photo 15-16 Train and wagons transporting teak wood

Photo 15-17 Logs being placed inside containers

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TEAK IN MEKONG

More than 100,000 m3 of teak wood (Photo
15-18) was sold by the company in 2019
and 150,000 m3 in 2020. It has more than
140 customers from 13 different countries

in the last 12 months. The main markets
served are sawmillers that process wood forthe construction, furniture, flooring, deckand veneer sectors (Photo 15-19).

Photo 15-18 A pile of teak logs for export

Photo 15-19 Teak wood products

Figure 15-11 Composition of the sawmillof sawn products between blocks andboards, employs around 80 local workers.
Sawn products make it possible to improvethe economic efficiency of logs withrestrictions due to their size in the export
log market and allow diversification of
products offered to the market. The sawmill
has FSC® chain of custody certification,
guaranteeing that its certified sawn
products originate from its forests, whose

Sawmill
The sawmill (Figure 15-30) comprises
production line 1, with a band saw,
dedicated to smaller logs and larger-scale
production; production line 2, with a carsaw, dedicated to larger logs and a kiln fordrying boards.
Located at the Industrial District ofCáceres, Mato Grosso, with an installed
production capacity over 50,000 m3 a year196

TEAK IN MEKONG

management is also certified by the FSC®.
It should be noted that the sawmill'smanagement follows not only all theenvironmental legislation required for suchindustrial activity with the appropriate
environmental licenses as well as strict
safety and health procedures for its worker,
required by Brazilian legislation.

degraded pastures to teak stands thereby
ensuring restoration, protection andconservation of environmental reserves
under its management. Also tea kplantations, by the nature of their long cycle
when compared to other species and the useof teak wood to manufacture durable goods,
make the carbon balance positive with ahigh rate of environmental and social
benefits that will continue to be stored for along period.

Environmental, Social, and Corporate
Governance Principles
The company of this case study, since thebeginning of its activities, has alreadyadopted responsible practices and this fact
was validated by the FSC® environmental
certification received in 1998 followed by
the chain of custody certification.

The environmental conservation areas
supports more than 166 species of birds(Photo 15-20), 30 mammals species(Photos 15-21 and 15-22) and 120 of nativeflora species, many of them, endangered
species.

This teak plantation enterprise model canhelp to alleviate the pressure on native
forests by offering sustainable supply ofteak timber and mitigate climate change
effects by converting land use from old and

The company has initiated a project titled
Sunrise Project (Photo 15-23) for researchon transition from combustion pruners toelectric pruners using solar energy.

Photo 15-20 Macaws in the Photo 15-21 Tapirs inside teak Photo 15-22 Jaguar family on
conservation areas
standthe side of the road at the teakplantation farm

The company employs more than 800
workers directly and indirectly impacts the
livelihood of more than 3,000 people
positively. In 2020 the company invested ahundred thousand dollars in social actions
benefiting more than 250 people distributedin 4 different municipalities. Among thesocial projects, Toque de Letra Project (Photo
15-24) bring consciousness to citizens fromneedy communities towards their civil rights
and duties through promoting sport activities
as socialization tool.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 15-23 Electric pruners of Sunrise Project

Photo 15-24 Toque de Letra Project198

TEAK IN MEKONG

Recommendations✓ Weed control, especially in the first 3
years, more intensive pruning until thetenth year and thinning throughout theentire rotation should not be neglected.
✓ Workers and partners engaged and alignedwith the enterprise's strategy, objective
and culture;✓ Long-term cycle, high value of wood andincreasing market demand, make it essential
to have an adequate financial source, greater
relevance of the financial aspects ofmanagement, good corporate governanceand good management practices of socioenvironmental responsibility.

Based on the reported case study (Photos 1525, 15-26 and 15-27) the recommendation fora large-scale teak plantation in Brazil andSouth America are as follows:✓ Choosing suitable sites and improving thechemical and physical soil conditions of
the soil, when necessary. Deep, welldrained, aluminium-free soils, good
fertility with adequate levels of NPK, Ca,
Mg and micronutrients;✓ The use of superior genetic material,
healthy and quality seedlings;

Photo 15-25 Part of thecompany team during theInternal Work Accident
Prevention Week

Photo 15-26 Mosaic aerialview of the teak plantation
respecting conservation areas

References

Photo 15-27 Teak trees into
stand

http://www.caceresflorestal.com.br/Plano_de_Manejo_Florestal_da_Caceres_FlorestalResumo.pdf.

ABRAF (Associação Brasileira deProdutores de Florestas Plantadas) (2007)
Anuário Estatístico Da ABRAF 2008: Anobase 2007, Brasília, Brazil.

Caldeira, S. F. (1999). Práticas
silviculturais. Notas de aulas teóricas.
Introdução às práticas silviculturais.
Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso.
Faculdade de Engenharia Florestal.
Departamento de Engenharia Florestal,
Cuiabá, Brazil.

ABRAF (Associação Brasileira deProdutores de Florestas Plantadas) (2009)
Anuário Estatístico Da ABRAF 2009: Anobase 2008, Brasília, Brazil.
ABRAF (Associação Brasileira deProdutores de Florestas Plantadas) (2011)
Anuário Estatístico Da ABRAF 2011: Anobase 2010, Brasília, Brazil.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)(2001). Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2000. Main Report FAO
Forestry Paper 140, Rome, Italy.

Bhat, K. M. & Ma, H. O. (2004). Teakgrowers unite! Tropical Forest Update,14(1), 3-5.

IBÁ (Indústria Brasileira de Árvores)(2019). Relatório 2019, São Paulo, Brazil.
Matricardi, W. A. T. (1989). Effect of soil
factors on the development of teak(Tectona grandis L.f.) cultivated in greater

Florestal, C. (2006). Manual do
reflorestamento da teca. Cáceres, Mato
Grosso. 30 p. Available in:199

TEAK IN MEKONG

Cáceres – Mato Grosso. MSc thesis,
Forest Sciences. Higher School of
Agriculture “Luiz de Queiroz” Universityof São Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil.

and markets, with reference to Solomon
Islands. ACIAR Technical Reports No 85.
Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research, Canberra,
Australia.

Mello, H. A. (1963). Alguns aspectos daintrodução da Teca (Tectona grandis L.)
no Brasil. Anuário Brasileiro de Economia
Florestal, 15(15), 113-119.

Sampaio, A. J. (1930). A teca da Índia e ado Brasil. Revista Florestal, 1(9), 7-10.
Shimizu, J. Y., Klein, H. & Oliveira, J. R.
V. (2007). Diagnóstico das plantações
florestais em Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil.

Midgley, S., Somaiya, R. T., Stevens, P.
R., Brown, A., Nguyen, D. K. & Laity, R.
(2015). Planted teak: global production

200

TEAK IN MEKONGSECTION IV:SUSTAINABLE TEAK FOREST MANAGEMENT
AND CERTIFICATION

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Chapter 16: Teak Timber HarvestingNopparat Kaakkurivaara

Abstractof safeguarding the environment and thelivelihood needs of forest-dependentcommunities. One of the reasons for the slow
implementation of SFM is related to how toeffectively protect the environment and thepeople who depend on forests. Timber
harvesting, when not carried out properly, canlead to serious environmental degradation andnegative impacts on local communities. But if
timber harvesting is well planned andimplemented, it can generate many economic
and social benefits with only marginal impacts
on the environment. In tropical forests
designed for timber production, selective
logging can be considered as a silviculture
technique to ensure minimum impacts on theenvironment.

Timber harvesting is an essential and costintensive activity in forest management. It
involves cutting trees and moving them to alanding, processing, sorting and loading, andtransporting materials. The felling andextraction of timber is potentially a very
dangerous operation and harvesting crews are
required to be highly skilled and well trained.
Poor planning and/or poor implementation canbe costly, result in environmental degradation
as well as excessive harvesting waste,ineffective utilization of wood, and injury to
personnel. A carefully managed, sustainabletimber harvest is not just about cutting down
trees and earning their commercial value. It is
about implementing a plan that encourages
regeneration and the long-term well-being of
the woods.

Forest harvesting can be defined as “Theaggregation of all operations, including preharvest planning and post-harvest assessment,
related to the felling of trees and the extractionof their stems or other usable parts from theforest for subsequent processing into
industrial products” (Dyksta & Heinrich,
1992, 1996). Thus, harvesting is not only
felling and extraction of the trees but also
includes the planning beforehand and impact
assessment after the operations in order to takeall concerns into considerations for the next
harvesting.

The resources, equipment, and machines thatcan be used in timber harvesting are diverseand can be composed in complex systems.
Many countries are facing a lack of financial
resources for using their forests in acompetitive and sustainable way. Logging
companies with better financial backgroundare able to mechanize harvesting processes andincrease productivity and working safety.
While, smallholders are still relying on simple
tools and equipment, animal skidding, andmanual or motor-manual work in harvesting
operations. The present chapter gives an
overview on the existing methods, equipment,
and machines that are available for Teakharvesting operations in Makong region.

Harvest Planning
Harvest planning provides a balanced andcomprehensive foundation for sustainable
harvesting practices to enable good technicalcontrol during harvesting reconciled with theneed for reducing harvesting costs. Harvest
plans are of two types, strategic and tactical(Klassen, 2011)

Introduction

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) is
the process of managing forest to achieve
clearly specified objectives of managementwith regard to the production of a continuous
flow of desired forest products and services
without undue reduction in the forest’s
inherent values and future productivity andwithout undue undesirable effects on thephysical and social environment (ITTO, n.d.).
This definition implies the critical importanceA strategic harvest plan explains why, where,
when and what type of harvesting is proposed.
Strategic harvest planning cannot be undertaken
without considering the issues which affect the
management of the forests more widely. It is abasic part of forest management plan, prepared by
the planning team, and should never be a separate
planning statement.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

A tactical harvest plan is a short-term plan,
prepared by a team directly responsible forsupervision of harvesting operations, that
explains how and who will carry out theoperations and when cutting will be
undertaken in each cutting area. A Tactical
Harvest Plan can apply to a single felling areaor to a group of separate felling areas and islinked to the approved forest management plan
through the Annual Plan of Operations.

conducted during a pre-harvest forest
inventory to provide information for mapping.
• A detailed topographic map should be
drawn, showing all topographic features thatwill influence logging, and the boundaries of
the harvest area. Set aside area, buffer zone,
conservation areas, watercourses, wildlife
habitat, and any other special reservations
specified in a management plan should bemapped. Contour mapping can be preparedeither by manual drafting methods or using
GIS technology. It is the experience of many
companies who are managing tropical foreststhat an investment in good quality mapping
can lead to reduced impacts and lowered
infrastructure costs.

The following basic steps are involved intactical harvest planning (Applegate etal., 2004):• A pre-harvest inventory should be
conducted to identify tree species, to estimate
the size and volume of trees present and theirposition throughout a felling area. The
inventory should extend over the whole area
where harvesting is proposed. In the case of
selection harvesting, trees to be cut should be
identified, marked, and numbered.

• A skid trail network from the chosen
landing needs to be laid out and mapped taking
into account all concerns regarding
environmental impact, economic viability,
skidding distance, and terrain features. Thismap is used to guide field reconnaissance andactual skid trail places.

• A topographic survey, either on the groundor using remote sensing imagery, should be

Figure 16-1 Example of harvesting plan203

TEAK IN MEKONG

Specific planning requirements are:o Preparation of a harvesting scheduleshould, where applicable, be prepared inconsultation with local communities who
might be affected by harvesting. The harvest of
NTFPs and the dependency of local
communities upon these for subsistence,
employment and income generation should beconsidered. Examples are collection of rattan,
mushrooms, bamboo shoots, and medicinal
plants.

• Tactical harvest planning should be basedon harvesting prescriptions set out in a forest
management plan. The volume and/or numberof trees per hectare to be extracted and thenumber of seed trees per hectare that are to beretained should be specified.
• A cutting and log extraction plan should
comprise a part of the harvest plan and should
be undertaken using the topographical and tree
position map. It can also be generated using
vertical and oblique GIS imagery. The planshould be prepared jointly by forest planners
and loggers and must be practical and realistic.
The location of landings, skid trails (if groundskidding is to be used), cableways (if cable
extraction systems are to be used), and haulroads should be shown. Where possible,
directional felling should be indicated.

o Any legal requirements, should be listed,
for example, harvesting and transportpermissions, chainsaw use permission, andobtained.
Teak Timber Harvesting
Since logging in natural forests is banned,
timber production in Thailand has shifted fromnatural forests to planted forests, particularlyin the case of Teak. The Tree Length (TL)
method is mostly used for Teak harvesting inwhich trees are felled, delimbed and topped
using chainsaws within the compartment itself
and only the bole is extracted to roadside byanimal power (elephant), tractor, or skidders.
Theis is then followed by short distancetransportation between roadside landing to
main log landing for further processes such aslog measuring, cross cutting, and stacking(Figure 16-2).

o Harvesting equipment should be specified
and a general operations schedule formulated,using actual or estimated production rates.
Work studies may be necessary to determine
appropriate production rates.
o A harvesting schedule should be preparedsetting out the estimated timing of harvestingin different felling areas. It should be flexible
and able to be quickly modified, whennecessary.

Figure 16-2 Harvesting process of Teak harvesting in Thailand
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TEAK IN MEKONG

direction control. Crew normally work forabout six hours a day. After trees are felled thebranches are removed right away. The average
effective productivity of felling is 29.81 m3/h,
where average stump diameter, log length, andlog volume are 32.39 cm, 13.04 m, and 0.86
m3, respectively (Rianthakool et al., 2018).

Felling
The general rotation of Teak from plantation isabout 30 years preceded by two thinnings at 15
and 25 years. Trees to be cut are marked withpaint beforehand by local forest manager.
Felling crew consists of 2-3 men, one chainsaw
operator together with two assistants for felling

Photo 16-1 Tree felling with chainsaw

working hours limited to mornings, and thetime taken for healing if elephant gets sick. The
average productivity of extraction by elephantis 1 1 . 1 1 m3 / h for skidding distances shorter
than 1 0 0 m. with an average of 2 . 7 5 logs or
0 . 6 8 m3 per work cycle (Rianthakool et al.,2018). In places, where mechanized skidding
is available, mechanized skidding is preferredsince it provides higher productivity compared
to animal power. The average productivity ofmechanized skidding varies between 10-25
m3 / h depending upon the type of machine but
impact on soil and water is a big concern if
timber extraction is in steep terrain.

Extraction
Timber extraction from stump area to roadsideis either by animal power or mechanizedmethod i.e. tractor or skidder (Photo 16-2). The
most common animal power is elephant.
Elephant logging is common in many parts ofAsia like Thailand and Myanmar. The
advantages of using elephant lies in theirability to access steep terrains and forests
without road network, and no consumption offossil fuels. However, the limitations of using
elephants are low productivity compared toother methods, short skidding distances,

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 16-2 Timber extraction

types of vehicles for this sort of transportation, forexample, crane truck, trailer together with frontend grapple loader, or self-loading truck (Photo16-3). The average productivity of short distancetransportation is 9.23 m3 /h, with average 1.77
kilometers of transporting distance (Rianthakool
et al., 2018).

Short distance transportation
The short distance transportation between
roadside of harvesting site to permanent log
landing is sometimes known as primarytransportation. It is an internal timber transport
inside the plantation itself. There are various

Photo 16-4 Examples of short distance transportation vehicles
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TEAK IN MEKONG

20.94 cm of log diameter (Rianthakool et al.,2018). After logs are cut the log serial number isstamped on log surface with hammer branding.
The serial number represents traceability system
to reflect where the logs come from and when it
has been harvested. The average productivity ofhammer branding for log identity is 207 logs/h(Rianthakool et al., 2018). Eventually, the logs
which have similar characteristics (diameter andlength) will be stacked together in one pile(approx. 6-7 m3) for bidding. Forest ownerusually set minimum price according to log
diameter, log volume, and quality.

Processing
Once timbers are transported to log landing thenext step is log measuring, cross cutting, log
identifying (hammer branding), and finallystacking for sale (Photo 16-4). Log measurement
is conducted manually for log length anddiameter in order to decide where to cross cut.
Average productivity of this process was 330
logs/h (Rianthakool et al., 2018). Afterwards thechainsaw operator team takes over for crosscutting as marked by the log measuring crew.
The average productivity of cross cutting byusing chainsaw is 170 logs/h with averaging

Photo 16-4 Log processing

Generally teak logging operation is timeconsuming because teak normally grows onmountainous area that are very steep in someplaces, and the harvesting is more or less labor
intensive operation. It is seen that there is highproductivity in felling stage but lower
productivity in extraction and primarytransportation leading to bottleneck problem inwork flow. This problem can be tackled byincreased resources, i.e. number of workers or
machines. There are two methods to increase
productivity in the extraction process, namely,
the introduction of higher efficiency machines
and reorganizing work processes.

Work Safety
Forestry is one of the most dangerous ofoccupations; it is sometimes called a “3D” job– dirty, difficult and dangerous. Forest
harvesting on steep terrain is always achallenge in terms of safety, operating costs,
and environmental impact. Kaakkurivaara &Stampfer (2018) have indicated an extremely
high fatality rate in Thailand compared to theaverage in other countries. Possible reasons forthis may include ineffective safety regulations,seasonal forestry workers, inadequate worker
207

TEAK IN MEKONG

training programs, and a lack of personal
protective equipment. A safe harvesting
operation is an efficient harvesting operation, notonly because it reduces the potential for loss, butalso because it increases production, improves
the working environment and overall
improvement in attitude and morale of workers.
Occupational health and safety in forestry can begreatly improved through adequate worker
training and supervision and the use of safety
equipment, among other things.
The most common causes of accidents is theworkers’ lacks of knowledges or skills.
Training is one of the most effective tools incontrolling risk. Employees should be trained
to work along with the systems and worksafely. The employer should ensure all
employees have been adequately trained andinstructed to perform their employment safely
before allowing them to work in harvesting
operations. Workers should be made aware of
relevant dangers involved with their work andof any safety precautions that should be taken
to avoid accidents or injury. Additionally,wearing suitable PPE can provide protection
for workers when all other control measures
cannot adequately eliminate or minimize risks
to a worker’s health and safety. A wide rangeof PPE is available to help minimize the risk of
injury to forest workers and the employer is
expected to evaluate the risks involved in eachjob and select suitable PPE for specific tasks.

Photo 16-5 Personal Protective Equipment.
(PPE)

Eye and face protection: wear safety eyewear
with a face shield to protect eyes from floating
debris. When using chainsaws, wear safety
eyewear with a face shield which easily flips
up if not required.
Hearing protection: wear earmuffs or earplugs
when exposed to high noise levels, forexample, when using a chainsaw or aroundnoisy equipment.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)PPE provides a protective barrier between thehazard and the employee. If the PPE device fails
or is improperly used, the employee will bedirectly exposed to the hazard. PPE remains the“last line of defense” and needs to be usedproperly and in accordance with establishedstandards (Langin et al., 2010). To manage PPE
correctly it is critical to ensure the following: use
the most suitable PPE for each hazard, supply
PPE to employees, provide training on how tocorrectly use PPE, and monitor PPE use. PPE
consist of the following lists (Photo 16-5):

Clothing: dress appropriately for anticipatedweather conditions. Remove any dangling
jewelry to avoid getting snagged on equipment
or branches. Wear comfortable close-fitting
clothing that does not restrict the ability tomove freely.
High visibility apparel: wear high visibility
clothing in a color that contrasts with theenvironment so it can be seen at a distance.
Make sure that high-visibility clothing is notcovered by other clothes. It must be worn whenworking around any moving vehicles,
equipment or lines, working alone or in
isolation, harvesting trees at night, performing

Head protection: wear approved safety hard
hat or helmet of a color that contrasts with thework environment. Secure the chin strap whenworking.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

traffic control in work areas where there isvehicle traffic moving through a work zone orfor falling operations. Loose-fitting highvisibility outer clothing must be “tear-away” ifworn for work where it could get caught on
moving equipment or objects like branches.

An appropriate harvesting system for a forest
seeks to balance environmental, social andeconomic interests in undertaking harvestingin that forest. In recent years some studies havebeen published to estimate best suitable
harvesting systems for specific forest districts
or compartments using GIS that takeecological and social criteria into account for acomprehensive analysis of the impacts ofharvesting operations (Kuhmaier & Stampfer,2010). However, the selection of suitable
logging systems via GIS application requires
skilled operators and can be rather complicatedfor adoption by local farmers or foresters who
do not have basic knowledge of GIS. A study
conducted to devise a simpler method forselecting the appropriate logging system as apart of Sustainable Forest Operations (SFO) ispresented here.

Hand protection: wear gloves that fit and grip
well to protect against cuts, abrasions,splinters,
vibrations,
wet,damaging
vegetation, and when filling and handling thechainsaw, and when handling wire, rope, orother steel objects.
Leg protection: when operating a chainsaw,
leg protection must be worn like pants, chaps,or an apron made of cut-resistant material.
Check that the leg protection has a label
indicating it meets work safety standards.
Check that the cut-resistant material protects
the front and sides of legs. Make sure thatclothes stay in position while working so the
cut-resistant material provides protection. Legprotection should be comfortable enough andfit with each person to avoid a safety risk.

The study, which was carried out in Teakplantations in Phrae province of northern
Thailand, applied the Delphi method to
identify the balance between environmental,social and economic aspects (Table 16-1). A
total of 22 forest plantation staffs were asked
to give weightage to these aspects among the
choices placed before them. The grading scorefrom each factor is combined with weightscore for each tools/machine and summed up
for each logging system. The logging systemthat obtained the highest score is considered
the best logging system in the given
circumstances.

Foot protection: wear approved safety
footwear to protect ankles, soles, and toes.
Wear chainsaw protective footwear whenworking with a chainsaw. Wear caulked orother equally effective safety footwear when
walking on logs, poles, pilling, or other roundtimbers.
Selecting an Appropriate Forest Harvesting
SystemTable 16-1 Reclassification of grading score for each relevant factors
AspectProductivity
Logging cost
Heart rate
Working posture
Soil compaction
Soil erosion

1
Critical<5.99 m3/h
>900
BTH/m3>80 bpm>= 11>1.8 g/cm3
> 9.6
mm/y

Grading score2
3
4
Unacceptable
Fair
Good
3
6-10.99 m /h
11-15.99
16-20.99
3
m /h
m3/h
650-900
450-649
150-449
BTH/m3
BTH/m3
BTH/m376-80 bpm
72-75 bpm
69-71 bpm
8.0-10.9
4.0-7.9
2.0-3.933
1.6-1.8 g/cm 1.4-1.6 g/cm 1.2-1.4 g/cm3
7.21-9.60
2.41-7.20
0.96-2.40
mm/y
mm/y
mm/y

209

5
Excellent>20.99 m3/h
<150
BTH/m3<69 bpm<2<1.2 g/cm3
<0.96
mm/y

TEAK IN MEKONG

The recommended logging system which got
the highest score was felling by chainsaw,
extraction by elephant together with farm
tractor, and transport by truck with loader. The
findings can assist forest managers in selecting
the right harvesting system taking into accountthe environmental, economic and social
aspects. It is a relatively simple tool for forest
manager to help in making decision.

may help improve logging operations in the
short and medium term while in the long term
greater reliance on modern technologies
should be aimed at.

Conclusion
Harvesting and extraction operations are theactivities that generally cause the mostsignificant impacts on forest and environments
in forestry. The impact of harvesting andextraction can be reduced through proper
planning and control of harvesting operations
using sound principles, systems, andtechniques that have stood the test of time.
Successful harvesting should be 1) technicallyfeasible considering physical limitations,engineering knowledge, and environmental
relationship of the forest, 2) economically
viable considering the costs and benefit ofshort- and long-range consequences, 3)
environmentally sound considering impacts on
the natural and social environment, and 4)
institutionally feasible considering laws andregulations, landowner objectives, and social
values.

Appropriate Harvesting Technology
Appropriate technology for teak harvesting in
Thailand would be one that suits small-scale
operations, affordable by locals, decentralized,
labor-intensive,
energy-efficient,environmentallysound,
andlocally
autonomous. When a machine or a
combination of machines is selected, care must
be taken to introduce harvesting systems andtechniques which are appropriate under the
given circumstances. A system can beconsidered appropriate if all the various needs,
possibilities and limitations have been taken
into consideration. The level of technology
adopted should take into account availabilityof both funds and skills with the project(Heinrich, 1987).
In developing countries manual and semimechanized logging operations still persist in
most instances on account of 1) plentiful
availability of cheap labor, 2) difficulties inimporting high tech equipment, 3) limited
availability of funds for forestry activities, 4)difficulties in access to spare parts, 5) shortageof skilled machine operators and technicians,
and 6) lack of maintenance and repair facilities
for equipment and advanced machinery.

References
Applegate, G., Putz, F. E. & Snook, L. K.
(2004). Who Pays for and Who Benefits from
Improved Timber Harvesting Practices in the
Tropics? Lessons Learned and Information
Gaps. Center for International Forestry
Research, Bogor, Indonesia.
Dykstra, D. P. & Heinrich, R. (1992).
Sustaining tropical forests throughenvironmentally sound harvesting practices.
Unasylva, 169, 9-15.

Lessons Learned and Recommendations
Forest harvesting carries not only physicalrisks to the harvesting workers but can also
cause severe environmental impacts if
implemented without forethought and proper
planning. Hence carefully plan and supervision
during implementation is very crucial part ofharvesting operation. Improvement of existinglabor-intensive methods through betterorganization of work, use of more efficient
hand tools, equipment and working methods,
and training of personnel in the planning andapplication of appropriate logging technology

Dykstra D. P. & Heinrich, R. (1996). FAO
model code of forest harvesting practice.
Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations, Rome, Italy.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)(1999). Code of Practice for Forest
Harvesting in Asia-Pacific. RAP Publication:
1999/12, Bangkok, Thailand.

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Heinrich, R. (1987). Appropriate forest
operations. In: Proceedings of FAO/Finlan
Training Course Philippines. FTP
publications: forest harvesting no.24.

(RIL) in Indonesia and the Asia Pacificregion”
Kuhmaier, M. & Stampfer, K. (2010).
Development of a Multi-Attribute Spatial
Decision Support System in Selecting Timber
Harvesting Systems. Croatian Journal ofForest Engineering, 32(2), 75-88.

ITTO (The International Tropical Timber
Organization) (n.d.). Reduced Impact
Logging.
https://www.itto.int/sustainable_forest_manag
ement/logging/. (accessed 29 August 2021).

Langin, D., Ackerman, P., Krieg, B.,
Immelmann, A., Potgieter, C., Rooyen, J. etal. (2010). South African Ground Based
Harvesting Handbook. Institute forCommercial Forestry Research,
Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

Kaakkurivaara, N. & Stampfer, K. (2018).
Assessment for Improvement: Harvesting
Operations in Small-Scale Forest on Thai Steep
Terrain. Small-scale Forestry, 17, 259-27.
Klassen, A. (2011). Planning considerations
for Reduced Impact Logging. Technical
Procedures Manual under project: ITTO PD
110/01 REV.4 (I): “Program to facilitate andpromote adoption of reduced impact logging

Rianthakool, L., Kaakkurivaara, N.,
Diloksumpun, P. & Arunpraparut, W. (2018).
Supply Chain Operations in Teak Plantation.
In: Proceedings of 6th International Forest
Engineering Conference (FEC2018), Rotorua,
New Zealand.

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Chapter 17: Teak Small Holder Plantations in Indonesia
for Improving Livelihood
Anis Fauzi and Anto Rimbawanto

Abstract

Introduction

eak small holder plantation is an
important source of timber inIndonesia as well as in other tropicalcountries in Africa, South and Central
America. Over 1.5 million small-holder
farmers in Java, Indonesia, manage nearly
half a million hectares of tree-based
agroforestry systems, with teak being themost common tree crop. The small to
medium scale industry in Java receives up
to 80% of small-diameter logs (less than 30
cm dbh) from smallholder plantations.
Small holder plantations have the potential
to produce up to 8.2 million m3 of teak per
year. Teak from small-holder plantations is
widely used in Indonesia's furnitureindustry, therefore the future of smallholder teak plantations looks bright. If
farmers have access to and are willing toplant high-quality planting materials, apply
proper silviculture techniques, andparticipate under a cooperative system,
their economic gains can be maximized.

eak plantations have been establishedin at least 43 countries with total areaof around 6.8 Mha, representing atheoretical capacity to produce up to 30
Mm3 of wood annually (Midgley et al.,2015). Most of these plantations are in Asia,with the largest areas being in India,
Indonesia, and Myanmar (Roshetko et al.,2013). Smallholder plantings, despite theirsmall size, contribute significantly,
accounting for 19% of the area in Africa
and Asia, and 31% and 34% in Central andSouth America, respectively (Kollert &Cherubini, 2012).

TT

Is teak native to Indonesia? Some reports
have stated that teak was naturalized in Java
since centuries ago and has been
acclimatized to local conditions and has
regenerated naturally throughout the area
(Kaosa-ard, 1999; Verhaegen et al., 2010).
Today, teak has been planted in many partsof Indonesia, in addition to the long existingteak plantation on Java, mainly as small
holder plantations. No major plantations
outside Java have been reported.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 17-1 Natural distribution of teakSource: Midgley et al. (2015)

Community forestry or smallholder
plantation, as defined by Gilmour &Fisher (1991), is the control andmanagement of forest resources by rural
people who use them for domestic
purposes and as an integrated element of
their farming systems. Small-holder
plantation's social and biophysicalcomponents are equally essential.
Smallholder plantation management has
been done in the tropics for over a century
and is an important part of forest
management.

In Java, 1.5 million smallholder farmers
manage 444,000 hectares of tree-based
agroforestry systems, with teak being themost common tree crop (Roshetko et al.,2013). Teak is one component ofmultispecies, tree-based systems in another
800,000 ha of smallholder agroforestry invarious parts of Indonesia. Small-holder
teak has become an important source oftimber for furniture industry inJava. Studies found that, small-diameterlogs (less than 30 cm dbh) supplied bysmallholder farmers account for 80% of theteak utilized by small to medium producers(Achdiawan & Puntodewo, 2011).

213

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 17-1 Intercropping of maize in teak plantation on Java (Credit: A. Rimbawanto)

Teak Small Holder Plantation• Apart from timber, small holder plantation

also produces other crops such as flowers,
fruit, bark, leaves, rhizomes, spices,
seasonings, forage for livestock, fungi and soforth.

What is teak small holder plantation
The term "small holder plantation" became
popular in Indonesia in the mid-1970s,
when the government encouraged
communities on the island of Java to plant
trees in forests and open areas as part of the
Afforestation and Greening National
Program. The Forestry Law No. 5 of 1967
established a legal definition of small
holder plantation, which was later updated
by the Law of Forestry No. 41 of 1999.
Furthermore, small holder plantation are
defined as forest belonging to people withholdings of at least 0.25 ha planted with tree
species and or other plants of more than
50% and or trees of around 500 stems in anarea of 1 ha.

• Trees are harvested by selective logging

or as needed.

• Regeneration can be done in a natural way

using seeds are available to the people, or it
can be done artificially by purchasing seedfrom a seed merchant.
• The area of plantation for each family headis small, ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 hectares, andis determined by their ownership status. If
owned by a group, the land can be as large as
20 hectares or more.
• The planting pattern is made up of several

types of trees, plant food, and grass. This isaccomplished by utilising a small area tocover a variety of needs (food, wood,vegetables, forage for livestock).

Small holder plantations have thefollowing characteristics (Hindra, 2006;
Purnomo et al., 2010):

214

TEAK IN MEKONG• The management systems depend on land

their maturity age as well as their ability togrow in the shade. On the other hand,agroforestry (intercropping) is a system ofplantation
that
combines
cash
crops/perennial crops with tree species. The
agroforestry system has long been known topeople who have a small acreage, so that thesmall land area can provide some form ofcrop to satisfy their demands. The planting
pattern selected will allow people to growmaize and beans in between teak trees atage 1-3 years, or planting elephant grass or
pineapple in between albizia trees.

ownersPure plantation (monoculture), a mixture(polyculture), and agroforestry are the three
types of small holder plantations based on
the types of plants that grow. Because theland is far from home and there is limited
labour to cultivate it, planting tree species ispreferable as it does not require regulartending. Furthermore, often the land is not
ideal for cash crops or fruit crops. A varietyof tree species are planted in mixed
plantations. Trees can be chosen based on

Photo 17-2 Patterns of agroforestry in a small holder plantation in Nglanggeran, Gunung Kidul(Credit: A. Fauzi)

Teak small holder plantations in Indonesia
started to evolve in the 1950s, following a
program known as "karang kitri," which refers
to planting trees around the house. Then,around the 1960s and 1970s, began anationwide reforestation and afforestation
campaign. Under the National Afforestation
and Greening Programs, seedlings of albizia(Falcataria mollucana), acacia (Acacia

auriculformis), mahogany (Swietenia
macrophylla), rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia),
and teak (Tectona grandis) are provided freeof charge to the public.
Farmers were first sceptical about planting
trees because harvesting trees takes years.
However, as time goes, the short (5-year)
cycle of some trees, such as albizia andacacia, earns a place in the hearts of the215

TEAK IN MEKONG

farmers. Teak is not commonly planted
because of its long-life cycle (30-40 years).
Yet, in the mid-1980s some farmers were
harvesting albizia and teak, and selling thewoods. This has renewed interest in thecommunity in planting timber species,
particularly albizia and teak. Teak is a
species that grow best in soil with highcalcium, therefore, it's ideal fordevelopment in Java. Teak has become
more popular because of high demand andbetter price.

Perhutani manages the teak forest in Java,
which covers around 1.0 million hectares(Perhutani, 2018). The plantation is divided
into three regional forest management
units, each representing one of Java's threeprovinces. Region I manages teakplantation in Central Jawa, Region II in
East Jawa and Region III in West Jawa.
Teak is the dominant species, with otherspecies such as pine (Pinus merkusii),
mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), albizia(Falcataria mollucana) kayuputih(Melaleuca cajuputi), and others serving ascomplementing species.

In Yogyakarta, the growth of small-holder
plantations is encouraging both in term ofpotential or land cover. According to dataof 2019 (Anonymous, 2019), the provinceof Yogyakarta has a total of 78,400ha ofsmall holder plantation scattered acrossseveral districts, including Gunung Kidul
44,110ha, Bantul 8,595ha, Sleman 4,898ha,
and Kulonprogro 20,795ha.

Outside of the Perhutani area, teak is being
planted as small holder plantation acrossJava, in Lampung, Konawe, the island of
Muna, and Buton (Southeast Sulawesi),
South Sulawesi, West Nusa Tenggara, andEast Nusa Tenggara.

Photo 17-3 Teak small holder plantation in Muna, South-east Sulawesi(Credit: A. Rimbawanto)216

TEAK IN MEKONG

and V (50 years), but soon after, it was
dominated by age class I (10 years), II (10years) and III (20 years)

Potential of teak small holder plantation
The establishment of teak small holder
plantations began following rampant illegal
logging in teak plantations of Perhutani
around 1997-2000, that resulted in a decline
in potential teak production. Teak from theSoutheast Sulawesi Islands of Muna andButon was used to fulfil industry demand.
Mass illegal logging has changed the
distribution of age class in teak forests in
Java, in addition to lowering the potential ofteak forests. In the past, Java's teak woods
were dominated by age class IV (40 years)

Sukadaryati (2006) reported small holder
plantations have a potential to produce 39.5
million m3 with an area of 1.5 million ha,with total number of trees roughly 262
million, and 74 million trees are ready for
harvesting. The composition anddistribution of the number of species being
planted in the small holder plantations isshown in Table 17-1 as follows:

Table 17-1 The population of planted species in the small holder plantation in Indonesia
No Tree species
Potential (million.
NumberHarvestable
stem)of tree(million)
Java
Outside (million)Java
1Acacia (Acacia sp. )
22.61
9.41
32.02
12.07
2
Bamboo (Bambusa sp )
29.14
8.79
37.93
6.72
3
Teak (Tectona grandis)
50.12
29.59
79.71
18.45
4
Mahogany (Swietenia macrophyl
39.99
5.27
45.26
9.50
la)
5
Pine (Pinus merkusii )
3.52
2.30
5.82
2.71
6
Albizia (Falcataria molluccana)
50.07
9.76
59.83
24.62
7
Sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia)
2.01
0.34
2.35
0.74
Total
197.4665.46
262.9374.81
Source: Sukadaryati (2006)
Teak is most widely planted accounted for
62.87% in Java and 37.12% planted outside
Java. Second preferred species is albizia(Falcataria molluccana) of which 83.36%
is grown in Java and 16.30% planted
outside Java, third is mahogany (Swietenia
macrophylla) of which 88.35% is grown inJava and 11.64% planted outside Java.

a drop in the potential of the plantation thatcan lead the unsustainable management of
the plantation. The parameters used todetermine the potential of the forest peopleis acreage (ha), timber volume (m3) and thenumber of trees (Hindra, 2006).
In Indonesia, approximately 61.6 % ofsmall holder forests are self-funded, while
38.4 % receive government subsidies orfunding. Several schemes of subsidies, such
as Credit Enterprises Forest People, theforest people of DAK DR (Fund Allocation
Special Fund Reforestation), and the forest
people of Program GERHAN, are used todevelop small holder plantation schemes(Hindra, 2006). The success of self-fundedsmall holder forests demonstrates that
community aware of the economic,

Assuming that the volume of 1 trees is 0.25
m3, then total volume of wood from small
holder plantation is = 0.25 m3 x
262,929,193 = 65,732,298.25 m3. If theaverage cutting cycle is 8 years old, total
timber production from small holder
plantation of 8.2 million m3 / year.
Wood production from small holder
plantation should be based on the potentialthat is available. Production target thatexceeds the ability of production will cause
217

TEAK IN MEKONG

ecological, and socio-cultural benefits ofsmall holder plantation.

In reality, with ever-increasing innovations
in timber processing techniques, faulty
wood and low-quality teak can be remedied
using techniques such as wood drying,wood preservation, staining, and otherapproaches. Teak farmers encounter anumber of challenges when it comes tomarketing their product, including a lack of
information about the price of wood, a lackof negotiation capability, and inadequate
bargaining power.

What can be improved
There are a number issues with small holder
forest management, including production,
processing, marketing, and institutional
issues (Darusman & Hardjanto, 2006;
Purnomo et al., 2010; Roshetko et al., 2013).
a. Production
Production issues covering aspects ofsilviculture of teak, source of seeds,
harvesting and sales. Most of the teakfarmers have not applied optimal intensive
silviculture. Standard silvicultural practices
such as the use of good sources of seeds,
fertilizing, thinning, pruning andpests/diseases control have not been
carried. This has resulted in low
productivity of the plantation and the low
quality of the logs. Because teak is farmer’s
main income sources, inputs forsilvicultural management is fairly low. To
improve teak growth and quality, skilledextension officers need to motivate andadvise them in appropriate silvicultural
techniques.

d. Institutional issues
Farmers sell the timber directly to themerchant or intermediaries that exist
around the village. Farmers are forced tosell teak wood before it is mature to harvest
for a number of reasons, and as a result,they are unable to obtain a fair price. This
individual selling is unfavourable tofarmers. They can have a better bargaining
position and get a higher price if they sellthrough a cooperative. Unfortunately, due
to financial constraints and a lack of
capacity to carry out cooperative activities
in a professional manner, not all farmers
prefer to sell as a group.
Teak Genetic Resources of Small Holder
Plantations

b. Processing
Most farmers sell the wood as a raw
material/logs. Farmers usually sell when
the tree is still standing, while the industry
wants the wood already in the form of sortieof specified sizes. Hence the added value
wood fall over in the hands of traders orintermediary (middle man) and thecollectors of wood rather than the farmers
themselves. Farmers could form acooperative which operate a basic saw millthat process the log into marketable sizes.
This way farmers may get increased added
value and better price of the timber.

There is no doubt that genetic quality ofseeds plays vital role in ensuring the qualityof the plantations and the timber they
produce. Series of tree improvement
activities had been implemented to improve
the genetic quality of teak in Java. First
provenance trial established in 1932,
screening 12 geographical origins. Study in1958 concluded that Malabar, Pati, Cepu
and Ponorogo were best suited (Daryadi, 1959).
Comprehensive genetic improvement
program launched in 1981, including
selection of plus trees, establishing clone
bank and clonal seed orchard. Over 680
plus trees were selected. Cloned plus trees
were planted in clonal bank for safe
keeping, and clonal seed orchard wasestablished for seed production(Wirjodarmodjo & Subroto, 1983).

c. Marketing problems
Timber from small holder plantations are
generally of low quality because the qualityof seedling being planted was low and thereis lack of intensive cultivation. As a result,the price of wood is usually lower than theprice of teak wood produced by Perhutani.
218

TEAK IN MEKONG

Currently, most of the large commercial
plantations use elite planting materials,
either as seed or clones. Unfortunately,while the role and potential of smallholder
teak systems are positive, there are somemajor barriers, the most notable of which isavailability to better genetic planting
materials. Because better planting material
was expensive and not widely available,most smallholders plant wildings or otherlocal germplasm. Furthermore, farmers’
poor understanding of what constituted

good quality teak trees also contributes tofarmers reluctant to use better seed.
Commercial planting stock material that isvegetatively propagated by shoot cutting, or
locally known as Jati Unggul Nusantara(JUN), has become available to the public in
recent years. JUN as it is normally called, isharvestable at year 6-8 with diameter ofaround 30 cm. This local clone is promisingand offer small-holder farmers to improve thequality and productivity of their teakplantation (Supriono & Setyaningsih, 2012).

Photo 17-4 An 8-year-old plantation of JUN at Gunung Kidul Yogyakarta(Credit: A. Rimbawanto)
219

TEAK IN MEKONG

Recent study found that the management ofsmall holder teak forests is generally
carried out in a traditional manner, so thatthe quality and quantity of wood produced
is still low (Pramono et al., 2010). Goodsilvicultural practices such as pruning, andthinning are not practiced. Smallholder teaksystems were classified as overstocked,
slow growing, and of sub-optimal quality
and production due to smallholders' typicalmanagement techniques, which reduced the
productivity of their systems (Roshetko &Manurung, 2009).

According to Roshetko et al. (2013), annual
income ranged from Rp. 0 to Rp. 58.000.
000, -, with an average income of less thanRp. 10,000,000, - (US$ 1125). The study
also found that 40 percent of their income
are earned from intercropping, 25 percent
from cash crop and animal husbandry, 12
percent from teak, and 3% from cultivationof other crops. Although teak give acontribution around 12%, teak is an
important species in the community.
Farmers regarded planting teak is as asaving. The tree will be harvested when
they needs large sum of funds such as fortheir children's further education, marriage,
pilgrimage, or medical expenses.

Economic Benefit of Teak Small holder
Plantation
The benefit of small holder plantation tofarmers’ livelihood

To give you an idea how much revenue net
farmer forest people's identity, given an
overview of cases in the Province of DIY in
order to provide estimates. In the
exploitation of forest people either in theform of moor or yard, give contribution
income home household farmers fairly highand varied. Parameter economy which isused among other things:

In terms of coverage and earnings received
by farmers, the expansion of small holder
plantations in Indonesia indicates a good
trend. According to a study conducted inGunung Kidul, small-holder plantation
income accounted for 12 percent of total
income (Roshetko et. al, 2013). Even
though it isn't much, it does make adifference for the farmers.

1). Net profit, which is expressed by thevalue of the NPV (Net Present Value) byusing the rate of interest of 7.5% / year,
calculated based on rate interest loans andinflation.

Incomes of farmers
On the Indonesian island of Java, teakgrowers' income varied. The degree ofincome disparity is influenced by the typeof crop, the level of need, and the sociocultural conditions that exist in a society.

2). B / C ratio.
3). Average net income per year expressedas AEV (Annual Equivalent Value).

Details are as follows (BPKH, 2007)
1. Meadow pattern 1 (full trees)No

District1
2
3
4

BantulGunungkidul
Kulon Progo
Sleman

NPV (Rp./ ha / cycle )287,377 - 1,838,964
1,609,612 - 7,936,746
2,912,510 - 5,210,715
267,633 - 8,712,400220

AEV (Rp/ha/ year )B/C Ratio

28,275 - 165,555
158,371 - 780,903
262.201 - 512.686
24,094 - 784,340

1.02 - 1.12
1.11 - 2.05
1.22 - 1.43
1.05 -1.75

TEAK IN MEKONG

2. Meadow pattern 2 (mix planting)
No District
1
2
3
4

BantulGunungkidul
Kulon Progo
Sleman

NPV (Rp./ ha / cycle )383,347 - 423,868
834,315 - 4,849,545
3,529.068 – 9,110.290
1,762,927 – 3,120,904

AEV (Rp/ha/ year )B/C Ratio

37,718 - 38,1605
82,089 - 477,151
347,228 - 820,160
2,800,961 - 158,709

1.02
0.95 – 1.37
1.2 9 - 1.35
0.61 -1.07

3. Garden
No

District1
2
3
4

BantulGunungkidul
Kulon Progo
Sleman

NPV (Rp./ ha / cycle )447,548 - 19,143,115
18,341,230
15,961,453 - 19,087,578
6,866 ,086 – 19,897,135

AEV (Rp/ha/ year )B/C Ratio

40,290 - 1,883,506
1,804,608

1.02 - 1.89
2.49
1.76 – 2.07
1.48 – 2.79

1,436,940 – 18,788,042

618,124 - 1,791,253

References

In all districts, the NPV, AEV, and B/Cratio are calculated using teak prices, except
in Sleman, where albizia timber is used.
The NPV of three types of small holder
plantations ranges from Rp.267.633 to Rp.
19,897,135/ha/cycle, whereas the AEV isbetweenRp.
24,094andRp.
1,878,042/ha/year. Small holder plantation
is a profitable business as the B/C ratio isgreater than one.

Anonymous. (2019). Book on Forestry
Statistics. Department of the Environment
and Forestry Provincial Service of
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Achdiawan, R. & Puntodewo, A. (2011).
Livelihood of furniture producers in
Jepara. Unpublished Project Report:mahogany and teak furniture: action
research to improve value chain efficiency
and enhance livelihoods (FST/2007/119).
Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research, Canberra,
Australia.

Conclusion
Demand for teak for manufacture of indoor
andoutdoorfurniture,building
construction
includingarchitectural
finishes such as windows, doors, flooringand decking, and boat building willcontinue to grow in line with the global
economic growth. As supply of native teakfrom Myanmar, India and Indonesia isdiminishing, teak from plantations is thebest option to meet the demand. The futureof small holder teak plantation is potentiallypromising as teak from small-holder
plantations is widely used in Indonesia's
furniture industry. Farmers' economic
benefits can be maximized if they haveaccess to and are willing to plant highquality planting materials, use appropriate
silviculture techniques, and collaborate
under a cooperative scheme.

BPKH (2007). Portrait of the Forest of theSpecial Region of Yogyakarta. BPKH
(Forest Area Consolidation Center) Region
XI Java - Madura, Yogyakarta.
Daryadi, L. (1959). Penyelidikan seleksi
jati (Tectona grandis), Pengumuman
No.70 Lembaga Penelitian Hutan, Bogor,
Indonesia.
Darusman, D. & Hardjanto, H. (2006).
Tinjauan Ekonomi Hutan Rakyat.
Prosiding Seminar Hasil Penelitian Hasil
Hutan 2006: 4-13. Fakultas Kehutanan,
IPB, Bogor, Indonesia.
Gilmour, D. A. & Fisher, R. J. (1991)
Villagers, Forest and Foresters: The
Philosophy, Process and Practice of221

TEAK IN MEKONG

Community Forestry in Nepal. Kathmandu
Sahayogi, Nepal.

Roshetko, J. M. & Manurung, G. E. S.
(2009). Smallholder teak production
systems in Gunung Kidul Indonesia. The
2nd World Congress of Agroforestry,Agroforestry the Future of Global Land
Use. 24-29 August 2009. Nairobi, Kenya.

Hindra, B. (2006). Potential andinstitutional community forests,
Proceedings of Seminars on Forest
Products. Research and Development
Center for Forest Social and Economics,
Bogor, Indonesia.

Roshetko, J. M., Rohadi, D., Perdana, A.,
Sabastian, G., Nuryartono, N., Pramono,
A. A. et al. (2013). Teak agroforestry
systems for livelihood enhancement,
industrial timber production, andenvironmental rehabilitation. Forests,
Trees and Livelihoods, 22(4), 241-256.

Kaosa-ard, A. (1999). Gains fromprovenance selection. In Proceeding ofInternational Seminar on Site, Technology
and Productivity of Teak Plantations, pp.
191-207. 26-29 January 1999, Chiang Mai,
Thailand.

Sukadaryati, S. (2006). The Potential ofCommunity Forests in Indonesia and Its
Problems. Proceedings of the R&D
seminar on Forest Products, Bogor, West
Java, Indonesia.

Kollert, W. & Cherubini, L. (2012). Teak
resources and market assessment 2010
(Tectona grandis Linn. f). Food andAgriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.

Supriono, B. & Setyaningsih, L. (2012).
Growth of Superior Teak Plant Nusantara
with Agroforestry Pattern at Five Years
Old. Jurnal Sains Natural Universitas
Nusa Bangsa, 2(2), 179 – 185.

Midgley, S., Somaiya, R. T., Stevens, P.
R., Brown, A., Kien, N. D. & Laity, R.
(2015). Planted teak: global production
and markets, with reference to Solomon
Islands. ACIAR Technical Reports No. 85.
Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research, Canberra,
Australian.

Verhaegen, D., Fofana, I. J., Logossa, Z.
A., & Ofori, D. (2010). What is the genetic
origin of teak (Tectona grandis L.)
introduced in Africa and in Indonesia?
Tree Genetics & Genomes, 6, 717–733.

Pramono, A. A., Fauzi, M. A., Widyani,N., Heriansyah, I. & Roshetko, J. M.
(2010). Pengelolaan Hutan Jati Rakyat:
Panduan Lapangan untuk Petani. CIFOR,
Bogor, Indonesia.

Wirjodarmodjo, H & Subroto, P. M.
(1983). Teak Improvement by Perum
Perhutani. Duta Rimba 83-64/IX :3-13.
Jakarta, Indones

Perhutani, P. (2018). Statistik Perum
Perhutani tahun 2012-2016. Perum
Perhutani, Jakarta, Indonesia.

222

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Chapter 18: Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Credits ofTeak Plantations
S. Sankar

Abstract

This paper attempts to discuss carbon
sequestration by teak plantations andpossibilities of using this to create carbon
credits. The examples are from teakplantations raised and managed by the
Kerala Forest Department in India. To
receive credits for the carbon sequesteredby afforestation or reforestation, one has
to understand the process of Clean
Development Mechanism.

eak is an important high value timber
species widely planted in the tropics
in many South-east Asian, African and
Latin American countries. In Kerala, India,
it is the most important revenue earning
plantation species on a 50-to-60-year longrotation. Being an efficient sequester ofcarbon, it can play an additional rolein combating global warming throughsustainable forestry projects. Further, thewood being long-lasting even after cutting
through various products, teak is a good
choice for receiving carbon credits. This
paper highlights the study conducted in theteak plantations of Kerala on the carbon
storage in different compartments of teak at
different thinning regimes and final fellingat 50 years rotation period alongside it
utilising for carbon credits.

Clean Development Mechanism
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),
defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows acountry with an emission-reduction oremission-limitation commitment under the
Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement
an emission-reduction project in developing
countries.
A carbon credit is a generic term for any
tradable certificate or permit representing
the right to emit one ton of carbon dioxideor the equivalent amount of a different
greenhouse gas (tCO2 e). One carbon credit
is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide, or insome markets carbon dioxide equivalent.
Certified Emission Reductions (CERs)
are a type of emissions unit (or carbon
credits) issued by the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) Executive Boardfor emission reductions achieved by
CDM projects and verified by a DOE(Designated Operational Entity) under therules of the Kyoto Protocol.

Introductioneak (Tectona grandis Linn. F.) is avaluable timber yielding species inthe tropics especially India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Myanmar, northern Thailand,and north-western Laos. The first teakplantation in the world was raised in
Nilambur, Kerala, India in the year 1840.
The Kerala Forest Department now has
about 56,510 ha under teak, out of whichapproximately 64 percent is in the firstrotation and the remaining 36 percent in thesecond and third rotation stages and about1000 ha is being felled and replanted every
year (Balagopalan et al., 2005). Hence
raising and managing teak plantations insuitable areas can be eligible not only for
producing useful hardwood but also forsequestering carbon from the atmosphere to
reduce global warming (Muralidharan &Sharma, 2003).

An afforestation or reforestation measure,operation or action that aims to achieve net
anthropogenic GHG removals by sinks,
whether as a whole project or as a partof a project. The direct human-induced
conversion of land that has not been forested
for a period of at least 50 years to forested
land through planting, seeding and/or humaninduced promotion of natural seed sources.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Carbon sequestration

Below is a list of some typical projects that
may be eligible:

Carbon sequestration is the process bywhich atmospheric carbon dioxide is taken
up by trees, grasses, and other plants
through photosynthesis and stored ascarbon in biomass (trunks, branches,
foliage, and roots) and soils. The sink ofcarbon sequestration in forests and wood
products helps to offset sources of carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere, such as
deforestation, forest fires, and fossil fuelemissions. Global warming due to green
house gases is a matter of great concern
today and CO2 accounts for 64% of theincrease in heat. CO2 in the atmosphere
has increased from 270 ppm before
industrial revolution to 401.03 ppm bySeptember 2016 (Mauna Loa observatory,
USA). Discussions to reduce the GHGs
started with the Stockholm Conference in1972. Kyoto Protocol (KP) 1997 imposed
legally binding commitments for emission
reduction to that of 1990 levels by theAnnex 1 countries (developed countries).

The implementation of a renewableenergy project, e.g., wind, or biomass;• Demand-side energy efficiency
improvement, e.g., implementation ofenergy saving light bulbs;• The reduction of methane emissions
from a landfill site;• Reduction of industrial process
emissions;• Forestry practices to store carbon.
The contribution by forest in carbon
sequestration is commendable. India
with 69.2 million hectares forest cover(FSI, 2013) including a wide range of forest
types from wet to dry forest in temperate totropical climate has high capacity inabsorbing and retaining carbon. Carbon is
distributed in the landscape in:•• Aboveground biomass• Belowground biomass• Litter• Dead wood
• Soil organic matter
Carbon is stored in harvested wood, wood
products and dead organic matter. 195
million tons of carbon was reported to be
stored in harvested wood products in thehousehold sector and 62 million tons lockedin commercial sector.24 million tons ofcarbon is being locked annually in harvested
wood products (FSI, 2013). But still carbon isalways stored more efficiently in forest stands
than in wood products.

Flexibility mechanisms suggested toachieve the same were:
1. Emission Trading
2. Joint Implementation
3. Clean Development Mechanism
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2011) included
Afforestation and Reforestation (A/R) as
an effective way to reduce atmosphericcarbon as part of CDM. Certified Emission
Reductions (CERs) provide an opportunity toclaim compensation for such efforts.

Carbon sequestration by Teak

Carbon sequestration is the long-term
storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide indifferent sinks such as biomass, soil,
ocean, rocks, etc., in such a manner that
it is not re-emitted into the atmosphere in
the near future. Because of their projectbased character, CDM can assist project
developers in enhancing the economics oftheir project by selling the resulting
emission reductions. Not every project iseligible as a CDM project; this is subject toa number of activities and approvals.

An area of 2.4 million ha of teak in theworld would have the potential to sequester
240 million tons of carbon. It is reported in2015 that an average carbon accumulationof 532 kg C m-2 yr-1 in teak across the monoand multi-specific stands. Carbon storage
by teak increases with age of the plantationfrom 51.32 t ha-1 in 19 year-old plantations
to 101.40 t ha-1 in 33 year-old teak plantations.
An average above ground carbon storage of
2.9 Mg ha-1 in the first year to 40.7 Mg ha-1
in the 10th year of teak plantation in Western224

TEAK IN MEKONG

Carbon sequestration by Teak
Plantations in Kerala, India

Panama. Carbon sequestration potential has
been found to increase with high input
management. It has been reported that there
has been an improvement in carbon
sequestration from 0.816 Mg ha-1 without
any management to 1.76 Mg ha-1 with highinput management in 5 year old teakplantations. The average carbon stocks of
55.9 MgC ha−1, and the remaining carbon
in harvested wood products (HWPs)
at final felling was 41.7 MgC ha−1 of thefirst management cycle. When threemanagement cycles are considered, theaverage carbon stocks in the standing
plantations were 60.5 MgC ha−1, 42% of
which are stored in the HWPs in Thailand.

Teak plantations in different thinningregimes and at final felling were surveyedin Nilambur forest division, Kerala andseven sites corresponding to the prescribed
felling schedule and on comparable sitequality were selected for the study.
Growth of Teak in plantations
Height of teak trees is given in Figure 18-1.
Teak height varied from 6.93 m at age offive years to 22.83 m at 50 years. Diameterat breast height also increased with age
from 6.36 cm to 45.01 cm from 5th year to50th year respectively. (Figure 18-2)

Figure 18-1 Teak height varied from 6.93 m at age of five years to 22.83 m at 50 years

225

TEAK IN MEKONG
DBH of teak in various ages
60

45.81

50

37.66

DBH (cm)

40

26.35

30
19.54
20

16.22
14.57

10

6.36

0
5

10

15

20

30

40

50

Age (Years)

Figure 18-2 Diameter at breast height also increased with age from 6.36 cm to 45.01 cm from 5th year
to 50th year respectively

Carbon content in various parts of teak of different age is given in Table 18-1. No significant
difference was noted in the carbon content (37 to 44 percent) in different components. But the
carbon sequestration by various components varied significantly with age and type (Table 18-2).
Maximum carbon sequestered was by bole at the age of 50, nearly 322 kg per tree.
Table 18-1 Carbon content in various compartments of teak
Carbon content (%)

Age(years)Bole wood
BranchBark
Root
5
45.19a ±0.2340.87a ±0.29
37.65a ±0.27
41.38a ±0.52
1045.43a ±0.2242.17b ±0.1739.96b ±0.37
41.85a ±0.30
a
b
bc
15
45.99 ±0.24
42.29 ±0.24
40.69 ±0.38
42.70ab ±0.28
2046.03a ±0.2243.72c ±0.2240.93bc ±0.33
42.81ab ±0.303047.73b ±0.39
44.33c ±0.33
41.25bc ±0.50
43.53b ±0.45
b
c
bc
40
48.14 ±0.35
44.38 ±0.33
41.46 ±0.36
43.71b ±0.455048.85b ±0.4744.45c ±0.35
41.78c ±0.48
44.24b ±0.50
Values in the table are Mean ± SE, n=12, significant at 0.05 level, (Values with same
superscripts do not differ significantly and are homogenous within a column.
Table 18-2 Carbon sequestration in various compartments of teakAge(years)
5
10
15
20
30

Carbon sequestered (kg tree-1)
Bole wood
18.22a ±0.60
40.07a ±1.4348.58a ±3.05
63.18ab ±5.61
105.97b ±12.47

Branch
3.58a ±0.13
10.22ab ±1.10
14.40b ±0.80
15.49b ±1.79
17.67b ±2.11
226

Bark
3.14a ±0.13
5.63ab ±0.20
6.53ab ±0.35
7.75ab ±0.63
10.13b ±1.09

Root
3.29a ±0.06
8.45ab ±0.33
15.19ab ±0.99
19.76bc ±1.71
31.49c ±3.98

TEAK IN MEKONG

Carbon sequestered (kg tree-1)

Age(years)Bole wood
BranchBark
Root
40
205.99c ±13.13
38.42c ±2.88
17.90c ±0.84
50.06d ±3.5150332.88d ±34.34
68.63d ±4.00
26.57d ±2.66
80.06e ±6.84
Values in the table are Mean ± SE, n=12, significant at 0.05 level, (Values with same
superscripts do not differ significantly and are homogenous within a column)
The soil carbon content increased with age of the plantation and soil depth (Table 18-3).
Maximum concentration was found in the upper 0 to 20 cm. Cumulative soil carbon was
highest in 80-100 cm depth. Soil carbon increased with age due to annual litter fall andsubsequent decomposition.
Table 18-3 Soil carbon stock in 50 year teak plantation
Soil depth (cm) Bulk density Soil(gcm-3)(%)

carbon Soil
carbon Cumulative-1(Mgha )
soil
carbon(Mgha-1)

0-20

1.20a±0.013

2.65a±0.063

63.79a±1.98

63.79a±1.98

20-40

1.23ab±0.011

2.11b±0.053

51.81b±1.47115.60b±3.26

40-60

1.23ab±0.009

1.31c±0.040

32.26c±0.87

147.86c±3.87

60-80

1.27b±0.017

1.02d±0.040

25.80d±1.11173.66d±4.76

80-1001.43c±0.022

0.83e±0.022

23.82e±1.28

197.48e±5.77

Table 18-4 Thinning schedules of teak and trees removed per hectare
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Thinning Cycle
1st thinning
2nd thinning
3rd thinning
4th thinning
5th thinning
6th thinning
Final felling

Age
Trees removed per ha.
5
1250
10
448
15
264
20
190
30
103
40
85
50
160
Grand total
2,500(Ref: Growth and yield statistics of common Indian Timbers, FRI Dehra Dun, 1970 &Working Plan Nilambur North Forest Division, 2001)
Teak is planted initially at a spacing of 2 x
2 m. So, we have 2,500 plants / ha. But
during the course of growth before final
felling the plantation is thinned six times
bringing the final number to 160/ ha (Table

18-4). The amount of carbon (t/ha) is given
in Table 18-5. The total carbon varies from35.29 to 81.30 t/ha during age from 5 to 50
years.

Table 18-5 Carbon sequestered at various thinning regimes of teak227

TEAK IN MEKONG

Age

Trees
removed Bole wood

Carbon sequestered per hectare (tons ha-1)
Branch
Bark
Root
Total

5

1250

22.78

4.48

3.92

4.11

35.29

10

448

17.95

4.58

2.52

3.79

28.84

15

264

12.83

3.80

1.72

4.01

22.36

20

190

12.00

2.94

1.47

3.75

20.17

30

103

10.91

1.82

1.04

3.24

17.02

40 85
17.51
3.27
1.52
4.26
26.55
50 160
53.26
10.98
4.25
12.81
81.30
For the reference year 2014, an area of 4860 ha. of teak plantations were felled within age
group of 5 to 50 years (Table 6). The total carbon sequestration potential can be arrived at 221.1 Gg.
Table 18-6 Carbon sequestration potential of teak plantations in Kerala for the year 2014
Age

Felling Area
(ha)
5
82.53
10
478.7415
136.5520381.7630
466.1440
1529.8350
1784.43
Total
4860
9
*Gg = 10 gram

Carbon sequestration in teak compartments (Gg*)
Bole wood
Branch
Bark
Root
Total
1.88
0.37
0.32
0.34
2.91
8.59
2.19
1.21
1.81
13.81
1.75
0.52
0.24
0.55
3.05
4.58
1.12
0.56
1.43
7.7
5.09
0.85
0.49
1.51
7.93
26.79
5
2.33
6.51
40.62
95.04
19.6
7.59
22.86
145.08143.72
29.64
12.73
35.01
221.1

Carbon Sequestration in Teak –Summary

14%, by bark 7% and by root 16%. The
initial years were not significantly
different in carbon content irrespectiveof components but older trees weresignificantly different from younger
trees in this respect (Montagmini &Porras, (1998).

Carbon sequestration in above-ground parts
ranged from 25 kg/tree at 5 year to
428 kg/tree at 50 th year. The respective
contribution from belowground was
3.29 kg and 80kg/tree. Total carbon
sequestration at final felling was found to
be 508 kg/tree. Significant increase incarbon sequestration was noted after 20thyear. Contribution of bole wood towards
total carbon sequestration considering allages together was 63% that by branch was

Certified Emission Reduction (CER)
potential for the reference year of teakplantations in Kerala, India is given in
Table 18-7. It is assumed that an amountof INR 61.48 crores can be realised given
1 CER = 1 ton of CO2= 12$, IPCC 2014.

Table 18-7 Certified Emission Reduction (CER) potential of teak plantations

228

TEAK IN MEKONG

Age

Carbon sequestered (Gg)

Equivalent No. of CERs

5
2.91
10
13.81
15
3.05
20
7.70
30
7.93
40
40.62
50
145.08
Total
221.10
One ton of C = 3.67 tons of CO2
1 CER = 1 ton of CO2= 12$, IPCC 2014

10,67850,616
11,19428,23429,090
1,48,922
5,31,900
8,10,634

Overall Summary
•
•
•

•
•

•
•

•
•

•

Height, DBH and biomass increased inteak with age. Remarkable increase
occurred after 30 years.
At the final felling age of 50 years, a teaktree was found to attain 23 m height, 46
cm DBH and 1080 kg biomass.
Carbon content in teak varied from 45-49% in bole wood, 41-44% in branch androot and 38-42% in bark compartments
during its growth from 5th to 50th year.
Significant difference in carbon content
was observed with age in the latterstages only.
Carbon sequestration by a teak tree atfinal felling of 50th year was found to be
508 kg carbon per tree of which theabove ground contributed 428 kg andthe below ground 80 kg of carbon.
Carbon sequestered in the soil up to 100
cm depth of a teak plantation was 166
tons per hectare.
Among the different fractions of soil
carbon, the passive carbon contributed
double the active carbon; theintermediate fraction, slow carbon,
was always less than the active carbon.
Height, DBH and biomass increased inteak with age. Remarkable increase
occurred after 30 years.
At the final felling age of 50 years, ateak tree was found to attain 23 mheight, 46 cm DBH and 1080 kg
biomass.
Carbon content in teak varied from 45-49% in bole wood, 41-44% in branch and

•
•
•

•

Price
(INR)
0.81
3.84
0.85
2.14
2.21
11.29
40.34
61.48

root and 38-42% in bark compartments
during its growth from 5th to 50th year.
Significant difference in carbon content
was observed with age in the latterstages only.
Carbon sequestered in the soil up to 100
cm depth of a teak plantation was 166
tons per hectare.
Among the different fractions of soil
carbon, the passive carbon contributed
double the active carbon; theintermediate fraction, slow carbon, wasalways less than the active carbon.
Teak plantations during 50 years ofmanagement could sequester 221.10 Gg
of carbon equivalent to 8,10,634 certified
emission reductions and can provide
61.48 crores of rupees at 2014 rates.

Converting CER into carbon credits
Payments for carbon sequestration present
an opportunity for plantation and forest
companies to gain a new revenue stream
from their forests while reducing theimpacts of climate change. Such payments
also provide additional benefits:• They gain a supplemental income that
could help to make working forests
profitable, preventing the need to sell ordevelop land.
• Sustainable forest management isencouraged.
• The public gains the many services that
healthy forestlands provide, such as
clean water, wildlife habitat and open
space.
229

TEAK IN MEKONG

There is the potential for the entire world
to benefit. At the same time, forest owners
must be aware of the challenges that
accompany forest carbon projects. Offset
development can be complex and
expensive. Given the high level of
uncertainty regarding carbon regulationand fluctuating carbon prices, companies
should consider not only the potential
return but also the financial risk associatedwith forest carbon projects.

world’s politicians. It is almost unimaginable
that there could ever be a return to the oldattitudes that focused primarily on sustainabletimber production. Although we face a longand uncertain path to the ultimate
achievement of sustainable management of
the world’s forests, public pressure has
already moved forest policies a significant
distance. If managed sustainably, forest
ecosystems can provide multiple social,economic and environmental benefits for
current and future generations and may
contribute significantly to sustainable
development. What are the three componentsof sustainable forestry.

The opportunity to obtain carbon funding
for activities that maintain or increase
forest cover is exciting and real. The
sector is growing rapidly from historically
low transaction volumes as more carbon
accounting methodologies are being
approved and the number of high-quality
projects is increasing.

Each of the elements- economic prosperity,environmental protection, and social
well-being- is interdependent with theothers, and each may be present to a greateror lesser degree in a particular situation.

Key eligibility requirements

The International Tropical Timber
Organisation (ITTO) introduced the Criteria
and Indicators concept and terminology in
1992. Since then several regional groupingsof countries have worked together upon
the process of generating and testing
appropriate C&I to suit their own conditions(Sankar et al., 2000) The following are themajor criteria.

1. Additionality-requires Forest projects tosequester more carbon than Business as
usual scenario. The project must
demonstrate that carbon sequestration
would not happen without thedevelopment of the specific offset project.
2. Permanence- maintenance of Additionality
for a specific accepted period.
3. Non-leakage- loss of sequesteredcarbon due to degradation, fire, andunsustainable practices.
General sequence of the project andissuance of credits.

CRITERION 1 Enabling Conditions for
Sustainable Forest Management
CRITERION 2 Forest Resource Security
CRITERION 3 Forest Ecosystems Healthand Condition
CRITERION 4 Flow of forest produce
CRITERION 5 Biological Diversity
CRITERION 6 Soil and Water
CRITERION 7 Economic, Social andCultural Aspects

1. Registration and approval of
methodology
2. Monitoring
3. Verification (third party)
4. Validation (third party)
5. Approval or rejection by executive body
6. Credit issuance

Given these criteria are maintained, theplantation can qualify for woodcertification and also carbon credits.

Criteria for sustainable teak plantation
management

Overall summary and recommendations

Thanks to public concern about theenvironment, the issue of sustainability is
now high on the agenda of many of the

Teak is an important commercial timber
species providing hardwood for various
230

TEAK IN MEKONG

Referencesuses. This species is planted widely in Asia,
Africa and Latin America. Being an efficientsequester of carbon, it can play an additionalrole in combating global warming throughsustainable forestry projects. Further, thewood being long-lasting even after cutting
through various products, teak is a good choice
for receiving carbon credits. Thus, whileraising plantations one has to look at all
criteria for attaining ecological and social
sustainability to address wood certificationand carbon credits.

Balagopalan, M., Rugmini, P. & Chacko,
K. C. (2005). Soil conditions and growth ofteak in successive rotations in Kerala State,
India. In Teak from Sustainable Forest
Management (eds., K.M. Bhat, K.K.N. Nair
& K.V.Bhat), pp. 173-178. Kerala Forest
Research Institute, Peechi, India.
FSI (2013). State of Forest Report 2013.
Forest Survey of India, Dehra Dun, India.
Montagmini, F. & Porras, C. (1998)
Evaluating the role of plantations ascarbon sinks: An example of an integrative
approach from the humid tropics, Environ.
and Mgt, 22, 459-470.

Acknowledgements
The Author is grateful to Dr. S. Sandeep,
Soil Scientist, Kerala Forest ResearchInstitute. Dr. P. K. Thulasidas, Consultant,
ITTO Teak Mekong project and Mrs. M.
P. Sreelakshmy, Teaknet Secretariat for
support. I am thankful to Mrs. Divya
Gopan for word processing the manuscript.
I am be thankful to ITTO for providingme this opportunity.

Muralidharan, E. M., & Sharma, J. K.
(2003) Quality timber products of teak fromsustainable forest management. In
Proceedings of the International Conferenceon Quality Timber Products of Teak from
Sustainable Forest Management, pp. 173-178.
2nd-5th December 2003, Peechi, India.
UNFCCC. (2011). Report of the Global
Environment Facility to the Conference of
the Parties. Conference of the Parties
Seventeenth session Durban, 28 November
to 9 December 2011.
Sankar, S, Anil, P. C. & Amruth, M. (2000).
Criteria & Indicators for sustainable
plantation management in India. CIFOR231

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Chapter 19: Review of the Current Trade Trends ofTropical Timber and Timber Products
Tetra Yanuariadi andJean-Christophe Claudon

Abstract

in 1990. Japan, the primary importer oftropical plywood responsible for 26% of
global imports in 1990, has reduced its
imports by half since 2008. This requires alonger-term view to enable tropical timberindustry policy decisions to be effective.

ustainably produced timber canstore carbon in long-life timber
products and substitute for emissionsintensive materials. The volume of timber
produced sustainably in a tropical forest is
generally extremely low, often as little as
1.5 m3 per hectare per year. Overall, this
implies a continuing loss of competitivenessfor tropical hardwoods compared to wood
products produced in temperate forests.
Changes in the global trading environment
for tropical timbers are occurring at a rapid
pace led in part by the rapidly declining
availability and quality of large diametertropical hardwood logs of primary woodspecies and easy availability of alternatives.
Degraded forests have a reduced capacity tosupply local, national and global markets
with essential forest products. Yet demandfor harvested timber and other products are
increasing. If not addressed, the supply
deficit of timber and other harvested forest
products could reach several billion cubic
meters per year. Demand for tropicalprimary and secondary wood products is a
derived demand, driven by residential, nonresidential and public construction activity
and by consumer wealth and spending.
Global housing and construction trends are
therefore important indicators of tropicalwood products demand. Housing andconstruction activities in United State,
China, Japan and EU will influence theglobal building and construction trends.
After reaching a its high point in 2014,
tropical logs imports began to decline
reaching its 30-year lowest in 2020.
Tropical sawn wood imports have also been
impacted as well by economic crises but
still the total imports of tropical sawn wood
were at the same level in 2020 as they were

Introduction
he International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO) is an intergovernmental organization promoting theconservation and sustainable management,
use and trade of tropical forest resources. Its
members represent the bulk of the world’s
tropical forests and of the global tropicaltimber trade. Ensuring sustainable tropicaltimber trade requires optimizing theutilization and improving productivity of
production forests, which will, in turn,benefit conservation and protected forests,
in terms of reducing pressures anddisturbances. Forests and timber and timber
products are increasingly seen as important
contributors to the Sustainable Development
Goals, including SDG 13 (“climate action”).
Among other things, sustainably produced
timber can store carbon in long-life timber
products and substitute for emissionsintensive materials.
The Asia Pacific region is an importantregion for efforts to sustain tropical forests
and tropical timber and timber products
trade. Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam areimportant producer countries in the region
for tropical timber and timber products.
However, forests and landscapes in the
Asia-Pacific region are under increasingpressure from climate change, economic
growth, infrastructure development, forest
conversion, conflicts and other destructive
activities. The economic viability of232

TEAK IN MEKONG

sustainable tropical forestry is often marginalat best, with returns from sustainable timber
production and other marketable goods andservices comparing poorly to those ofalternate land uses. ITTO and its member
countries have long recognized that natural
tropical forests have great difficulty inattracting investments to help realize theirpotential to contribute to sustainable
development.

In the current situation, the availability andquality of large-diameter tropical hardwood
logs of primary wood species are declining.
A contrast situation with the forest
resources of the temperate zones which are
generally either stable or increasing. Also,
tropical forests tend to produce significantly
lower volumes of saleable timber per
hectare per year compared to temperate
forests, less attractive for investment toincrease productivity and for theestablishment of plantations. According to
ITTO (2010), the volume of timber
produced sustainably in a tropical forest is
generally extremely low, often as little as
1.5 m3 per hectare per year. Overall, this
implies a continuing loss of competitivenessfor tropical hardwoods compared to wood
products produced in temperate forests.

The consumption patterns of forest
products is changing rapidly in the region.
The traditional use of wood as a source ofdomestic energy is declining rapidly as
incomes rise and people move to cities,
leading to the increased use of electricity
and liquefied petroleum gas; on the other
hand, the use of industrial roundwood (forsawn wood, paper and paperboard, andwood-based panels) is growing to cater toincreased demand for housing, furnitureand exports. Demand is also increasing for
new types of forest products andecosystemservices, such as amenity values,
health-and-beauty products, and green
space in urban landscapes. New woodbased products, such as biomaterials andbiochemicals, are entering the market, andtechnological innovations are enabling theincreased recycling of wood products(FAO, 2019).

These changes have transformed the Asia
Pacific region’s forests. According to FAO(2019), large areas of forest have been
converted to other land uses, such as
agriculture, infrastructure, mining, and oilpalm plantations. About 64 percent of theregion’s forests are now secondary, withvarying levels of degradation. The area ofplanted forests doubled in the region between
1990 and 2015 to meet the growing demandfor industrial roundwood. But not all forests
are equal, and the shift from primary forests
to secondary and planted forests entails
sacrifices in the delivery of ecosystemservices. Moreover, the region imports
timber from other parts of the world to help
meet demand, placing stress on forests
outside the region

Tropical Forest Situation
Deforestation and forest degradation
continue to take place at alarming rates,
which contributes significantly to theongoing loss of biodiversity. Since 1990, it
is estimated that 420 million hectares offorest have been lost through conversion toother land uses, although the rate of
deforestation has decreased over the past
three decades. Between 2015 and 2020, therate of deforestation was estimated at 10
million hectares per year, down from 16
million hectares per year in the 1990s. The
area of primary forest worldwide has
decreased by over 80 million hectares since1990 (Blaser et al., 2011; FAO, 2020).

Market Developments of Tropical
Timber and Timber Products
The raised profile of forests and timber
products in the recent years owing to theirrole in mitigating climate change represents
an opportunity for the forest sector to help
build a bio-circular economy. Crucial fordoing this is the development of green
timber supply chains to ensure legality andsustainability, from the tree in the forest to
the product in the market. Harnessing thebenefits of legal and sustainable supply
233

TEAK IN MEKONG

chains will require the strong commitmentof, and coordinated and well-documented
actions by, the many actors in supply andvalue chains (ITTO, 2020).

products is a derived demand, driven byresidential, non-residential and publicconstruction activity and by consumer
wealth and spending. Global housing andconstruction trends are therefore important
indicators of tropical wood products
demand. Housing and construction
activities in United State, China, Japan andEU will influence the global building andconstruction trends. Changes in the global
trading environment for tropical timbers are
occurring at a rapid pace. Degraded forests
have a reduced capacity to supply local,
national and global markets with essential
forest products. Yet demand for harvested
timber and other products are increasing. If
not addressed, the supply deficit of timberand other harvested forest products could
reach several billion cubic meters per year.

Tropical timber producer countries needto regularly assess the situation ofcompetitiveness of their products ininternational markets to ensure continued
maintenance of production and trade ofsustainably managed tropical timber andtimber products. Ensuring sustainable
tropical timber trade requires optimizing
the utilization and improving productivityof production forests, which will, in turn,benefit conservation and protected forests,
in terms of reducing pressures anddisturbances. A key requirement ofsustainability is compliance with all relevant
legal frameworks. The perception thatillegal operations are widespread in tropicalforests taints the image of the tropicaltimber sector in certain major importmarkets and while some markets have
responded by introducing requirements forlegality and sustainability to provide
assurance for buyers and consumers many
more are yet to initiate effective action inthis regard. Over the past three decades the
ITTO has been working with its members
to strengthen forest governance and verify
legality and sustainability, thereby
improving the credentials of tropical forest
products in global markets and has madenoteworthy progress in this direction.
Numerous policy measures are now being
implemented to improve forest law
enforcement and governance and counterthe trade in illegally harvested timber(EUTR, US Lacey Act, Australian illegal
logging prohibition bill 2012, and recently
Japan clean wood act). Policy measures toimprove forest low enforcement andgovernance also deals with forest certification,
procurement policy and CITES species
protection.

According to Held et al. (2021), global
resource use could double by 2050,
representing an excellent trade opportunity
for tropical timber producers. It forecaststhat tropical industrial roundwood
production will increase substantially by
mid-century but says the sector needs aboost if it is to maximize its contribution tocarbon-neutral production. A doubling of
global resource use by 2050 would likely
outstrip global sustainable supply andtrigger negative impacts on biodiversity,
climate, ecosystems and human wellbeing
unless timely action is taken to mitigate
these impacts. The world urgently needs toprioritize resource-use efficiency and adopt
carbon-neutral production based on
renewable and sustainably produced
materials such as wood. According to thereport, tropical timber could take a leadingrole in substitution because the increasing
demand for goods in the construction sector
and other sectors like plastics and textiles
can partially be met by wood-based products.
The total production of tropical industrial
roundwood is roughly 15% of the total
production of industrial roundwood acrossthe world. The Covid-19 pandemic hassignificantly reduced the production oftropical timber. For 2020, a drop in

Trends: Tropical timber industry andtrade
According to Held et al. (2019), demand fortropical primary and secondary wood
234

TEAK IN MEKONG

production of 10 million m3 in the tropicalcountries representing a decline of 2-3%
was forecast (Figure 19-1). At this point it
is difficult to estimate the impact of thepandemic on production and domestic
consumption of tropical logs.

seed production as well as sustainable
management of natural and planted teakforests in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Three ITTO producer member countries,
namely, Myanmar, India and Indonesia, aremajor teak players at the global level as
they hold more than 95% of the world’s
natural and more than 75% of the world’s
planted teak forests. On consumer side,
India, Thailand, and China are major
importing countries in the world accounting
for 74% of the world teak imports.

The Asia-Pacific region produces two times
more tropical industrial roundwood thanthe African and Latin American regions
combined. Indonesia is the world’s largest
producer of tropical logs followed by India
and Vietnam. PNG and the Solomon
Islands are the largest exporters of tropicallogs (combined they represent almost 50%of the world exports of tropical industrial
roundwood) but are highly dependent on
the Chinese demand. Their exports werestrongly affected by the COVID19 crisisand declined by 23% and 17% respectively
in 2020. Brazil became the third tropicallogs exporter in 2020. The peak reached bythe ‘rest of the world’ aggregate in 2014 is
explained by the surge in exports by
Myanmar prior to the enforcement of roundlog export ban. Myanmar’s exports,
however, plummeted to insignificant levels
from 2015 when the ban was introduced.

Myanmar is a teak heavyweight, playing asignificant role in the global teak trade. It
has the largest area of natural teak forests
hosting almost 50 percent of 29 million ha
globally, and is the number one producer ofteak logs in the world. Its natural forests
produce about a quarter of the globally
reported teak log supply, including goodquality teak that sells at high prices. After
India and Indonesia, the country also has
the third-largest planted teak area in theworld (about 390 000 ha), which is now
reputed to be the source of more than 40
percent of the global teak trade (Kollert &Walotek, 2015).

In 1990, 30% of all industrial roundwood
and 12% of sawn wood exported in theworld was of tropical origin. Nowadays,
this share is only around 9% and 6%
respectively for tropical roundwood andsawn wood. Malaysia which exported 20
million m3 of tropical logs in 1990 (71% of
the world’s total), exported just over a million
m3 in 2020. As for tropical plywood, its
global import share was 75% in 1990,
which has now dropped to only 25% of all
plywood imports (Figure 19-2).

The supply of high-quality teak logs
originating from old-growth natural teakforests in Myanmar began to decline as aresult of the log export ban that has been inforce since 1 April 2014, reflecting both the
declining harvestable area in natural teakforests and the deteriorating quality ofnaturally grown teak because of excessive
harvesting of good quality trees over
several decades in the past. This has led toincreased interest and investment inestablishing and managing teak plantations.
It is more than likely that in the future, theworld’s supply of teak wood will depend
mostly on the production from tropical teakplantations. Where good management
practices are applied, plantation teak has
improved both in productivity and inquality, and there could well be anincreasing overlap in quality between
natural and plantation-grown teak in futureyears (Kollert & Kleine, 2017).

The Special Position of Teak
Among commercial tropical hardwoods,
Teak (Tectona grandis) is recognizedworldwide for its beauty, strength andstability. Over the past two decades, ITTO
has been actively involved in research anddevelopment work in natural and planted
teak forests and has supported teak projects
with a focus on genetic resources conservation,
235

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 19-1 Production of tropical industrial roundwood (logs), 2010-2020, million m3

Figure 19-2 World imports of tropical primary wood products, 1990-2020

Tropical logs were mainly imported inJapan till the 1990s. In 1990 Japan imported
40% of all tropical logs but with its relative
economic decline in the 1990s, Japanese
imports started to dwindle. The Asian crisisof 1997-1998 depressed the tropical woodmarket briefly and the global financial
crisis of 2008 affected it adversely for aboutfour years. After reaching its high point in2014, tropical logs imports began to decline
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TEAK IN MEKONG

and this decline has accelerated strongly
from 2018 partly due to the economic
slowdown in China. The COVID-19 crisis
has amplified the economic slowdown in
China and the volume of tropical logs

traded in the world reached its 30-year
lowest in 2020. Please see Figure 19-3
below for more information about major
trade flows of tropical logs in 2020.

Figure 19-3 Major trade flows 2020: tropical logs

Tropical sawn wood imports have been
impacted as well by economic crises.
Nevertheless, unlike the roundwood
imports, the total imports of tropical sawn
wood were at the same level in 2020 as they
were in 1990. China is the largest importerof tropical sawn wood at 63% of world’s
imports. After reaching a high point in2017, its imports started to decline from2018. In 2020, imports declined strongly
during the first semester due to thepandemic but then rebounded during thesecond semester and finally China imported
more tropical sawn wood in 2020 than in
2019. The EU is the second largest importerof tropical sawn wood and its imports
declined by only 4% in 2020. Vietnam, thethird largest importer of tropical sawn wood
had its imports surge by 15% in 2020. Other
major importers, however, experienced adouble-digit percentage decline in 2020 andthe ‘rest of the world’ aggregate was mostaffected registering a decline by a third.
Thus, despite declining world imports since2017, tropical sawn wood has been more
resilient to COVID-19 crisis than tropicallogs (see Figure 19-4, Figure 19-5 andFigure 19-6), partly due to its higher value
added in the supply chains.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 19-4 Major importers of tropical sawn
wood, 2010-2020

Figure 19-5 Major exporters of tropicalsawn wood, 2010-2020

Figure 19-6 Major trade flows 2020: tropical sawn wood238

TEAK IN MEKONG

Tropical plywood trade

are the USA and the Republic of Korea.
Malaysia has seen its exports of tropicalplywood reducing drastically over the years
having come down by a third over the past
decade. The overall decline has been in
response to chronic supply shortages of raw
material input, the peeler logs, to theplywood mills and rising export prices,even as demand and prices remained
depressed in its major market of Japan. At
its peak in 2006, Malaysian tropicalplywood exports were roughly around 5.1
million m3 while exports recorded in 2020
were just around 1.3 million m3. Indonesia,
Vietnam, and Malaysia together accounted
for 77% of the global exports of tropicalplywood (see Figure 19-7, Figure 19-8 and
Figure 19-9). About 90% of tropicalplywood is produced in China andSoutheast Asia and then exported mainly to
the US, Japan, the Republic of Korea, andthe EU. Demand in the US has been
accelerating. Japan, despite a stagnant anddeclining demand, still remains a major
consumer of tropical plywood.

Japan has been the primary importer oftropical plywood for longand the world
imports was driven by Japanese imports. In
1990 they were responsible for 26% of
global imports of tropical plywood. But
there imports have dwindled sharply sincethe 2008 financial crisis and the global
tropical plywood have never recovered
since. Nevertheless, as global imports had
already reached a low point, this producthas been less affected than tropical logs andsawn wood by the current COVID-19
pandemic.
Indonesia is the biggest exporter of tropicalplywood in the world. Its exports level
accelerated in 2017 and 2018 before
slowing down in 2019. It was strongly
affected by the COVID-19 pandemic as its
exports experienced a 22% decrease in
2020. Vietnam became the second biggest
exporter of tropical plywood in the world
overtaking Malaysia for the first time.
Despite the COVID-19 crisis, its exports
surged by 32% in 2020. Its major markets

Figure 19-7 Major exporters of tropicalplywood, 2010-2020

Figure 19-8 Major importers of tropicalplywood, 2010-202

239

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 19-9 Major trade flows 2020: tropical plywood

Trade in Wooden Furniture

Chinese exports declining by a third even asexports of furniture from Vietnam boomedby 27%. Vietnamese exports of furniture to
the US have increased by the factor of 3 injust ten years. There has also been a trend
towards outward investment by processors
operating in China to Southeast Asia,
particularly Vietnam, to avoid US tariffs
and lower their production costs. Overall,the COVID-19 pandemic brought lesser
impacts on the tropical furniture exports
than on the primary wood products (seeFigure 19-10 and Figure 19-11).

Vietnam is the biggest tropical exporter offurniture in the world at 57% of all tropicalexports of furniture and its exports havealmost tripled over the last 10 years. It
exported over $10 billion of furniture in2020 and its exports increased by anadditional 15% between 2019 and 2020
despite the COVID-19 crisis as it has been
advantaged by the China-USA tradedispute. For the first time ever, Vietnamese
exports of furniture overtook the Chinese
exports of furniture to the US with the240

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 19-10 Major tropical exporters of furniture, 2010-2020

Figure 19-11 Major trade flows 2020: wooden furniture from China and ITTO producer countries

241

TEAK IN MEKONG

Conclusion

volume of tropical logs traded in the world
reached its 30-year lowest in 2020. Tropicalsawn wood imports have been impacted aswell by economic crises. Nevertheless,unlike the tropical logs roundwood imports,
the total imports of tropical sawn wood
were at the same level in 2020 as they werein 1990. Japan has been the primary
importer of Tropical plywood and the world
imports was driven by Japanese imports. In
1990 they were responsible for 26% of
global imports of tropical plywood.
Japanese imports have been divided by 2
since 2008 and the global tropical plywood
have never recovered since. Nevertheless,as global imports had already reached a low
point, this product has been less affected
than tropical logs and sawn wood by thecurrent COVID-19 pandemic.

The raised profile of forests and timber
products in the recent years owing to theirrole in mitigating climate change represents
an opportunity for the forest sector to help
build a bio-circular economy. Harnessing
the benefits of legal and sustainable supply
chains will require the strong commitmentof, and coordinated and well-documented
actions by, the many actors in supply andvalue chains. Tropical timber producer
countries need to regularly assess thesituation of competitiveness of theirproducts in international markets to ensure
continued maintenance of production andtrade of sustainably managed tropicaltimber and timber products.
Important issues that influence market
developments of tropical timber are
economic trends, building and construction
indicators and market policy trends. Global
economic growth is a major indicator of
demand for tropical wood products becauseof its impacts on housing, construction
activity and consumer wealth and spending,
all of which have flow-on effects on
demand for wood-based products. The
COVID-19 crisis has affected tropicaltimber and timber products trade andamplified the economic slowdown in its
both producer and consumer countries.

Global resource use could double by 2050,
representing an opportunity for tropicaltimber producers. However, this doubling
resource use would likely outstrip global
sustainable supply and trigger negative
impacts on biodiversity, climate, ecosystems
and human wellbeing. Therefore, the worldurgently needs to prioritize resource-use
efficiency and adopt carbon-neutral
production. Tropical timber could take aleading role in substitution because theincreasing demand for goods in theconstruction sector and other sectors likeplastics and textiles can partially be met bywood-based products.

The Asia Pacific region is an importantregion for efforts to sustain tropical forests
and tropical timber and timber products
trade. The consumption patterns of forest
products is changing rapidly in the region.
The Asia-Pacific region produces two times
more tropical industrial roundwood thanthe African and Latin American regions
combined. Indonesia is the world’s largest
producer of tropical logs followed by India
and Vietnam.

References
Blaser, J., Sarre, A., Poore, D. & Johnson,
S. (2011). Status of Tropical Forest
Management 2011. ITTO Technical Series
No 38. International Tropical Timber
Organization, Yokohama, Japan.
FAO & UNEP. (2020). The State of theWorld’s Forests 2020. Forests,
biodiversity and people. Rome, Italy.
https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8642en

Tropical logs imports began started to
decline and this decline has accelerated
strongly from 2018 partly due to theeconomic slowdown in China. The
COVID-19 crisis has amplified theeconomic slowdown in China and theFAO (Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations). (2019). Forest
242

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futures – Sustainable pathways for forests,
landscapes and people in the Asia-Pacificregion. Asia-Pacific Forest Sector Outlook
Study III. Bangkok, Thailand.
http://www.fao.org/3/ca4627en/CA4627E
N.pdf

playing field.
https://www.itto.int/technical_report/
ITTO (The International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2019). Biennial review andassessment of the world timber situation
2017-2018.
https://www.itto.int/direct/topics/topics_pd
f_download/topics_id=6162&no=1

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations). (2020). Global
Forest Resources Assessment 2020.
http://www.fao.org/forest-resourcesassessment/2020/en/

ITTO (The International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2020). Report of theInternational Forum: Together Towards
Global Green Supply Chains. International
Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO),
Yokohama, Japan.

Held, C., Meier-Landsberg, E. & Alonso,
V. (2021). Tropical Timber 2050. An
analysis of the future supply of anddemand for tropical timber and its
contributions to a sustainable economy.
ITTO Technical Series No. 49.
International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO), Yokohama, Japan.

Kollert, W. & Kleine, M. (2017). The
Global Teak Study. Analysis, Evaluation
and Future Potential of Teak Resources.
IUFRO World Series Volume 36, Vienna.
Kollert, W. & Walotek, P. (2015). Global
teak trade in the aftermath of Myanmar’s
log export ban. Planted Forests and Trees
Working Paper, 49(49), 20.

ITTO (The International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2010). Leveling the243

TEAK IN MEKONGSECTION V
RESEARCH IN TEAK GENETICS

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Chapter 20: Conservation Approaches of Teak
Genetic Resources in Thailand
Suwan Tangmitcharoen

Abstract

provenance trial, it started when the teakimprovement program was launch in 1965.
Domestic provenance trials were conductedduring 1966-1969. Half-sib and full-sib
progeny trials were planted during 20082011 at four regions of Thailand. As forfull-sib, the progenies of the year 2008 and2010 were hand-controlled-pollinated during
the year 2005 and 2008, respectively.
Teak seed orchards are the largest tree
improvement plots in Thailand covering an
area of 978 ha. The majority of seedorchards in Thailand are clonal seedorchards (CSOs) composed of vegetative
copies of selected genotypes. This article
also mention recommendation from theWorld Teak Conference 2013 held in
Bangkok including lessons learned andrecommendation from practices in Thailand.

eak is among the most important of
the economically valuable tree species
in Thailand which has been prioritized forconservation and management as a genetic
resource.
The Royal Forest Department (RFD) andthe Department of National Parks, Wildlife
and Plant Conservation (DNP) are the two
key government departments in charge ofconservation of genetic resources in Thailand
deals primarily with ex-situ and in-situ
conservation, respectively. Natural teak iswell preserved in protected areas including
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, nonhunting areas and forest parks covering an
area of 2.59 million ha (constituting 59% ofnatural teak forests) while 41% of natural
teak forests fall outside protected areas,
mainly in national reserved forest covering
an area of 595,000 million ha (3.7 millonrai). In 2006 the DNP reported new
discovery of teak at high elevations of up to
1,230 m which was reported earlier about
100-900 elevation. The species naturally
occurs with dense population namely the“Nawawintara Rachinee Teak covering
area of 9,600 ha (60,000 rai).

Introduction
he Royal Forest Department (RFD)
and the Department of National Parks,
Wildlife and Plant Conservation (DNP)
are the two key government departments incharge of conservation of genetic resourcesin Thailand of which the former focuses on
ex-situ conservation and managementin terms of economic use while the latter
deals primarily with in-situ conservation.
Teak is among the most important of theeconomically valuable tree species which
has been prioritized for conservationand management as a genetic resource(Changtragoon et al, 2012; Tangmitcharoen,
2009a; Tangmitcharoen, 2009b).

Ex-situ gene conservation was launched in1965 under the Teak Improvement Program
in cooperation with Danish International
Development Agency (DANIDA). Majorityof ex-situ conservation in the form of clonebanks established to preserve the genetic
traits of plus trees from across the country
in safe places and to facilitate managementof genetic materials for teak improvement
activities. Total of 509 clones were establishedduring 1965-2009 for clone bank purpose.
As for clonal test, total of 636 clones havebeen tested during 1988 – 2021 in the
North, Northeast, Central and South. For

Teak has large geographically natural
distribution area covering parts of India,
Myanmar, Thailand and Laos (Kaosa-ard,1981). It also grows in Indonesia (Java),
where presumably it was introduced
between in the beginning of the fourteenthand sixteenth centuries (Verhaegen et al.,245

TEAK IN MEKONG

2005). Recently, DNP (2021) reported
natural distribution of teak forest covering
an area of 1.457 million ha (9.1 million rai)in protected areas and outside protectedarea which is less than that reported earlier(Sumantakul & Sangkul, 1998; Kijkar,
2003). Natural teak is well preservedin Protected Areas including national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries, non-hunting areas andforest parks covering an area of 2.59
million ha (constituting 59% of natural teakforests) while 41% of natural teak forests
fall outside protected areas, mainly
in national reserved forest covering an areaof 595,000 million ha (3.7 million rai)
(Figure 20-1).

ard 1981). Kijkar (2003) reported that teakin Thailand occurred naturally in the north,stretching from 140 to 20031’N latitudes
and between 970 30 -1040-30’E longitudes,from about 100-900 m elevation. In 2006 the
DNP) reported teak at high elevations of up
to 1,230 m. This new discovery of teakat high elevation synchronizes with teak
distribution in India which report thatit grows well from sea level to an elevationof 1,200 meters (Katwal, 2003). The“Nawawintara Rachinee teak forest” hasbeen specially set up under teak genetic
conservation projects in the Pai basin
forests under a Royal Initiative. The
species naturally occurs with dense
population mainly in LumNamPai wildlife
sanctuary and West Mae-Pai national
reserved forests in Maehongsong province
covering area of 9,600 ha (60,000 rai)
(OCRP, 2017) (Photo 20-1). Nawawintara
Rachinee teak forest is well known for its
abundance of teak in the country.

The species occurs naturally in a wide range
of environmental conditions from dryplaces with only 500 mm annual rain
up to areas with 5,000 mm but optimum
conditions are in areas having between
1,200 and 2,500 mm annual rainfall (Kaosa-Figure 20-1 Teak distribution in natural forest in Thailand in protected area and outside(Source: DNP, 2021)

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 20-1 Nawawintara Rachinee teak forest in MaeHonSong province spread over 9,600 ha(Credits: Mr.Treepop Tipayasak & Dr.Saroj Wattanasuksakul)

In-situ Gene Conservation Actions of Teaklocated at 18°20' to 19°05'N; 99°45' to100°05'E which is partly in the proposed
Tampham Pha Thai National Park. The park,
located in Lampang Province, is a uniqueprotected area among the four biospherereserves in Thailand the core area of which
is dominated by purê stands of teakinterspersed with trees of mixed deciduous
forests. It is now recognized as gene banksof teak in Thailand. Six distinct types ofnatural forests exist in the area, namely,
Pine Forests, Hill Evergreen Forests,
Dry Evergreen Forests, Moist Evergreen
Forests, and Mixed Deciduous Forests. Partof Tampham Pha Thai National Park
extending over 29,440 há in Ngao district ofLampang province has been divided into
core zone (2680 há), buffer zone (20,060ha) and transition zone (6,700 ha). Hauk
Tak forest is recognized for its potential asa model site for studying sustainable forest
management and as a training ground forforestry managers and researchers (UNESCO,2019).

Thailand has set up a target to have 25% of
the country’s total land area as protectedáreas for in-situ conservation of everythingthat exists on these lands. At present,
protected areas declared by Royal Decrees
account for about 22.6% (11.68 million ha)of the country’s total land area (DNP,
2020). These protected areas are generally
well preserved because of stringent laws
and regulations in force over these lands.
Protected Areas with teak as an importantpart of the natural ecosystem covers
an area of 862,500 ha* and are locatedmainly in the northern parts of Thailand. Of
this about 490,000 há falls under different
national parks, 242,500 há under wildlife
sanctuaries, 25500 há under non-huntingáreas, 25000 há under forest parks. Another
80000 há are proposed to be included in thenational parks and wildlife sanctuaries
expected to be notified in the near future(DNP, 2021) (Photo 20-2).
Apart from these, there is a biospherereserve announced by UNESCO, namely
Hauy Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve (HTBR)

Note: * estimation of teak areas based on
survey point mutiply by 25 km2 (5x5 km).

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Photo 20-2 Teak distribution across different types of protected areas in Thailand(Source: DNP, 2021)

Photo 20-3 Hauy Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve in Lampang Province

Ex-situ Gene Conservation Actions of Teakorchards. Ex-situ gene conservation, as
a formal government effort, was launched
in 1965 under the Teak Improvement
Program in cooperation with DANIDA.

Ex-situ gene conservation of forest genentic
resources (FGR) in Thailand is mostly
carried out in the form of specific areaconservation, field collection of seeds, andthe establishment of field gene banks thatserve both as storage of diverse plant
species and as laboratories for research anddevelopment. These sites are located acrossthe country in the forms of (i) Plantation
stands in the of gene banks,

Plantation stands
Majority of ex-situ conservation in the formof clone banks established to preserve thegenetic traits of plus trees from acrossthe country in safe places and to facilitate
management of genetic materials for teakimprovement activities. Total of 509 clones
were established during 1965-2009 for clone
bank purpose in northern, western, andnortheast in Silvicultural Research Stations(SRS) at Phayao, Lampang, Phitsanulok,
Kanchnaburi, and Khonkaen, respectively.

gene conservation plots, botanical gardens,arboretums, etc. and (ii) Tree improvement
plots such as clone banks, progeny tests,
provenance trials, clonal tests and seed248

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 20-4 Clone bank at Ngao SRS with collection of 396 clones over 5.76 ha (Left) and Maegar
SRS with collection of 113 clones over 0.5 ha (Right)(Credits: Chumnun Piananurak & Somporn Khumchompoo)

from different sources under the sameenvironment. A total of 636 clones havebeen tested during 1988 – 2021 at four
regions of Thailand (North, Northeast,
Central and South) (Table 20-1, Photo 205) of which the most recent set has been
established in 2021 under the ITTO
Mekong Teak Project.

Clonal test
Clonal test is a field planting of many
vegetatively propagated plus trees serving
as germplasm collection in the form of tree
improvement plot. The test aims to evaluate
genotypic value of the selected clones forfurther development by planting plus trees

Table 20-1 Teak clonal test planted during 1988-2021 at four regions of Thailand
Set

Station name1

Ngao SRS

2

3

Province

RegionSpacing Planted
(m)
year

Number oftested clones

Lampang

North

3x3

1988

*

Ngao SRS

Lampang

North

4x4

2006

100

ThongPhaPoom
SRS

KanchanaburiCentral

2000

100

KhamPhangPhet KhamPhangPhet Central
SRS

2001

100

Songkhla SRSSongKhla

South

2003

100

ThungKwian

Lampang

North

2021

100

ThongPhaPoom
SRS

KanchanaburiCentral2021

Donglan SRS

Khonkaen

Northeast

2021

Total

4x4

500

Note: * clones of this set were used for the second set.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 20-5 Clonal test plots at Ngao SRS in the North (left) and Thongphapoom SRS in Central
Thailand (right)

years age at Lampang and Uttraradit plots,
respectively.
For international trials, Kjaer (2003) reported
that differences between provenance could beobserved, but the variation between Thai
provinces was not large compared to what has
been observed in other country tests. The testof provenances from India, Laos, Indonesia,
Africa, Thailand were established in 1974 at
Lampang with 3 provenances from India, 4from Thailand, 1 from Indonesia, and at
Khonkean with 9 provenances from India,
5 Indonesia, 6 Thailand, 4 Africa, and 1
landrace. Evaluation of the international
provenance test has been conducted
at 9, 14, 24 years age. General results of
Lampang plot showed that growth and stem
form of Thai and Indonesia provenances
showed better performance compared tothose from India. At the Khonkean plot,
however, trees from Thai provenances andLaos provenances showed superior stem
form but in terms of growth performance,
trees from Indonesia and India (semi-moist)
were better than those from Thailand, Laos,and India (moist) (RFD, 2013).

Provenance trials
Provenance trials is a special type ofplantation experiment that examines how
trees are adapted to different environmental
conditions through genetic adaptationor phenotypic plasticity. Provenance means“origin” and refers to a population of treesthat come from a particular location. It is
designed to identify regions and individual
provenances that have the greatest
productivity. To establish a provenance trial
series, seeds are collected throughout an
area of interest. This can be the entire
species range or an administrative region.
Then, the seedlings from all collection
locations are planted together in a systematic
experimental design on one, or preferably
multiple, sites. In Thailand, the provenancetrials started when the teak improvement
program was launch in 1965. Domestic
provenance trials were conducted during
1966-1969 (Hedegart, 1974; Kanchanaburangura,1976) and international provenances trials
during 1972-1974. (RFD, 2013).
For domestic trials, 32 different seed sourceswere collected for planting at six sites in
Lampang, Phayao, Uttraradit, Chiangrai,
Nakhonratchsima, and Chantaburi provincesin north, northeast and eastern regions ofThailand. Of these the plots at Chiangrai andNakhonratchasima have been damaged byforest fires. Chiangrai provenance (S34) and
Lampang provenance (S88) have shown thebest performance in terms of height at 8

Progeny test
Progeny test is another form of germplasm
collection by accumulating germplasm
from different parents to compare the off
springs. Half-sib and full-sib progeny trials
were planted during 2008-2011 covering an
area of 27.3 ha (171 rai) at four regions ofThailand (Table 20-2). The first promising250

TEAK IN MEKONG

half-sib progeny trials were planted in 2011
with 295 families from 180 plus trees.
Plus trees were collected from Phayao,
Lampang, Khonkaen, from seed orchard of
Maegar SRS, breeding orchard Ngao SRS,

and seed orchard in Donglan, respectively.
As for full-sib, the progenies of the year
2008 and 2010 were hand-controlledpollinated during the year 2005 and 2008,
respectively.

Table 20-2 Progeny test conducted during 2008-2011
Type ofprogeny
Full-sib

Planting
year
A.C.

B.E.

2551 2008

No offamily50

Station nameArea

Provinceharai

Khonkaen

2.88

18

Phitsanulok

2.88

18

Kanchanaburi

2.88

18

Donglan SRS

Khonkaen

1.92

12Phitsanulok SRS

Phitsanulok

1.92

12

Central SR Center

Kanchanaburi

1.92

12

Inthakin SRS

Chiangmai

4.3

27

Donglan SRS

Khonkaen

4.3

27

Bantakhun

Surathani

4.3

27

27.3

171

Donglan SRS
Phitsanulok SRSThongphapoom

Full-sib

Half-sib2553 2010

2554 2011

12

295

Total

There are two types of seed orchards, clonal
seed orchard (CSO) and seedling seedorchard (SSO) based on the planting stock
used. The majority of seed orchards inThailand are CSOs composed of vegetative
copies of selected genotypes. The first CSO
was established in 1965 at Maegar seedorchard in the Phayao province. Among theorchards established by the RFD and FIO
during 1965-1988 the Donglan SRS (Photo20-6) has the biggest area (456 ha) followedby Maegae SRS (202 ha) (Table 20-3).

Seed Orchard
Seed orchard is an intensive plantation oftrees selected specifically for the mass
production of genetically improved seeds
and, sometimes, for combining with progeny
testing, too. It is a link between breeding
programs and plantation establishment.
They are designed and managed to produce
seeds of superior genetic quality comparedto those obtained from seed production
areas, seed stands, or unimproved stands.
For the purpose of ex-situ gene conservation,
seed orchards are the largest tree improvement
plots in Thailand covering an area of 978 ha.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Table 20-3 Areas of teak seed orchards in Thailand
Organization

Year

Royal Forest Department (RFD)

Ha

Rai

785.444,909

Mae Gar Silvicultural Research Station

1965

202.24

1,264

Thongphapoom Silvicultural Research Station

1987

32.00

200

Donglan Silvicultural Research Station

1972

456.002,850

Khao Soi Dao Silvicultural Research Station

1969

23.20

145

Ngao Silvicultural Research Station

1987

8.00

50

Chaingrai Silvicultural Research Station

1988

64.00

400

Forest Industry organization (FIO)

193.12

1,207

Total

978.56

6,116

Photo 20-6 Seed orchards at Donglan SRS in Khonkaen Province (left)
and at Mae gar SRS in Phayao province (right)

Genetic Conservation in the World Teak
Conference 2013

consideration for conservation of theexisting gene pool,(2) There is a need to develop appropriate
biotechnology tools that can support
intensive tree breeding program.
(3) Genetic conservation programs should be
developed as an integral part of tree
improvement and plantation management.

The World Teak Conference held in
Bangkok in 2013 recommended that
(1) Strategies of genetic improvement ofteak should be formulated with greater252

TEAK IN MEKONG(4) Delineation of provenance zones, andcontrolled harvest in seed production
areas established in these zones, may
be carried out as a priority.
(5) A re-evaluation of clone archives andexisting clonal seed orchards using toolsof molecular biology is recommended
and the origin of land races investigated
and their diversity assessed.
(6) Genetic materials and genetic exchange
should be promoted to maximize
production of high quality teak acrossthe world.
(7) Innovative markets for shorter rotation
teak crops may be explored to makethis species more attractive to small
growers.
(8) Increase new candidate trees and hybrid
clones for selection for more widely
uses in commercial scale and adapted
to several site condition.
(9) Improved genetic materials of teakfrom tree improvement program
should be promoted for wider usage(Tangmitcharoen, 2013).

Updated breeding strategy
Direction and timeline of long-term breeding
programs should be clearly described andupdated as more clones, more tests, and more
techniques are added to the improvement
program.
Promote the use of improved genetic
material
Extension of improve genetic materials totree farmers is essential for larger andquicker returns from investments made in
the teak improvement program. Productionof improved quality seeds and improved
clones should be promoted to meet demandof quality seedlings and to meet standard ofwood quality in national and international
markets.

Conclusion
Teak genetic resources, including the recent
discovery of teak at high altitude atNawawintara Rachinee teak forests, havebeen well conserved in Thailand throughin-situ and ex-situ gene conservation.
Ex- situ is the key measures of teak genetic
resources management in Thailand. Several
forms involved with tree improvement plots
such as clone bank, provenance trials,
progeny test, and seed orchard have been
established.

Lessons Learned and Recommendations
Over the six decades of the teak improvement
program in Thailand a number of lessons havebeen learned which are summarized below:
Narow genetic base
From the beginning it became obvious thatnarow genetic base for field testing (selecting
Plus tree from limited provenances) brings
ineffective results. This led to covering thewhole range of natural teak distribution
across the country for selecting Plus trees.

WTC 2013 has generated several valuableideas for the genetic conservation of teaksuch as formulating strategy of genetic
improvement, enhancing cooperation
among national and international agencies,and developing biotechnology tools among
others. Some of these recommendations
have already been implemented in Thailand
including the initiation of genomic selection
in cooperation with Japan International
Research Centre for Agricultural Sciences(JIRCAS) recently.

Impropered propagation techniques
Impropered propagation techniques are
essential for accuracy of the clonal testing.
The technique of rooted cutting wasdeveloped in place of budding technique to
avoid incompatibility and wrong assessmentof the rooting stock instead of the target clone.

253

TEAK IN MEKONG

References

International Conference on Quality
Timber Products of Teak from Sustainable
Forest Management, pp. 68-72. 2nd-5th
December 2003, Peechi, India.

Changtragoon, S., Ongprasert, P.,
Tangmitcharoen, S., Diloksampan, S.,
Luangviriyasaeng, V., Sornsathapornkul,
P. & Pattanakiat, S. (2012). Country
Report on Forest Genetic Resources ofThailand. Report to FAO for SoW-FGR by
Department of National Parks, Wildlife
and Plant Conservation in collaboration
with Royal Forest Department, Kasetsart
University, and Mahidol University,
Bangkok, Thailand.

Kjaer D E. 2003. Genetic aspects ofquality teakwood plantations. In:
Proceeding of the International
Conference on Quality Timber Products ofTeak from Sustainable Forest
Management, pp/ 311-320. 2nd-5th
December 2003, Peechi, India.
OCRP. (Office of the special
commission to coordinate projects
arising from the royal initiative Project)(2017). Follow-up report on teak genetic
conservation projects and improving thequality of life of people in the pai basin
forests due to the Royal Initiative.
http://www.rdpb.go.th, (accessed 31
August 2021).

DNP. (Department of National Parks
Wildlife and Plant Conservation). (2020).
Increase forest area, fulfilling life, returnwildlife to nature, Bangkok, Thailand.
http://portal.dnp.go.th/Content/PR?content
Id=22409 (accessed 24 August 2021).
DNP. (Department of National Parks
Wildlife and Plant Conservation) (2021).
Repot on Status of natural teak forest in
Thailand during 2006-2020. Forest
Inventory and Assessment Division Forest
and Plant Conservation Research Office
DNP., Bangkok.

RFD. (Royal Forest Departemnt). (2013).
Thai teak knowledge. Forest Research andDevelopment Bureau RFD., Bangkok,
Thailand. (in Thai).
Sumantakul, V. & Sangkul, S. (1998).
Teak Resources in Thailand. In Teak for
the Future: Proceedings of the Second
Regional Seminar on Teak, pp. 211-220.
FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific (FAO), Bangkok, Thailand.

Hedegart, T. (1974). The teakimprovement Centre: Ten years after
initiation. The Vanasarn, 32(4), 342-356.
Kanchanaburangura, C. (1976). Teak
(Tectona grandis L.) Seedlings andprovenance variation. MSc. thesis,
Australian National University, Canberra,
Australia.

Tangmitcharoen, S. (2009a). Thailand
consultative workshop on forest genetic
resources conservation. In Report on
National Consultative Workshops of Seven
Southeast Asian Countries. Forest Genetic
Resources Conservation and Management,
pp. 27-156. The Asia Pacific Forest
Genetic Resources Programme(APFORGEN), Malaysia.

Kaosa-ard, A. (1981). Teak (Tectona
grandis L.f.) it’s natural distribution andrelated factors. Natural History Bulletin of
the Siam Society, 29, 55-74.
Katwal, R. P. S. (2003). Teak in India:
Status, prospects and perspectives. In
Proceeding of the International
Conference on Quality Timber Products ofTeak from Sustainable Forest
Management, pp/ 1-18. 2nd-5th December
2003, Peechi, India.

Tangmitcharoen, S. (2009b). Status of theconservation and management of forest
genetic resources in Thailand. In Reporton Forest Genetic Resources Conservationand Management: Status in Seven Southand Southeast Asian Countries, pp. 27156. The Asia Pacific Forest Genetic
Resources Programme (APFORGEN),
Malaysia.

Kijkar, S. (2003) Current status of teak inThailand. In: Proceeding of the254

TEAK IN MEKONG

Tangmitcharoen, S. (2013). Summaryfrom the world teak conference on genetic,
silviculture and utilization. In Proceedingof Annual Meeting on the Year 2013
Entitled “Production and Forest Research
Towards Sustainable Management, pp.
349-359. 5th-9th August 2021, Royal Forest
Departemnt (RFD), Bangkok, Thailand.

(2019). Hauy Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve,
Thailand. https://en.unesco.org/biosphere/
aspac/hauy-tak-teak (accessed 23 August2021).
Verhaegen, D., Ofori, D., Fofana, I.,
Poitel, M. & Vaillant, A. (2005).
Development and characterization of
microsatellite markers in Tectona grandis(Linn. f.). Molecular Ecology, 5, 945-947.

UNESCO (United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization)

255

TEAK IN MEKONG

Chapter 21: Progress in Teak Improvement Program in
Thailand
Chumnun Piananurak

Abstract

Introduction

eak genetic improvement in Thailand
began in 1965 under a bilateralagreement between Thailand and Danish
governments. Plus tree selection is thefirst and most important step in genetic
improvement program. Guidelines forselecting and criteria for selection were
set up based on of four aspects of growth,stem form, wood quality, and the healthof the tree and a total of 636 Plus trees wereselected. Of these 509 Plus trees wereplanted in 5 clone banks across the country.
Since in selecting Plus trees only phenotype
is evaluated clonal tests are needed
to evaluate genotypic characteristics.
Three sets of clonal test were conducted,
the first one using budding techniques for
propagation for 100 clones and tested at
one site. Second set of clonal test was
conducted using rooted cuttings forvegetative propagation for 400 clones at 4
sites. The last set of 100 clones has recently
been established as part of the ITTOMekong Teak project in 2021. For
improved teak seeds Clonal Seed Orchards
have been set up using 256 Plus trees.

hailand started its teak improvement
program under a bilateral agreement
between Thailand and Danish governments
in January 1965. A teak improvement
center, known as Ngao silviculturalresearch station, has been established in the
Ngao District in Lampang Province in the
Northern part of the country to run teakimprovement program under this project.
At the beginning of the project some Danish
experts were assigned to work closely withThai researchers. They helped set up theteak improvement program for Thailand as
shown in the flow chart (Figure 21-1) which
is used as a step wise guidance for teakimprovement in the country. The progressof each step is reported here in this article.

Progeny tests using full-sib progeny andhalf-sib progeny were employed to identify
trees of better genetic quality. These highquality teak seeds are now available for use
by farmers for producing high quality teaktimber.

256

TEAK IN MEKONG

Rogue
Rouge

Genetic resources

plus tree selection

Seed production area

Budding and cutting

Budding and cutting

breeding and seed orchard

Clone bankbuds

Seed orchard

Budding and cutting

rather good quality seeds

Clonal test
seedlings

high quality seeds
Tissue culture & cutting

Good clones forclonal plantation

progeny test
Next generation improved

Figure 21-1 Teak improvement program in Thailand (Kaosa-ard & Chanpaisaeng, 1992)

Plus Tree Selection

3. Rotation is shortened because the trees
grow faster, resulting in a faster return on
investment.

Plus tree selection is the most important
step. If the selection is wrong, it will ruin
the whole program so the plus tree must be
intensively selected. The selection of theplus tree is aimed at getting the highest
possible genetic gains in quickest possible
time and at least cost while maintaining awide enough genetic base to ensure that thegenetic gains will continue to increase overgenerations.

4. Reduces investment in planting as trees
can be planted at wider spacing.
5. This makes investments in consequenceindustries less cost.
6. Get better wood quality such as highdensity and straight wood grain etc.
Forest breeders should choose only themost important characteristics in selectionof plus trees, namely, high economic values
and positive correlation with other traits.
Characteristics that are commonly taken into
consideration when choosing a plus tree aregood growth, round stems, branches thatprune naturally and are medium to small
compared to the stems in proportion andshape, good resistance to diseases andinsects, resistant to drought conditions,resistant to cold conditions, late flowering,
good wood quality. Sumantakul (1999) has
set up guidelines for selecting Plus trees asfollows:

In selecting mother trees for breeding, thesame principle is used to select trees withwanted characteristics. The selected trees
are then used as parents in breeding andproduction of good quality seeds based on
the hypothesis that parents with good
genetic traits will always pass good traits totheir offspring.
Some important advantages of using selectedplus trees in the forest plantation work.
1. Trees in plantation have a good shape,straight stems with few knots, which makethe cost of logging for hauling andtransporting cheaper.

1. Choose a forest stand or a forest
plantation that consists of trees that are
naturally tall and well grown, most tree
trunks are round and straight, branches are

2. Lowered losses during processing andmanufacture.

257

TEAK IN MEKONG

naturally pruning and perpendicular ornearly perpendicular angles to the trunk. It
may be called a Plus stand.

The plus tree selection of teak is done in dry
season when the forest is easier to walkthrough and it is clearer to look at the treeform. Other reason is that in dry season thebuds start to sprout which is the mostsuitable stage to be grafted. It is difficultand costly to go to the forest to get to theplus trees again and again and, therefore,
the branches of Plus trees must be collectedduring Plus tree selection process itself andtaken back for propagation to conserve their
genetic materials. Clone number, called V
number, are given during selection itself foreach tree, information are recorded in
Plus tree record form and photograph aretaken. While taking photograph V number
is placed on a sign board on the tree andgenetic materials taken from each plus tree
is labeled accordingly.

2. The Plus stand should be located in anarea with conditions similar to the area that
future forest plantation will be planted.
3. Do not choose from plantations that use
seeds from sources that are not well adapted
to the environment where plantations are to
be raised in future.
4. Selection should be from a tree stand thatis largely of the same species.
5. The selected trees stand should not havebeen logged before and forest plantationthat has been thinned should not be selected
except for mechanical thinning.
6. The size of the plus stand is not limited,
but it must contain enough candidate trees
and comparison trees.

Clone Bank
Up to now a total 636 Teak Plus trees havebeen identified and numbered in Thailand
under the teak improvement program. The
Plus trees are scattered in areas which aremostly difficult to access, such as deep
forests, on mountains with no road access.
Each plus tree is far away from each other.
After the selection program is over, it isdifficult and inconvenient to return to do
seed or scion collection. In addition, mostof the selected trees are good quality and,
therefore, specially prone to illegal fellingcausing the loss of selected trees. So it iswiser to take genetic material of plus trees
to plant at a safe place that called “Clone
Bank” which serve as multiplication garden
as well.

7. Only one mother should be chosen if thegroup is small. This is to avoid inbreedingof the selected mother trees.
In Thailand, the criteria for selection consistof four aspects. First is growth which isdiameter at breast high, and heightespecially commercial height. In natural
stand, the set standard is at least 15 meter
commercial height but in plantations it may
be shorter. Second is stem form which areclear bole, small branches, straight axis andlow buttress. Third is wood quality forwhich it would be good to check woodcolor and density by using wood borer andpylodyne. Wood grain is usually indicatedby bark pattern with straight strip barkpattern indicating straight wood grain
inside. If it is spiral bark the wood grain will
be twisted. The last is health of the tree.
Around the candidate tree it must be
checked that there is no sign of pest anddisease. Sumantakul (1999) suggested using
a scoring method and set up standard guideline to select plus tree using tree selection
form in which information of each plus tree
is recorded.

Objectives of clone bank.
The establishing a clone bank of teak plus
trees has the following objectives:
1. To conserve Plus tree genetic material insafe places.
2. To conserve teak Plus trees genetic
material from around the world to be usedas genetic resource whenever needed. The
genetic resource can be used for further
improvement program such as in seed258

TEAK IN MEKONG

orchard, clonal test, or even planting a forest
plantation.

2. Planting seedlings in rows, one row for
one clone and each row contains about 10
seedlings (ramet). Lay out of clone planting
should follow sequence number for ease in
future management. Spacing of 2x2 meters
is convenient for operational reasons.

3. To act as multiplication garden wherebranches of Plus tree can be taken for
propagation and used for further improvement
program avoiding the need to go back to theforest for Plus tree genetic material.

3. It is important to emphasize that in frontof each row, a ferroconcrete post is buriedleaving about 50 cm. above ground and oneach such post the V no. of the Plus tree iscarved. Wooden posts are not suitable as
they tend to degrade early.

4. To copy all genetic traits of plus trees byusing vegetative propagation.
5. To conserve not only teak plus trees but
also some that have a special history, suchas a biggest teak in the world, or teak that is
resistant to insects or pests.

4. Maintenance of the garden by watering,weeding, fertilizing is carried out as inordinary plantation. In the case of budding
technique for propagation, paint (preferably
red or bright) is used to mark the part of thetrunk where stock and scion are joined.
Regular monitoring is done and shoots thatsprout below the joint are removed. This
activity must be carried out every year.

6. To facilitate the management of selected
Plus trees.
Establishment and management of clonebank
Planting materials are from vegetative
propagation like budding or cutting. Spacing
2x2 m2 is suitable with same clone plantedin the one row. Usually, 10 propagates per
clone are planted.

5. Trim the canopy to make the stems
shorter and produce more branches. This is
for the convenience of collecting branches
and maintaining juvenility of the bud,which improves the ability of vegetative
propagation. This needs to be carried out atleast once a year.

1. The branches taken from plus tree arepropagated by budding in nursery in orderto rejuvenate the materials. The rejuvenile
shoots are then propagated by rooted cutting.

Table 21-1 Information about Clone Banks in Thailand
No.

#

Location#

Area (ha.)

No. of clone*

Established year

1.

Ngao SRS

5.76

396

1965-20192.

Maegar SRS

0.5

113

2002-2003

3.

Phitsanulok SRS

4.00

438

2009

4.

Donglan SRS

4.00

438

2009

5.

Thongphapoom
SRS

4.00

438

2009

SRS stand for Silvicultural Research Station *Same clones were planted at many sites.

Information on the clone banks is presented
in Table 21-1 above. The total number ofclone in clone bank is 509 clones. All the636 Plus trees are not represented in theclone banks as some plus trees werediscarded during reselection or died during
propagation.
Photo 21-1 illustrates concrete post in frontof every plant row indicating clone number
259

TEAK IN MEKONG

and management by pruning every year.
Trees in the clone bank are bushy because
they are cut every year. There are 5 clonebanks in Thailand as shows in Table 21-1.
The original clone banks were planted in
Ngao SRS and Maegar SRS in the north ofthe country. In 2009 three more clone banks
were established at Phitsanulok SRS,
Donglan SRS, and Thong phapoom SRS in
different parts of the country to reduce therisk of loss of precious genetic material.

Photo 21-1 Clone bank at Mae gar SRS

Clone Test

to evaluate genotype and environment
interaction.

The clonal test is one of the important tasksof teak improvement program. The test aims
to evaluate the genotypic value of the Plus
trees for breeding and further propagation.
When we select Plus trees we can see only
phenotypic traits of the trees. Phenotype is theobservable physical characteristic of a tree
determined by the genotype interacting withthe environment in which it is grown. In
clonal test the objective is to evaluate
genotypic value of Plus trees by planting inthe same environment. Thus the comparative
phenotype across Plus trees observed inclonal test is controlled by genetics alone. We
also evaluate genotype and environment
interaction on plus trees by testing at manysites. Plantlets from different Plus trees aretaken through vegetative propagation andthen planted together for testing in the same
area. The test can be conducted in many sites

Objectives of teak clonal testing
1. To select the best individual for further
improvement step or to build a seed orchardor clonal plantation.
2. To assess the genotypic value of existing
Plus trees or clones to be used as indicatorsfor re-selection the Plus trees and performgenetic thinning primarily in the teak seedorchard.
3. To assess broad-sense heritability and to
study genetic correlation between charactersof teak from the tested clones.
4. To assess the genotype and environment
interaction of the existing plus tree orclones in order to be used as an indicator forthe selection of suitable clones for planting
teak clonal plantation, either locally or in
multiple sites.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

How to conduct teak clonal test

Teak clonal test in Thailand

The plantlets used in the test must be
asexually propagated. A suitable method is
the rooted cuttings although tissue culture ispossible but is not preferred because it ismore expensive. The test area must be locatedin at least 3 different sites in order to explore
the genetic and environmental interactions.
Planting in randomized complete block
design consists of 100 treatments (Plustrees), 3 sites with each site having 4
replications and each replication consistingof 3 plants. Plus trees from the same source
are not placed close to each other because if
the experimental plot is later modified to aclonal seed orchard, Plus trees from thesame source will spread throughout theplot. The total number of trees planted ineach site in Thailand is 1,200 trees, using a
spacing of 4 x 4 m, with the buffer zone wasplanted with 2 rows of teak trees surrounding
the plot.

The timeline of teak clonal test in Thailand
can be summarized as shown in Figure 21-2.
From the timeline and information shown,
the test can be divided into 3 sets.
First clonal test was planted in 1988 using
budding as the propagation technique.
Testing was conducted at Ngao SRS. The
treatment was 100 clones with 6 replicationsof 2 trees plot. Planting spacing was 3x3 m.
Some superior clones from this test wereused for clonal propagation, for plantationand for selecting mating-pairs in full-sib
progeny test. There are controversies about
budding technique used for this test since
the root system does not belong to the tested
clone. Root system plays an important rolein the tree growth and, therefore, growth of
the tested trees is not affected solely of theclones themselves.
Second set of clonal test was done using
rooted cutting of teak once the practice
had been practiced and well documented(Pianhanurak et al., 1996). It was establishedat 4 sites at Thong Pha Poom SRS, Kham
Phang Phet SRS, Song Khla SRS and Ngao
SRS. Each site has 4 sub-sets planted in 2000,
2001, 2003 and 2006 except Ngao SRS that has
only 1 sub-set planted in 2005. Propagation
technique used was budding for rejuvenationfrom which shoots were taken for rooted
cutting. Each sub-set testing plans are thesame except for testing different clones. The
treatment was 100 clones with 4 replicationsof 3 line plot. Planting spacing was 4x4 m.
Planting design of every set is CRBD.

After the test plot has been planted, checkthe survival percentage during the first
three months and replant once every month.
Maintenance of the plots involves weeding
twice a year, rigorous fire protection andforest fire prevention. Measurements ofgrowth in diameter and height are recorded
every year. Final evaluation is performed at
the age of 20 by measuring growth andshape which consists of straightness ofthe trunk, rupture of the trunk, branching
characteristics, size of branches, flowering,as well as the health traits including
survival and stem damage.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

2001

2003

2006

Figure 21-2 Teak clonal test timeline and the testing information

The 2000 test plots at 3 testing sites, namely,
Kanchanaburi, Songkhla and Kamphangphet
were evaluated twice at 5 and 10 year age(Anon, 2013). One testing site could not be
evaluated due to fire damage. The first resultat 5 years old showed that height and DBH oftested clones were statistically significantly
different at different sites establishing theeffect of interactions between site and clone
on growth of plants. The second results at
10 years age confirmed the preceding
evaluation by showing the same results.
There were only 2 stable clones that grewwell at all sites. The 5 best clones in each sitewere separately selected to be the suitableclones for promotion among farmers.

Another set, sponsored by the ITTO Teakin Mekong Project, was planted in 3 sites
at Thung Kwian, Krengkawia plantations
and Donglan SRS in 2021. Propagation
technique used was budding for rejuvenate
materials followed by taking the shoots forrooted cutting. The tested clones consist of
the clones which have not been tested in thesecond set in addition to 10 superior clones
selected in the 2000 test. The treatment was
100 clones with 4 replications of 3 line plot.
Planting spacing was 4x4 m. Planting
design of every set is also CRBD. The
locations of clonal tested sites are shown in
Figure 21-3.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 21-3 Locations of 3 sets of clonal tests of teak plus trees

Seed Orchard and Breeding Orchard

seed orchards have been established forteak in Thailand.

Establishing a seed orchard is a continuation
step from the selection of Plus trees bybringing the selected father and mother plants
to an orchard to produce good seeds. A seedorchard is defined as an area where seeds are
mass-produced to increase the genetic quality
as quickly and inexpensively as possible(Zobel et al., 1958). It is a plantation of trees
with the requisite genetic characteristics
planted at a distance from natural or planted
forests of the same species. It is managed toachieve high and consistent seed yields thatare easy to harvest.

Characteristics of teak seed orchard
The teak seed orchard must have thefollowing characteristics (Khaosa-ard, 1983):
1) Seedlings used in clonal seed orchard
must be selected clones propagated byasexual method.
2) A seed orchard must have a layout map
showing the number of clones planted aswell as their locations in the orchard.
3) In a seed orchard the plant spacing
should be more compared to normal forest
plantation to allow the trees planted to fully
expand their canopies to maximize seedyield. For teak, the spacing used isgenerally 10 x 10 meters.

Seed orchards can generally be divided into
two types: clonal seed orchards andseedling seed orchard (Zobel et al., 1958).
A clonal seed orchard is a seed orchard
created by using plantlets from asexual
propagation such as budding, cutting or
grafting from selected plus trees. Trees in
the orchard inherit all the genetic traits ofthe mother trees. Each seed orchard would
not be less than 50 clones and planted byrandom planting positions (Sumantakul, 1999).
A seedling seed orchard is a seed orchard
created by using seedlings collected from theselected Plus trees. At present only clonal4) A teak seed orchard should be at least 1
to 2 km away from natural teak forest andteak plantations to prevent cross breedingby pollen from outside the orchard.
5) Establishing a seed orchard requires
special care compared to a general forest
plantation. Fertilizers may be applied toaccelerate tree maturity to hasten fruiting aswell as increase seed yield. Weeds should
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TEAK IN MEKONG

be cleared to make it easier to collect seeds,
insect and disease control measures should
be undertaken.

orchard management, seed production, seed
quality, and soil properties of clonal seedorchards (CSO) in Thailand and reported in
Piananurak (1995) is presented in Table 212. There are 22 CSOs in Thailand hosting a
total of 256 clones. Six of these CSOs areunder the administration of Royal Forest
Department while the rest fall under thecontrol of the Forest Industry Organization
where no seed collection is being done atpresent.

6) In Thailand collecting of seeds in seedorchard is done by climbing up and collectingfrom individual trees. Seed collection isusually done in February before seed fall.
Seed extraction and cleaning are carried out
manually by beating, sieving and grading.
Data collected on location, topography,
meteorology, planting method, tree growth,
Table 21-2 Information of CSO in Thailand
Sr.

Name of CSO

Area
(ha.)

No. ofclone

Seed
Established year
productivity(Kg/yr)1.

Mae Gar SRS

175

193

950

1965

2.

Lansang SRS

127

44

-

1965 (canceled due tolow viability)

3.

Khaosoidown SRS

372

88

1,000

1969

4.

Donglan SRS

408

51

600

1972

5.

Maetha SRS

528

40

0

1974 (later changed to
SPA)

6.

Chiang Rai SRS

8

100

7.

Maemy Plantation

7

22

*

1967

8.

Khaokrayang FIO
Plantation

9.6

34

*

1967

9.

Thungkwian FIO
Plantation

12.8

7

*

1968

10.

Maejang FIO
Plantation

8

15

*

1968

11.

Maemoh FIO
Plantation

7.68

16

*

1969

264

1987

TEAK IN MEKONG

Sr.

Name of CSO

Area
(ha.)

No. ofclone

Seed
Established year
productivity(Kg/yr)

12.

KhunMaekummee
FIO Plantation

8

12

*

1969

13.

Maehorphra FIO
Plantation

17.6

13

*

1971

14.

Maesaikum FIO
Plantation

16.8

41

*

1971

15.

Maelee FIO Plantation

14.4

65

*

1972

16.

Ban Danlanhoi FIO
Plantation

16

26

*

1974

17.

Maejam FIO
Plantation

2.88

26

*

1975

18.

Maelamao FIO
Plantation

19.2

16

*

1975

19.

Wangchin FIO
Plantation

16

41

*

1977

20.

Maesroi FIO
Plantation

16

9

*

1978

21.

Thapla FIO Plantation

12.8

30

*

1978

22.

Thai Plywood Co.
Plantation

6.4

25

*

1985

*No seed collection
Breeding orchard
Breeding orchards are established for thecreation of new cultivars for offspring
selection along with the establishment of aclonal test for re-selection of mother plants.
The objectives of breeding orchards are as
follows:

2. To produce seeds for raising plantations
for testing or for breeding control andcollecting seeds for testing.
According to the teak breeding strategy ofthe project, breeding operations are divided
into 5 groups or sub-lines of 100 clones
each, with a total of 500 clones for breeding
purposes. The sub-lines will used to createa breeding orchard. Genetic thinning of
seed-breeding orchards is performed twicefor 50 % of the existing mates using the

1. To be used for random mating withineach parent group (sub-populations) andcreate new breeds of teak in the coming
generations.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

results of clonal test and of breed testing
through open-pollinated progeny test as
shown in Table 21-3.
Table 21-3 Evaluation and genetic thinning plans of teak breeding orchard in each plot
(block)Age(years)number ofclonesnumber ofplants/rai

Area/plantSpacing(m2)(approximately) m2

1

100

32

50

7.1 x 7.1

12

50

16

100

10.0 x 10.0

28

25

8

200

14.1 x 14.1

Genetic thinning at 12 years (50%) was based on the results of a clonal test. Genetic thinningat 28 years (50%) using the results of a progeny test of 50 mothers (clones/families)
Accomplishment in establishment ofbreeding orchardwhich pollination is controlled and both ofparents are known.

Teak breeding orchards were set up in 5 areas
in 1988 of which only 4 areas (consisting ofsix plots) survive today at Ngao SRS, Mae
Gar SRS (2 plots), Khao Soi Dao SRS andDong Lan SRS (2 plots). Planting design forbreeding orchards uses a Randomized
Complete Block Design (RCB) with each test
plot consisting of 100 clones in 6 blocks andin each block planting was done at a spacingof 7 x 7 meters (total 600 plants per garden).

Half-sib progeny test conducted in
Thailand.
Results of half-sib progeny trials conducted
earlier in Thailand were not very promising
primarily due to limited number of plus
trees most of which were from the same
provenance. Damage to the trees caused byforest fires further made the evaluation
impossible.
These limitations were addressed appropriately
and half-sib progeny tests were conductedagain. Planting material for the test wereseeds of 295 families from 180 Plus trees
collected from CSOs at Maegar SRS,
Donglan SRS and breeding orchard at Ngao
SRS. Seeds of the same Plus tree number
but collected from different CSOs wereconsidered as different families. In addition,
tissue culture plantlets from 3 plus trees,and seedlings from 2 plus trees were also
used as planting material for these trials.
Planting was done at 4 sites in the
beginning, but the Lansang SRS site wasdiscarded subsequently due to poor survival
owning to prolonged drought. Only 3 sites
at Intakhin SRS in Chiang Mai, Donglan
SRS in northeastern, and Bantakhun SRS insouthern were left from where experimental
data was collected. The evaluation is yet tobe completed.

Progeny Test
While selecting Plus trees only externallyobservable characteristics, or phenotype
traits, are used and the genetic value of thetree, and how much of the good traits canbe passed on to offspring, are unknown.
Assessment of the genetic value of themother tree can be done through theprogeny test. It is a test to compare theoffspring of different parents. This test is
used backwards for reselection of themother or parents. Once the best parents are
identified forward selection is carried out
by choosing the best individuals out of thetest. The best individuals are then madeavailable to the farmers for raising clonal
plantations. There are two types of theprogeny test. One is half-sib, or open
progeny test, with pollination occurring due
to wind or insects and with only mother side
known. The other is full-sib progeny test
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TEAK IN MEKONG

b

a

c

Photo 21-3 Performance of 8 year-old teak trees in half-sib progeny test plots ata) Bantakhun SRS, b) Donglan SRS, and c) Inthakhin SRS

parent. From this test not only Genetic
Combining Ability (GCA) and additive
genetic variance of the parent but also SpecificCombining Ability (SCA) can be calculated.
Better parent are the parent with higher ability
to transfer desired characteristics to theiroffspring. The parent will then be selected infurther improvement program. At the sametime some progenies that perform better thanothers in the trial could be selected andvegetative propagated for clonal plantation
with higher genetic value.

Information and outcome expected fromthis test are as follows.
Quantitative Inheritance: Population
parameters that could be evaluated are
Mean, Variance, Standard deviation of the
Population, Phenotypic value, and Genetic
value.
Heritability:
Genetic gain.

Broad-sense

heritability,

Genetic Combining Ability (GCA): From
this value, the genetic worth or breedingvalue of the mother could be evaluated.

Control pollination -Clonal Planting Materials: Forward
selection of individual elite trees from thetest plots could be done for promoting
clonal plantation.

Control pollination is pollinating the female
flowers of a tree with pollen from a known
source, usually one specific tree. Usually
the flowers are protected from undesirable
pollen by covering them with a pollen-tightcloth or paper bag before they are receptive
and adding known-source pollen at receptivity.

Seedling Seed Orchard (SSO). After alldata collection, the testing plots could be
converted to SSO.

Full-sib progeny test in Thailand.

Full-sib progeny test

Two sets of full-sib progeny wereconducted. First set was conducted in 2006
with full diallel mating design of 5x5 pairs
with reciprocal. One side parent was of

Full-sib progeny test is the test which bothof parents are known by performing control
pollination. The test aims to use characteristicof progeny to evaluate breeding value of their
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Lampang origin while the other was fromoutside Lampang (Chiang Mai and Maehongsorn
Provinces). A total of 50 families fromcontrolled crosses and 4 from open pollinatedfor comparison were planted in 2007 at 4
different sites with contrasting soil andclimatic characteristics. The experiment was
set up in a randomized complete block
design with 4 replications of 3x3 plants eachfamily at spacing 4x4 meter. But only
two sites at Phitsanulok SRS, Phitsanulok
Province and Dong Lan SRS, Khon Kaen
Province could be used to obtain growthdata. (Wattanasuksakul et al., 2013). First
evaluation was reported at 5 years age andpresented at the world teak conference heldin Bagkok. It was concluded that growth ofprogenies was significantly affected by sites
and Donglan proved a better site thanPhitsanulok. There were significant maleand female interaction effects on growth ofteak progenies planted at Donglan when
Plus trees from Lampang were female.
Reciprocal effects occurred in one case atPhitsanulok site. Significant effect on DBH
growth of progenies was noticed when Plus
trees from outside Lampang were male but
none while being female. At 5 year old teakprogenies were too young to evaluate theirparents in term of heritability, GCA, andSCA (Wattanasuksakul et al., 2013). Backward
reselection is now under the process of
calculation and evaluation. Improved genetic
material has already been made available tothe farmers.

each family at spacing 4x4 meters. The
evaluation is yet to be completed.
Lessons Learned and Recommendations
1. Breeding of mother trees regardless of
their sources or cross breeding a closely
related tree may result in a breed withinferior characteristics. Therefore, before
breeding, it is necessary to examine parent's
history thoroughly to avoid such problems.
2. For half-sib progeny test when manymother trees are tested, forward selection
may be done by thinning bad families andkeeping desired families to create second
generation seedling seed orchard (SSO).
When creating the SSO by this technique, it
has to be ensured that no tree of the samefamily stand next to each other which must
be planned in advance when establishing
the progeny test.
3. Mother trees with high Genetic Combining
Ability can be selected to be mating pairs for
conducting full-sib progeny test and finding
their Specific Combining Ability.
4. Since improvement program of teaktakes a very long time and process cannot
finish within one generation, team work ofmany generations is a key to keep theprocess running continuously and correctly.
This requires a detailed protocol to beestablished for passing on information andexperiences from one batch of researchers
to the next.
5. There are many testing plots such as
clonal tests planted in 2001, 2003 and 2006,
half-sib progeny test, and full-sib progeny
tests had been established and wellmaintained but have not yet evaluated andutilized. Reports on these trials should bedone as soon as possible and benefits by
way of improved planting stock madeavailable to the farmers at the earliest.

The second set was conducted in 2008
with partial diallel mating design of 4x4
pairs of plus trees from Phrae, Mae Hong
Sorn, Lampang and Chiang Mai. Trees
from the same origin were not mate andonly one way crosses were conducted.
A total of 12 families were planted in 2010,at 4 different sites with contrasting soil andclimatic characteristics, but only 2 sites at
Phitsanulok SRS, Phitsanulok Province andDong Lan SRS, Khon Kaen Province could
be obtained data. 3 sets of experiment were
set up in a randomized complete block
design with 4 replications of 3x3 plants

6. Results from these ongoing trials should
be used to establish protocols for genetic
thinning in the seed orchards to further
improve the quality of seed sources.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

7. It would be best to start the tests with atleast 4 testing sites to evaluate genetic andenvironment interaction effects because inlong term research work like this it is not
unusual to lose some testing sites to factors
beyond the control of the Forest
Department.

Forest Research Bulletin No. 2 May 1983.
Silvicultural Research Sub-Division,
Royal Forest Department, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Kaosa-ard, A. (1983). Nursery Techniques
Teak. Forestry Review, Vol. 2. May 1983.
Silvicultural Research Sub-Division,
Forest research Division, Royal Forest
Department, Bangkok, Thailand.

Conclusion

Pianhanuruk, P. (1995). Analysis of Teak
Seed Orchards in Thailand. MSc. thesis,
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.

In this teak improvement program set up
almost six decades back in1965 as many as
636 Plus trees were selected throughout theforests where the resource is distributed anda total of 509 clones of plus trees have beenplanted in clone banks at five sites. Threesets of clonal test of almost 500 clones havebeen conducted at various sites during thisperiod and both half-sib and full-sib
progeny tests have been conducted. But
several of these tests have not yet been
evaluated and utilized for further use. Thisrequires immediate action so that the full
benefit of the teak improvement program
may become available to all stakeholders at
the earliest.

Pianhanuruk, P., Piyaphan, P. &Pianhanuruk, C. (1996). A Preliminary
Study of Rejuvenation of Teak by the
Budding Technique. ASEAN Forest Tree
Seed Centre, Saraburi, Thailand.
Sumantakul, V. (1999). Introduction to
Forest Tree Improvement. Technicalpublication on silviculture. Year 1,
Volume 2. Silvicultural Research Division,
Forest research office, Royal Forest
Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
Wattanasuksakul, S., Pianhanuruk, P.,
Pianhanuruk. C., Krongkitsiri, V. &Chuayna, C. (2013). First evaluation ofteak (Tectona grandis L.f.) full-sib
progeny test In World Teak Conference
2013 at Centara Grand, Bangkok,
Thailand. (Poster session)

References
Anon (2013). Thai Teak Knowledge.
Forest Research and Development Bureau,
Royal Forest Department, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment,
Bangkok, Thailand.

Zobel, B. J., Baber, J., Brown, C. L. &Perry, T. O. (1958). Seed Orchards, Their
Concept and Management. Journal ofForestry, 56(11), 815-825.

Kaosa-ard A. & Chanpaisaeng, S. (1992).
Teak Breeding Strategy in Thailand.

269

TEAK IN MEKONG

Chapter 22: Clonal Teak for Sustainable Plantation
Establishment
Doreen K.S. Goh

Abstract

forests due to export ban, over-harvesting,deforestation, and conversion to other land
uses has resulted in a major shift to theestablishment of fast-growing, smaller
dimension and shorter rotation plantations.
Traditionally established from seed sources,
these plantations are estimated to cover
between 4.35 to 6.89 million ha (Kollert &Kleine, 2017). Although substantial programs
were undertaken by many countries toimprove the timber quality of planted teakforest, constraints such as the time requiredfor breeding work, and the unknown origin
and quality of seeds resulting in highly variable
and unpredictable yields, have remained (Kjaer& Foster, 1996; Chaix et al., 2011; Callister,2021). Equally limiting are other propagation
methods - grafting, layering and controlled
pollination of selected parent trees, as these
could not be efficiently applied on an
operational scale (Monteuuis & Ugalde, 2013).

windling supplies of teak timber fromnatural teak forests have caused amajor shift to demand from plantations thatare primarily from seedling material with
unpredictable yield and quality. Rotations
longer than 25 years are no longer commercially
viable when a fast return is expected. The clonal
option seems to be the best and most judicious
way to maximize returns on investments inthe shortest possible time using selected
outstanding genotypes planted on suitable sites.
The greater the selection intensity for quality
traits in planted teak, the higher will be thecommercial gain. However, emphasis mustalso be placed on circumventing the risks of
biodiversity loss associated with cloningby maintaining a broad-based genetics
resource. Based on these aspects, YSG and
CIRAD jointly collaborated on a genetic
improvement program for teak focusing on
the development of nursery and tissue
culture propagation technologies in theearly 1990s. The cloning process for themultiplication of nursery cuttings and tissue
culture plants has proven to be highly
successful from the laboratory to the fieldplanting stage, leading to the worldwide
exportation of clonal teak to countries
across four continents. This overview of thework undertaken by YSG Bioscape in theselection, mass production and dissemination of
clonal teak for multiple purposes, in particular,
on the establishment and upkeep of geneticallydiverse clonal plots, provides strong evidence forthe long-term sustainability of teak.

With the increasing involvement of private
investors looking for the best returns in the
shortest delay in Africa and Latin America,
the prospective use of clones for plantation
establishment offers an attractive alternative.
It was based on these observations that theForestry Department of the Sabah
Foundation Group in Sabah, Malaysia, andthat of CIRAD, France, decided to jointly
embark upon a teak improvement programin 1989. The tissue culture facility known
then as the Plant Biotechnology Laboratory(PBL), was a pilot project set up in 1992
aimed initially at the in vitro culture of threelarge-caned rattans species.
However, focus was later shifted to teakdue to its higher economical value and market
demand. Within a few years, research
comprising of both nursery and tissue
culture techniques using stem cuttings, nodal
explants and meristem cultures from selected

Introduction
mong the many high value timber
species today, teak is one of the mostsought after for its durability, versatility
and aesthetic features. Over the past two
decades, the decline in teak logs from natural270

TEAK IN MEKONG

mature standing trees were developed. Thiswas followed by field verification of therooted cuttings and in vitro-issued microplants, then by advanced studies with
CIRAD on DNA fingerprinting and Woodanalyses, and finally, the commercial
production of these clones (Goh et al., 2007).
The next decade saw the dissemination ofa few million quality-planting materials
without any compromise in the phyto-sanitaryrequirements of importer countries, leading to
the possibility of large-scale establishmentsof clonal teak plantations in many locations
across four continents. The chapter highlights
the evolution of PBL, a small research anddevelopment unit into a full-fledged commercial
subsidiary of the Sabah Foundation Group,
known today as YSG Bioscape over a spanof more than two decades.

trees were planted in a demonstration plotat the same location. It was from eight ofthese standing trees that the initial plantmaterial was obtained and used for thedevelopment of the cloning process (Photo22-1). Likewise, plant materials of otherteak origins or sources found in Sabah werealso collected for in vitro culture with theintention of doing comparative studies ofthe different clones under the given tissue
The explants arising from young shoots andherbaceous branches collected from mothertrees are cleaned and disinfected in a seriesof steps to remove existing microorganisms
such as bacteria or fungi. These are then trimmed
into 2 – 3 cm segments and cultured on a single
elongation-multiplication culture medium using
a minimal concentration of growth hormone for3 - 4 weeks until the development of axillarybud-produced microshoots is observed (Photo22-2) (Monteuuis et al., 1998; Goh & Monteuuis,
2001). Once these elongating shoots haveproduced a minimum of 2 pairs of leaves,these are excised and placed on fresh culture
medium for the subsequent stabilization
phase, and the new plant is monitored on adaily basis. Upon attaining a height of 4 to 6
cm, the microshoot is cut into 2 to 3 cuttings,
each with a pair of leaves from where newaxillary shoots will in turn be produced. This
stage constitutes the first multiplication cycle
and the process is repeated at every 6-8week
interval depending upon developmental rate ofeach clone. The procedure for meristem
culture is similar to the micro-cutting method
except for the size of the explant. Althoughrequiring more skill and expertise than for nodal
explants, shoot apical meristem- averaging 0.10.3 mm in size – culture is more efficient for
rejuvenating mature genotypes while
overcoming the contamination problems that
commonly affect the primary cultures (70%versus 20-30%, respectively). This technique is

The Teak Cloning Process
Selection and Production of clones for invitro culture
Cloning is defined as a way of duplicating
selected trees unlimitedly by asexual orvegetative propagation methods while
preserving their original genetic make-up.
The outstanding and economically importantcharacteristics that can be observed, such as
fast growth, clear bole, minimal branching,pest and disease-resistance, and straightness
are maintained in the resulting offspring(Zobel & Talbert, 1984; Ahuja & Libby,
1993). Thus, it follows that the greater theselection intensity for quality traits, the higher
will be the commercial gain or returns for theinvestors (Goh et al., 2007).
Prior to the start of the joint project, seeds
obtained from the Solomon Island in thelate ‘80s to early ‘90s by an officer of the
Sabah Foundation were grown at the
Luasong research center in Sabah,
Malaysia. Cuttings were obtained fromthese trees for developing the nursery
technique after which these cutting-derived

therefore becoming more frequently used
for our new introductions of mature
genotypes selected from the field.

271

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 22-1 Herbaceous shoots are collected for in vitro culture from standing mother trees
selected based on outstanding morphological traits
272

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 22-2 Contamination-free and responsive nodal explants giving rise to axillary microshootsthat will be used for subsequent multiplication under optimal tissue culture conditions.
The developed in vitro technology for
microcuttings, with the possibility of an
exponential multiplication rate of 3 -4 cuttings
per plantlet at each cycle, was simple, lowcost, and observed to be suitable for all
genotypes regardless of the age of the mothertree (Monteuuis, 2000). Although 50 to 60%of the microcuttings can root spontaneously inthe sole multiplication-elongation culture
medium during the production phase, theacclimatization-rooting phase is achieved innursery conditions under a mist system withover 95% success on average in the absenceof any rooting substance treatment. It is also
noteworthy that despite the success derived
from the nursery rooted cutting technology,
the production of plants under optimal in
vitro conditions is overall more efficient inthat it can be undertaken whole year round,
require minimal space for large quantities
production, and meet phytosanitary requirementsfor overseas exportation. The laboratory currently
has a production capacity of 1.5-2 million plants
per annum but to avoid unnecessary costs, themultiplication of plants is based on orderthat is confirmed 3 to 6 months in advance(Photo 22-3). Nevertheless, excess plantsfrom each cycle are transplanted to thenursery and sold to local buyers, particularly,
sister companies involved in plantation
activities. Overall, the reliable and consistentproduction of plantlets from the lab, complimented
with the high success rate in planting-out at thenursery, has resulted in a highly efficient process
for the production of clonal teak in the project(Monteuuis & Goh, 1999).

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 22-3 Mass production of clonal teak at the tissue culture facilityof YSG Bioscape in Sabah, Malaysia
1997 and 2002 in areas where monthly
temperatures ranged at 26-28°C andannual rainfall averaged 2,500 mm without adistinct dry season (Monteuuis et al.,
1998; Monteuuis, 2000; Goh et al., 2013b).

Field assessment of clones
Quality control is applied at each successive
step of mass clonal teak propagation, from theintroduction phase under in vitro conditions
up to the ex-vitro rooting and acclimatizationof the microshoots. The identification of eachclone is meticulously labeled on the culture
flasks and separately placed in the growth
rooms to avoid mixing mistakes. To verify
that the clonal plants produced from the lab
were true-to-type without any abnormalities,
it was necessary to conduct field trials,
particularly in sites

The earliest trial set up in 1997 compared
trees of the eight selected Solomon clones
from different vegetative propagation
methods, i. e. rooted cuttings, microcuttingsfrom nodal explants and from meristem
culture (Monteuuis et al., 1998; Monteuuis
2000). The in vitro-issued plants regardlessof their origin, developed true to type,exhibiting the same striking phenotypicfeatures and impressive growth rate as themother trees. Growth rates were impressivein the first few years, with annual incrementof 3 to 4 m in height and 2.5-3 cm indiameter during which large leaves andvery few lateral branches were produced.
After 10 years, the largest-sized representatives

with varying conditions. Of particularimportance is the assessment between andwithin clone variation of the different clones
with respect to growth, phenotypic features
and wood properties. With these in mind,
several plots comprising of both demonstrationaland clonal trials were set up in Sabah between
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TEAK IN MEKONG

of TG1-8 clones attained heights of about 26 m
and girths of 120 cm.

use of clones. This demonstration plot
displayed distinct differences in the growthand performance of the trees, with clonalmaterials outperforming seedlings by 30%
in yield (Proteca, pers comm). Conversely,in Tanzania, the Kilombero Valley TeakCompany started planting clonal plants in2005 with the YSG Biotech TG1-8 (Goh &Monteuuis, 2012). Early results indicatedthe tendency of the clones to produce
epicormic shoots due to the much dryer
conditions. However, as in Brazil, theperformance of clones was consistently
much better than those of seedlings. From
this outcome, KVTC has now enriched its
plantations with locally selected materials
in addition to the Solomon clones and has
to date planted 300 ha using clonalmaterials out of a total of 8000 ha of teakplantations (Monteuuis & Goh, 2017). In
other countries such as Australia andIndonesia, as a time-saving strategy, pilot
plantations were established using theclones to verify their performance prior
to large-scale planting. The outcome ofthese plantations once again demonstrated
the consistent performance of the YSG
clones as compared to local seed sources,
thus leading to more confidence among
potential investors in using these clones intheir plantations.

In another trial set up in year 2000, the eightTG1-8 clones were tested for site suitability,that is, on a sloping piece of land and on aflatter one that was prone to occasional
waterlogging (Goh & Monteuuis, 2012). An
evaluation of the eight clones comparedto materials from other sources showed theconsistent growth of these clones withalmost 100% survival and mean annual
increment of 3.16 m and 2.76 m for heightand 3.36 cm and 3.18 cm for DBH,
respectively. Overall, indicative figuresin Sabah demonstrated yields of 244 m3 /haand 331 m3 /ha for certain clones 5 and 7
years after planting at 1250 and 1111
trees/ha, corresponding to 48.8 m3 /ha/yr
and 47.3 m3 /ha/yr, respectively (Goh etal., 2013a; Goh et al., 2013b; Monteuuis &Goh, 2015). The suitability of teak growing
under the conditions in Sabah was obvious
from consistent results obtained from alltrials and demonstration plots established
to date.
At the international level, the exportation of
clonal plants from YSG commenced
following inquiries that came from Australia,
Indonesia, Brazil, and Africa. Being thepioneer in the exportation of tissue culture teakplants to Australia, YSG had to overcome andfulfill very stringent requirements from thequarantine authorities of importing countries.
The meticulous effort invested in proper
documentation, coordination with freight
agents and customs personnel for timely
delivery, and suitable packing of bare-rooted
plants in light-weighed plastic containers linedwith moistened paper to ensure high survival
at destination, was crucial to the creation of aworkable standard operating procedure for the
movement of live teak plants across the globe.

Verification of clones by DNA and Woodanalyses
As additional steps to confirm the quality of
the clonal plants, the phenotypic selectionof clones is refined through the applicationof wood analyses and DNA fingerprinting.
Undertaken and developed by CIRAD
scientists jointly with collaborators fromother institutes, wood analysis through nondestructive wood core sampling and NearInfrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) technologies
is now highly possible (Goh et al., 2007;
Thulasidas & Bailleres, 2017). When
properly calibrated, NIRS can reveal fromcore samples information such as the basic
density, the modulus of elasticity andstrength, radial and tangential shrinkage,natural durability as well as the extractive

One of the earliest trial planting of clonalteak overseas was in Brazil in 2003. Prior to
the introduction of the clones, planting
materials in this country were entirely
derived from local seeds sources. As a firststep, a comparative trial between seedlingsand clonal plants was set up to justify the275

TEAK IN MEKONG

content of the wood, all of which is highly
useful for promotional and marketing of
clonal materials, bearing in mind theoverriding importance of wood quality forteak (Chaix et al., 2011; Kokutse et al., 2016).

produced to meet various demands as
described in the following sub-sections.
Monospecific planting or intercroppingwith other commercial species
For successful large monospecific plantation
establishment, in view of the injection ofhuge developmental funds, important factors
to consider are suitable site, stringent
management practices, and in particular,planting materials with good, if not, superior
genetics (Photo 22-4). Rotations of morethan 25 years are no longer viable oracceptable. Even revenue from the fellingof thinnings in the first several years isa known welcome relief to meet cash flowneeds (Ladrach, 2009; Goh & Monteuuis,2012). With the availability of YSG clones,
these are now used for establishingmonospecific plantations of medium (100 to
300 ha) to large (>1000 ha) sizes dependingon the availability of land and competition
with other tree or crop species with the aim ofgetting returns in the shortest possible timeframe. The yield from these large clonal
plantations, being more predictable, has
encouraged numerous investors to come on
board in the teak business in many countries
in Latin America and anticipated to be
likewise in South-east Asia. For instance,
two companies in Cambodia have establishedteak plantations using clonal plants fromYSG after observing poor form anddevelopment of seedling-derived plantations.
It is noteworthy that the distribution of clonalteak in the region should be more feasible
than elsewhere for obvious logistic reasons,with YSG facility being geographically sited.

Also noteworthy is the sound utilization ofadapted DNA markers for overcoming issues
such as genetic origin and relatedness, forestablishing property rights associated withcommercial transactions of the clones, fordetermining the primary origin of the clones,
or for predicting site adaptability (genotype xsite matching) (Lindgren, 2002; Graudal &Moestrup, 2017; Monteuuis, 2021). Using
DNA fingerprinting to verify clonal identity is
especially crucial for large-scale establishmentof plantations where investment costs are highand thus, planting clonal materials withknown genetics and expected growth
performance will mean a more predictableyield at the end of the rotation cycle.
From the studies done, wood characteristics
and DNA fingerprinting profiles for theeight YSG clones have been establishedand are available in the form of leaflets(Goh et al., 2007) to interested parties who
are keen to consider these clones as planting
materials.
Use of Teak Clones
The sucessful production and availability of
clonal teak offers several attractive options
to smallholders, plantation investors andeven researchers in their studies. To date,
several millions of YSG clones have been
produced worldwide and continue to be

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 22-4 Monospecific teak plantation establishment using clonal planting materials withstringent and systematic management practices in Brazil (Credit: Proteca Ltda).
Good genetics are useful for establishingvarious agroforestry systems with the aimof achieving higher yield. Intercropping
teak with other species has been practiced
for a long time by smallholders in various
countries. Different species can beintercropped with teak, depending on how longthey are expected to produce. Annuals such ascocoa, rice, maize, beans and soybeans, or evencertain short-term perennial crops likebananas and pineapples can be cultivatedduring the initial years between the rows ofmonospecific clonal plantations before thecanopy closes up, depending on the initial
density and clone growth rate. To date,
about 20% of the total land area plantedwith teak are smallholder plantations(Roshetko, 2020). Regrettably, these areestablished with unselected and poorquality planting stock and harvested several
times from coppices (Roshetko & Perdana,

2017; Roshetko, 2020). With the availability of
YSG clones, poor seed sources can now be
advantageously replaced by fast-growing
teak clones with long and straight clear
bole, narrow crown and reduced branching.
Clonal teak can also be intercropped forsilvo-pastoralism (Ugalde, 2013) or withother species such as in Ivory Coast, wherea pilot agroforestry plot of YSG clones withrubber was established in 2015. In Malaysia
and Indonesia, owing to the competition forland use by the oil palm industries which
has led to the extensive monoculture ofthis lucrative crop, YSG has promoted theplanting of teak along the borders of oilpalm plantations as seen in Sabah. The
rotation of 25 years for the palm
makes it ideal for cultivating teak for a dual
income harvest at the end of the cycle(Photo 22-5).

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 22-5 Planting of clonal teak along oil palm plantations in Sabah is encouraged for
optimizing land use for a dual return that can coincide for both species at the end of therotation cycle.
such a way that the plots can be easily
converted into seed production areas (Photo22-6) for supplying genetically improved
quality seeds without risks of inbreeding orfrom where candidate plus tree selection
can be made for the production of clones
adapted to a wide range of ecologicalconditions in tropical and sub-tropical teakgrowing regions (Goh & Monteuuis, 2009).
The possibility to supply superior quality
clonal materials and improved seed sourcesfrom such trials will facilitate large-scale
teak planting investments with morepredictable and lucrative returns. It is thus
crucial that genetic improvement programswith the aim of coming up with new clones
arising from the establishment of clonal
seed orchards be considered for long-termsustainability.

Conservation of teak clones
As far as we know, YSG Bioscape owns
one of the richest and most diverse teakresources in the world. The possession of
two provenance-progeny plots provides areadily available pool of potentially newplanting materials in the form of clones(standing trees) or seeds (from standing
trees) (Goh & Monteuuis, 2005). The two
provenance cum-progeny trials were set up
in 1997 in the form of partially balanced
incomplete block designs in two different
locations, one in a lowland with 41 seedlots(Taliwas, Lahad Datu), another in a hilly
area with 42 seedlots (the Luasong Forestry
Center), and with 26 seedlots being
common to both sites (Monteuuis et al.,2011). These two trials were designed in278

TEAK IN MEKONG

Photo 22-6 Fruits are annually collected from standing mother trees with known origins from oneof the two Progeny/Provenance Plot established in 1998 in Sabah, Malaysia.
Biotech clones under average rainfall of
2,500 mm/yr. with a 4 month-long dry
season. At about the same period, 24 YSG
clones were established in a similar
experimental plot in Ivory Coast. The thirdand most recent trial was established inearly 2021 in French Guiana and comprisedof 67 clones from YSG. Again, the objective
is to convert at the end of the clone evaluation
phase, i.e. 6 to 8 years later, into a seedorchard with these strategies in mind - i)
To identify the most suitable clones and toquickly produce these clones to respond to
the demand of timber in French Guiana
by using criteria based on phenotypiccharacteristics as well as wood analyzes,
and to ii) convert the plot into a CSO for the

Clonal Seed Orchard establishments
Clonal seed orchards (CSOs) can be establishedusing clones that have been selected,
propagated and tested in diverse conditions.
CSO-issued seeds can be used for breeding to
produce seedling or timber-based populations.
Jointly with CIRAD, clones from YSG havebeen deployed for the setting up of clonaltrials in Gabon, Ivory Coast and French
Guiana, for their eventual conversion to
CSOs. The first of these took place in 2016,
with the setting up of a clonal test comprising
32 YSG Biotech clones supplied as microcuttings to PFM in Gabon, Central Africa.
This was followed by the establishment of
100 ha of teak clonal plantations consistingexclusively of a mixture of the same 8 YSG
279

TEAK IN MEKONG

production of genetically improved seeds
by considering not only the phenotypicsuperiority and genetic origin but also thespatial distribution of the trees in the plot
(Monteuuis, 2021).

Another common risk is the lack of adequate
information regarding the genetic origin of
the clones that have been mass propagatedand planted, resulting in the erosion of thegenetic diversity of the planting material
deployed for large-scale plantings, exposing
them to greater risks of pests and diseases aswell as environmental impacts from climatechange (Monteuuis, 2021). Although suchclones contribute to the present success andfinancial attractiveness of teak planting, tree
planters should heed their genetic diversity inorder to help mitigate against the effects ofclimate change, the appearance of new
diseases, and to allow for improvement ofother qualities such as growth speed andheartwood (Graudal & Moestrup, 2017;
Wanders et al., 2021). It is imperative that
focus should always be given to themaintenance of a large collection of diverse
sources for genetic heterogeneity andcontinuous improvement of the species and in
turn, avoid missed opportunities in yield,
adaptability or health from failure to evaluateadequately a wide range of materials(Callister, 2021).

Lessons Learned and Recommendations
The vegetative propagation using tissue
culture and nursery cutting techniques ofclonal teak with subsequent distribution forplanting has been demonstrated for theirefficiency in the establishment of fastgrowing and high yielding plantations (Goh& Monteuuis. 2012; Ugalde, 2013; Jerez &Coutinho, 2017). As highlighted earlier, theclonal option seems to be the best and mostjudicious way to maximize returns on
investments in the shortest possible timeusing outstanding genotypes planted onsuitable sites.
However, there are risks associated with theclonal option that need to be acknowledged.
At the production level and likewise, when
distributed to buyers, it is crucial that theidentity of clones be stringently labeled to
avoid potential mix-up. The personnel
involved in the production must fully
understand the negative implication arisingfrom the mixture of clones or from mislabelingso that such mistakes will not happen. Owing
to mixtures, some clones which are easily
propagated or are more responsive will
supplant those which are not, and this will
result in a loss of genetic diversity. Anotherconcern is the re-labeling of YSG clones withdifferent names by unscrupulous companies
that have managed to access these clones
without permission. As a result, by promoting
these clones as their own with a new set ofbackground information, third parties may
end up with the mass planting of the sameclones which again, carries loss of genetic
risk as highlighted. Nonetheless, as a meansof mitigating these risks, the described
DNA fingerprinting of clones would be an
important tool for ascertaining the identityof clones in order to prevent their
exploitation and is highly recommended forthird parties who want to embark on massplanting of these materials.

Conclusions
The advantages of developing clonal plantations
for teak have been advocated for a numberof years (Monteuuis & Goh, 1999). Teakclonal plantations are expected to get the bestand earliest returns on investment. This is
crucial for overcoming the tremendous
deficit in supply and to meet an everincreasing international demand of superior
teak wood that can no longer be harvested
from natural teak forests. Intensification ofcrop productivity is also spurred by theincreasing demographic pressure on land
tenure (Monteuuis & Goh, 2018). Promising
field results from cuttings or microcuttingproduced clonal teak plants, and the noticeablechange of mentality as far as timber
plantations and land use policy are concerned,
have greatly reinforced this viewpoint. As far
as we are aware, YSG with the joint effort
from CIRAD, has been the pioneer in
280

TEAK IN MEKONG

operational clonal propagation and plantationsof teak, and as such has an unrivalledbackground especially in terms ofpropagation experience and knowledgeof field behavior of tissue culture plants.

References
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Conversely, as seen in the early years, YSG
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genetic improvement of the species throughthe wise and prudent selection of mature
Candidate Plus Trees (Goh et al., 2007; Goh& Monteuuis, 2009). These activities havebeen supported and well documented bynumerous scientific publications and fieldtrials that can be visited by clients who arewilling to acquire YSG clones. Maintaining
and producing from a broad genetic base to
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Callister, A.N. (2021). Genetic
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The YSG clones, selected and massproduced for widespread dissemination due
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native teak-growing countries is no longer
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283

TEAK IN MEKONGSECTION VI:
POLICY AND REGIONAL / INTERNATIONALCOLLABORATION

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Chapter 23: Ensuring Legal and Sustainable Teak Supply
Chains in the Lower Mekong Region
Ma Hwan-ok

Abstract
Introduction

imber legality has become a criticalcomponent of international timbertrade in the largest consumer markets ofEurope, the US, and Japan for sustainably
produced forest products from legal sourcesin order to address the rampant illegal tradein forest products across international
borders. This trend has been reflected in the
recent timber trade regulations, including
the US Lacey Act (2008), EUTR (2010),
Australian Illegal Logging Prohibition Act(2012) and Japan Clean Wood Act (2017)that aim at prohibiting the import of timber
products harvested or traded in violation of
applicable national or foreign laws. Thishas placed pressure on the governments ofthe timber producing countries to introduce
regulatory compliance systems in line withthe global timber market requirements inparticular to facilitate market access. The
teak producing countries in the Mekong
region have also responded to this growing
requirement and are working to evolve
nationally suitable timber legality assurance
systems in partnership with the EU VoluntaryPartnership Agreement, in line with theirtimber certification experiences. Effective
implementation of teak timber legality andsustainability is both a big challenge and agood opportunity for the teak growing
countries of the region. Intense efforts todesign and implement effective timber
legality assurance systems with a set ofstandard criteria and indicators are criticalto advance the economic, environmental
and social benefits from the teak-based
forest resources of the Mekong region(ITTO, 2016).

he concept of supply chain comprises
the organizations, activities andprocesses associated with all stages of thebusiness involving planning, sourcing,
manufacturing and delivering goods andservices. Recognizing the importance ofincreasing efforts to prevent forest degradationand contributing to the global effort ofaddressing climate change, the 55th sessionof the International Tropical Timber Council
in December 2019 adopted the ITTO’s new
programme on Legal and Sustainable Supply
Chains (LSSC). This programme, incollaboration with partners, is aimed atensuring all flows into the tropical timber
supply chains from forests to markets andonwards to the final consumer are legally andsustainably sourced and traceable to their
origins in a credible and cost-effective manner.
An international forum on global green
supply chains was held in Shanghai in 2019
under the LSSC programme by the ITTO
in collaboration with several partners
including the China Timber & Wood Products
Distribution Association (CTWPDA) withgenerous financial support by the Federal
Ministry of Food and Agriculture of Germany.
At the forum all participants agreed on theurgency to create a “green supply-chain
mechanism” to promote a stable, legal andsustainable supply of tropical timber and wood
products, bringing together all stakeholders.
Legal and sustainable timber supply chainsensure best practices of management
including sustainable timber harvesting,lawful sourcing, and transparency at eachstage of the supply chains from harvesting
to domestic and international markets.
Traceability and accountability in the supply
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TEAK IN MEKONG

chains are critically important to ensuretransparency, reliability, compliance andresponsibility in the advancement ofsustainable management of forest resources.
Timber tracking systems are able to linktimber with its source, showing the proof oforigin. Therefore, companies can show they
are fulfilling the implementation of timber
legality by using tracking systems. For
governments, implementing timber andtimber product tracking systems leads toimprovement in the performance of theirforest sector governance by reducing illegal
logging and theft of valuable national asset
besides benefitting the environment andpeople (ITTO, 2021).

Sustainable Forest Management
Promoting legal and sustainable supply
chains is an important initial step inthe development and implementation ofsustainable forest management (SFM) policy
and regulations. To assist in monitoring andassessing the condition of natural tropicalforests, ITTO pioneered the development of
criteria and indicators (C&I) for SFM
in the early 1990s. This C&I framework
has served as a model for developing
national indicators to assess the progressof implementing SFM. The ITTO C&I
for the sustainable management of tropicalforests comprise seven criteria, 18 indicatorgroups that subdivide the criteria, and 58
indicators. The Box below illustrates the 7
criteria, considering the SFM objectives.

Box 23-1 The SFM objective for managing natural tropical forests and their relationship toseven principles and criteria.
SFM objective

Principle

Criterion

1. Providing theenabling conditionsfor SFM

Principle 1: Forest governanceand security of tenure

Criterion 1: Enabling conditions for
SFM

Principle 2: Land-use planning,permanent forest estate andforest management planning

Criterion 2: Extent and condition offorests

2. Ensuring forest
ecosystem healthand vitality

Principle 3: Ecologicalresilience, ecosystem health andclimate change adaptation

Criterion 3: Forest ecosystem healthand resilience

3. Maintaining themultiple functions offorests to deliverproducts andenvironmental
services

Principle 4: Multipurpose forest
management

Criterion 4: Forest production

4. Integrating social,
cultural andeconomic aspects toimplement SFM

Principle 6: Social values,
community involvement andforest-worker safety and healthPrinciple 5: Silviculture
management

Principle 7: Investment in naturalforest management and economic
instruments

Source: ITTO (2015)
286

Criterion 5: Forest biodiversity
Criterion 6: Soil and water protection

Criterion 7: Economic, social andcultural aspects

TEAK IN MEKONG

for the Endorsement of Forest Certification(PEFC). Both of these organizations have set
international benchmarks by which
regional and national standards areaccorded endorsement. The FSC wasstarted in 1993 through collaborative efforts
by a number of European environmentalgroups and its Principles and Criteria(P&C) have evolved greatly over the past
three decades. Version 5 of these P&C with
10 principles and 70 criteria is currently inuse. Indicators and Verifiers, adapted toeach national context and consolidated in
National Forest Management Standards, areused by Certifiers to ensure compliancewith P&C.

This is a flexible and robust framework
for addressing emerging forest-related
issues at the international and national
level. It recognizes the implication for
SFM of legally and non-legally binding
international agreements at the regionaland global levels. For example, the role offorests in promoting sustainable production
and consumption in addition to contributing
to climate change and conservationand sustainable use of biodiversity is a
novel challenge for SFM. The Criterion 1
highlights enabling conditions for SFM toensure forest governance as well as landuse planning and forest management
planning. Well-planned and sustainably
managed production forests addressing both
legality and sustainability will facilitate thesustainable production of a range of forest
goods and ecosystem services towards
development of forest-based bioeconomy.
Adjusting the national legal and regulatory
frameworks to incorporate the appropriate
provisions of legal and sustainablesupply chains is essential to the continued
improvement of SFM in tropical countries.

The PEFC was established in 1999 by
a number of stakeholders including
environmental organizations and privatecompanies in North America. The PEFC
sustainability benchmarks include 7 criteria.
All regional and national forest certification
systems are required to undergo third-party
assessment against PEFC’s sustainability
benchmarks before they can achieve
endorsement. In the case of acceptance ofplantations, the FSC has set 1994 as deadlineof plantation development so that plantations
developed after 1994 are not accepted while
there is no specific deadline for plantation
development in the PEFC (2022).

Timber Certification Systems
Globally there are two major organizations
that provide forest certifications: The Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme

FSC’s 10 Principles and PEFC’s 7 Criteria
are presented in Box 23-2.

Box 23-2 FSC’s 10 principles and PEFC’s 7 criteria

Principle /Criterion

The Forest StewardshipCouncil (FSC)
10 Principles
1: Compliance with Laws
2: Workers Rights andEmployment Conditions
3: Indigenous Peoples’ Rights
4: Community Relations
5: Benefits from the Forest
287

Programme for the Endorsement ofForest Certification (PEFC)
7 Criteria
1: Maintenance or appropriateenhancement of forest resources andtheir contribution to the global carbon
cycle
2: Maintenance of Forest Ecosystem
Health and Vitality
3: Maintenance and Encouragement of
Productive Functions of Forests

TEAK IN MEKONG

The Forest StewardshipCouncil (FSC)

Programme for the Endorsement ofForest Certification (PEFC)

6: Environmental Values andImpacts
7: Management Planning
8: Monitoring and Assessment
9: High Conservation Values
10: Implementation ofManagement Activities

4: Maintenance, conservation andappropriate enhancement of biologicaldiversity in forest ecosystems
5: Maintenance or appropriateenhancement of protective functions inforest management
6: Maintenance or appropriateenhancement of socio-economic
functions and conditions
7: Compliance requirements- Legal Compliance- Legal, customary and traditionalrights related to the forest land
- Fundamental ILO conventions- Health, safety and working
conditions
330 million ha (as of February 2022);
About 58% of all certified forests
globally are certified to PEFC
20,000 certificates (as of February 2020)

Forest
238 million ha (as of February
management 2022)
certification
Chain ofCustody(CoC)

51,101 certificates (as ofFebruary 2022)

Source: www.fsc.org and pefc.org, accessed February 2022
FSC Principle 1 (Compliance with Laws)
specifies the legal aspect of forest management
certification. Any applicants shall comply withall applicable laws, regulations and nationallyratified international treaties, conventions andagreements. PEFC requires that property
rights, tree ownership and land tenurearrangements shall be clearly defined,
documented and established for the relevant
management unit.

accompanied by a number of criteria andcorresponding indicators to enable practicalimplementation.

In addition to legal compliance, bothcertification systems cover a broad range
of environmental and social issues. These
include ensuring sustainable harvest levels
and regeneration after harvest; maintaining
high conservation values to protect biodiversity;
conservation of soils and water quality;
social considerations for local communities
and forest worker’s rights; monitoring theenvironmental and social impacts of theforest management. The principles are

In the lower Mekong region, the extent ofarea certified and number of chain-ofcustody certificates are the highest in
Vietnam followed by Thailand, Lao PDR
and Cambodia while Myanmar has justbegan opting for certification (Table 23-1).
The primary reason for the outstanding
performance of Vietnam in certification isthe export-oriented nature of its timberindustry and the long-term presence of FSC
in the country.

The objective of forest management
certification is to ensure the forests are managed
according to laid down standards which ischecked through a third-party certification
while the chain of custody (CoC) certification
aims to guarantee the traceability of raw
material from the forest to the end product.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Table 23-1 Area certified and number of chain-of-custody certificates issued by the Forest
Stewardship Council and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification in
Lower Mekong Region
Forest StewardshipCouncil

Programme for theEndorsement of Forest
Certification(1,000ha)Areacertified
(ha)

No of
Chain-ofcustodycertificatesArea
certified(ha)Cambodia

8,068

7,896

36

Lao PDR

16,59678,891

Myanmar28,544Thailand
Vietnam

Country

Total
Forest
Area

Total

No of
Chain-ofcustodycertificatesArea
certified
(ha)

No of
Chain-ofcustodycertificates

-

-

7,896

36

2

-

-

78,891

2

-

17

-

1

-

18

19,873

121,814

260

-

27

121,814287

14,643

227,523

1,076

46,65730

274,180

1,106

Sources: Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020; www.fsc.org and pefc.org, accessed
February 2022
Forest certification is a broadly accepted
way to demonstrate SFM at forest
management unit level towards better
management of forest resources. Increasing
certified areas is a good indicator for bestpractices and investing in the continuous
improvement of forest management.

implementing forest certification. Currently,
meeting legality regulations is the primaryreason for seeking SFM certification.
Timber Legality Assurance Systems
Timber legality has become an essential
component of international timber trade. The
global timber markets have become increasingly
sensitive to timber sourced unsustainably, with
consumer markets demanding forest products
from legal sources. This puts pressure on the
producer countries to adopt higher levels ofsustainability in forest management approaches
thus reducing illegal trade in forest products(ITTO, 2019).

Certification processes presents many
advantages: increased transparency,
accountability and control of forest
production; contribute to the improvement of
the forest management system, with goodpractices of operational control and safety
and health requirements at work. It also
contributes importantly towards creating agood public image for the company forpracticing sustainable forestry besides
strengthening
partnerships
betweencompanies, suppliers and customers.

Country governments in many of these countries
are introducing regulatory compliance systems
that influence market access. In many cases,
where the countries’ domestic regulations do not
require certification, companies are themselves
applying for voluntary forest certification system
to demonstrate sustainability to their potential
consumers (Martin & Ghazali, 2015).

However, tropical forests as a whole arestill lagging behind in forest certification.
The most difficult thing is to financeadditional costs - indirect (compliance) anddirect (auditing) costs of certification requiring
substantial transaction costs including trainingof local auditors. Complexity of standards forcommunity forests and smallholders continue
to be at disadvantages in accessing and

The EU has conducted an extensive andbroad-based outreach effort through voluntary
partnership agreements (VPAs) within thecontext of its ‘Forest Law Enforcement (FAO
& ITTO, 2010), Governance and Trade289

TEAK IN MEKONG(FLEGT)’ initiative. The aim of FLEGTVPAs is to facilitate trade in legal timber
through capacity building and civil-society
involvement for FLEGT licences for timber
exports to the EU, and the EU has been
engaging in negotiations on VPAs withmany tropical timber-producing countries(EU FLEGT Facility, 2019). The EU
considers timber accompanied by a FLEGT
export licence as meeting the legality
requirements described in the EU Timber
Regulation. Central to the success of the
FLEGT timber export licensing system is atransparent system in the timber-producing
country to verify the compliance of timber
exports with the applicable national laws.
This system of verification or validation oflegal compliance is referred to broadly as atimber legality assurance system (TLAS)
though the specific nomenclature varies
from country to country.

(i) legal rights to harvest and recognition
to other parties’ legal tenure rights, (ii)compliance with relevant national legislation
as it pertains to forest management,
environment, labour and health & safety, and(iii) payment of due taxes, fees, duties,
royalties and penalties.
However, timber legality is complicatedin many tropical countries as in somecountries, laws may be unclear or
conflicting making it difficult to clearly
define “harvested in accordance with theapplicable legislation in the country of
harvest”. In such difficult cases of defining
timber legality definition, it would also be
important to assist the development of apractical working definition of ‘legal’ or aset of applicable laws.
To assure timber legality, the Governmentof Vietnam has signed a VoluntaryPartnership Agreement (VPA) with the EU
to implement FLEGT while Cambodia, Lao
PDR, Myanmar and Thailand are in theprocess of either initiating or finalizing
their negotiation with the EU (ITTO, 2018).

The VPA legality definition itself sets out
the core requirements of legislation
applicable to timber in a country in the formof principles, criteria and verifiers. Allelements of the legality definition need toBox 23-3. summarizes the status of negotiations
be complied with in order for the timber toand key element of timber legality definition
be considered to have been legally
produced. In general, a timber legality
definition covers the following principles:Box 23-3. Status of voluntary partnership agreement and key elements of timber legality
definition in the Lower Mekong Region
Country
Cambodia

Voluntary Partnership
Agreement (VPA)
timeline
FLEGT Work Plan
adopted in 2021 withfour target interventions
including developing a
Cambodian Timber
Legality Definition,
capacity building andtesting model areas oftimber trading
originating from
community forestry andplantations

Key Elements of Timber Legality Definition
Legal rights to harvest are specified in the forestrylaw 2002. All forest products and by-products(timber products, non-timber forest products andprocessed products) located and originating fromthe permanent forest reserve are state property.
Any individual, legal entity or community
intending to harvest forest products and by
products for commercial purposes must possesses
documents in accordance with the forest law 2002

290

TEAK IN MEKONGCountry
Lao PDR

Voluntary Partnership
Agreement (VPA)
timeline
The official VPA
preparation andnegotiation with EU
started in 2016 and it isstill in the negotiation
stage. Once FLEGTVPA is agreed, timber
and timber products
complying relevant
regulations will receive
FLEGT licenses.

MyanmarStarted to engage withFLEGT in 2015. In
November 2018, thenational MultiStakeholder Group wasformally established torepresent the interests ofall forest sector
stakeholders in guiding
future activities related
to FLEGT in Myanmar.

ThailandVPA is expected to besigned in 2023.
The Fourth Thailand-EU
FLEGT VPA
Negotiation is scheduled
to take place in 2022 toreview all requirements.

VietnamSigned VPA with the
EU in June 2019. This
legally binding
agreement aims to
improve forest

Key Elements of Timber Legality Definition
1: Production Forest Areas (which currently
include 18 legal references);
2: Conversion areas (based on 19 legal
references);
3: Timber plantations: (based on 16 legal
references);
4: Village use forests (not yet drafted, as villagers
cannot legally log and sell timber);
5: Confiscated timber: (based on 19 legal
references);
6: Imported timber: (based on 3 legal references);
7: Labour obligations in forestry, wood processing
and trading operations (based on 9 legal
references);
8: Wood processing and trade: (based on 19 legal
references)A.
Legal in Harvesting: Receipt of logs at
private log yard, Permit to process timber,
Outturn percentage approval, Certificate oflegality of timber products
B-C. Legal in Transportation and in Product
Processing: Specification, Sale Contract,
Commercial Invoice, Delivery Order,
Advanced Information for Parcel Transfer,
Reference for Parcel Transfer, PurchaseConfirmation Letter and Certified Letter for
Source of Origin
D.
Legal in Trade/ Marketing: Export License,
Export Declaration
Principle 1: Operator Legality (including Land)
Principle 2: Forest Management and Harvesting
TimberPrinciple 3: Sourcing and Transportation ofTimber/Timber product/Reclaimed wood
Principle 4: Environment and Social Management
Principle 5: Welfare and Labour Protection
Principle 6: Tax, Fee & Other Payment
Principle I: Harvesting of domestic timbercomplies with regulations on land use rights,
forest use rights, management, environment andsociety.
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TEAK IN MEKONGCountry

Voluntary Partnership
Agreement (VPA)
timeline

Key Elements of Timber Legality Definition

governance and promotelegal timber trade
between Vietnam andthe EU.

Principle II: Compliance with regulations on
handling confiscated timber.
Principle III: Compliance with regulations onimporting timber.
Principle IV: Compliance with regulations ontimber transportation and trade.
Principle V: Compliance with regulations ontimber processing.
Principle VI: Compliance with regulations on
customs procedures for export.
Principle VII: Compliance with regulations on tax
and employees.

Source: https://www.euflegt.efi.int/vpa accessed February 2022 and ITTO MIS reports
In Vietnam, several follow-up steps for
VPA/FLEGT implementation are taking
place. On December 29, 2021, the Ministryof Agriculture and Rural Developmentof Vietnam issued a Circular to specify theclassification of wood processing and export
enterprises based on the principle of ensuring
publicity, transparency, competence, order andprocedures of the government’s regulations.
According to the ITTO TTM Report (26:4
1 - 28 Feb 2022), importers need to submit
additional documents to prove the legalityof imported wood when they import woodfrom risk sources under Vietnam’s Timber
Legality Assurance System (VNTLAS)
highlighting Vietnam’s commitment to the
EU to avoid illegally sourced wood fromthe supply chain and the Vietnam - US
Agreement to improve wood legality.

the US Lacey Act (2008), EUTR (2010),
Australian Illegal Logging Prohibition Act(2012) and Japan’s Clean Wood Act(2017). All these regulations set out that all
actors in the timber supply chain are
responsible for ensuring the legality of thetimber they purchase and must declare theidentification and country of origin of thetimber traded. The US Lacey Act requires
the declaration of scientific name (genus
and species), whereas the remainder only
require trade names, common names, or
genus where the full scientific name isunknown. The Lacey Act and Clean Wood
Act require only that the country of origin
be declared for traded timber, whereas
EUTR requires the region and concessionof harvest “where applicable”, andAustralia requires region and harvesting
unit information in all cases. Box 4
provides a summary of international timbertrade regulations.

International Timber Trade Policy andRegulations
Over the past decade the internationaltimber trade increasingly requires the
producer countries to adopt higher levelsof sustainability in forest management
approaches, reducing illegal trade in forest
products. In the context of internationaltimber trade regulations important policies
and regulations that seek to address illegal
logging and associated trade include

In addition to these declaration requirements,
EUTR, Australia Act and Japan Clean
Wood Act require importers to fulfill
requirements for due diligence and provide
evidence that the timber has not been
illegally sourced. Legislation designed toaddress demand-side factors is in addition
to laws governing the regulation of tradein endangered species, as is required by292

TEAK IN MEKONG

the Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora (CITES).
Box 23-4 A summary of international timber trade regulations
United StatesLACEY ACTEuropean UnionEUTR

Regulated
products

Any wild part ofthe plant,
including roots,
seeds, andproducts thereof

Timber productprescribed in theannex to the EU
TR (2010)

Legal
provisions
on illegal
timber

It is unlawful toimport, export,sell, acquire, orpurchase any
plant that are
taken, possessed,transported, orsold in violationof US, or ininterstate or
foreign commerce
involving any
plant taken
possessed or soldin violation ofState or foreignlaw

Obligations ofoperators
prohibiting theplacing on themarket of illegally
harvested timber ortimber products
derived from such
timber

TimberScientific name ofSpecies
any species used
identificati
onAustraliaILLEGALLOGGINGPROHIBITION
ACT
Raw logs and sawn
timber, paper, pulp
and furniture(prescribed in
Schedule 1 of theamendment reg.
2013)
An importer must,
before importing a
regulated timber
product, obtain theinformation about
the product if atimber legality
framework applies
to the timber in the
product, or the area
in which the timberis harvested—acopy of the licenseor certificate issued
to the harvester of
the timber, thatprovides evidenceof compliance
Common name,genus or scientificname of the tree

JapanCLEAN WOOD
ACT
Logs, sawn boards
and square timber,veneer; plywood,laminated veneer
lumber andlaminated wood,and wood pellets,
woodchips andwood particles
All timber-related
entities to ensurethat the timber
and timber
products theyhandle are legal

Trade name andTypes of the wood
type of product,common name andscientific name oftree species
TimberCountry of origin country of harvest
The name of the
The names of thespecies
and where
country, the region countries ororiginapplicable toof the country andregions where theindicate subthe forest
trees used as raw
national region
harvesting unit
materials were
where the timber
harvested.
was harvested andconcession of
harvestSource: adopted from ITTO’s Legal and Sustainable Supply Chains (LSSC) learning course(ITTO, 2021)
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TEAK IN MEKONG

of enhancing SFM and the general public’s
perception of tropical timber harvesting.
The government authorities should play a
key role in developing an electronic woodtracking system which allows applicants toregister, renew and extend contracts online
to track wood from the point of harvest to
the point of sale in order to ensuretransparency and to be able to verify theorigin of wood products. Research isneeded for the application of blockchain
technology in the tropical timber tracking
system with a view to improving thelegality and sustainability in the global
supply chains of international timber
production, processing trade andconsumption.

The Way Forward
International timber trade in large consumer
markets such as Europe, the US, and Japanis moving with challenges and opportunities toprove the legality and sustainability of timber
products to access markets. For sustainableproduction and sustainable trade of teak timber
products, teak production forests in the tropics
should be managed efficiently and effectively
with the demonstration of legality andsustainability.
Since the demonstration of legality andsustainability is a major challenge for thetropical timber sector, capacity building of
tropical timber producing countries should be
supported to address a serious lack of
capacity to cope with timber legality andsustainability requirements. In the case ofsustainability assessment, international,
regional and national criteria and indicatorinitiatives have been established although theimplementation has been varied. However,
the implementation of timber legality
definition will require a lot of additional
efforts with practical guidelines for wider
implementation in a cost-effective way. Morepartnerships among stakeholders are essential
to promote a legal and sustainable trade oftropical timber and enhance the trade’s
positive impact on legal compliance andSFM.

Lessons from the implementation of timbertracking pilot platforms need to be sharedacross the countries of the lower Mekong
region and intensely debated not only topromote legality verification but also toestablish a brand of teak products based on
their origin and management stories to add
values.
Sustainably managed teak forests andsustainable trade of legally produced teakwood products are contributing to theachievements of many targets of the
Sustainable Development Goals. Harnessing
the achievement of legal and sustainablesupply chains should be facilitated throughresearch and capacity building for technicalexpertise, enabling policies and stablelegislation, transparency and governance, andcost-effective independent legality
verification and voluntary SFM certification.

As the counties in the lower Mekong moveinto the development of timber legality
definition or the implementation phase of atimer legality system, it is critical that theprivate sector, including teak farmers,
smallholders, small and medium size
enterprises (SMEs) to improve SFM
documentation through digitalization toaccount for the changing internationaltimber trade policies and regulations.
Responsible and transparent documentation
to verify legality and sustainability is a key
issue that must be addressed in the context

Reference
EU FLEGT Facility. (2019). Small andmicro-size entities in the Mekong region’s
forest sector: a situational analysis in the
FLEGT context.
http://www.euflegt.efi.int/publications/sma
ll-and-micro-sized-entities-in-the-mekongregion-s-forest-sector

294

TEAK IN MEKONG

FAO & ITTO. (2010). Forest law
compliance and governance in tropicalcountries.
http://www.fao.org/3/al044e/al044e00.pdf
FSC (The Forest Stewardship Council).
(2022). Facts and Figures.
https://fsc.org/en/facts-figures

ITTO (International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2019). Trade and Market
Transparency Programme. https://itto-d2.rcms.jp/files/user/pdf/ITTO_CaseForSuppor
t_TMT_brochure.pdf
ITTO (International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2021). Legal andSustainable Supply Chains (LSSC)
learning course.
https://www.itto.int/news/2021/06/23/itto_
launches_e_course_on_legal_sustainable_t
imber_supply_chains/
ITTO (International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2022). Tropical Timber
Market Report. (26:4 1 - 28 Feb 2022)
Martin, R. M. & Ghazali, B. H. (2015).
The impact of timber procurement
policies: an analysis of the economic
effects of governmental procurement
policies in tropical timber markets. ITTO
Technical Series No. 44. International
Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama,Japan.

ITTO (International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2015). Voluntary
guidelines for the sustainable managementof natural tropical forests. ITTO Policy
Development Series No. 20. International
Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama,Japan.
ITTO (International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2016). Criteria andindicators for the sustainable managementof tropical forests. ITTO Policy
Development Series No. 21. International
Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama,Japan.
ITTO (International Tropical Timber
Organization). (2018). FLEGT VPA
Partners in EU Timber Trade 2018.
ITTO/FLEGT Independent Market
Monitor (IMM).
https://www.flegtimm.eu/images/IMM_20
18_Annual_Report/Final_clean_version_N
atalie_VPA-Partners-in-EU-Timber-TradeAnnual-Report-2018.pdf

PEFC (The Programme for theEndorsement of Forest Certification)(2022). PEFC Global Statistics Data
December 2021.
https://cdn.pefc.org/pefc.org/media/202203/b33a1b64-6d71-4dd1-a3dcede164221d2a/eaba7ece-0afd-56fa-bce9b5ab265c95a4.pdf

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Chapter 24: Forests, Timber Sources and Supply Chainsof Myanmar: Opportunities and Constraints to Ensure
Legal Origin of Timber
Taiji Fujisaki and Barber Cho

Abstract

also focus on the types of timber source andforest since each source and/or forest typemay associate with particular risks,considerations, and implications for a legal
basis.

ince the late 2000s, the global timbertrade has undergone emerging legality
requirements on imported timber products
in major consumer countries. For
Myanmar, as a key country in supplying
tropical hardwood, the potential toparticipate in expanding regulated markets
rests on its capacity to hold accountability
for the legal origin of timber products,
which requires greater transparency of the
supply chain, traceability of products, andsupportive proof of legal claims.

Introduction
yanmar holds a vast expanse oftropical natural forests and plays avital role in supplying tropical hardwood,
including Teak (Tectona grandis), a
globally traded high-value timber species.
Natural teak forests are estimated to cover
29 million ha globally, of which nearly half
are found in Myanmar (Kollert & Kleine,2017). However, the past economic-oriented
forestry sector has led to the over-exploitationof forest resources resulting in the
degradation of natural forests in Myanmar.
Furthermore, several studies revealed illegal
and unsustainable logging and illegal border
trade (Springate-Baginski et al., 2016), andconflicts over land rights, especially withcustomary landowners (Oo et al., 2021).
Consequently, the forestry sector in
Myanmar has presented challenges inachieving legal timber supplies, and may
have difficulty in finding a market in the
globally expanding timber legality regime(Forest Trends, 2021).

Against this backdrop, this study was
undertaken to enhance the production andtrade of legally harvested timber in
Myanmar by examining legal frameworks
and measures and identifying challenges
ahead. Based on the desk review research,
the study discussed forest classification,
timber sources (e.g., selective logging, forest
conversion, plantation, etc.), and supply
chains and examined log marking and paperbased systems to track the legal origin.
The study identified that the current
systems help trace logs from log yards ofprivate industries to a township of harvest.
In addition, to increase transparency, thegovernment has published production datafrom main timber sources and opened
relevant supply chain documents to the
public. Such efforts can promote legal
timber production and trade, delivering
positive signals to concerned actors. On theother hand, the absence of production datafrom Natural Forest conversion may
undermine the overall efforts of the forestry
sector in Myanmar. In addition, theaccountability of the legal origin of timber
products needs to consider not only
locations where timber was harvested but

The crucial question is what we have toconsider to enhance the country's capacitythat ensures and demonstrates the legal
origin of timber. To promote legal timber
production and trade, the forestry sector in
Myanmar has undergone substantial
reforms in the past decade. These include
the revision of the Forest Law in 2018 andrelated regulations, increased reserved
areas for forest management, reduced
exploitation of natural forests, a ban onexporting logs and products using timber
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derived from unsustainable sources, theestablishment of plantation resources, andthe greater inclusion of local communities
and the private sector in forest management(Forest Department, 2020; World Bank,
2020). In addition, the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environmental Conservation(MONREC) published a report entitled theChain of Custody Dossier (the CoC Dossier)in 2018 to address the transparency in thetimber supply chain in Myanmar, which
explains detailed steps in producing legal
timber from state-managed natural forests.
On the other hand, understanding and ensuring
the legal origin of timber is notstraightforward, given complex legal
frameworks over forests, timber production,and supply chains. Often a country has
multiple sources for timber production withdifferent standards and procedures. Moreover,in most tropical countries, the supply chain
control is not well established andimplemented effectively (Banikoi et al., 2019),
which makes it challenging to ensure anddemonstrate the legality of timber products.

identifying challenges ahead. Two broad
questions were posed to guide the analysis:• Where timber can be harvested, bywhom, and how is it produced,
distributed, and traded?
• What measures are taken, and to what
extent have they been effective todemonstrate the legal origin of harvest?
This chapter is organized as follows:
Section 2 below describes the methodology
adopted for the analysis. Section 3 provides
an overview of the timber legality regime,
which is taking place at a global level, andthen explores the critical considerations forthe timber legality that guides the analysis.
Focusing on timber productions, Section 4
discusses the forest land classification in
Myanmar and its legality implications.
Section 5 identifies timber sources andsupply chains. Section 6 identifies current
mechanisms and measures to demonstrate
the origin of harvest and challenges.
Finally, Section 7 elaborates on the findings
and concludes with some considerations.

There have been several studies on timber
production and supply chains in Myanmar,such as those of Woods (2013), SpringateBaginski et al. (2016), Banikoi et al. (2019),
Rand et al. (2019), Forest Trends (2021),
and (World Bank, 2019, 2020). However,there is still a need to elaborate acomprehensive picture, including forestclassification, timber sources, andconsequent timber flows, to discuss
opportunities and constraints for Myanmar
with an aim to enhance legal timber supply
and trade.

The study was conducted based on the desk
review research using the publicly available
information and data provided by the
Myanmar government. Our review includes
the Land Use Policy (2016), the Forest Law(2018), the Forest Rules (2019), the Vacant,Fallow and Virgin (VFV) Land Management
Law (2012, amended in 2018), and theCommunity Forestry Instructions (2019), as
well as the government’s reports on theforestry sector, and statistical data on timber
productions. In addition, the study wasdeveloped through discussions withprofessional members of the Myanmar Forest
Certification Committee (MFCC) and emailbased questionnaires survey to experts on
Myanmar’s timber sector.

Methodology

Against this backdrop, this study was
conducted under the ITTO project“Enhancing Conservation and Sustainable
Management of Teak Forests and Legaland Sustainable Wood Supply Chains in the
Greater Mekong Sub-region” to enhance
the production and trade of legally
harvested timber in Myanmar by examining
legal frameworks and measures concerning
the issues related to the timber legality andOn the other hand, the study has limitations.
First, due to the impact of the COVID-19
pandemic, the field survey was impossible
to conduct. Therefore, our findings andconclusion are drawn on publicly available
information and data without fieldobservations. Second, the study focuses on
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a technical aspect of institutional design
and measures to discuss legal timber
production and trade in Myanmar. It is not
our intention to glance at the current unrest
situations in Myanmar and explore theirimplications for the forestry sector andtimber legality.

legal origin of timber products they havesourced (Bartley, 2014). Consequently,
there is growing attention to map the timber
supply chains to identify and demonstrate
the legal origin of timber products andavoid unknown or illegal sourced timber
products. This requires timber producer
countries to improve the transparency of the
supply chain, traceability of products, andsupportive proof of legal claims, in addition
to the traditional perspectives of quality,
price, and stable supply in the timber trade.

Key Consideration for the Timber
Legality: Emerging legality requirements
in major consumer countries
Since the late 2000s, the global timber tradehasundergoneemerging
legalityrequirements on imported timber products
in major consumer countries. Import
restriction of illegally harvested timber
products was first introduced in the USA by
the Amended Lacey Act (2008), followedby Australia's Illegal Logging Prohibition
Act (effective in 2012) and the EU Timber
Regulation (effective in 2013). In Asia,
Japan enacted the Clean Wood Act in 2017
to encourage importing legally harvested
timber products, and the Republic of Korea
introduced the legislation banning theimport of illegally harvested timber in
2018. Also, Indonesia and Viet Nam haveregulated their timber imports along withthe voluntary partnership agreement with
the EU. As a result, timber imports into
those regulated markets account for morethan half of global trade in 2019. In
addition, China, the largest timber importer,
amended its Forest Law in 2019 andprohibited using illegally sourced timber1.
Consequently, the share of regulated timbermarkets is expected to increase.

The crucial question is what we have toconsider to understand the country's
capacity, which ensures and demonstrates
the legal origin of timber. Firstly, timber
harvest needs to take place from forest areas
with a specified legal basis (SpringateBaginski et al., 2016). However, in several
tropical countries, competing interests andpractices over forested areas, such as
agriculture, forestry, infrastructuredevelopment, customary uses, small-scale
farming, and biodiversity conservation, havebeen observed, which cause numerous conflicts
and insecurity in the legality of activities.
Accordingly, the design, demarcation, andmaintenance of forests to be distinct fromother land use, especially agriculture, areessential in building the legal origin of
harvest (Fay & Michon, 2003). Brown et al.
(2008) further discuss legal origin as thelegal right to harvest, including priordetermination and settlement of tenurial
claims over a given forest. These discussions
highlight that in an attempt to ensure the legal
basis of timber products, the forestclassification and gazettement have to include
procedures to determine harvest areas,considering different land use objectives,interests and claims. Such deliberation ishighly relevant to Myanmar's context, given
several reports concerning land conflicts withlocal communities (World Bank, 2019, 2020;
Oo et al., 2021).

It is important to note that legality/illegalityof timber is a broad term that encompasses
not just harvesting but also transportation,
processing, and trade(Smith, 2002), andthere is no globally agreed single set ofrules and criteria for timber legality. Hence,the standards and procedures required toimport products into the countries mentioned
above vary. However, the critical focus
commonly found is accountability for the

Another critical element to account for is
the traceability and transparency of the

As of writing, implementing regulations of theamended law have not yet been issued.
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timber supply chain. Generally, a country
has multiple forms to harvest logs, namely
legal timber sources, rather than a single
form. Then timber is distributed andprocessed through complicated supply
chains, including different governancemechanisms and actors (Banikoi et al.,2019). Accordingly, a system to inform
concerned actors about where a productcomes from is the first step to demonstrate
the legal origin of timber products while
avoiding unknown-sourced timber. In orderto build such capacity, traceability studies
discuss different measures, such as track &trace, segregation, and mass balance. Table
1 highlights how each measure can support
traceability to ensure the legal origin of
timber products.

Table 24-1 Measures supporting traceability of legal origin of timber products
Measures

Function

Track and trace

Include both physical marking and information management
methods. A batch of products can be directly traced to its
origin, such as the forest compartment where the log was
harvested.

Segregation

A batch of timber is kept, traded, processed and distributed
separately by source according to the objectives.

Mass balanceAlso known as inventory management methods. The volume oftimber products is monitored partly or throughout the entire
supply chain so that it can be checked whether there are nodiscrepancies.

Source: Seidel (2011), Mol & Oosterveer (2015) and Arts et al. (2021)
It is critical to consider what supply chain
information is generated and communicatedalong the supply chain so that these measures
can be functional(Arts et al., 2021). At thesame time, it questions what information is
being made transparent and who is entitled toaccess such information. In this regard,transparency is seen as a prominent subject indemonstrating the legal origin of timber
products and making claims reliable.

Department (FD), a division of MONREC,
is responsible for the forest land and trees
on the agricultural land. Forest land isreferred to as Permanent Forest Estate(PFE), which is constituted of Reserved
Forest and Protected Public Forest.
Reserved Forest is set in areas suitable forcommercial timber production with higher
commercial value, where the public has no
harvesting rights. On the other hand,Protected Public Forest is designed mainly
for conservation and local use, while
commercial timber can also be sourced. In
addition, MONREC designates Protected
Areas to preserve diverse ecosystems andspecies richness of Myanmar and cannot be
exploited. Table 2 shows the extension of
those designated areas as of December 2019

Forest Classification and Timber Harvest
Permanent forest estate
Administratively, the land in Myanmar isbroadly classified into three categories,
which are agricultural land, forest land, andother land. The Ministry of Agriculture andIrrigation (MOALI) administrates the
agricultural land, while the Forest

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Table 24-2 Permanent Forest Estate and Protected Areas in Myanmar (December 2019)
Area

Legal classificationha% of land area

Reserved Forest

12,020,011.79

17.77%

Protected Public Forest

5,224,273.51

7.72%

Protected Areas (PAs)

3,959,316.61

5.85%

Source: Forest Department (2020)
Unclassified forests

Also, it is crucial to understand Unclassified
Forests from a jurisdictional perspective.
The Forest Law (2018) designates the
FD/MONREC as the competent authority for
Forest Covered Land at the disposal of
the government, which may include some
Unclassified Forests. However, due tothe overlapped land classification systems,
land covered by Unclassified Forests is
managed by MOALI, empowered by the
VFV Management Law (amended in 2018).
Because of how VFV land is defined, theterm introduced by the VFV Management
Law, most Unclassified Forests may fallwithin the land regarded as VFV land. The
VFV Management Law provides MOALIwith the authority to use VFV land for
agriculture, livestock-farming, mining, andother businesses. In addition, due to thedefinition of VFV land, the community andcustomary areas may fall within VFV land.
Although the Law stipulates the VFV land
to exclude land being used under customary
tenure, the frameworks are not yet in place
to determine how this type of tenure will be
determined and recognized (NAMATI,
2019; World Bank, 2020).

It is important to note that “the PFE or
Forest Land,” legally designated forest
land, does not necessarily mean ecologicalforest (areas dominated by trees). Indeed,
large forested areas expand outside thePEF. For example, the REDD+ Programme
Myanmar(no date)estimates that 6,916,470
ha of closed forest and 10,331,664 ha ofopen forest 2 lie outside the PFE. Those
forests are referred to as “Forest Covered
Land at the disposal of the Government” inthe Forest Law (2018) but are generally
termed as “Unclassified Forests” (MFCC,
2020a; Oo et al., 2021). Under the current
legal frameworks, timber can also be
legally sourced from Unclassified Forests.
Unclassified Forests need to be understoodin the historical context of the forest
gazettement process in Myanmar. During
the colonial period, forests were divided
into "Reserved Forests" and "Un-class
Forests (or Unreserved and Public Forests)."
For administrative purposes, Reserved
Forests were composed of "Compartments,"
and Un-class forests were divided into
"Coupes." Terms have changed over time,and after 1992, some extent of Un-class
Forests have formed as Protected Public
Forests whiles others remained unclassified.
Possible reasons for this may include a lower
value or a less priority from a timber
perspective, inaccessibility due to conflict,and remaining strong local customaryclaims (World Bank, 2019).

Forest Classification and its implications
for the Timber Legality
By establishing the PFE (Reserved Forest
and Protected Public Forest), given areas
have a clear boundary with management
objectives and are administrated by the
FD/MONREC. According to the Forest
Rules (2019), in establishing Reserved
Forest, MONREC appoints a responsible

The REDD+ Programme Myanmar (no date)defines forests with more than 40% canopy coveras “closed forests,” while those with between 10%
and 40% canopy cover as “open forests.”

2

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TEAK IN MEKONG

government officer and sets up a scrutiny
body including local (ethnic) communities
and relevant experts to inquire into anddetermine the affected rights of the public
on a given land and to carry out demarcation.
The appointed officer is responsible for
conducting an inquiry on the claims of local
people’s rights and is empowered to modify
proposed boundaries to exclude the land
where the customary rights may be applied.

uses) and forms of timber products according
to the sources. For example, the Myanmar
government introduced the log export ban
in April 2014, and since then, Teak andother species have to be processed toexport. Also, in 2017 the government
decided not to use timber products derived
from land conversion and confiscatedtimber for export (Forest Department,2020). On the other hand, round logs fromplantation forests are allowed to export
after a case-by-case assessment since May
31, 2020, by Notification No 80/20194.

On the other hand, Unclassified Forests have
not yet been reserved by the FD/MONREC,
although some may historically have been
managed or regarded as “Coupes” under the
Myanmar forest governance system.
Moreover, under the current legislation,
Unclassified Forests are also categorized as
VFV lands, which MONLI may regard assuitable for conversion to other land use, suchas agribusiness concessions (SpringateBaginski et al., 2016). Overlapped with VFVland and customary land, Unclassified
Forests include conflicting objectives andinterests with competing jurisdictions andambiguous tenure. Accordingly, Unclassified
Forests may represent a problematic domain
for timber production from the legality
perspective compared with the PFE.

Harvest in Natural Production Forest
under State management
This source is understood as selective
logging of natural forests in specificreserved areas, mainly in Reserved Forests,
but also in Protected Public Forests andUnclassified Forests under the disposal of
the FD/MONREC.
The
state-owned
forestenterprise(Myanmar Timber Enterprise: MTE) has
the sole rights for harvest from Natural
Production Forest and sales of logs, as thedesignated state-owned enterprise for theforestry sector. The FD is responsible forselecting trees to be harvested and monitors
the on-site logging activities of the MTE.
Also, the FD conducts a post-harvest
assessment with the MTE to ascertain the
MTE's compliance with the logging
regulations.

Timber Sources and Flows
According to the Forest Law (2018), allharvests on a commercial scale require apermit from the FD/MONREC. As sourcesof commercial timber, MONREC(2018) determines five broader
categories (the way of log production),
namely (1) Natural production forest under
State management, (2) Natural Forest
Logging Concession 3 , (3) Natural Forest
Conversion, (4) Plantations, and (5)Community Forests. In addition to thesesources, (6) timber confiscated by thegovernment enters supply chains afteradministrative
andjurisdictional
procedures.

Under this form of harvest, a reserved area
is divided into 30-compartments andharvested annually along with the District
Forest Management Plan, following theannual allowable cutting (AAC), which
limits the maximum annual exploitation
within a given forest compartment. The FD
determines the AAC based on the inventoryin sampled forests every ten years, a felling
cycle of 30 years, and minimum girth limits(Springate-Baginski
et
al.,
2016;
MONREC, 2018). This scientific forest
management system is termed the

Notably, the legal framework defines
destination markets (for export and domestic
There are no Natural Forest Logging Concessions
currently granted (MONREC, 2018).

There is no case of export of the logs from theplantation to date.

3

4

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Myanmar Selection System (MSS). The
specific and permanent number is allocatedto each compartment5, and all commercial
logs extracted under the MSS are marked
with necessary information (discussed
below).

purposes. Generally, most harvested Teakis sold in log form to the private industries
at auctions. The MTE processes about 25%of the harvested Teak into semi-finishedand finished products, then sells them to theprivate-sector industries (ibid.). The WorldBank (2019) reports that the MTE has been
involved in direct export until recently.

Logs from this form of harvest (hereafterMSS) are used for export and domestic
consumption. Until 2017-2018, the MTE
could subcontract the private sector for
harvesting based on the in-kind timber
allocation system, which is no moreallowed. Accordingly, all logs harvested
under the MSS are transported to the transit
points of log distribution (MTE Agency
depots). At the depots, the MTE classifies
and separates logs for transporting to MTE
Export Department depots in Yangon andfor local sales through open tender(auctions). At local auctions, logs are soldfortheprivate-sector
wood-basedindustries that process and sell timber
products for domestic markets (Banikoi etal., 2019). At Yangon depot, the MTE
measures logs to determine their final
sawing grades (SG)6and holds auctions forthe private industries, mainly for export

Notably, the FD periodically publishes the
AAC and annual logging outcomes under
the MSS to the public. The AAC andlogging data are divided into Teak, andother hardwood species. Figure 3 indicatesserious over-extraction of Teak above the
AAC until 2013-14 7 . However, a lack ofcommercially available Teak due to the past
over-harvesting and the policy shift towards
sustainable forest management led the FD
to reduce the AAC substantially. The MTE
also lowered the harvesting amount within
the AAC from 2014-2015 (Figures 1 and 2).
The current AAC is set at 19,210 trees for
Teak and 592,330 for other hardwoods, andtheMTE
harvested
9,454
trees
(corresponding to 14,943 hoppus tons) of
Teak during 2017-18, reaching solely 49%of the AAC

An example of the compartment number is"Sanda RF (89)". RF stands for Reserved Forest,
and this compartment is numbered as 89th
compartment within the Sanda Reserved Forest.
6
Grades vary from SG7 to SG1, while the highest
grade nowadays is SG4

This large gap between the AAC and actual
harvest volume might be caused to some extent as
the harvest from Natural Forest conversion(development land-use projects) was counted into
the total production, although the logs under suchdevelopment projects were outside the AAC
frameworks.

5

7

302

TEAK IN MEKONG

300

250
Teak AAC

Teak Actual Harvested

1,000 trees

200

150

100

50

0

Figure 24-1 AAC and actual harvested teak trees in number
Source: Forest Department (2020) and Than (2020)

1200
Hardwood AAC
1000

1,000 trees

Hardwood Actual Harvested
800

600

400

200

0

Figure 24-2 AAC and actual harvested hardwood in number
Source: Forest Department (2020) and Than (2020)

303

TEAK IN MEKONG

Natural Forest Conversion

gap. Also, Springate-Baginski et al. (2016)
estimate that nearly 10,000 trees (more than
25,000 hoppus tons) were harvested toconvert Unclassified Forests in Kachin statein 2013-2014.

Timber is produced by converting naturalforest land for other land use objectives,
such as oil palm plantations, mining, andinfrastructure development. Such forest
conversion is allowed within the PFE andUnclassified Forests, but presumably, it has
occurred mainly in Unclassified Forests.
The VFV Management Law regulates land
conversion in VFV land, allowing up to
50,000 acres (20,234 ha) to be leased up to
30-years to private-sector investors,
government entities, etc.

Plantation
About 30,000 ha of plantations have been
established annually since 1984 forcommercial, industrial, village supply, andwatershed management objectives (Forest
Department,2020).
Recently
thegovernment has strengthened promoting
commercial timber plantations to reducetimber extraction from natural forests while
meeting the demand. Since 2019-2020,
annual Teak production has been targeted at
50 % from natural forests and 50% fromplantations (MFCC, 2020b).

MONREC authorizes forest conversion,and the FD assesses the number of trees andvolumes in a given area. Like harvest under
the MSS, the MTE is responsible for the
harvest and sales of logs (MONREC,
2018). However, timber production fromnatural forest conversion is not subject to
the AAC framework. After harvest,
commercial logs are marked to collectroyalty. In 2017, MONREC decided not to
use timber from the forest conversion forexport. Since then, timber from thismodality has been used only to feed
domestic markets.

Commercial plantations need to beregistered and harvested under the FD’s
approval and procedure. After harvest,
commercial logs are marked to collectroyalty. There are two types of commercialscale plantations according to ownershiptypes:
State-owned commercial plantation
State-owned commercial plantations havebeen established within Reserved Forest orProtected Public Forest. Annually, the FD
and the MTE decide the number of Teakand other species to be harvested fromState-owned plantations. As administrated
separately from Natural Production Forests
under the MSS, plantations are not subject
to the AAC setting. The MTE has sole
rights to harvest and sell logs. Those logs
are distributed under the control of theMTE, the same as the timber flow from the
MSS.

Our survey could not identify how manylogs have been produced from theconversion of natural forests. Notably,
Woods (2015) points out that the Myanmar
government does not systematically collect
the amounts of timber produced fromagribusiness concessions, with a few
exceptions. On the other hand, several
studies suggest natural forest conversion as
an important timber source. For instance,
FAO-EU FLEGT Programme (2017)
estimates that timber from land conversion
accounted for around 16% of total extracted
volumes in 2014-2015 and 8% in 20152016. Furthermore. the World Bank (2020)
identifies more than 3 million m3 in 2018 asa gap between harvested volume under the
MSS and apparent total consumption(exports plus domestic use). It points outthat forest conversion for agriculture andother development projects and informal
and illegal harvests filled mostly this supply

The Forest Department (2020) reports thatthe area of state-owned commercial
plantations amounts to 491,403 ha as of2018. However, its production was started
recently from 30 years of age and above
plantations. According to the MTE’s

304

TEAK IN MEKONG

presentation 8 , Teak log production fromstate-owned plantations reached 1,509
hoppus tons (equivalent to 2,720.73 m3 or
1,258 trees) 9 in 2018-2019 and 2,992
hoppus tons (equivalent to 5,394.58 m3 or
1,995 trees) in 2019-2020. These amounts
correspond to 13% in 2018-2019 and 59%
in 2019-2020 against Teak production from
the MSS, respectively.

The community forests are found mainly inProtected Public Forest while being
allowed within Reserved Forest, the bufferzone of Protected Areas, and even
Unclassified Forests on VFV land. Since its
introduction in 1996–1997, the scheme
developed slowly, amounting to 49,216 ha
in 2013-2014. Then the area has drasticallyincreased, resulting in the establishment of
289,161 ha, covering 5,426 CFUGs(138,179 members) as of December 2019
(Forest Department, 2020). However, nocommunity forests have begun commercial
harvesting for exports to date.

Private plantation
In 2006, the government allowed theprivate sector to establish Teak and otherhardwood plantations to accelerate theforestry industry. The legal frameworks
have created the rights and opportunities forthe private sector to harvest timber,transfer, produce value-added products andcommercialize them.

Confiscated Timber
Confiscated timber can enter legal supply
chains to fulfil the domestic need for timber
but cannot be used for export purposessince 2017. The FD keeps the confiscatedtimber until the court determines the sentence(Rand et al., 2019), then it is delivered to the
MTE or sold by the FD to the public.

Land for private plantations is available
either by the PFE and VFV land lease or inlarge private lands under the authorizationof the FD. As of 2018, the private sector has
established 13,127 ha of Teak plantations
and 16,220 ha of non-Teak forest plantations(Forest Department, 2020). However,private plantations are still at an early age,and exports have not yet been realized.

The FD/MONREC has made efforts toprevent and prosecute illegal forestry
operations and trades, and the FD reports all
confiscated cases of illegal logging. 11
Between 2016 and 2020, more than 40,000
hoppus tons of timber were seized annuallyby the FD and other related departments(Japanese Forestry Agency, 2019).

Community Forests
The revised Community Forestry Instructions(CFI) issued in 2019 has granted thecommunity forest users groups (CFUGs)10
trees and forest land tenure rights for an
initial 30-year period, including harvesting
and commercializing timber for export
purposes. The scheme includes managing
existing natural forests and establishing
new plantations.

Timber Supply Chains and Control
Based on the previous section, Figure 3
illustrates timber supply chains defined by
the legal frameworks, including timbersources, actors, and how logs are distributed
and used (i.e., domestic consumption orexport purposes).

MTE (n.d) Teak Marketing, Exporting & Market
Situation (Provided from the MFCC)
9
MTE's conversion rates: 1.8027 m3/hoppus ton;
and for teak 1.2 hoppus tons/tree (prior to 2018)
and 1.5 hoppus tons/tree (since 2019)

CFI (2019) determines CFUGs as a groupformed by households who have lived continuously
for five years in or within 5 miles of the peripheryof the forest.
11
https://www.forestdepartment.gov.mm/

8

10

305

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 24-3 Timber sources and supply chains in Myanmar
Source: MONREC (2018), ICIMOD (2019) & Japanese Forestry Agency (2021)

Overview of Current Timber Sources
and Supply Chains

MSS, from the AAC setting to productexport, and gives examples of
documents/forms used at each step withEnglish translation. By making information
on supply chains and associated documents tothe public, the CoC Dossier can be viewed asa strong commitment of the government topromote transparency in timber supply
chains. Also, the transparency is addressed by
the publication of the AAC and the actual
harvest volume from the MSS andplantations. While some studies such as
Forest Trends (2021) and the World Bank
(2020) point to uncertainty or discrepancies
in production data, the periodic disclosureof production volume helps to demonstrate
the government’s efforts to account for
their forest management and monitoring
towards legal and sustainable forest
management.

For commercial purposes, the current
timber sources are Natural Production
Forest under the MSS and State-owned
plantations and probably Natural Forest
conversion. The MTE is responsible for the
harvest, distribution, and sales of logs fromthese sources and processes some portions.
Private industries process logs purchasedfrom the MTE and export processed
products or sell them for domestic use.
Notably, the destination market and theforms of products are different by source.
For example, logs from Natural Forest
conversion are domestic use only. On theother hand, logs from other sources are used
for both export and domestic consumption.
Notably, logs from the MSS need to beprocessed for export, while those fromplantations can be exported case-by-caseassessment.

On the other hand, harvest volume fromNatural Forest conversion has not been
opened to the public, which undermines
the government’s efforts to improvetransparency in timber production andsupply chains. Furthermore, the fact thatissues of Natural Forest conversion are notwell determined in the provision of theForest Law (2018) and the Forest Rules

To assist traders in demonstrating that thetimber was legally sourced, MONREC
published the CoC Dossier in 2018 as a partof efforts to establish the timber legality
assurance system. It describes 30 detailed
steps of the timber supply chain under the306

TEAK IN MEKONG(2019) also can increase concerns. International
stakeholders may see the absence of production
data and unclear framework as a lack oftransparency and weakness of the government
control over timber production and flows.

placed on logs harvested commercially,
which help identify logs, such as species,
grade, district of origin, and extraction year.
Figure 24-4 shows an example of suchmarks on a log produced from the MSS. In
addition to the MTE Agency Mark, therevenue mark and tree number provide
essential information to track the origin of
harvest. As mentioned above, logs
harvested commercially are subject to levy.
For this purpose, after the FD and the MTE
jointly measure logs at log landing points,
the FD places the revenue mark andnumber, and records them. An example of
the revenue mark is given in Figure 24-4 as"SG/B2/15", whose first two letters (SG)stand for "Sagaing" region, the following
letter and number (B2) indicate "district"and "township", and the last number (15)represents "the year 2015 (harvest year)".
The revenue number (e.g., 1402 in Figure24-4) is allocated consecutively for all logged
compartments within a given township. The
standing tree number (e.g., 305 in Figure 244) is sequential for all marked trees to be
harvested per compartment.

Mechanisms and tools to control andmonitor timber supply chains
Currently, Myanmar applies physical marking
and paper-based systems that monitor andcontrol the timber production and supply
chains.
Physical marks on logs
The Forest Law (2018) stipulates that "aperson who has obtained permission for
extraction of forest produce shall affix themark after measuring in the mannerprescribed or affix the property mark which
has been registered." Indeed, each MTE
Extraction Agency has its hammer
registered by the FD. Also, the Forest Rules(2019) defines that the private marking
hammer or the stamp of the community
forest shall be affixed on the logs
respectively in the extraction of timberfrom private plantations or community
forests. In addition, several other marks are307

TEAK IN MEKONG

Figure 24-4 Marks on bucked log
Source: FAO-EU FLEGT Programme (2017) and the picture taken by the MFCC

The marks are visible until processing logs.
In other words, supply chain actors,
including the private-sector industries thatbuy logs from the MTE, can visually
identify the origin of harvest at a townshiplevel. However, the marks may sometimes
be difficult to read due to being partiallyvisible or missing (FAO-EU FLEGTProgramme, 2017).

Paper-based information system to monitor
supply chain
Based on the CoC Dossier published by
MONREC (2018), Table 24-3 summarizes
key documents/forms used at each step inthe timber supply chain originating from
the MSS. It describes types of recorded
information that help identify the origin oflogs and indicates how these aretransmitted to the next step along thetimber supply chain.

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Table 24-3 Key documents and information included in timber supply chain from log landing to private processing facilities
Step

Document/
For

SpeciesnameLogdimensions

RevenueMark

Tree no.

Log measurement
at the log landing
pointsMeasureme
nt Book• Record measurements of harvested logs
• Sent to the MTE Agency Depot prior to the logtransportation

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Transportation oflogs to MTE
Agency Depot

Transportat
ion
document• Accompany to logs
• Revenue mark is not included, but contains information of
the MTE Agency and the compartment in which the logs
were harvested

Yes

Yes

Unidenti
fied

Yes

Receiving logs at
MTE Agency
Depot

RegisterBook• Register log information by truck, compartment and species

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Accompany to logs
Trucking slip is used for transporting logs by truck, while
AT, AU, and AS forms are for other transport means(barge, raft and train)
Revenue mark is not seen in Trucking slip, but it includes
information of the MTE Agency and the compartment

Yes

Yes

Unidenti
fied

Yes

Register serial number of transportation documents, Depot
entry number, Depot of origin, and lot number which logs
are assigned for sale

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

• Prepared by the MTE for log sales and attached to logs
• Include lot number, Depot, Agency of origin, and buyer.
• Since 2017, include information on the revenue mark andthe tree number

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Log
transportation to
MTE Depot inYangonTransportat
ion
document

Receipt of logs at
MTE Yangon
Depot

RegisterBooks

Sales of logs to
the Private sector

Specification and othersales
documents

Description

•
•
•
•

Author’s own compilation based on the CoC Dossier (MONREC, 2018)309

TEAK IN MEKONG

Species names and log dimensions arerecorded at each step, from log landing
points to sales of logs to private buyers.
Recording such information at each step
enables the FD to monitor the overall
movement of logs based on a systematic
understanding of inputs, outputs, andaccumulations at each point.

explained that the revenue mark system wasdeveloped to collect harvest royalties as its
name suggests and does not intend to trace
the origin of harvest.
Segregation at MTE depots
Generally, logs are sorted, compiled, andtraded according to their quality (grade). In
Myanmar, one lot consists of logs of thesame grade composing a minimum of tenpieces12. Notably, the MTE (2017) declaredthat "logs from same harvesting area would
be piled to one lot in order to clarify thesource of timber origin for logs which
would be extracted in 2017-18 andforward". This statement gives a positive
signal to buyers who want to ensure theorigin of logs. Nevertheless, it should be
noted that the MTE's focus is on "harvest
location" and not "timber source (i.e., theMSS, State-owned plantations, and Natural
Forest conversion). In addition, the MTE's
efforts may face the following challenges.
First, as mentioned above, to guarantee abetter economic return, one lot needs to bemade up of logs at the same grade.
Secondly, valuable species of larger size,
such as Teak, are found in relatively small
proportions in natural forests (Kollert &Kleine, 2017). Thirdly, the FD has
drastically reduced the logging intensity
under the MSS (see. Figures 24-1 & Figures24-2). These make it challenging for the
MTE to compile lots of quality logs fromone area. Accordingly, the MTE likely has
to gather logs of different grades, which
lowers the grade of lots on average, leading
to an economic disadvantage for the MTE.
In addition, this attempt may also present a
problem for buyers in obtaining quality logs.

The revenue mark informs the townshipwhere a given log was harvested, and thetree number indicates individual tree
identification within a given compartment.
While the revenue mark may be missed insome documents/forms (Table 24-3),
notably since 2017-2018, the revenue markhas been recorded in "Specifications,"
which is used for the sales of logs at the
MTE Log Depot in Yangon to private
industries. This means that currently,
private industries can identify the origin oflogs at a township level.
It is important to note, based on on-site
visits, Sloth & Htun (2020) conclude that it
is possible to trace back from log depots at
sawmills to the district of origin using therelevant forms and documents combinedwith the hammer marks on logs.
Nevertheless, it may be necessary to ensurethat all documents and forms register therevenue mark to hold the accountability oflegal origin at each step and show links
between them, from transporting logs fromforests to sales to private buyers.
The revenue mark system is applied tocommercial log extraction from all sources,
identifying the origin of harvest at a
township level. However, the revenue mark(e.g., SG/B2/15) does not distinguish thesource (i.e., Natural Production Forests
under the MSS, State-owned plantations,and Natural Forest conversion) where logs
were harvested. Indeed, Sloth & Htun
(2020) report that it was impossible toconfirm whether the logs originated fromplantations or natural forests. This may be

Monitoring and control of processing at
private industries
The CoC Dossier describes the procedure at
the stage of processing logs in the private
industries as below. First, the FD inspects
the logs against the attached documents

In the Myanmar Grading System, Sawing Grade(SG) 1 is the highest log quality, followed by SG2,
3, and the lowest 5 to 7.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

when private industries receive logs from
the MTE. Then, private industries have toobtain a permit to process the inspected logs
from the FD. Notably, MONREC hasdetermined the conversion ratios fromround log to product per Teak and otherspecies. After processing, private industries
have to report the production amount to the
FD. In addition, when private industries
export their processed products, the FD
examines the products to determine
whether possible unspecified logs haveentered production.

and constraints to promote legal timber
production and trade.
In Myanmar, timber is legally harvested in
the PEF and Unclassified Forest. While theharvest volume from Unclassified Forest is
likely smaller than from the PEF,
Unclassified Forest may represent a
problematic domain for timber production
from the legality perspective. First,
overlapping jurisdictions and competing
objectives over Unclassified Forest may
hamper effective forest management,
monitoring, and law enforcement. Second,
the lack of robust demarcation procedures
and opportunities to consider local people’s
rights may weaken claims for the legal
basis. Hence, the current measures tocontrol and trace supply chains focusing on
the origin of harvest by location (at atownship level) may need to consider theforest types.

These procedures enable the FD to observe
the movement of logs and timber products
to the point of export. By systematicallymonitoring and registering incoming logs,
outturn products, and accumulating
volumes at all private industries, the FD canhave overall mass-balance control to avoid
entering unknown-sourced logs in thetimber supply chain.

The current timber sources at a commercial
scale are Natural Production Forest under
the MSS and State-owned plantations andprobably Natural Forest conversion, all ofwhich are managed by the MTE. The issueof transparency in timber production in
Myanmar has been enhanced by thedisclosure of planned and actual harvested
volume from the MSS and State-owned
plantations. On the other hand, the absenceof available production data from Natural
Forest conversion and its unclear
framework compared with other timbersources may undermine the overall effortsof the forestry sector in Myanmar to increasetransparency over timber production anddistribution.

However, the CoC Dossier does not explain
the procedures and control measures at thesecondaryprocessing
stage(e.g.,
transporting sawn timber froman industry
to a downstream one and processing it into
finished products such as furniture). Indeed,
the FAO-EU FLEGT Programme (2017)concludes that tracking input materials
through production to the final product is
not addressed in the Myanmar system.Also,
it does not describe the procedures forprocessing logs at the MTE facilities andsales of their semi-finished products to theprivate industries.

Conclusion

Currently, Myanmar applies physicalmarking and paper-based systems thatmonitor and control the timber production
and supply chains. The study has identified
increased efforts and several measures by
the government to improve transparency
and traceability along the timber supply
chain. For instance, the publication of the
CoC Dossier is remarkable in this regard.
Also, the MTE's attempt to implement a
segregation system and include the revenue

For producer countries, the potential toparticipate in expanding regulated markets
rests on the national ability andcommitment to hold accountability for thelegal origin of timber products. Given thisunderstanding, the Myanmar study has
discussed its forest classification, timbersources, supply chains, and measures tosupport tracking and ensuring the legal
origin of timber and explore opportunities
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TEAK IN MEKONG

mark in the sales document helps track thelegal origin of timber. However, the study
has also identified issues to be considered.
First, given the difference in the markets
and allowed product forms to export bytimber source, it is crucial to distinguishand demonstrate the origin of harvest not
only by location (i.e., township) but also by
timber source and forest type from whichtimber was harvested. Secondly, the current
system enables trace logs from log yards ofprivate industries to a township of harvest.
However, it may be necessary to enhancethese ongoing initiatives and measures. For
instance, the scope of the CoC Dossier
could be broadened from the current focus
on the MSS to other timber sources, as wellas coverage of products (from the current
focus on logs to processed and finishedproducts). Such effort can promote legal
timber production and trade while
enhancing transparency and traceability ofoverall timber supply chains and delivering
positive signals to concerned actors.

and challenges that producer countries may
have to address these issues.

These findings and discussions include lessons
for producer countries to enhance theproduction and trade of legally harvested
timber products. Firstly, the accountability of
the legal origin of timber products needs toconsider not only locations where timber was
harvested but also focus on the types of timbersource and forest since each source (e.g.,
selective logging, forest conversion, andplantations) and/or forest type may associatewith particular risks, considerations, andimplications for a legal basis. Also,
Myanmar's case illustrates several measures toincrease traceability and transparency of legal
origin. However, the case indicates that such
efforts may need to be undertaken with theongoing forestry sector reform and businesspractices. Generally, the distribution and saleof timber are based on quality and quantity
and not on legal origin. Hence, the supply
chain management was not originallydesigned to trace the origin and inform
concerned actors, especially downstream
businesses, about from which a productcomes. At the same time, demand-side
countries need to understand the situation

Banikoi, H., Karky, B. S., Shrestha, A. J.,
Aye, Z. M., Oo, T. N. & Bhattarai, N.
(2019). Promoting REDD+ compatible
timber value chains: The teak value chain
in Myanmar and its compatibility with
REDD+. ICIMOD Working Paper 2019/3,
Kathmandu, Nepal.

Lastly, there is a growing demand for not
only legal timber products but also those thatare sustainably harvested in the context ofachieving sustainable development goals andclimate change mitigation, resulting in more
attention paid to the origin of the product(e.g., from which forest and how timber isharvested). Accordingly, together with legal
and sustainable forest management,
establishing transparent and traceable timber
supply chains will provide timber producer
countries with more opportunities toparticipate in global markets while
addressing global environmental issues.

References
Arts, B., Heukels, B. & Turnhout, E.
(2021). Tracing timber legality in practice:
The case of Ghana and the EU. Forest
Policy and Economics, 130(102532), 1-9.

Bartley, T. (2014). Transnational
governance and the re-centered state :Sustainability or legality ?. Regulation &Governance, 8(1), 93–109.
Brown, D., Schreckenberg, K., Bird, N., oCerutti, P., Gatto, F. D., Diaw, C. et al.
(2008). Legal timber: Verification and
Governance in the Forest Sector. Overseas
Development Institute. London.
http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/docs/347
2.pdf.
FAO-EU FLEGT Programme. (2017).
Myanmar Timber Legality Assurance
System (MTLAS) Gap Analysis Project
Final Report.
Fay, C. & Michon, G. (2003). Redressing
forestry hegemony - Where a forestry
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regulatory framework is best replaced byan agrarian one. In: The International
Conference on Rural Livelihoods, Forests
and Biodiversity, pp. 1-18. 19-23 May
2003, Bonn, Germany.

Mol, A. P. J. & Oosterveer, P. (2015).
Certification of markets, markets ofcertificates: Tracing sustainability inglobal agro-food value chains.
Sustainability, 7(9), 12258–12278.

Forest Department (2020). Forestry in
Myanmar 2020.
https://www.forestdepartment.gov.mm/sites/default/files/Documents/Forestry_in_My
anmar_2020_0.pdf.

MONREC (Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environmental) (2018). Myanmar
Timber Chain of Custody Process
Documents and Actors.
https://www.forestdepartment.gov.mm/boo
ks/other/myanmar-timber-chain-custodyprocess-documents-and-actors.

Forest Trends (2021). Illegal Logging andAssociated Trade in Myanmar: Impacts ofGovernment Measures to Address Illegal
Logging. https://www.foresttrends.org/publications/illegal-loggingand-associated-trade-in-myanmar/.

MTE (Myanmar Timber Export). (2017).
Current situation of Myanma TimberEnterprise and the future plans &documentation for Myanmar Timber
export (2017).
http://www.mte.com.mm/index.php/mm/announcements-mm/1069-1051-15-8-201702.

Japanese Forestry Agency (2019). Lao
PDR Country Report: Clean Wood survey,
Journal of Weed Science and Technology.
Supplement.

NAMATI. (2019). Most Farmers Do Not
Know about the Vacant, Fallow and Virgin
Land Management Law as the Grace
Period to Register Closes.
https://namati.org/resources/most-farmersdo-not-know-about-the-vacant-fallow-andvirgin-land-management-law-as-the-graceperiod-to-register-closes/.

Japanese Forestry Agency (2021).
Myanmar Country Study under the Clean
Wood Information Collection Project,
Japan. (in Japanese).
https://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/riyou/goho/
jouhou/pdf/r2/r2report-logging_3.pdf.
Kollert, W. & Kleine, M. (2017).
Introduction. In: The Global Teak Study
Analysis, Evaluation and Future Potentialof Teak Resources. (eds. W. Kollert & M.
Kleine), pp. 15–16. International Union ofForest Research Organizations, Vienna,
Austria.

Oo, T. N., Hlaing, E. E. S., Aye, Y. Y.,
Chan, N., Maung, N. L., Phyoe, S. S., Thu,
P. et al. (2020). The Context of REDD+ in
Myanmar: Drivers, Agents andInstitutions. Occasional Paper 202, Bogor,
Indonesia.

MFCC (Mel Frequency Cepstral
Coefficients). (2020a). First Draft
Myanmar Timber Legality Assurance
System. (MTLAS): MTLAS Std1LS,
Yangon, Myanmar.

Rand, J., Rodriguez, P. C. & Tarp, F.
(2019). The governance of global value
chains , the state , and small businesses
The case of timber in Myanmar. WIDER
Working Paper 2019 / 78, Myanmar.

MFCC (Mel Frequency Cepstral
Coefficients). (2020b). State-owned Teak
Plantation Timber Harvesting andExporting Procedure Introduction,
Yangon, , Myanmar.
https://myanmarforestcertification.org/wpcontent/uploads/2021/01/PlantationExtraction-Procedure_ENG.pdf

REDD+ Programme Myanmar (n.d.).
Draft National REDD+ Strategy
Myanmar.
Seidel, F. (2011). DRAFT REPORTTIMBER TRACKING TECHNOLOGIES
Review of Electronic and Semi-Electronic
Timber Tracking.
https://www.itto.int/files/user/pdf/Meeting
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related documents/Timber Tracking
Review.pdf.

Tint, K., Springate-Baginski, O. & Mehm,
K. K. G. (2011). Community Forestry in
Myanmar : Progress & Potentials.
https://data.opendevelopmentmekong.net/l
ibrary_record/community-forestry-inmyanmar-progress-and-potentials.

Sloth, C. & Htun, K. (2020). Evaluation of
the Myanmar CoC Dossier and MTLAS:
Report developed on behalf of European
Timber Trade Federation.
https://preferredbynature.org/sites/default/f
iles/2020-03/CoC-Dossier-and-MTLASevaluation-19FEB20.pdf.

Woods, K. (2015) Commercial Agriculture
Expansion in Myanmar: Links to
Deforestation, Conversion Timber, andLand Conflicts. https://www.foresttrends.org/publications/commercialagriculture-expansion-in-myanmar-linksto-deforestation-conversion-timber-andland-conflicts/.

Smith, W. (2002). The global problem ofillegal logging. ITTO Tropical Forest
Update, 10(1), 3–5.
Springate-Baginski, O., Treue, T. & Htun,
K. (2016). Legally and illegally logged out
The status of Myanmar’s timber sector andoptions for reform.
http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs24/Springate-Baginski_et_al-2016-status.pdf.

World Bank (2019) Myanmar Country
Environmental Analysis: Forest Resources
Sector Report. World Bank, Washington
DC, USA.
World Bank (2020) Incentivizing
Sustainable Private Sector Investment inTimber Plantations in Myanmar : Policy
Options to Encourage Socially andEnvironmentally Responsible Investment.
World Bank, Washington DC, USA.

Than, S. (2020). Sustainable supply andvalue chains of quality Teak timber in
Myanmar. National Teak Forum in Lao
PDR, Laos.

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Chapter 25: Teak in Mekong: Governance Concerns and
The Evolving Policies
Promode Kant

Abstract

durability, dimensional stability, noncorroding properties, ease of working andseasoning and, no less, for its famed
resistance to termite, fungus, chemical,
water and weather (FAO, 2009). It is able towithstand changes in moisture without muchshrinking and, for this reason, has been usedin ship building for at least two thousand
years and, in building smaller boats in Indiaand its neighbourhood, for almost as long asboats have been used by man.

eak (Tectona grandis), ideal timber
for ship building and declared royaltree the felling and sale of which required
specific permission, was the primary reason
for attracting European colonial powers to
the Mekong region, the two British-Burmah
wars, and the annexation of lower Burmah
to the British Empire. In 1855 the British,
through the “Minutes on Forest Policy”,
declared forests to be the property of thestate, subordinated private interests to therights of the State over nature, and got theState involved in all forestry operations
directly. Brandis translated into practicewhat scientific forestry actually meant intropical forests, introduced the concept ofannual allowable cut, and innovated theagroforestry practice of Taungya as an early
prototype of sustainable forest landscapemanagement by communities. Current
policy emphasis across the region is on
the ecological values of forests withprohibitions on harvesting in natural forests
except in Myanmar where, too, strong
prescriptions in favour of sustainable forest
management have been imposed on tree
felling. Planting teak over private lands,
particularly by smallholders, is encouraged
but there are a host of policies, laws,
practices, and scientific and managerial
concerns that discourage private sector
investment in teak. This chapter presents
the evolution of teak related policies in
the Mekong region since the nineteenth
century till date, examines the difficulties
experienced by smallholder teak planters,
and suggests way forward.

It is this quality of teak that saw its
importance grow multifold around thefifteenth century when several European
countries vied with each other to expand
their navies for colonizing the world. Largeand sturdy ships were the primary vehiclesof large-scale trade and prosperity, andnaval power mostly decided the place ofnations in the global power structure.
European travellers brought home the talesof the majesty of teak and of the immense
wealth growing in the teak forests of the
India and Indo-China waiting to be
exploited and their traders followed in large
numbers petitioning kings and warlords for
permission to cut and carry teak. Within a
few decades these stray trades in teak were
catapulted into some of the biggest andmost powerful companies the world has
ever known, all heavily backed up by theirgovernments marking the beginning ofcolonization of the huge swathe of lands
across the tropical Asia.
Teak trees to teak concessions
Before the entry of European colonial
powers in the Mekong sub-region in the 18th
century, the forests unlike cultivated lands,
were under the direct control of the local
rulers but free access to timber and otherforest resources was usually accorded topeople in the neighborhood with someoversight to ensure, when used for trade, theIntroduction
eak is known the world over for its
wood quality and attractiveness,
combining strength with lightness,315

TEAK IN MEKONG

local rulers also get a part of the earnings.
Since mostly teak was used for trade acrossthe borders, and the primary end use wasmilitary, the kings of the region, like theAlaungpaya dynasty of Myanmar, declared
it as Royal tree the felling, transport andsale of which required permission fromlocal authorities. As export demand for
teak, mainly for naval ship for expanding
empires and establishing businesses acrossthe globe, increased the rulers began
allotting blocks of forests for a pricepermitting the purchaser to fell mature trees
as needed and take out of the country.

on natural forests. Welker’s report led to thecancellation of all existing teak extraction
leases in 1841 by the new Superintendent ofForests, Captain Tremenheere, and fresh
leases were granted with sufficient safeguards.
But there were no effective mechanisms toenforce the safeguards in the forests and theenforcement of regulations at the port ofexit, when timber had already been felled
and transported at considerable expenditure,
led to strong protests from the business
community. The East India Company
decided in favour of the traders overruling theSuperintendent and allowed the former
system to prevail. The destruction of natural
teak forests of Tenasserim continued.

With the entry of the colonial powers thesefelling operations, hitherto limited by thefinancial capacities of the forest lessee,covered far greater areas and destruction
became evident everywhere. In 1826
Tenasserim and Martaban provinces of
Burmah were ceded to the British East India
Company under the Treaty of Yandaboo
and in 1827 Dr Nathaniel Wallich,
Superintendent of Botanical Garden at
Calcutta, reported that the forests of theprovince were better than anywhere else
under the East India Company’s sphere of
influence. There was a rush to exploit these
forests and in 1829 these forests werethrown open to any exploiter who could pay
the ad-valorem value on the timber takenout of the forests to a port of exit. Thismethod was difficult to supervise andMoulmein, barely a large village, soon
became an important town, and withintwenty years the whole of the population
were immersed in the teak industry(Stebbing, 1947).

The prospering of the colonial merchants atthe cost of local resources and the native
people angered the local chieftains and theKing and there were complaints ofextortion of British merchants by the local
gangs suspected to be backed by the
Burmese King. This ultimately leads to theSecond British-Burma war of 1852-53 as aresult of which the British annexed large
parts of Lower Burma including theprovince of Pegu (now called Bago) with its
teak forests reckoned the best in the wholeworld. This time, however, the East India
Company declared that “all the forests are
the property of the Government, and no
general permission to cut timber therein
will be granted to anyone” (Barton, 2002)
and appointed a new Superintendent, DrJohn McClelland, to manage the Pegu
forests (Figure 25-1).
The beginnings of policies thatencouraged sustainable management in
Burma

Uncontrolled felling in the teak forests of
Burmah under British influence continued
causing serious concerns in the trade andpolitical circles and, in 1837, the East India
Company sent Dr Johann Wilhelm Welfer,
an eminent Naturalist of the time, toexamine the status of forests of Tenasserim.
Welfer confirmed the worst fears reporting
low teak inventories and inadequate
regeneration. He recommended raising teakplantations rather than relying exclusively

McClelland noticed harvesting wasconcentrated along the lower hills andalong streams with heavy felling of young
trees as it was guided by ease of access andtransport of harvested timber rather thanage of trees. He wrote a detailed report tothe then Governor General of East India
Company in Calcutta a single sentence of
which, quoted countless times, contains the316

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central principle of scientific forestry: “Aforest may be regarded as a growing capital,
the resources of which are the young trees,
and unless these are preserved and guarded
to maturity, it is obvious the forest mustnecessarily degenerate from the nature of
an improving capital to that of a sinking
fund.” (Handel, 2012). In order todiscourage harvesting of younger trees
McClelland recommended marking of trees
for harvest to be undertaken by thegovernment rather than merchants andlevying duty on logs by number irrespectiveof the value of logs (Stebbing, 1922).

for harvesting and transport of timber onbehalf of the government (Handel, 2012).
Taungya in teak
It fell to Dr Dietrich Brandis, who succeeded
McClelland as the Superintendent of Pegu
forests in 1856, to translate into practicewhat scientific forestry actually meant intropical forests. He made an estimate of what
could be the annual allowable cut from theforests of Pegu spread over some eight
million hectares. More important, Brandis
devised a way in which the people of Pegu,
the Karen, considered hostile to the British,
could benefit from the increasing value teak
was offering. Till then the Karen people,
practicing shifting cultivation, would clear apatch of forests by felling and setting fire to
the vegetation and mixing ash with the soil,
cultivate for three years, and then return tothe same site after 15 to 20 years. Brandis
offered them an attractive sum of money ifthey also planted teak along with their crops
and left a certain number of sturdy teaksaplings behind as they moved to the nextsite for growing their food. Thus was bornthe novel agroforestry practice of Taungyathat then quickly spread across the colonizedtropical world, an early prototype ofsustainable forest landscape management bycommunities.

MacClelland’s report led to the famous“Minutes on Forest Policy” of 1855 byGovernor General Lord Dalhousie of theEast India Company that initiated a new
approach to forest management in which allteak was declared the property of the state,
private interests were subordinated to therights of the state over nature, and the state
was to be involved in all forestry operations
directly, deciding how much to harvest
annually, marking specific trees for felling,
and transporting harvested products to thedepots. The Minutes were critical of themonopolistic role of big timber traders andfavored smaller traders over the larger ones

317

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Figure 25-1 Sketch map of the existing and proposed forest reserves in Pegu and Tenasserim
divisions of British Burmah in 1861. The Karen areas and the boundary of Siam at that time are also
shown (Source: Into the Woods by Dan Handel, Cabinet Magazine, Issue 48, 2012)

Expanding the British teak net towards
Siamdoor of Thailand. The French objectives
was more political than commercial withrather limited French influence in timber
related policies in these countries wheretimber harvest and trade practices had
evolved in response to the demands fromthe neighboring markets of China. Changes
were slow and limited by the decentralized
nature of political control in these countries
with remarkable autonomy in the hands of
local tribal communities.

By 1850s the British knew the teakresources in Burma would not last long at
the rate they were being exploited. So they
cast their eyes on the considerable teakforests of Siam as Thailand was thenknown. From the eastern side the rival
French East India Company, which had
already established its zone of influence
across Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, were
waiting for their own opportunity at the318

TEAK IN MEKONG

The primary British goal from the mid
1850s to the 1880s was to make sure thatthe monarchy in Bangkok protected British
merchants’ access to teak in northern Siambut with the entry of the Bombay Burma
Trading Corporation into the Siamese teakmarket in the 1880s the British actively
sought to help large British trading firms
gain a foothold in the lucrative northern
Siamese teak market as a way of stopping
French colonial expansion and accessing
the great teak resources of the country forfurther strengthening their Navy. The
British thus created their monopoly overteak trade in the world with the threesources of teak – India, Burma andThailand – firmly under their control.
Adjusting itself deftly between the two big
powers of the day, Thailand remained
politically independent but had to cede
control over its teak forests in northern
territories to the British. King Mongkut ofSiam, after signing the Bowring Treaty in1855 giving the British extraterritorial
privileges in managing teak trade in thenorthern vassal states with the British Vice
Counsel in Chiang Mai holding magisterial
powers of the Court to settle trade disputes
involving British subjects, famously stated
his choice was whether to swim upriver andmake friends with the crocodile (theFrench) or to swim downstream to the sea
to be with the whale (the British). He
obviously found the whale, that kept a
cuddly but firm hold for the next threequarters of a century, a more manageable
partner (Barton & Bennett, 2010; Tarling,1993).

et al, 2010). Forestry officials were trained in
British established forestry institutions inIndia, a practice that continued well into
1970s.
Current policies related to teakOver the past three quarters of century since
the end of Second World War Forest
policies across the world have gone throughfundamental changes and the Mekong
region is no exception. The emphasis is
now increasingly on the ecological valuesof forests and less on the expectations of
economic returns and this is particularly
true for natural forests. There areprohibitions on harvesting in natural forests
except in Myanmar where too strong
prescriptions in favour of sustainable forest
management have been imposed on tree
felling. Country specific policies have been
discussed below.
(i) Thailand
National Forest Policy of Thailand of 1985
required that of the total land area at least
40% (20.48 million ha) should be under
forest cover with 15% kept for conservation
forest and remaining 25% designatedas production or economic forests. The
massive floods that engulfed southern
Thailand in November 1988 was, in popular
perception, caused by deforestation andforest degradation due to excessive timber
exploitation. Information derived fromLANDSAT imageries in 1989 indicatedthat the total forest area had shrunk to justabout 28%, about 12% below the targeted
40%. A complete logging ban over thewhole country was introduced in January
1989 to protect the remaining forest
resources and environment (Sumantakul &Sangkul, 1998).

Thailand also benefited from thisarrangement beyond the primary desire tokeep the French ‘crocodile’ away. British
foresters organized the Royal Forest
Department of Thailand and led it from 1896
to 1925 and the Royal Thai Government used
the fear of British annexation to keep the local
chiefs of northern Siam under control duringa politically turbulent period and bring ameasure of centralized forest management
and scientific forestry in the country (Barton

The National Research Council ofThailand, asked to examine the situation,found that inconsistent strategies for
management and protection of naturalforests, poor law enforcement, and lack ofmoney for ensuring proper conservation
were the factors affecting the extent andquality of forest lands under conservation.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

In the case of production forests the reasons
identified were failure to amend management
procedures in concession areas and small
community forests to ensure sustainability,
large wastages in the utilization of wood
harvested from forests, and lack of proper
utilization of cheaper timber species(Sumantakul & Sangkul, 1998).

The Forest Plantation Act was amended in2015 and the amended Section 10 now
further removes the difficulties faced byplantation owners in harvesting andtransport of the wood product of 58 tree
species, of which teak is listed at number 1,
annexed to the Act. It reads: “In logging thewood derived from forest plantation, theforest plantation operator may cut down thetree, cut lumber, trade, possess, and carry intransit the wood at the forest checkpoint
without having to apply for permission
under the law on forestry” (RGoT, 2015).

In the Seventh National Economic andSocial Development Plan (1992-96) that
followed the disastrous floods of 1988 amuch higher value was placed on the needfor total conservation with 25% of the total
land area of the country mandated forcomplete protection as watersheds, nationalparks, and wildlife preservation sanctuaries
and 15% for production forests. Lands withslope of more than 35% were to be designatedas forest lands for which no title deeds or land
use certificates could be issued. And, in orderto reach the overall 40% forest land target in
the earliest possible time, it was decided toincrease reforestation drive in both public andprivate sectors, amendments of laws andregulations that restrain reforestation in
private sector, provision of extension services
aimed at wise land use, re-organisation of
National Forest Administration and explicit
guidelines and penal code for dealing with
forest destruction (Sumantakul & Sangkul,
1998).

The amended Act of 2015 also has provisions
for forest certification under Section 8/1
which now reads: “In case where the importof the log derived from forest plantation needto have a certificate of sustainable forest
management form the Royal Forest
Department required by the country ofdestination, or any forest plantation operator
wishes to have a certificate of sustainable
forest management issued by the Royal
Forest Department, an application shall be
filed with the Registrar and the expense
incurred from the examination or any otheroperation in accordance with the ruleprescribed by the Director-General shall be
paid therewith (RGoT, 2015).
“The application for, issuance and revocationof the certificate under paragraph one shall bein accordance with the rule, procedure, andcondition prescribed in the Ministerial
Regulation; provided that it must beprescribed in accordance with the generally
accepted international standard.

In keeping with the provisions of this plan
Forest Plantation Act was promulgated in
February 1992 which enables people to plantforest tree species on both private andgovernment lands and seek registration for theirplantations. The ownership of these plantations
is transferable both by succession and sale.
Harvesting of timber and other forest products
and their transport from plantation areas can bedone with ease the only requirement being that
the Forest Officer in-charge of the area should
be informed of logging activities in advance sothat he can issue a permit within 15 days. No
fee is payable for harvesting in forest
plantations both on private and government
lands, or for their transportation (Sumantakul &Sangkul, 1998).

“The Director-General shall have power
to authorize other institution or organ inissuance of certificate of sustainable
forest management in his or her place”(RGoT, 2015).
(ii) Lao PDR
The natural teak forests of Lao PDR are acontinuation of the teak forests of Myanmar
and Thailand covering approximately 15%of the total forest area, mostly in Xayaboury
and Bokeo provinces. The resource isdepleting rapidly in area and stocking due
320

TEAK IN MEKONG

to population pressure, shifting cultivationand forest fires. National Conference on
Forestry of May 1989 reviewed government
policies on the utilisation and management of
natural resources and recommended (a)protection and rehabilitation of biologicalresources of existing forests, (b) maintaining
the economic utility of forest resources, and(c) settlement of upland people dependent on
shifting cultivation and ensuring theirfood security (DoF Lao PDR, 1998;
Vongkhamsao et al., 2022).

These policy measures, combined withexpanding road network and easier accessto credit up to 60% of the estimated valueof plantation, have led to teak being
successfully raised over considerable extent ofhill lands in Luang Prabang province innorthern Lao. However, one clear outcome ofthis household centric approach in Lao PDR isthe conversion of community centric shifting
cultivation covering large sized community
owned hillsides to individually held small
sized teak plantations that are, in practice, nodifferent from smallholder teak plantations
elsewhere in the region (DoF Lao PDR, 1998;
Vongkhamsao et al., 2022).

To achieve these goals, the Government hasestablished permanent settlements for uplandfamilies practicing shifting cultivation andprotection of watersheds of streams and rivers
that run through the country by rehabilitationand protection of the forests situated in thewatershed basins and sources, and by thereforestation of the eroded areas.
Government policies encourage plantingof teak in shifting cultivation areas byproviding ownership of land andsupplying teak seedlings at subsidized
prices. Current demand by farmers toestablish teak plantations is quite high.
The overall target is to rehabilitate,conserve and regenerate 17 million ha ofdegraded forest lands so as to bring 70% ofland area of the country under forest cover.
Part of the degraded forest lands are to be
used for agro-forestry and for other forest
oriented development (DoF Lao PDR, 1998;
Vongkhamsao et al., 2022).

(iii) Myanmar
Almost all forests in the country are ownedby the government except some community
forests that have been accorded ownership
under a long term lease agreement with thegovernment. Forest cover in Myanmar has
been decreasing continuously and sharply
over the past three decades with 56% of thetotal land area under forest cover in 1990
reduced to 52.1% in 2000 and 50.2% in
2005. Even faster has been the loss ofimportant tree species, teak above all, ofbigger sizes from these forests. The
Growing Stock (GS) of ten economicallyimportant species constituting the bulk ofoverall composition of forests dropped
dramatically from 1340.05 million m3(47.81% of total GS) to just 559.62 millionm3 (19.51% of total GS) between 1990 to2000 with only limited relief in the years
that followed (Htun, 2009).

Harvesting in natural forests is banned
since 1989 and elsewhere it is carried out by
the State Forest Enterprise, confined largely
to the removal of old logs from harvestings
carried out in the past, and any fresh fellingthat may have been undertaken for shifting
cultivation. There is a ban on export of logs
from the country though there are still
problems in the effective implementation of
the ban. A Teak Improvement Center isestablished dealing with selection andpropagation of plus trees and clonal seedorchards (DoF Lao PDR, 1998; Vongkhamsao
et al., 2022).

Excessive illicit export to China and, to alesser extent, to India and Thailand as roundor sawn timber, and to European Union and
USA as finished products, has been largely
responsible for this situation. There are also
reports of increased illegal logging of
natural teak in Myanmar close to its borders
with Thailand. In 1988 the Myanmar
government opened its forests to foreigncompanies for harvesting wood from theforests and transport it back to their countryof domicile with the state-run Myanma
Timber Enterprise (MTE) granted the321

TEAK IN MEKONG

authority to regulate logging by the newly
emerging private sector largely foreignowned (Mahadevan, 2021).

Cambodia does not have natural teakforests and has been encouraging theestablishment of teak plantations in theprivate sector as feedstock to their woodbased industries for making finishedproducts for the huge Chinese market next
door. Teak was introduced to Cambodia in
1936 in Han Chey commune, Kampong
Cham province, as an agro-forestry systemby the French colonial administration andsubsequently extended to other provinces
such as Pursat and Ratanakiri Province.
Between 1960s to 1980s the civil war
interrupted all afforestation activities, andsince 1990s the afforestation in Cambodia
has been resumed. In 1993, teak plantations
were established at Tuek Chhar over morethan 60 ha of land, and at Tboung Khmum
over about 300 ha. Subsequently teak has
been planted along the national highway in
Chlong district of Kratie province and near
Ratanakiri province (Chheang, 2022).

But within a short period of the grant ofthese concessions in Myanmar, Thailand
banned teak harvesting in their naturalforests. This had the effect of hugely
increasing the commercial value of theconcessions in Myanmar and a number ofThai firms rushed to obtain logging
concessions. Thai timber companies not
only bought wood from the MTE but werealso subcontracted by the MTE to carry out
harvesting and transport of timber in the
Myanmar’s forests for themselves. The
only restriction was that they could notcarry out the trade within the Myanmar
territory (Mahadevan, 2021).
In Myanmar teak harvesting is carried out
under the Myanmar Selection System withboth allowable annual harvest and markingof harvestable trees being done by the
Forest Department while the actual act oftree felling, conversion and transport todepots, and sale, is conducted by the soleauthorized government agency, theMyanmar Timber Enterprises (MTE). Thisis supposed to grant greater control overtimber harvest and trade to the government
and thus limit wrongdoings but, in practice,
the MTE gets most of its harvesting
activities done by sub-contractors as its
own
personnel
andinfrastructural
capacities to carry out timber harvesting
and trade across the length and breadth ofthe country are very limited (Mahadevan,
2021; Htun, 2009).

The rapid increase in teak plantations in
Cambodia over the last two couple ofdecades is primarily on account ofinvestments by private sector and, to alesser extent, by smallholders encouraged
by government campaigns, and distributionof teak seedlings by local forest
administrations to local communities forplanting as tree plantations and inagroforestry. Some private teak plantationcompanies have also been able to get large
economic land concessions (ELC) from thegovernment for raising these plantations
like 4848 ha to Grandis Timber Limited in2014, and 350 ha to Teak Farm, an Israeli
Company, in 2018 (Chheang, 2022).

At the policy level, the Government of
Myanmar has undertaken several steps torestore the forest cover in the country ofwhich raising tree plantations for commercial
purposes, local and industrial use has seen
noteworthy progress. Restoration efforts havealso been focused around watersheds and formeeting domestic fuel and small timber
requirements.

A major problem faced by potential
investors in teak plantations in Cambodia isthe lack of financing at reasonable interest
rates as is available to agriculture andhorticulture sectors. Teak plantation needs
substantial financial investment, especiallyin the first few years for establishing teakplantation, maintenance and preventative
fire protection measures. Uncertain
economic returns and frequent market
fluctuations discourage Micro Finance(iv) Cambodia

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TEAK IN MEKONG

Institutions (MFIs) from extending loans toinvestors in teak plantations (Chheang,2022).

deforestation, restoring degraded forests,
and promotion of afforestation andreforestation as the national target in the
Framework for Cambodian Sustainable
Development Goals. Under the Agricultural
Strategic Development Plan (ASDP) 20192023, the Forestry Administration has set atarget of establishment of at least 10,000 haof forest plantations annually, of which
9,000 ha would be by the private sector. It
also plans to distribute 10 million tree
seedlings per year under its Conservation of
Genetic Resources from Forest andEstablishment of Seed Sources for Planting
Program. In pursuit of this ambitious goal,
the Forestry Administration has identified
degraded forests and other degraded lands
that are available for restoration andintroduced initiatives for investing in theestablishment of private forest plantations
on state land by forging partnerships
between various private sector entities.
The Declaration on Tree Plantation
Development of 2017 facilitates theregistration of private forests established onsuch lands (Chheang, 2022).

Even though there are no specificincentives for investments in teakplantations there are a number of enabling
policies and regulations that serve topromote the establishment of private tree
plantations in Cambodia in the form oflaws, sub-decrees and regulations that
include royalty exemption, export tax
reduction, and other taxes and fees. Exportof timber in log form has been banned topromote domestic wood based industry(Chheang, 2022).
To encourage the establishment of large-scale
plantations the Royal Government of
Cambodia had issued a Sub-decree on
Economic Land Concessions under the Land
Law of 2001 providing the criteria,
procedures, mechanisms and institutionalarrangements for initiating and granting new
economic land concessions, for monitoring
the performance of all economic land
concession contracts, and for reviewing theconcessions granted earlier. Economic land
concessions are granted to grow food andagro-industry crops including tree plantation,
among other important national objectives(Chheang, 2022).

(v) Vietnam
Teak, introduced to Vietnam only in early
20th century, has high adaptation to a wide
range of climate condition from the North to
the South in Vietnam even though it is notnative to the country. It has been planted
mainly as a monoculture plantation and only
occasionally as mixed species plantation.
Teak as the main tree in agroforestry models
has been more successful. In northwest andcentral highlands of Vietnam where teak has
been planted as a shade tree for coffee, plumor as intercrop with maize and upland rice it
has provided significant benefits by way ofwind breaks and additional income fromtimber after about 20 years. The productivityof teak in Vietnam ranged 7-16 m3/ha/year
across different ecological conditions andeconomic returns from teak plantations are
significantly higher compared to those of
short rotation species such as acacia andeucalypt (Trieu et al., 2022).

The Forestry Administration is working withthe objective to create an enabling environment
conducive to develop multipurpose plantation
forestry with potential to supply domestic
timber needs, increase incomes of local
communities, and improve the environment
through watershed protection and erosion
control. These plantations will be developed tomeet current and future market demands, taking
cognizance of the need to protect theenvironment. Species considered include
Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata,
Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis,
Acacia auriculifomis, Acacia mangium, andSesbania grandiflora (Chheang, 2022).
The Royal Government of Cambodia has
set 50% forest cover, sustainable
management of all types of forests, halting
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TEAK IN MEKONG

Major challenges for greater acceptance ofteak by smallholders in Vietnam are its long
harvesting rotation and lack of availabilityof high quality planting stock. For
smallholders who cannot afford to invest in
long-rotation crops, teak based agroforestry is a potential model which can help
them earn significant incomes in the years
before harvesting. Although teak timbervalue is much higher than acacia andeucalypt timber in Vietnam, the value chainof teak timber in Vietnam is still
disadvantaged in comparison with acacia
and eucalypt timber (Trieu et al., 2022).

natural teak forests of India, Thailand and
Lao PDR are closed to harvesting, and theonly other country with natural teak forests,
Myanmar, having lost a very large part ofits natural teak resources to unsustainably
heavy removals, the only way theburgeoning demand can be met is byplanting teak across the tropics. Some workby way of raising teak plantations across 70
countries spread over nearly all tropicalregions has been done but that cannot keep
up with the demand resulting in sharp andincessant increases in illegal removals ofteak from its natural habitats.

In recent year, growers have beenencouraged by the Government to produce
large dimension timber. The price of teaktimber is increasing because of shortage oflarge size timber supply in Vietnam. The
forest owners have already started using
species other than acacia and eucalypt for
their plantation, including teak and some
native tree species. Teak promises to be avaluable and suitable tree species for large
dimension timber plantation regime in
Vietnam. Major challenges for developing
teak plantation in Vietnam include lack of
capital resource of the growers and its longrotation. This is especially so withsmallholder forest owners who currently
manage approximately 70% plantation areain Vietnam with average of 2-3ha perhousehold and cannot afford to invest in
long-rotation crops and also need to earnsignificant incomes in the years before
harvesting. Although teak timber value ismuch higher than acacia and eucalypttimber in Vietnam, the value chain of teaktimber in Vietnam is still disadvantaged incomparison with acacia and eucalypt timber(Trieu et al., 2022).

Governments in all countries of the
Mekong region encourage teak planting bygovernment forest departments over public
lands and also incentivize people andcommunities to establish teak plantations.
As the availability of public lands forraising teak plantations are limited
everywhere due both to ecologicalconstraints and competing demands forother uses, the trend is to encourage raising
teak plantations over private lands by
individuals, communities and companies
through subsidies and other incentives. But
much work remains to be done in thisdirection since there are still a host ofpolicies and laws in all the countries of theregion that, in one way or the other, act todiscourage private sector investment in teakforemost of which are the restrictions on
felling and transport of teak that were put inplace for protecting teak in natural forestsand on public lands. Many more roadblocks
are offered by a range of land and fiscal
policies relating to lease tenures, land
conversions from agriculture to tree
cultivation, royalties and taxes which are
discussed at appropriate places in thispaper.

Future of Teak Trade Lies in Teak
Plantations

Teak plantations raised across the Mekong
region, in terms of the extent of land
covered, are both large and small in sizes.
Those spread over large extents of land canbe roughly classified as Government owned
large-scale plantations, private corporate
sector owned large scale plantations,With rapid eradication of poverty in largehighly populated developing countries like
China, India, Brazil, Nigeria, and Ghana
among scores of others, and rising incomes,
the demand for teak products is increasing
across the world. But, at the same time,324

TEAK IN MEKONG

individual farmer owned large scale
plantations, and community owned
cooperative large scale plantations. Small
scale plantations, on the other hand, arealmost exclusively owned by individuals,
both by agriculturists on a part of theircultivated lands, and by smallholders
primarily engaged in some non-agriculture
economic activity in a distant place andraising these plantations on small plots oflands held by them in their ancestralvillages.

(Udayana et al., 2019; Lamb et al., 2005;
Parrotta, 1995).
But teak appears to limit secondary
ecological benefits significantly bydiscouraging the return of many native
species - trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses in teak intensive plantations. Ground florais particularly affected often leading to lossof top soil in medium to high rainfall
localities. It is for this reason that highintensity teak planting is not a preferredwatershed protection strategy. Several
aspects of teak’s biology may contribute to
the species’ exclusion of native trees(Healey & Gara, 2003). The overall effecton understory vegetation is that of a
dynamic balance of the impact of theplanted trees on the soil, moisture,
microflora and microfauna and this, onbalance, discourages understory growth inteak plantations. It is for this reason thatlarge scale forest landscape restoration of
degraded forest lands in the Mekong region
by government forest departments, withexpectations of a quick return to predegradation biodiversity rich status, is not
likely to be teak-intensive in the years
ahead even though teak would always be an
important component.

Major Concerns of Large-scale Teak
Plantations are Ecological Aspects.
Most common of large sized teakplantations in the Mekong region are thoseraised by government forest departments
though a few large sized plantations havealso been raised by companies andindividuals holding or acquiring large
chunks of lands specifically for thispurpose. The major concern of large scale
teak plantations is ecological in nature.
Most lands available to the government
forest departments for raising large scale
plantations in the tropics are those that havebeen partially or severely degraded in thepast. And tropical forest plantation projects,
even apart from those raised under forest
landscape restoration programs, fundedthrough national budgets or financed byinternational development agencies aredesigned to provide a range of secondarysocial, ecological and environmental
benefits in addition to timber.

Large scale teak plantations on non-forest
lands is a possibility but such lands have
many competing uses in developing
societies of the region and are difficult tocome by. The most likely growers of large
scale teak plantations in the region in the
coming years would be corporations or richlandowners. Once access to such lands isgained, raising money for planting teak is
usually not an insurmountable problem
particularly if the planter owns the land and,with adequate finances, both high quality
expertise and planting stocks, become
available to them. Restrictions on
harvesting and on transport and trade
impact all plantation owners irrespective of
the size and has been discussed elsewherein this paper.

Trees promote various processes linked to
species diversity promoting colonization of
the understory by altering the chemical,
physical and biotic soil quality through root
penetration and decomposition, soil biota
activity, shading, increasing humidity andreducing temperatures. Trees provide
perching places for birds and batsdispersing seeds, and an environment forsmall arboreal and ground-living anddigging animals including invertebrates,
pollinating, spreading and burying seeds.
Grasses, and hence fires, and exotic weeds
are suppressed by shading from the trees

Smallholder teak planter holds the key
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TEAK IN MEKONG

The Lomé Statement for Smallholder
Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) issued
at the ITTO Regional Workshop on
Promotion of Smallholders Forest
Landscape Restoration in West Africa held
in November 2019 at Lomé, Togo, notes that
smallholders “are most often classified
according to their size, which can vary fromless than one hectare up to 10 hectares andmore. Legally, smallholders can be
individuals, family or clan structures,
communities, churches or associations.
Within the framework of FLR, smallholders
include tree planters (woodlots for timber or
fuelwood), tree crop producers and farmers
who incorporate trees in their farming
systems, as well as those who restore andprotect remaining natural forests.”

practicing shifting cultivation and protect
the watersheds of streams and rivers by
rehabilitation and protection of the forests
situated in these watersheds and by thereforestation of the eroded areas. These
people so settled are allocated forest lands,
both degraded and well-forested, to manageand protect on a household basis thereby
granting security of land tenure to the rural
people and enable transmission of theirinheritance to their heir. Government forestry
units at all levels are expected to act as theservicing units for the local people andprovide technical assistance in extension
techniques for farming, forest and fruit tree
planting, seed and fertilizer supply (DoF Lao
PDR, 1998; Vongkhamsao et al., 2022)
These policy measures, combined withexpanding road network and better accessto credit, have led to teak being successfullyraised over considerable extent of hill lands
in Luang Prabang province in northern Lao.
However, one clear outcome of thishousehold centric approach in Lao PDR isthe conversion of community centric
shifting cultivation covering large sizedcommunity owned hillsides to individually
held small sized teak plantations that are, inpractice, no different from smallholder teakplantations elsewhere in the region.

What would be considered smallholding
will, therefore, be context specific. In theheavily populated Mekong sub-region the
per capita land availability is very low
ranging from 0.12 ha in Vietnam to 0.34 hain Thailand. Land holding in the region istypically small with as many as 85%
landholding in Vietnam, 38% in Laos, 34%
in Myanmar, and 23% in Thailand being
less than 1 ha (FAOSTAT). Average size of
agriculture landholdings per agriculture
household in the Mekong region is 0.7 ha in
Vietnam, 1.6 ha in Laos, 2.4 ha inCambodia, 2.3 ha in Myanmar, and 3.1 hain Thailand (Ingalls et al., 2018). Given thenature of landholdings it would perhaps be
appropriate to consider landholdings upto 2
ha as smallholdings in Vietnam and upto 5
ha in other countries of the region for the
purpose of raising tree plantations.

Other countries of the region like Myanmarthat still have many communities practicing
shifting cultivation may also encourage
similar shift away to family owned teakplantations and teak based agroforestry
over such lands. However, this will have tobe primarily a socio-political decision thatwould decide whether these countries arewilling to hasten the process of conversionof community owned land assets ofindigenous hill people, presently accessible
to the entire communities on the basis of
their needs, into small sized individual
family owned assets. This is because thisprocess will also result in fundamental,
deepset, social changes at a great pace withconsequences for the overall governance ofthe country.

From growing food to growing teakShifting cultivation is still being practiced
in parts of Lao PDR, Myanmar, andCambodia where indigenous people live incommunities. In Lao PDR the policies on
the utilisation and management of natural
resources emphasizes the need to reduce
shifting cultivation and control
deforestation. To achieve these goals theGovernment has sought to establish
permanent habitations for upland families
326

TEAK IN MEKONG

Policy Support to the Smallholder Teak
Planternegotiating the prices of these societal andecological goals with relevant authorities. A
network of permanent sample plots covering
the entire range of growth and management
conditions should be established in theregion and improved national tables giving
growth and yield estimates in different partsof this range of site and treatment
conditions should be prepared and madeavailable to teak growers.

Protecting the interests of unorganized andwidely dispersed small-scale teak growers
is a major challenge before the policy
makers. New technologies for planting,
improved planting stock, and means to
select more suitable sites for planting teak,are now available as are newer provisions
for financing under the many international
agreements and national mandates on
biodiversity, climate change and on
limiting pollution. Increased access tomarketing of teak products in high end
international markets by small growers is
also on the horizon. But the reach of thesmallholder to all these positive changes isstill very limited. In addition, there are ahost of existing fiscal, harvest, trade,transport, and land related policies thatadversely impact the smallholders. A
comprehensive review of all existing
practices, policies and regulations is needed
to identify specific policies and measuresthat are most efficient and cost effective inleading to the desired changes at global,
national and local levels.

Site management to sustain and enhance
productivity may involve changes insilvicultural prescriptions, soil conservation
measures and fertilizer application. Existing
protocols, where they exist, are inadequate andserve only large government and private
plantations. The government forest
departments of the region may develop these
protocols specifically for smallholder
plantations and make them easily accessible toall concerned.
High quality planting stock
Most often smallholders use the planting
stock available closest to the planting site andrealize their teak crop is of poorer quality only
when it is too late to do anything. And
resulting low returns on account of low
quality and quantity of teak timber produced
then deters more smallholders from opting
for teak. Sometimes high-quality teakplanting stocks are available through large
plantation companies but these are highpriced and incur considerable costs intransportation or tied to conditions that
smallholders are reluctant to agree to. The
smallholders expect assured quality ofplanting stock delivered at reasonable prices
at convenient locations.

Mapping site quality
Site quality has a dominant role indetermining
theproductivity,
andprofitability, of teak plantations and,
therefore, it is important that the smallholders
be guided and encouraged to opt for the best
available sites. Presently site quality
assessments are based exclusively on growthparameters but increasingly ecological andbiodiversity values are also becoming
important even for smallholder plantations.
This is particularly important if they are tobenefit from national and international
financing most of which is inclined towards
climate change mitigation and adaptation andSustainable Development Goals. The growthand yield estimates for these sites should,
therefore, be prepared in such a manner thatthe farmer is able to understand theunavoidable moderations in wood yield when
ecological goals are also expected to be
fulfilled. This will better prepare him for

The forestry departments of the region may
produce certified high-quality teak planting
stock offering a good range of choices that are
well advertised, and make it available
through local extension offices of all land
related government departments likehorticulture,animalhusbandry
andagriculture departments besides their own
outlets. The planting stock should be offeredat low prices but not free of cost so as to avoid
327

TEAK IN MEKONG

wastage. Since there are primary schools in
the remotest villages it would be useful toengage the services of resident teachers as

short term planting material stockholders andextension workers during the planting season.

Photo 25-1 Teak Plus Tree T6 at Karulai in Nilambur South forest division, Kerala, India for
producing high quality planting stock (Credit: B Preetha, KFRI, Peechi, India)

Discouraging speculative investments

these high expectations were not met it led
to large scale disappointment and collapse of
the so-called teak schemes across thetropical world. Had rigorous cost-benefit
analyses been undertaken taking into
account the true opportunity cost of the land
to the smallholder in addition to the site andenvironmental conditions, management
regimes, and accessibility to markets, thislarge scale speculative investment based onmisleading claims could have been easily
avoided.

Expectations of excessive profits can lead to
speculative investments on a massive scale.
This is what happened in the decades of1980 and 1990 when there was a surge ofinvestment in teak plantations across thetropical world with experts offering costbenefit analysis of long rotation plantations
suggesting return on investment of 15%
assuming low initial investments, noopportunity cost for land, easy marketabilityof teak wood of all sizes, and continued
increase in the prices of teak timber. When
328

TEAK IN MEKONG

The government forest departments of thecountries of the region should commission
universities and research institutions forcarrying out rigorous cost-benefit analysisof teak plantations on all likely sites within
their countries at different rotations taking
into account the true labour costs, and thereal opportunity costs of the land underplantation. This will not only give a true
picture to potential investors in smallhold
teak plantations but also build capacity for
quality cost analysis within their countries.

the transport of teak harvested from private
lands by farmers. But these restrictions,introduced during colonial times to protect
government owned natural forests fromillegal felling, act as severe disincentive forsmallholders who find it difficult to obtain
the required permissions to transport theirtimber to the sawmills and market and often
become victim of corrupt practices. Manystates in India that had the same restrictions
have now removed them atleast for species
that are not found in natural forests in theneighbouring districts which has greatly
eased the situation for tree growers. The
task of protection of teak in natural forests
belonging to the State is a duty of the larger
society and of the State, the cost of whichshould be borne by the State and not by
individual smallholders who take to teakgrowing as a normal economic activity.
And now DNA based technologies are alsoavailable that can help establish the true
source of timber. These technologies needs
to be further refined and made easier andquicker which task can be undertaken bycountries like Thailand, Malaysia,
Indonesia and India that have thetechnological expertise in the field.

Tenure security and felling permission
Smallholders in some countries of theregion, particularly Thailand, have this fearthat if they plant trees on their lands they
may not be allowed to fell the trees and use
the land for agriculture or for house
construction at a future date. Thus, while
the smallholder continues to be the ownerof her land once trees are planted on it, hereconomic choices related to the land
become severely restricted. This is more
likely to happen on trees planted on
landholdings located on steep slopes, onother ecologically fragile areas, and on
places of tourist interest with highexpectations of green surroundings.

It is strongly recommended that the
governments of the countries in the
Mekong region may consider removing the
restrictions on transport of teak fromplantations altogether and instead rely on
in-situ protection of their natural teakresources using appropriate technologies.

It needs to be appreciate that the only reason
a smallholder plants teak on his land is tomaximize his earnings and not for aesthetic
purposes or for binding soils, and certainly
not for inviting restrictions on his existing
freedoms on the enjoyment of his land
assets. If such social objectives are to be
added to his personal goals in planting teakby the government under extraordinary
circumstances for public good then, as amatter of principle, the government must be
willing to compensate the smallholder for
all the consequential losses incurred byhim. In the interest of promoting teakplanting by smallholders every country in
the region should incorporate this principle
in their policies.

Attracting investments for smallholder
teak plantations
Smallholders find it difficult to source
funds for financing investment in their teakplantations on account of the multiple risks
involved. Institutional assistance for loan
financing for raising teak plantations acrossthe region is inadequate at best and often
absent altogether. Loan financing for theselong-term investments pose serious
problems and currently there are not many
instruments that can satisfactorily link thefinancial institutions providing loans withthe teak growers needing loans. And even

Restrictions on transport
Existing policies and legislation in somecountries of the region place restrictions on
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TEAK IN MEKONG

when there are potential investors willing torisk their capital in such ventures, like theEuropean and American Pension Funds
mandated to invest a small part of theirportfolios in such green investments, there
are no official mechanisms that can linkthese prospective financiers with genuine
smallholder teak growers. It is this gap
which needs to be bridged.

in order to ensure that this helps create rural
employment, such relief may be limited toonly rural areas.
Support under UNFCCC mechanisms
Teak forests in their natural zone provide a
range of ecosystem services that are highly
valuable for the welfare of larger global andnational societies including mitigation of,and adaptation to, climate change. The
forest departments and other authorities in
the Mekong sub-region have long been
discussing about additional incomes forcommunity and individual tree planters by
way of carbon credits for mitigating climatechange through carbon sequestration, andthrough other ecological services that theforests and tree plantations render to thesociety. Teak growers across the region
expect their governments to enact policies
and take steps that enable them to financiallybenefit from these new possibilities.

The forestry departments of the countries of
the region should provide platforms on
which genuine smallholder teak growers
can be brought in touch with financial
institutions mandated and willing to extend
loans to smallholder teak plantations andpotential green investors. Investment inteak plantations of all sizes should beofficially declared as "green investment"
and attractive financial and tax incentives
provided to promote these investments. The
tax incentives can also be linked to thelength of rotation which would help
encourage the growing of larger sized teaktimber.

The very rigid eligibility conditions of the
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
under the Kyoto Protocol, the excessive
technical complexities, and very hightransactional costs, in implementing CDM
projects placed the smallholder teakplantations outside the reach of this facility.
REDD+, which stands for reducing
emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation, and foster conservation,
sustainable management of forests, andenhancement of forest carbon stocks,
addresses a part of the limitations of the CDM
but REDD+ is essentially meant for nationalor sub-national level efforts where theachievements in sequestering carbon have to
be measured against the national or
subnational baselines. This means that till acountry, or atleast a significantly sized region
within it, is prepared and ready for REDD+
the communities and smallholding teakgrowers would not be able to access financial
benefits from the climate change mitigation
services they provide to the world.

Tax Relief
As the availability of public lands forraising teak plantations are limited
everywhere due both to ecologicalconstraints and competing demands forother uses, the trend is to encourage raising
teak plantations over private lands by
individuals, communities and companies
through subsidies and other incentives. In
India the income accrued from agriculture
is exempted from income tax without any
upper limit and, since tree growing is
considered agricultural activity, there is no
income tax on the sale of trees harvested.
This is a major attraction for tree growers
and is worthy of emulation.
Another area in which tax relief could help
fledgling teak wood industry, and thereby
encourage planting of teak as source of raw
material, is sawing and making furnitureand other consumer products. This could bedone by way of a sharp reduction in taxes
on the existing industry and a complete tax
holiday for 5 years for new industries. And,

Article 6 of the Paris Agreement on Climate
Change has provisions for both market andnon-market mechanisms in support of330

TEAK IN MEKONG

climate change mitigation and adaptation
activities that need to be utilized creatively
to finance smallholder teak plantations. The
recently held COP26 at Glasgow in Nov
2021 had made much progress in finalizing
rules for operationalizing thesemechanisms in practice and some moreguidelines are expected to be finalized by
the subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC in
June 2022 following which ITTO may
commission a small pilot activity to test
ways to use these Article 6 mechanisms insupport of the smallholder teak plantations.

teak fetches good value in the market. The
current and potential uses of small
dimension plantation wood from teakplantations should now be assessed
recognizing these dynamic changes.
For hastening this process of market
acceptance of small sized teak from shortrotation plantations the governments andforest departments of the countries in theregion should promote the use of small
timber utilization technologies that are
already in use in Indonesia and elsewhere
and also encourage further innovations
through financial and logistical support
measures. Chemical treatment of higher
sapwood timber can impart it greater
strength, longevity, and protection against
insect attack. Specific time bound projects
should be awarded to universities to
conduct research on these subjects.

The forest departments of the countries of
the region should explore the possibility ofcreating provisions for pooling thesmallholder plantations into larger sizedcarbon sequestration schemes like REDD+
and other schemes that enable payment forecological services rendered by these tree
plantations. The country negotiators in
UNFCCC, UNCCD and CBD Conferencesof Parties should be asked to bring theseconcerns into international negotiations.

Also, in order to facilitate comparisons
between teakwood of different sizes andlocalities, common standards, definitions
and nomenclature need to be adopted acrossthe teak producing countries. This is a very
big task not within the capacity of producing
countries in the Mekong region but it canbegin here as an ITTO project with theultimate objective of making the standards
evolved acceptable all over the world. This
project should entail review of existing
national grading systems for teak timber,taking into account the quality anddimensions obtainable from shorter rotation
plantations in end harvest as well as
thinnings.
International
collaboration
between teak producing and consuming
countries is also required on products andmarkets and for standardization ofdefinitions in relation to technology, markets
and sizes. Such collaboration is particularly
relevant for the standardization of grading
rules for teak timber and for carrying out
research on demand, supply and prices ofvarying grades of teak.

Marketing short rotation timber
Smallholders invariably opt for shortrotation and for them even twenty years
could be a long rotation. Investors in large
teak plantations also expect interim
incomes from small-diameter woodobtained from thinnings. But the higher
proportion of sapwood in short rotation teakbrings in changes in physical andmechanical properties, and the appearance,of the wood in comparison with larger
diameter wood. This lowers their market
value. Processing of smaller dimensions.
Difficulties in processing and marketingsmaller dimensions also deters small
growers.
Some countries, however, appeared to havefound solution to this problem. In Java,
Indonesia, demand for small sized teak has
evolved over time with improvements inutilization technologies thereby facilitating
the use of smaller dimensions. In recent
years, teak has been harvested in as short atime as 8 years in places where small sized331

TEAK IN MEKONG

On pruning, thinning, and girdling
before harvest

may be more important to them than the
returns that may come at the end of rotation.

Pruning is typically required to maximise
the production of high-quality teak timber.
It is best to prune young teak up to 50% of
the tree total height at the first thinning. The
first pruning should be carried out when thestand reaches the height of 4‒5 meters,
second pruning at 9‒10 meters and the lastpruning should be done when the standreaches 12 meters height.

Girdling trees well before harvest at
rotation age has been an age old practice in
Myanmar that makes the tree loose sap andget seasoned ready for immediate use as
timber. But this also results in loosing
growth that would have occurred during theperiod between girdling and harvest which
is important in short rotation plantations. If
girdling is done in summers just threemonths before harvest at 20-year rotation
the loss in growth may be insignificant but
the possibility of immediate use may
enhance its commercial value considerably.
The forest departments of the region may
examine this closely in different localities
and seasons and advise the smallholder teakgrowers in the neighbourhood accordingly.

Thinning is an important tool for ensuringhigh quality and higher volume product at
the end of rotation. It results in improved
growth and yield of stands as well as
individual tree sizes and tends to havepositive effects on stem form. But manysmall growers use it to remove best quality
trees years before the rotation period which
results in reduction in both quality andquantity of the timber produced at the endof rotation.

On harvesting teak in natural forests
Harvesting of teak in natural forests isbanned in Thailand since 1989 where mostof these natural forests have been declared
Protected Areas. Teak harvesting in naturalforests of Lao PDR is also prohibited since
1989 though considerable quantities ofnaturally grown teak still enters markets
which is said to be coming from shifting
cultivation areas of north-western uplandsof the country and from left over teak logs
harvested in the past.

The extension wings of the forest
departments of the region may hold regular
workshops in localities that have large
number of teak plantations to demonstrate
best thinning and pruning practices. The
final decision on thinning, however, mustbe left to the teak growers because
sometimes their immediate need of money

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Photo 25-2 Natural teak forests at Sungam, Parambikulam, Kerala, India(Credit: P K Thulasidas, KFRI, Peechi, India)

In Myanmar teak harvesting in naturalforests is carried out under the Myanmar
Selection System with both assessment ofallowable annual harvest, and marking of
harvestable trees, being done by the Forest
Department while the actual act of tree
felling, conversion and transport to depots,
and sale, is conducted by the sole authorized
government agency, the Myanmar TimberEnterprises.

While this has promoted teak plantation
activities within Thailand and also inneighboring Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam it
has also led to increased demand for teakharvesting in natural teak forests of Myanmar
where restrictions on natural teak harvesting
are limited by the principles of sustainable
forest management. There are also reports ofincreased illegal logging of natural teak in
Myanmar close to its borders with Thailand.
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TEAK IN MEKONG

While the total ban on teak felling in naturalforests everywhere is often lauded as a very
effective approach to conservation of thisgreat gift of nature, in the opinion of thisauthor the benefits are overvalued and theoutcomes are not without great risks. The
increased risks are in having precious
natural forests with large number of old,and often diseased and decaying trees, that
become host to very huge infestations ofHyblaea puera, a leaf defoliator commonly
found on teak, and other local pests thatthen damage younger crop. Even worse,
during drought season these old decaying
trees greatly increase the risk of crown fire
spreading across the teak forests as they
provide plentiful standing fuel to the fires.
Also in National Parks and other Protected
Areas with natural teak forests too high adensity of teak trees discourage grass
growth on the forest floor reducing thecarrying capacity for wild ungulates which
in turn affects the populations of predators.
So a regular but moderate selection fellingof old, dead and dying teak trees isadvisable in these forests.

and necessary skills among the workers andrepeated training, and effective supervision,is thus the most effective tools for reducing
risks. Wearing suitable Personal Protective
Equipments provides protection when allother control measures cannot adequately
eliminate or minimize risks to a worker’s
health and safety.
The extension wings of the forestry
departments of the region should conduct
annual workshops in each important teakplantation district to communicate with theteak growers on the best harvesting
practices.
On certification
There is increasing demand from EU andNorth American countries for certificationof timber exported to their countries in raw
or processed form. And since theeconomies of the Mekong region rely to aconsiderable degree on their exports there ispressure on the teak producers to get theirtimber certified. Higher prices in nichemarkets, where consumers are prepared to
pay a premium price for teak obtained fromsustainably managed areas, are an incentive
to produce certified timber. But the costsof complying with the environmental
standards required in certification process
are quite high and almost always
prohibitive for smallholders. And also theniche markets willing to pay higher prices
for certified timber may not actually be thetarget market for most small growers. It
would be quite a while before a clear
consumer preference for certified timberemerges in a widespread market for timberand its products.

Containing environmental damage andhuman injuries during harvesting
Harvesting and extraction operations are theforestry activities that generally cause themost significant impact on the environment.
This impact can be reduced through proper
planning and control of harvesting
operations using sound principles, systems,
and techniques that have stood the test oftime. Successful harvesting should be (a)technically feasible considering physicallimitations, engineering knowledge, andenvironmental relationship of the forest, (b)economically viable considering the costs
and benefit of short and long range
consequences, (c) environmentally soundconsidering impacts on the natural and social
environment, and (d) institutionally feasible
considering laws and regulations, landowner
objectives, and social values.

The choice to go for certification or not isbest left to the teak grower. But for thischoice to have any real meaning there
should first be easily accessible, andinternationally acceptable, certifiers within
their physical and economical reach. In thisthe ITTO can play a role by helping set up
an autonomous independent certificationbody for the Mekong region on the lines of

The most common cause of accidents
during harvesting is the lack of knowledge
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TEAK IN MEKONG

international certifiers like the Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC).

prevent the escape of fires, and insects andpests, from government forests to theadjacent teak plantations by smallholders.
Prevention of escape of fires and of plantdiseases and insect attacks from government
forests to adjacent plantations ofsmallholders must be accepted as a public
duty and a protocol for taking adequate andtimely steps must be developed inconsultation with smallholders and followed
strictly. For this purpose well managed
firelines, cleared of all vegetation and debris,along the boundaries between fireprone
government forests and smallholder teakplantations would reduce the chances offires, diseases and insects spreading
outwards. It must, however, be made clearthat the protocol does not lessen the duty ofthe smallholder towards the protection of his
own land and crops growing there.

Illicit felling and theft of teak
Illegal felling of valuable teak trees by
miscreants is a major concern ofsmallholders particularly those whose lands
are located in remote sites away from thewatchful eyes of villagers. They are not able
to engage the services of plantation watchers
as big plantations do because of the high costof individual plantation watchers. The
smallholders expect a reasonable degree ofprotection of their standing assets as animportant duty of the State.
The forest departments of the countries of
the region may identify hotspots of theft
and organize villagers to combat the
problem in these areas. Selected villagers
can also be given, after due training andunder competent supervision, the legal
powers of a forest official to book offences
against the culprits. But this has to be donewith great care and under close supervision
otherwise it has the potential of creating
conflicts within village communities.

The way forward
There are several areas related to teak andits planting by smallholders for economic
purposes that need to be exploredthoroughly to enable governments to lay
down appropriate policies to promote thiseconomic activity over larger extents oflands suitable for growing teak in the
countries of the region. In the paragraphs
below the more important of these havebeen described briefly.

Reducing losses by fires, diseases andinsect attacks
The smallholders are able to deal with thefires, diseases and insect attacks on theirteak trees located within agricultural fields
close to the habitations but oftentimes findtheir plantations located adjacent to thegovernment forests exposed to fires thatoriginate within forests and cannot be
controlled by outside efforts. Less
frequently, they face similar problems withtree diseases and insect attacks, too, thatoriginate within adjacent large sized
government forests. A clear expectation of
the smallholders is that reducing theselosses is the responsibility of the State.

An important area for research is the impact
of complete ban on teak felling in naturalforests and Protected Areas, including
thinnings that were planned earlier, on thequality of habitat for wild animals by way ofavailability of ground flora as feedstock forherbivores, effect on water sources,
frequency and intensity of forest fires, and on
the socio-economic conditions of theindigenous people residing inside and in close
vicinity of these forests. The universities in
the region should be encouraged by thecountry governments and the ITTO toundertake several independent research
projects on different sites so that a truer
picture may emerge of the realities on the
ground which can then be utilized to review
the ban on teak felling in natural forests.

While these expectations of the smallholders
cannot be fully satisfied by the governmentsof the region because it would encouragetendencies to turn private responsibilities
into public duties there can be little doubtthat government policies should actively
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TEAK IN MEKONG

There are unsubstantiated claims of teakplantations having a deleterious effect on
the productivity of agricultural lands
downstream and even on the site quality offorests below. These needs deeper
investigations by forestry universities andresearch institutions in collaboration with
agricultural universities and quick
dissemination of the outcomes as they
emerge. Research is also recommended on
biological control of pests and diseases thatare common in teak plantations in theregion in order to facilitate large scale
application of these measures bysmallholders. and to overcome resistance.
Raising mixed plantations instead of pureteak plantations may also help control the
spread of infestations but this needs to beestablished by data based research.
Integrated pest management models that are
effective as well as economical need to be
designed.

a variety of sites and under diverse
conditions and for developing technicalguidelines for the exchange of genetic
materials. National efforts to collect growthand yield data could be complemented
through a network of permanent sample
plots. The conservation of teak genetic
resources and the monitoring and control oftransboundary pests and diseases are otherimportant areas for collaboration.
Obtaining prices for teak logs and sawn
timber is difficult because no common
international log grading rules have been
established, most exporting countries’
definition of log dimensions as well as
measuring units are different. Teak prices
are very closely related to wood quality
which is determined by dimension, bole
shape in terms of roundness andstraightness, heartwood-sapwood ratio,
regularity of annual rings, number of knots,
colour, texture and the soundness of the butt
log. Teak from natural forests sells at
comparatively high prices as teak harvested
from plantations is typically smaller in size
and rarely reaches the dimensions andquality that fetches the best prices.
The ITTO is best placed to facilitate thiskind of collaboration by bringing two or
three forestry universities of the region
work on a collaborative project of thisnature with institutions in Japan, South
Korea, Australia, India and other countries
that have the requisite technological knowhow. The fact that the countries named
above have existing bilateral agreements ofcooperation and assistance in the field ofenvironment and forests with mostcountries in the Mekong region will help in
joint financing of such a project.

Intensively managed plantations requiringcontinuous care have the potential toprovide considerable employment andincome to the rural economy and thereby
provide a crucial public good which needs
to be acknowledged in policies andappropriately compensated through tax
relief or subsidies. Very few studies have,
however, been carried out on the socioeconomic benefits of teak plantations. The
country governments of the Mekong region
should, with the help of bilateral or
multilateralinternational
financing
agencies, commission universities andresearch institutions in their countries toundertake such studies. The outcome ofthese studies can help decide the quantumof compensation or relief to the smallholder
teak planters for the services rendered to theSociety.
There is need to strengthen international
collaboration in ex-situ conservation forprovenance identification and testing, andformulation of common methodologies andprocedures to allow comparison of results
across countries. Collaborative efforts at
the regional and global levels are
particularly important for testing clones in

Acknowledgement
I am indebted to Dr Hwan Ok Ma, Prof
Yongyut Trisurat, and many learned
scholars, forest practitioners and scientists
who presented their ideas during the scoresof physical and online workshops organizedacross the countries of the Mekong region
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under this project. I am particularly
thankful to Dr Thomas Enters for several
ideas encapsulated in his article titled "Site,technology and productivity of teakplantations in Southeast Asia" published in
Unasylva 51(201):55-61. I also owe thanks
to Dr Nopparat Kaakkurivaara for theinsights she provided in her many
presentations on teak harvesting in the
Mekong region.

Handel, D. (2012). Into the Woods.
Cabinet magazine, Issue 48/Trees,cabinetmagazine.org, 2012.
Healey, S. P. & Gara, R. I. (2003). The
effect of a Teak (Tectona grandis)
plantation on the establishment of native
species in an abandoned pasture in Costa
Rica. Forest Ecology and Management,
176(1-3), 497-50.
Htun, K. (2009). Myanmar Forestry
Outlook Study. Asia-Pacific forestry sector
outlook study II. Working Paper Series,
Working Paper No. APFSOSII/WP/2009/07. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations,Regional Office for Asia the Pacific,
Bangkok, Thailand.

References
Barton, G. & Bennett, B. (2010). Forestry
as Foreign Policy: Anglo-Siamese
Relations and the Origins of Britain’s
Informal Empire in the Teak Forests ofNorthern Siam, 1883-1925. Itinerario European Journal of Overseas History,
34(02), 65 - 86.

Ingalls, M. L., Diepart, J.C., Truong, N.,
Hayward, D., Neil, T., Phomphakdy, C. et
al. (2018). State of Land in the Mekong
Region. Centre for Development andEnvironment, University of Bern and
Mekong Region Land Governance. Bern,
Switzerland and Vientiane, Lao PDR, with
Bern Open Publishing.

Barton, G. A. (2002). Empire Forestry andthe Origins of Environmentalism.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511493621
Chheang, D. (2022). Teak plantations in
Cambodia. Accepted for publication in the
IITO Book on Teak in the Mekong
Region. Kasetsart University, Bangkok;
ITTO, Yokohama, Japan; and TEAKNET,
Kerela, India.

Lamb, D., Erskine, P. D., & Parrotta, J. A.
(2005). Restoration of degraded tropicalforest landscapes. Science, 310(5754),
1628–1632.
Mahadevan, P. (2021). Myanmar’s Illicit
Timber: Flows, drivers and actors.
Research Report, Global Initiative Against
Transnational Organised Crime, Octoter
2021.

DoF Lao PDR. (1998). Teak in the Lao
People’s Democratic Republic. Publishedin “Teak for the Future - Proceedings of
the Second Regional Seminar on Teak”,
RAP Publication: 1998/5, FAO Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP),
Bangkok, Thailand.
https://www.fao.org/3/ac773e/ac773e0h.htm

Parrotta, J. A. (1995). Influence ofoverstory composition on understory
colonization by native species inplantations on a degraded tropical site.
Journal of Vegetation Science, 6(5), 627-636.

Enters, T. (2000). Site, technology andproductivity of teak plantations inSoutheast Asia. Unasylva, 51(201), 55-61.

RGoT (2015). FOREST PLANTATIONACT (NO. 2), B.E. 2558 (2015), Office of
the Council of State of Thailand.
http://web.krisdika.go.th/data//document/e
xt809/809909_0001.pdf

FAO. (2009). The Future of Teak and theHigh-Grade Tropical Hardwood Sector.
Planted Forests and Trees Working Paper
FP/44E. Accessed on
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/k6549e/k6
549e00.pdf

Stebbing, E. P. (1947). The Teak Forestsof Burma. Nature, 160(4076), 818-820.
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Stebbings, E. P. (1922). The Forests ofIndia Vol. 1. John Lane The Bodley Head
Limited, London, UK.

Trieu, D. D., Tran L. D. & Nguyen V. B.
(2022). Teak plantations in Vietnam.
Accepted for publication in the IITO Book
on Teak in the Mekong Region. Kasetsart
University, Bangkok; ITTO, Yokohama,Japan; and TEAKNET, Kerela, India.

Sumantakul, V. & Sangkul, S. (1998).
Teak resources in Thailand. In: Teak forthe future – Proceedings of the Second
Regional Seminar on Teak. (eds M. Kashio& K. White). RAP Publication 5,
TEAKNET Publication 1. Food andAgriculture Organization of the United
Nations Regional Office for Asia and thePacific, Bangkok, Thailand.

Udayana, C., Andreassen, H. P. & Skarpe,
C. (2019). Understory diversity andcomposition after planting of teak andmahogany in Yogyakarta, Indonesia,
Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 39(5),494-510

Tarling, N. (1993). The Cambridge historyof Southeast Asia. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK.

Vongkhamsao, V., Inthilathi, B. &Chaleunsauki, B. (2022). Natural teakForests and Plantations in Lao PDR.
Accepted for publication in the in the IITO
Book on Teak in the Mekong Region,
Kasetsart University, Bangkok; ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan; and TEAKNET,
Kerela, India.

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Chapter 26: Knowledge Management for Teak:
The International Teak Information Network(TEAKNET)P.K. Thulasidas and M.P. Sreelakshmy

Abstract

Asia and Latin America. About 95% of thenatural teak forests and 83% of planted teakforests are confined to the Asia-Pacificregion. The area of natural teak forests
growing in only four countries (India, Lao
PDR, Myanmar, and Thailand) is on
continuous decline for the last couple ofdecades as per the latest FAO and IUFRO
reports (Kollert & Cherubini, 2012; Kollert &Kleine, 2017) due to various anthropogenic
disturbances and overexploitation that
ultimately threatens the natural gene pool.
According to the report “State of the World’s
Forest Genetic Resources” (FAO, 2014) teakremains at the top of the list of tree species
that are considered in many tropical countries
as a national priority for the conservation andmanagement of forest genetic resources. As
for planted forests, teak is the only hardwood
species that has been grown increasingly inabout 70 tropical countries. Owing to the highquality of teakwood, the increasing demandin the international market, the adaptability tovaried tropical climates for easy cultivation,and the comparatively short rotation periodsof 20-25 years that allow for the productionof good quality timber, make teak one of themost preferred timbers traded internationally.

or 25 years TEAKNET has always
been in the forefront of international
efforts to bring together numerous
stakeholders under its umbrella and facilitatestransfer of knowledge and dissemination of
information to promote collaborative efforts
for the sustainable development of teak sector
including smallholder forest industry andtrade. It serves as a dialogue platform among
the tree growers/planters, traders andresearchers on problems in teak sector andsuggest solutions. Being a non-profit, nongovernmental organisation set up by FAO of
United Nations way back in 1995, it is the
only R & D network organisation in the world
exclusively dedicated for the information
dissemination of a single species of teak.
Teaknet collaborated with FAO, ITTO,IUFRO and other agencies in organising
many meetings/partner events/ WTC’s andwas a project partner in the global teak study
report published by IUFRO in 2017. In the
on-going ITTO executed teak project inMekong sub-region, Teaknet plays asignificant role in knowledge management
and networking in the GMS region andbeyond. The success stories presented in thisdocument briefly explains the network
activities it had undertaken and advocatedtransparency in the international trade ofteak and spread the message ofregional/international cooperation in thesustainable utlisation of teak resources andteakwood value chains.

The Origin of TEAKNET
Recognizing the importance of teak and thelack of a common platform to share themultifaceted problems faced by planters andinvestors dealing with teak cultivation andmanagement of natural and planted teakforests, the FAO of the United Nations
proposed the establishment of an Asia-Pacific
Network on Research and Development ofTeak (TEAKNET) at the first regionalseminar on teak held in Guangzhou, China inearly 1991. The proposal was executed in
1995 at the 2nd Regional Teak Seminar in

Introduction
eak is one of the most important andvaluable hardwoods in the world, andplanted teak forests have attracted largescale private sector investments in Africa,
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Yangon, Myanmar. Thus, TEAKNET was
officially established, and it operated in
Yangon until 2007.Later by a decision of theSteering Committee of TEAKNET
coinciding with the ITTO sponsored
Regional Teak Workshop held in Kerala
Forest Research Institute (KFRI), Kerala,
India during 2007, relocated the Secretariat to
KFRI for operational reasons. KFRI waschosen because of its long standing traditionof three decades of teak related research anda core group of committed scientists withclear understanding of the key issues on thesubject and the ability to provide technicalsupport to the network.FAO Regional Officefor Asia-Pacific, Bangkok (FAO-RAP)
helped to formulate a detailed working planfor the network mechanism, including theadministrative and operational framework,
financial implications and representations ofmember organisations. Concurrently, from
1996-97 IUFRO also established a special
working party on the “Utilisation of Planted
Teak” in its Division 5 (Forests Products)
which aims at research and dissemination ofscientific information on teak timber
produced within the framework of sociallyand environmentally acceptable norms ofsustainable forest management. Both these
networks of TEAKNET and IUFRO`s
teakwood working party are non-profit, nongovernmental organisations working inparallel with the main objective of
information sharing on research anddevelopment of teak and its sustainableutilisation.

of a single species, teak. The major objectives
envisaged, among other things are:i. To link and strengthen international
network for national, regional andinternational institutions / organisations
working on teak.
ii. To serve as a dialogue platform among
the tree growers/planters, traders andresearchers on problems in teak sector
and find solutions.
iii. To facilitate transfer of knowledge anddissemination of information on all
aspects of production and marketing of
teakwood, including market informationand price trends through its website
www.teaknet.org
iv. To promote collaborative studies on
critical areas of mutual interest in thedevelopment of teak sector, including
quality assessment of short rotation
teak, unification of log grading rules,
tracing the geographical origin of teaklogs to prevent illegal logging and forsustainable wood supply chains.
v. To develop online databases and decision
support tools beneficial to stakeholders ofteak sector and the updated teakbibliography made available online to themembers.
vi. To publish periodical reports/information
bulletins and organize periodic
conferences/ workshops/meetings for thedevelopment of teak sector and formulate
policy guidelines to be shared among thenational governments, including mattersrelated to development of timber
certification and carbon credits.

Objectives of TEAKNETAs in the case of other networks like the AsiaPacific Forest Genetic Resources Program(APFORGEN), Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive
Species Network (APFISN) the primaryobjective of TEAKNET is to facilitate
exchange of information and to promotecollaborative efforts to deal with the common
problems faced by the teak sector and suggest
solutions. TEAKNET is the only R & D
network organisation in the world exclusively
dedicated for the information disseminationvii. To facilitate the exchange of genetic
materials (superior seed sources/improved
planting materials) to enhance
productivity of teak plantations/
smallholder farmer’s teak, subject to therespective country regulations.
Organisational Structure of TEAKNET
The success and strength of the Teaknet iscritically dependent on its ability to allure
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supporting members and the wider
participation by national and international

Coordinator from the host institution andnine elected members from across theglobe representing the internationalorganisations FAO, IUFRO, ITTO,DANIDA, the Forestry Commission of
Ghana and other international bodies
besides representativesofnongovernmental organisations. No country isrepresented by more than one member.

organizations and institutions that areconcerned with the conservation,
management and utilisation of teak. Figure26-1 shows the simplified organigram of
TEAKNET. The network is governed by
the International Steering Committee(ISC) consisting of a Chairman, a network

Figure 26-1 Organigram of TEAKNET

341

TEAK IN MEKONGThe Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI)
serves as the host institution, providing officespace, internet access, and logistical support
for running the secretariat of TEAKNET. The
Chairman will preside over the meetings andthe Coordinator is ex-officio member of
TEAKNET and Member-Secretary of theSteering Committee. The term for themembers of the Steering Committee is for aperiod of five years which is extendable. The
Coordinator in coordination with themembers of the Steering Committee will
formulate the annual work plan that has to beapproved by the ISC. The ISC is also
responsible for the monitoring and control of
TEAKNET´s operations, including its
finances. The annual work plans include

projects for the provision of financial andmaterial support, especially with regard to
funding research projects and participation inmeetings. TEAKNET addresses the interestsof all the categories of stakeholders related toteak, starting from growers, traders,
researchers or other groups with a profoundinterest or concerned with teak. Currently,
there are over 49 countries represented in
TEAKNET of which 12 are located in Asia,
13 in Latin America, 11 in Africa, 1 in
America and 12 in Europe. In total, 159
individual members and 35 institutional
members constitutes the backbone of
TEAKNET. The different membership
options available are shown in the Table 26-1.

Table 26-1 Details of membership options
Membership Fee

Annual (USD)

Lifetime (USD)

Individual

30

400

Institutional/Organization

250

4000

Networking and Dissemination of Dataand Information
In 2017, the Secretariat of TEAKNET was
relocated to the Kerala Forest ResearchInstitute (KFRI) with the financial supportof the FAO Regional Office for AsiaPacific, Bangkok. Even though established
as a network for Asia-Pacific, the everincreasing area of planted teak forest worldwide, it has evolved swiftly into aninternational teak information network toserve the global teak community. Some of
the fundamental activity of the TEAKNETSecretariat is summarised below.

bimonthly online newsletter “Teak Mekong
Newsletter” related to the ITTO Teak
Mekong project since 2019.
The website contains directories ofgrowers,
tradersandresearchers,
information on events related to teak at aninternational level, information on teakrelated publications and developments intechnology, and news and alerts service.
The Secretariat maintains a global teakinformation centre wherein available
literature of more than 6000 records related
to scientific papers, research reports,
information bulletins on teak cultivationand nursery practices, books andproceedings etc. on teak are stored. General
information stored on the Website isavailable to the general public, while
specific professional data and information
are only accessible for members.

Website and Newsletters

A dedicated website of TEAKNET(www.teaknet.org) was launched and aquarterly online newsletter “TEAKNET
Bulletin” was released as a first step for
information dissemination and another342

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Figure 26-2 The Home Page of the TEAKNET Website (www.teaknet.org)

Capacity Building and Consultancies

databank, a flexible arrangement dependingon the interest of network members forsharing their expertise to solve specificproblems confronting teak cultivation andmanagement, pest and diseases etc. in theircountries/regions. For example, TEAKNET
upon request of the Research Institute ofTropical Forestry (RITF), Guangdong, P.R.
China had organized a one-week training
programme and study visit to natural teakforests and teak plantations for the visiting
scientists of the institute (Photo 26-1).

Over 25 years of its establishment, thenetwork supports the interests of the teakresearchers, growers, loggers, traders,farmers, scientists, and policymakers alike.
Considering the diversity and complexity ofproblems facing the global teak sector,
TEAKNET maintains a directory of
specialist professionals of teak researchers in
our network at regional and international
levels and has developed an expert-

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Bibliography of Teak
Figure 26-3 Examples of publication media issued by TEAKNET

Furthermore, TEAKNET provides scientificsupport in accordance with the specific needsof the international teak community.
TEAKNET nominated a Scientist to RITF toprovide professional advice andrecommendations on the silvicultural
management of their teak plantation in
Guangdong and Hainan province. A teaksilviculturist was nominated as a consultant to

Tanzania for the professional establishment
and maintenance of teak plantations for a
private plantation enterprise in anotherinternational joint initiative. TEAKNET has
undertaken many teak cultivation andmanagement training programmes for the
benefit of smallholder farmers and plantation
professionals (see Table 26-2).

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Photo 26-1 Visiting scientists of RITF to Teak plantations in Kerala

Table 26-2 Consulting Services Organized and Implemented by TEAKNET
Month/year

Recipient organisation

Country

Topic

September 2011 Future Forests

Fiji

Management of teak plantations,
genetic improvement and raising
equity in in PNG, Solomon Islands,
and the FijiMarch 2013

Laity and Associates

Australia

Small Holder Teak Plantations inSouth Pacific Region

February March 2014

Research Institute ofTropical Forestry,
Chinese Academy ofForestry

P.R.China Interactive Meeting with the Chinese
Teak Researchers on global teakcultivation and trade, short rotation
teakwood quality and its products andsilvicultural management of Tectona
grandisDecember 2014

The Dollar Business
Magazine

India

Overview of the global teakwood
industry and teak trade

March 2017

Carbon Planet Ltd.

Tanzania

Establishment and maintenance of teakplantations in Tanzania

345

TEAK IN MEKONGWorld Teak Conferences

Records of the Teak Trade in theInternational Customs Tariff

TEAKNET in collaboration with FAO, IUFROand ITTO co-organized three World Teak
Conferences in Costa Rica (2011), Thailand(2013) and Ecuador (2015) that were attended
by over 1,000 representatives of the major teakgrowing countries in Asia/Oceania, Africa andLatin America. One output of these 3
conferences is an international initiative directed
by IUFRO, ITTO, FAO and TEAKNET topromote the initiation of an international
research, development and cooperation program
to strengthen the conservation and sustainable
use of teak resources for the benefit of teakgrowers, forest industries, investors and local
communities. This cooperation resulted in the
publication of the “Global Teak Study” as
IUFRO World Series No 36 (available athttps://www.iufro.org/publications/series/world-series/) and the ITTO-supported project“Enhancing Conservation and Sustainable
Management of Teak Forests and the Legality ofWood Supply in the Greater Mekong Subregion“that includes the five countries
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand andVietnam and is still on-going until September
2022.

One issue facing the teak timber trade is thelack of authentic trade data on aninternational level. Up to the beginning of theyear 2022, the international teak trade wasdifficult to assess as teak roundwood wasrecorded under the six-digit HS code 4403.49
as “other tropical roundwood” and 4407.29“other tropical sawnwood” as reported bymany traders in WTC meetings. The
Harmonized Commodity Description and
Coding System (in brief, the Harmonized
System, or HS) is an internationallystandardized system of codes and names forclassifying traded products. It has beendeveloped by the World Customs
Organization (WCO), an independentintergovernmental organization based in
Brussels, Belgium. The HS is applied bymore than 200 countries as a customs tariff
and a means for collecting international tradedata. The Global Trade Atlas, operated by
Global Trade Information Services (GTIS),
provides such data according to HS codes for
all member countries of the WCO. New
codes for teak and other wood products in HS
2022 were created upon request submitted toWorld Customs Organisation (WCO) by the
Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations (FAO), Rome. As of 1st
January 2022, the international trade of teakroundwood and sawnwood will be recordedin the Harmonized System nomenclature
2022 Edition (HS 2022) under the newcustoms codes HS 4403.42 and 4407.23,
respectively. After 1st January 2022, theassessment of the significance of theinternational teak trade will be considerably
improved and will give policy- and decisionmakers, investors and managers a better
understanding of the important role that teakresources play in the provision of wood
products for the national economies of many
countries.

The 4th World Teak Conference is planned
during 5-8 September 2022 in Ghana with thetheme “Global teak market: Challenges andopportunities for emerging markets anddeveloping economies”. The conference will
focus on genetics, silviculture, socioeconomics and environmental issues thathave an impact on the production, marketingand trade of teakwood. The WTC’s held once
every 4 years will be a great opportunity to
exchange knowledge and experiences ontechnological innovations and stay up to dateon the emerging trends in teak management
and trade. It will provide a major meeting
place for worldwide researchers, students,
entrepreneurs and professionals in theforestry sector to come together, share theirknowledge and networks and enter into new
business relationships.

International Cooperation Projects
In 2014, IUFRO Special Programme forDeveloping Capacities (IUFRO-SPDC),
FAO and TEAKNET with Plant Genetic
346

TEAK IN MEKONG

Conservation Foundation (RSPG),
Thailand as local host, jointly organised a
project formulation workshop in Bangkok
and invited selected country partners fromthe Asia Pacific with the specific objectiveat developing capacity building for thesustainable management and genetic
conservation of teak resources in theparticipating Asian nations that faces severe
depletion of teak genetic base (Photo 26-2).

Photo 26-2 Participants at the Bangkok Workshop

In the same way, another pre-projectworkshop was organised during the 3rdWorld Teak Conference 2015 at Guayaquil,
Ecuador for developing a comprehensive
project proposal for planted teak forests.

audiences globally through participation isdisseminated. TEAKNET is organizing a
Side Event in the upcoming FAO’s World
Forestry Congress during May 2022 inSeoul, S. Korea with the theme “Newopportunities for Teak sector in the post
COVID-19 Scenario” in association withIUFRO Teakwood Working Party(Div5.06.02) and ITTO, Japan.

Planning and Implementation of Side
EventsMany Partner Events were conducted by
TEAKNET in collaboration with IUFRO,
FAO and ITTO at Philippines during AsiaPacific Forestry Week (2016), IUFRO All
Division 5 Conference in Vancouver(2017), and at FAO’s Planted Forest
Conference in Beijing (2018) and lastly at
Curitiba, Brazil in the IUFRO World
Congress (2019).In all these meetings the
key messages of enhanced dialogue,
information and knowledge exchange onsustainable teak forest management,
production and sustainable supply chain, as
well as sharing experiences with wider

Global Teak Study Report
In December 2016, with funding support
from ITTO and FAO, a team of 12 IUFRO
scientists and other teak experts from 11
countries analyzed and compiled globally
available state-of-the-art scientific andempirical knowledge on teak, and in 2017
published the results in “The Global Teak
Study - Analysis, Evaluation and Future
Potential of Teak Resources13” as IUFROWorld Series Volume 36 (see pictures

Kollert, W. & Kleine, M. (2017). The Global
Teak Study. Analysis, Evaluation and Future
Potential of Teak Resources. IUFRO World Series

Volume 36, Vienna.
https://www.iufro.org/publications/series/worldseries/

13

347

TEAK IN MEKONG

below). In addition to addressing key issues
related to genetic resources conservation,
sustainable management, economics,
production, markets and trade, the reportprovides policy recommendations andguidance for future work in promoting
sustainable management of natural andplanted teak forests in the tropics.

Teak Experts at Vienna

Global Teak Study Report

At the meeting of the FAO’s Regional
Forestry Commission Asia-Pacific held in
Colombo in Oct 2017, IUFRO andTEAKNET disseminated the results of the
Global Teak Study and organized a partner

event on the significance of teak conservationand its sustainable management in productive
landscapes (Photo 26-3).

Photo 26-3 Panellists answering queries from audience

348

TEAK IN MEKONG

ITTO Teak Mekong Project

development information and theimplementation of project activities including
sustainable supply chains to research
institutions, NGOs, development partners
and societies, support and facilitate teaknetworking in the Mekong Sub-region. In
addition, the project findings of the research
activities will be disseminated by coorganising the 4th World Teak Conference
2022 in Ghana. Since June 2019 as part of the
networking activities, a bimonthly online‘Teak Mekong Newsletter’ was released
through the updated TEAKNET website(www.teaknet.org) co-hosted by Kasetsart
University, Thailand (see Figure 26-3 under5.1).TEAK Mekong Newsletter support andfacilitates teak networking in the Mekong
sub-region through ITTO member countries
and partners, and support sharing lessons of
the project results through short news release,occasional papers, project related teak-based
research and development information.

ITTO has been supporting teak related
projects with a focus on augmenting genetic
resource base, seed production as well assustainable management of teak in Asia,
Africa and Latin America since 1990s.
Discussions between ITTO and IUFRO on
further collaboration on the basis of therecommendations of the Global Teak Study
continued during the 53rd International
Timber Council Meeting in Lima, Peru in
November 2017 and the Global Landscapes
Forum in Bonn, Germany, in December
2017. At 53rd ITTC, the Council approved
ITTO’s 2018-19 Biennial Work Program(BWP) which included an activity entitled“Enhancing Teak Management” which is
proposed as a comprehensive global activity
to improve the management and marketing ofboth natural and planted teak in all threetropical regions. The ITTO Teak project inMekong, "Enhancing Conservation andSustainable Manage-ment of Teak Forestsand Legal and Sustainable Wood Supply
Chains in the Greater Mekong Sub-region"(PP-A/54-331) was officially launched in
Bangkok in March 2019 for 3 years (36months) financed by the Federal Republic of
Germany through the Federal Ministry ofFood and Agriculture (BMEL). The
participating countries in the GMS include
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand,
and Vietnam. The project activity is aimed at
assisting governments, local communities
and smallholders to enhance natural teakforest management, production andmarketing to facilitate the establishment oflegal and sustainable wood supply chains
while improving national economy and local
communities’ livelihood enhancement in the
Greater Mekong Sub-region.

At the end of the project, it is anticipated toaccomplish regional and international
collaboration, information sharing andknowledge management, networking havebeen strengthened far beyond GMS region
and capable to move forward with more
responsibilities on policy development andoutreach on the sustainable management ofteak forests, including sustainable use ofteak genetic resources to other parts of teakgrowing countries in Latin America andAfrica for the planted teak.
Future Perspectives of TEAKNETThe global scenario with respect to teak has
been undergoing changes over the past
several years. Over a period of time, there
has been a shift in the ownership of forests
to the private sector, smallholders
becoming major producers of teakwood as
in Lao PDR and Indonesia. Supportive
policies, legal frameworks and research areneeded to expand teak cultivation to nontraditional areas of productive landscapes.
The global trade of industrial teakroundwood was found to be slightly morethan 1 million m3, which corresponds toabout 7 percent of the total trade volume

TEAKNET’s Role in ITTO Teak
Mekong Project
TEAKNET as a project partner in thisambitious project, handles the projectcomponent of information management andnetworking with the overall responsibility
to produce and disseminate outreachmaterials on teak-based research and349

TEAK IN MEKONG

Acknowledgments(FAOSTAT and Global Trade Atlas;
Nautiyal & Kant, 2022). Hence, we should
expect a continued spurt in demand andconsequent price increases. Competition
from alternative products may also increase
but their use is generally being discouragedon account of environmental concerns.
Demand for legally certified timber and theneed for certification of teak plantations are
emerging as strong cases. Impact of climatechange and trend towards production forestry
to conservation forestry are more and more
apparent. The future perspectives of the
network are built on the gaps in this current
scenario. Networking and informationexchange have a role to play in bringing
together the stakeholders and resolving someof the pertinent issues. Besides continuingwith the information exchange, TEAKNET
plans to hold more conferences and training
programmes on themes of topical importance
related to teak. The major tasks ahead for the
network are instrumental in enhancing theplantation productivity, producing quality
teakwood products, better marketing andaffordable prices for the products, market
intelligence and bringing unification of loggrading rules. An international databaseon teak resources and productivity has beenlong thought of this network. The database
will be at the global level with entries for eachcountry on aspects like geographic details ofteak growing regions, maps, area under teakplantations both natural forest and homegardens, productivity of teakwood, export/
import of teakwood, climatic data, soil
properties, information on yield table,
grading of teak timber, teak prices of different
grades, information on traders /buyers/
sellers, wood industries units etc.

The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr.
Walter Kollert, WaKa – Forest Investments
Services AG., Portugal and the Steering
Committee member of TEAKNET for thecritical review and suggestions on aprevious draft of this manuscript.

References
FAO (2014). The State of the World’s
Forest Genetic Resources. Food andAgriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome, Italy.
Nautiyal, R. & Kant, P. (2022). The rise ofIndia’s timber market. Tropical Forest
Update, 33(3-4), 20-22.
Kollert, W. & Cherubini, L. (2012). Teak
resources and market assessment. Planted
Forests and Trees Working Paper FP/47/E.
Edited by Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
http://www.fao.org/forestry/plantedforests/
67508@170537/en/
Kollert, W. & Kleine, M. (2017). The
Global Teak Study. Analysis, Evaluation
and Future Potential of Teak Resources.
IUFRO World Series Volume 36, Vienna.
https://www.iufro.org/publications/series/
world-series/

350

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Chapter 27: Teak in Mekong for a Sustainable Future:
The Way Forward
P.K. Thulasidas, Hwan-ok Ma, Tetra Yanuariadi, Yongyut Trisurat,
and Promode Kant

SummaryThe exceptional quality of teak timber,its high value in the global timbermarket and the case in rising teakplantations, have made it one of the mostimportant species for planting under varied
tropical climates across 70 tropicalcountries. The ITTO Teak Mekong project“Enhancing Conservation and Sustainable
Management of Teak Forests and Legaland Sustainable Wood Supply Chains in the
Greater Mekong Sub-region (PP-A/54331)” was implemented by ITTO, in fivecountries in the Mekong region; namely
Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand
and Vietnam with financial support fromthe Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture(BMEL), Government of Germany. The aimof the project was to strengthen theconservation and sustainable use of teakgenetic resources, enhance natural and planted
teak forest management, production andmarketing to facilitate the establishmentof legal and sustainable wood supply chains
while improving national economies of therespective countries and livelihood enhancementof smallholder growers in the Greater Mekong
sub-region. The 3- year project (2019-2022) was
officially launched in April 2019 in a meeting at
Bangkok, Thailand. Despite the Covid-19
pandemic that hindered some of the fieldoriented activities in certain areas, theoverwhelming progress achieved as
anticipated in the project supports theparticipating countries’ policies and strategies
on sustainable forest management andsustainable wood supply from legal sources inline with their Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs). The project also
contributes to the achievements of SDGs,
especially SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 12(Responsible Consumption and Production),

SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Lifeon land), and the Global Forest Goals of theUnited Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2030
(UNSPF).
The following summary and policy
recommendations have evolved from theachievements made under the 3 major outputs
envisaged in the project: Output1-Conservationof teak genetic resources, sustainable
management and use of natural teak forests andmarket accesses of teak from legal sources havebeen improved; Output 2-Community-based
and smallholders teak forest management andagroforestry systems have been strengthened
with improved legal and sustainable supply
chains; and Output 3-Regional andinternational collaboration, information sharing
and knowledge management, networking,policy development and outreach on thesustainable management of teak forests,
including sustainable use of teak genetic
resources have been strengthened.
1. Management of Natural Teak Forests
Natural teak forests are spread over 29 million
ha across India, Myanmar, Thailand and Lao
PDR, almost half of which lies in Myanmar
alone. In Thailand natural teak forests extend
over about 1.3 million ha mainly distributed innorthern province while in Lao PDR only
about a thousand hectare of natural forests
survive along its borders with Thailand.
Vietnam and Cambodia do not have natural
teak forests. The extent of these natural teakforests has decreased continuously over the
past two decades mainly due to overexploitation, deforestation, and conversion toother land-uses causing severe loss of its
genetic resource base. Outside the Mekong
region natural forests of teak thrive well in the351

TEAK IN MEKONG

central and southern peninsular region of India
spread over an area of 1.667 million ha.

conservation, biodiversity conservationand carbon sequestration must be a key
component in the management of planted
teak forests. Implementation of appropriate
practices at every stage of development canhelp achieve these goals.

Several measures have been initiated inthese countries to protect these forests but
illegal felling still occurs in many places.
The current natural distribution of teak inThailand and Lao PDR as assessed in the 2022
in the GMS region has been secured by banon harvesting in natural forests but thepossibilities of shift over to unsustainable
management at some date in future as well
as climate change remain medium and longterm threats to the natural geographicaldistribution of teak all over the region.
Integration of these forests in regional,
national or subnational REDD+ scheme
would be helpful in ensuring their long term
survival.

3. Conservation of Teak Genetic Resources
and Considerations for Tree Improvement
Considering the imminent threat to the fast
declining natural teak resources in its native
countries and the high risk of losing thediversity of genetic traits of important woodcharacteristics, the project partner countries
in the Mekong basin investigated the genetic
variations in the planted and natural populations
for breeding and mass propagation. Breeding
programmes continue to be developed inmany countries like Thailand aiming to
improve the timber quality. However, mostof these teak stands were established withunknown seed origin. Timber quality has
now been improved with selected clones ofknown genetic origin being produced withhigh yield and disease resistance from thegenetically superior parent plus trees.
Clones can be used for establishingmonospecific plantations, but intercroppingwith other species in agroforestry systems
and border planting with oil palm in
silvopastoral systems provide interim
economic benefits as has been successfully
practiced in Malaysia and Indonesia.

2. Teak Plantations
Planted teak forests according to various
estimates has reached approximately 6.89
million ha of which 80% are grown in Asia
followed by 10% in Africa and 6% in the
Latin America. The area under teakplantations has increased in all the GMS
countries and the current status of teakplantations in Myanmar, Thailand, Lao
PDR, Cambodia and Vietnam is about
411,7; 277,300; 29,000; 6,500; and 3,300
ha, respectively. After India and Indonesia,
Myanmar has the largest area of planted
teak and the government plantations alone
constitute about 395,000 ha while private
teak plantations cover 16,200 ha.

Myanmar
Tree improvement programme of teakstarted in Myanmar during 1981 with theestablishment of clonal seed orchards
consisting of 33 clones. A total of 1,011
plus trees of teak were selected throughout
Myanmar representing almost all teakgrowing regions. Clones from some plus
trees were planted in six clonal seedorchards area and seven hedge gardensarea, serving as gene pool for ex situ
conservation. Before 2019, no progeny test
or genetic studies of teak clonal seedorchard (CSO) or plus trees had been
conducted and the ITTO Teak Project has
now provided funding support for a• Planted teak forests need to be managed
following well-defined operational regime
to achieve desired production goals.
• Most important are site selection, use ofgenetically improved planting stock, soil
management, irrigation and fertilizationin the first few years, and the timely
execution of silvicultural practices.
• Protection against pest and diseases and fire
prevention measures are needed to avoid
productivity loss. Monitoring of social,environmental, economical sustainability
including the enrichment of environmental
services of watershed protection, soil
352

TEAK IN MEKONG

progeny trial to test genetic characteristics
of candidate plus trees using clones in genebank plantation. The results of progeny test
will be used to determine plus trees for
future tree improvement program of teak in
Myanmar. Tissue culture facilities forlarge-scale production of planting materials
from plus trees for commercial plantations
are planned to be established. A gene bankof Myanmar teak and a new hedge garden
have been set up at Forest ResearchInstitute. Planting materials produced fromthese labs will be planted in clone bank formass multiplication and establishment ofteak clonal plantations.

established. Improved seedlings derived
from the selected trees, clone bank andclonal seed orchards have been distributed
to farmers for developing plantations.
Cambodia
Natural teak forests do not occur in
Cambodia, hence there are no natural teakseed sources in the country. With thesupport of Teak project in Mekong,
Cambodia has established two seed sources
at Han Chey Mountain in Kampong Cham
Province and Teak silvicultural farm in
Kampong Spue Province for production ofhigh-quality seedlings. Teak plantations
have raised over about 7,000 ha. Private
investment in commercial teak plantations
by well known companies offers greater
opportunities for harvesting of teak at
young agewith high productivity and yield.

ThailandTeak genetic improvement in Thailand
began in 1965 under a bilateral agreement
between Thailand and Denmark. Under thisprogram, a total of 636 Plus teak trees wereselected based on phenotypical andqualitative traits and tree form. Three setsof clonal test of almost 500 clones havealready been conducted at various sites
during this Mekong project period and bothhalf-sib and full-sib progeny tests are being
conducted. Teak breeding is a long-term
process and the results from these ongoingtrials should be used to establish protocols
for genetic thinning in the seed orchards tofurther improve the quality of seed sources.

VietnamTeak is not a native species in Vietnam.
Teakwood around 40,000 cu.m are annually
being imported to the country and re-process
in the sawmills for domestic use and partially
exported. The latest forest inventory data
showed that teak plantations cover about 6,600
ha, which is just about 0.15% of the country’s
plantations. The ITTO project in Mekong
supports the establishment and maintenance of
three teak seed source production centres at
Dong Nai Teak Plantation, Son La Teak
Plantation and Thanh Hoa Station. Good
quality teak seedlings have been prepared atdemonstration plots and more than 6,000 highquality seedlings have been distributed tosmallholders. The target number is 15,000
seedlings.

Lao PDRIn Laos, teak genetic improvement dates
back to the 1990s as part of the Laos Tree
Seed Project. Of the total 102 seed sources,
nine are for the teak seed sources
established in it natural habitats. The ITTO
Teak project in Mekong supports the
National Agriculture and Forest ResearchInstitute (NAFRI) in establishing two
demonstration plots for teak seedproduction. A total of 100 mother trees atThong Khang and 178 at Huay Khodin
Xayabuly Province have been selected forteak seed source production for smallholder
plantations. In addition, teak seed sourcefrom 170 mother trees in Luang Prabang
Province have been selected andIn general, the sustainable development ofteak sector requires:• enhancing the in situ and ex situ
conservation of teak genetic resources
through the establishment of seedproduction areas and seed orchards. Thereis also a need for long-term teakimprovement research and development
programs to supply high quality seeds forteak plantations and joint research on the353

TEAK IN MEKONG

conservation of teak genetic resources
linked with breeding and biotechnology
tools. This includes transfer of seeds forplantations and improved genetic
materials subject to national regulations in
the Mekong sub-region to improve thegenetic base of populations and avoid
genetic erosion. Transfer of genetically
improved planting material acrossregions/countries may be facilitated with
the involvement of network organisations(like TEAKNET and APFORGEN)• Advanced technology such as DNA
markers is now available to accelerate
the genetic improvement of teak.
• Teak clonal forestry has demonstrated
its efficacy for establishing fast growing
plantations with enhanced yield.
Superior teak clones have been widely
deployed with known genetic origin forhigher productivity in many countries
like Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil, Costa
Rica, Tanzania, India etc at shorterrotations of 20-25 years or even less.
• Smallholder farmers should be able toaccess the improved genetic material ofteak so that the productivity of theirplantations and the quality of the timbercan be improved, which eventually will
increase their income. Improving
silvicultural aspects of teak plantations,from the selection of suitable sites tothinning and harvesting techniques, isurgently required. There is a strong needto share knowledge and experiences inthe sustainable management of teakplantations.

management, difficult market access andpolicy disincentives. In the last 3 years, 14
demonstration plots have been established
for production of good quality seedlings
that was freely distributed to interested
local communities and smallholders. In
addition, learning centres for good agroforestry and silvicultural systems andpractices has been included for small-scale
plantations. Training programmes has been
conducted for the capacity building ofgovernment staff in central and field
offices, teak farmers and interested
individuals on the following themes: (1)Seed production/nursery techniques, (2)Silvicultural practices and improved standmanagement, (3) Minimizing harvesting
loss, efficient transport and processing ofteak roundwood, and (4) Supply chainscontrol and marketing. The opportunities
and challenges of smallholders teak in
Mekong Basin are multifaceted.
• The value chain analysis (VCA) revealed
key challenges/impediments faced bysmallholder teak plantations. The private
smallholder woodlots are poorly
managed, unproductive, poor seed sources
and lack of awareness about the thinningregimes for profitable earnings. The sitequality of teak woodlots was lower whencompared to many other countries. They
are fragmented and far from market
centres, unable to accommodate the hightransportation costs involved in theinternational certification systems, andrelying on middlemen/traders to sell andharvest the logs. Secured land tenure anduser-rights are essential for smallholder
teak plantations to run the industry
profitably. Supportive tenure policies forsmallholders teak plantations can beeffective in eliminating excessive
regulatory burden on small-scale
plantations in management and harvesting
as well as local transportation of harvested
wood products. Increase in the
productivity and quality of smallholder
teak plantations can be brought about by
using best quality genetically improved
planting materials. It is important to

4. Community-based Smallholders TeakForest Management
Smallholding teak production has become
an important source of raw material for
furniture industry in many countries ofSouth East Asia. The opportunities andchallenges of smallholders teak in Mekong
Basin are multifaceted. The potential ofsmallholder teak farming systems ishindered by limited access to quality
planting material, poor silvicultural354

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identify and promote good siliviculture
practices of pruning and thinning, socioeconomic and policy conditions that
support smallholder’s quality productionof teakwood. The provision of regulartraining and extension are essential for thispurpose• Value addition to small sized thinned teakis essential to ensure significant interim
earnings for the smallholder before thefinal harvest. Much progress has been
made in this in Java which can beextended to the Mekong region throughspecial efforts by the agencies
responsible for it in the countries of theregion. Upgrading the processing
machinery may also improve productstandards and thereby access to better
paying markets. Financial incentives in
the form of soft loans and setting up of
specialized banks for this purpose will
also be helpful in promoting smallholder
teak planting. Overall the national
governments should encourage andsupport smallholders and communities toplant teak through incentive programs,enhance their access to finance and longterm investments, improve networking,and strengthen market support andformation of cooperatives of farmergroups for effective value chain
development.

verification tools are increasing important intropical countries. Large-scale teakwood
producers in some countries like Brazil, FSC
certified teakwood from sustainable sources arebeing traded across the globe at high prices andmany short-rotation plantations now opt for
global certification schemes such as PEFC and
FSC or adopt their own country level
certifications. However, high transaction costs ofcomplying with the environmental and social
standards required in certification process deter
the smallholders in Mekong region fromadopting it.

5. Trade, Certification and Legality

International collaboration and regional
networks on forest genetic resources ofnatural and planted teak should be
strengthened. Organizations like TEAKNET
in partnership with IUFRO and ITTO should
periodically organize teak conferences that
may suggest action plans and policy
recommendations for sustainable teakwood
trade and supply chains. Extension services
for teak growers should be made more
effective through the publication of teakgrower’s manuals in local languages
designed especially for different target
groups. Development of appropriate quality
standards and accreditation schemes for teakFor sustainable teak plantation management,
legal source and supply chain control need to bestrictly enforced. Establishing transparent andtraceable timber supply chains will provide teakgrowers in Mekong region more opportunities
to participate in global markets while
addressing global environmental issues.
However, there is an increasing need to develop
and implement innovative certification systems
that substantially reduce transaction costs forsmallholder teak planters who are unable tobear the high transaction costs involved in theexisting certification system. The certificationof smallholder teak plantations by local forestry
authorities, as is being done under the Luang
Prabang Teak Program in Lao PDR, is one such
example.

6. Regional Network and International
Collaboration

One increasingly important considerationinfluencing trade of teakwood products bothfrom plantation-grown and natural teak forests isforest management certification and legality
issues. Timber markets in Europe and North
America fetching premium prices for teakproducts now require legality and sustainability
for establishing the legal origin, production andtrade of timber. Legality and sustainability are acomplex issue for many teak growing tropicalcountries and should be improved from thedevelopment and implementation of a competentmonitoring system supported by a set of criteria,
indicators, and verifiers to demonstrate thelegality and sustainability. The digitalization offorest management activities and cost-effective
355

TEAK IN MEKONG

planting material including germplasm
production and exchange should be encouraged
and promoted. TEAKNET has madesignificant contribution in sharing researchoutcomes and policy briefs among theparticipating countries through online Mekong
newsletter circulated globally through thewebsites of both Kasetsart University and
TEAKNET and these efforts should continue in
future. There is a need to carry the regional andinternational collaboration, information sharing
and knowledge management alreadyaccomplished in the region to other parts of teakgrowing countries in Latin America and Africa.

.

356

TEAK IN MEKONG

INDEX
A
absolute form factor, 165, 168, 175,
177, 178, 180
Africa, 5, 18, 51, 62, 101, 149, 155,
212, 242, 250, 270, 326, 339, 346
agroforestry, 4, 10, 15, 54, 63, 66, 80,
91, 215, 277, 315, 322, 352
appropriate technology, 210
Bbee-hole borer, 144, 145, 149, 150, 151biotechnology, 156, 252, 270, 355, 155
Brandis, 26, 315, 317
Brazil, 19, 105, 149, 161, 182, 186,
235, 275, 277, 324, 347, 357
breeding, 8, 28, 34, 49, 70, 130, 135,
156, 161, 251, 257, 265, 270, 353
breeding plan, 135, 137
British, 23, 316, 319
Buton, 156, 157, 161, 216, 217
C
Cabinet, 3, 33, 318
Cambodia, 3, 10, 62, 63, 88, 91, 102,
276, 288, 318, 322, 354
clonal test, 2, 8, 19, 118, 125, 130,
186, 245, 253, 260, 268, 279, 354
clones, 7, 118, 122, 130, 135, 157, 186,
219, 248, 253, 258, 271, 274, 353
colonial period, 300
COVID-19, 3, 13, 235, 237, 297, 347,
352
D
disease(s), 8, 16, 28, 33, 81, 144, 149,
185, 193, 257, 315, 335, 343, 353
DNA markers, 160, 276, 355, 357
E
economic benefit, 22, 72, 220, 336,
353
enrichment planting, 46, 78, 81
export, 10, 18, 23, 30, 38, 51, 57, 62,
156, 185, 196, 233, 239, 270, 288,
311, 320, 334, 354
extraction, 43, 48, 205, 302, 307, 316,
334
F
FAO, 18, 28, 39, 87, 304
financial constraint, 218
FIO (or Forest Industry Organization),8, 13, 28, 32, 118, 251

forest industry, 339
fruit set, 130, 139, 140
full-sib, 8, 119, 121, 130, 245, 251,
261, 267, 354
furniture, 119, 156, 196, 213, 233, 240,
311, 330, 355
G
genetic conservation, 19, 49, 150, 160,
246, 252, 346
genetic diversity, 7, 88, 159, 160, 280
genetic improvement, 8, 28, 33, 46, 70,
80, 156, 159, 177, 185, 252
germplasm, 8, 28, 33, 46, 70, 80, 156,
159, 177, 185, 252
Greater Mekong Sub-region (or GMS),2, 41, 62, 87, 101, 297, 349, 352
H
half-sib, 8, 121, 130, 245, 251, 266,
354
hand pollination, 130, 133, 136, 137,
139
harvesting plan, 202, 203, 204
harvesting, 13, 16, 26, 41, 51, 57, 74,
92, 120, 184, 193, 202, 206, 216,
285, 292, 299, 30
Iimport, 18, 30, 37, 57, 232, 239, 285,
198, 320, 350
in vitro, 49, 270, 271, 273, 274
income, 15, 23, 42, 51, 62, 156, 218,
220, 277, 324
India, 15, 23, 42, 51, 62, 156, 218, 220,
277, 324
Indonesia, 19, 28, 62, 69, 87, 101, 155,
156, 212, 214, 217, 239, 250, 255
insect pest, 19, 144, 145, 149, 150
intercropping, 10, 56, 63, 65, 215, 220,
276, 353
International Tropical Timber
Organization (or ITTO), 3, 10, 34,
63, 69, 87, 105, 202, 230, 232, 249,
256, 285, 292, 297, 331, 339, 347,
349
JJava teak, 157, 216, 220

357

TEAK IN MEKONG

K
knowledge management, 18, 19, 339,
349, 352, 358L
Lampang, 8, 13, 22, 28, 118, 150, 247,
250, 256, 268
Lao PDR, 2, 9, 51, 53, 92, 291, 321,
354
leaf blight, 144, 145
light thinning, 165, 167, 169, 173, 175
live-crown ratio, 165, 168, 175, 179,
180
logging ban, 5, 26, 30, 44, 102, 319
logging concession, 23, 301, 322
Luang Brangbang, 9, 13, 51, 53, 54,
57, 60, 92, 321, 326, 354
M
Malaysia, 19, 32, 150, 186, 223, 235,
239, 270, 329, 353
mean basal area, 165, 168, 169
mean stem volume, 165, 168, 169, 179
mean volume increment, 175
Mistletoe, 144, 145, 147
moderate thinning, 169, 171, 172, 175,
177
Modified Myanmar Selection System,
87, 94
Muna (teak), 101, 155, 156, 157, 159
Myanmar, 2, 4, 5, 7, 28, 37, 41, 44,
205, 212, 235, 288, 290, 296, 308
N
NAFRI, 3, 9, 89, 354
natural teak forests, 9, 23, 25, 41, 52,
62, 87, 92, 102, 105, 246
networking, 4, 16, 18, 19, 339, 342,
349, 358Pphenology, 130, 131, 135
plus tree, 7, 8, 13, 80, 118, 119, 161,
219, 245, 257, 266, 278, 321, 328,
354
plywood, 28, 71, 235, 239
pollination, 8, 28, 130, 131, 132, 133,
134, 135, 136, 137, 139
productivity, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134,
135, 136, 137, 139
progeny trials, 7, 159, 245, 251, 266,
278, 354
provenance trials, 7, 159, 245, 251,
266, 278, 354

Q
QGIS, 88R
ramet selection, 135
RFD, 3, 8, 15, 26, 32, 33
rubber, 10, 55, 56, 73, 277
rubber wood, 27, 33, 56
Rust, 144, 145, 147
Ssawn timber, 32, 38, 311, 321, 336
sawnwood, 63, 70, 151, 346
SDG, 3, 232, 352, 358
seed source, 9, 10, 33, 52, 54, 59, 72,
78, 82, 118, 159, 250, 323, 354
silvicultural practice, 10, 13, 19, 68,
70, 218, 354, 355
silviculture, 14, 44, 78, 82, 156, 185,212
site condition, 82, 84, 132, 253
slenderness ratio, 165, 168, 175, 177,
179
smallholder, 2, 3, 10, 16, 17, 27, 52,
56, 85, 157, 212, 277, 289, 315, 322,
327, 330
smallholder plantation, 9, 56, 212, 331,
353
Son La, 10, 13, 15, 84, 97, 355
South America, 51, 101, 149, 183, 199,
212
stand volume, 81, 165, 168, 169, 173,
175, 180superior clones, 261, 262
superior teak, 46, 155, 157, 160, 186,
280, 355
supply chains, 2, 11, 13, 15, 18, 19, 33,
72, 194, 233, 237, 285, 292, 297,
299, 305, 306, 307, 355
TTaungya, 10, 27, 44, 97, 317
teak defoliator, 149, 151, 152
teak pest, 144, 149
teak plantations, 10, 27, 28, 37, 44, 53,
63, 65, 71, 78, 90, 144, 165, 182,
214, 223
teak woodlot, 54, 60, 355
Thailand, 2, 4, 8, 22, 25, 94, 118, 130,
149, 165, 245, 256, 318, 319
Thanh Hoa, 10, 13, 82, 84, 97
Thinning, 43, 69, 165, 168, 173, 175,
227, 332

TEAK IN MEKONG

timber harvesting, 26, 202, 204, 285,
322
timber legality, 44, 161, 285, 289, 290,
292, 298,300
timber market, 2, 161, 285, 289, 298,
352, 357
timber products, 56, 75, 232, 233,294,
296, 299, 356
timber trade, 15, 32, 232, 289, 292,
293, 294, 346
Tree felling, 33, 205, 322, 333
tree improvement, 7, 13, 130, 159, 161,
248, 251, 353, 354

tropical timber, 3, 15, 42, 87, 182, 232,
233, 234, 285, 290
tropical wood products, 232, 234, 237,
242
U
UNFCCC, 330, 331
unthinned, 166, 169, 171, 173, 175,
178, 179
Vietnam, 2, 10, 78, 80, 97, 237, 240,
291, 323, 354
Wwood industry, 22, 33, 78, 85, 345
wood quality, 8, 34, 58, 101, 156, 257
work safety, 207, 209359