2003.20

Employment Situation and Measures for

Increasing Employment Opportunities:

The Case of Japan
Koji Okubayashi

２００３．８．９

Employment Situation and Measures for Increasing Employment Opportunities;
The Case of Japan

Koji Okubayashi
Professor
Graduate School of Business Administration
Kobe University
Rokkodai 2-1, Nada, Kobe, 657-8501
JAPAN
E-mail : okusankj@rose.rokkodai.kobe-u.ac.jp

Paper presented at the Forum on Labor-Management Cooperation:
Challenges to Increase Employment,
By Asian Productivity Organization and National Productivity and Development Centerof Mongolia
At Bayangol Hotel, on September 9-12,2003

1

Employment Situation and Measures for Increasing Employment Opportunities;
The Case of Japan
Koji Okubayashi
Professor
Graduate School of Business Administration
Kobe University

1.Introduction
2.Recent trends of economy and employment
1) Slow economic growth2) Unemployment rate3) Increase of service sector
4) Increase of temporary workers
3.Recent trends of industrial relations
1) Reduced rate of unionization
2) Small number of labor disputes
3) Trends of wage levels
4) Development of labor- management consultation organizations

4. Issues predicted in recent industrial relations
1) Employment
2) Working conditions
3) Management strategies

5.Work sharing; a new target
1) Four types of work sharing
2) Merits and demerits of the four types
3) Union attitudes towards work-sharing
4) Some cases of work sharing2

6.Recent Issues in employment
1) Employability of regular employees
2) Positive action for female workers3) Supports for young workers
4) Encouragement for senior workers
7. Measures for increased employment opportunities
1) Differences of the measures between rapidly glowing and slowly growing countries
2) Promotion of frontier industries
3) Promotion of various types of employment
4) Equal treatment of regular and short working employees
5) Many supports for female workers6) Extended employment of senior workers7) Social supports for young workers

8 Concussing remarks
1) Work sharing in slowly growing countries2) Balance among employment opportunities, working hours and wages3) Balance between shot and long term policies

3

(End)

2003/08/17
Employment Situation and Measures for Increasing Employment Opportunities
Case of Japan
1. Introduction
Japanese economy faced a severe depression after the brake-out of “bauble economy” tothe result that big banks went on bankruptcy and merged each other for survival.
Under this financial crisis, even big companies presenting Japanese business have torestructure their business and reduce their employees.
Medium-sized as well as large multi-national companies moved their factories
especially to Asian counties to find out new market for their products and avoid highlabor cost in Japan. These direct investments may stimulate Japanese economy, but
reduce employment opportunities within domestic labor market.
At the same time, the baby boomer after the Second World War is reaching to theretirement age of 55 or 60 years old. These senior workers were the targets of the“restructuring” of many companies. The unemployment rate of senior workers was oneof the main purposes of social policies.
Female workers moved into labor market not only as pat-time workers but also as
regular workers especially after 1986 when the Equal Employment Opportunity Law
was enacted. However, female workers have to face many “glass ceilings” of traditionalsocial customs.
Under these severe labor market conditions, it is the controversial arguments among
government, industrial leaders and trade unions how we can recover the economy andincrease the employment opportunities for all of the workers. “Work sharing” was a kindof key ward to answer this request. This paper intends to address this concept to discuss
the main subjects of this Forum.

2. Recent trends of Japanese economy and employment
1) Slow economic growth
In 19980s,Japanese economy exhibited high competition in the world market.
However, In 1990s,after the end of bubble economy, Japanese economy could notrecover smoothly in the shot period of time. The table 1 identified the rapid
decrease of per capita national income in 1990s compared with its steady increase

of United States and UK.
Table 2 indicates recent trends of real economic growth rate some countries in
Europe and Asia from 1997 to 1999. Japan shows negative growth in 1998 and thegrowth rate in the same period were among 1.8—0.8,which is very low comparedwith other Asian countries. This is the one of the main backgrounds when we
discuss the employment opportunities in Asian countries.
2) Unemployment rate
The unemployment rate in 1990s increased drastically under these unfavorable
economic conditions compared with that of 1980s. As is indicated in Table 2,
unemployment rate in 2001 is 5.0 in total against 2.0 in 1980. This figure presents
serious social problems to Japanese industrial relations although the number may
be small compared with that of European courtiers.
One of the characteristics of recent trends of unemployment is the high rate
among young people, which is showed in the number of around 10 % of
unemployment rate after 1999. Young graduates of senior high schools can not
sometimes get regular jobs and take part-time work or odds jobs with living at theirparents expanse.
Another characteristic of unemployment rate is high rate among senior workers
after 55 years old which is former retirement age. Senior people over 55 or 60 years
old still want to work so long as they are healthy and able to work.
3) Increase of service sectors
Industrial structure of Japanese economy also changes according further
industrialization or post-industrialization. Table 3 shows the trends of Japaneseindustrial structure from 1950 to 2001. It is clear that number of employees inagriculture and forestry declined drastically in 1970 and keep almost the samelevel. On the other hand, manufacturing industry increased rapidly in 1960s andreached at the top in 1999. Under the slow growth in manufacturing industry,wholesale and retails trade, financing and insurance, real estate, transport andcommunication, electricity, gas, water, heat supply and services industry grewsteadily. These structural changes of Japanese industry stimulated movement ofworkforce from industry to industry and from firm to firm.
4) Increase of temporary workers
Another trend of recent employment is the increase of non-regular workers whocovers part-time workers, contracted workers, temporary workers, and daily
workers. A company restructuring their employees intends to decrease regular
employees to avoid fixed cost of labor and to increase non-regular workers who canbe fired flexibly according to demands of work. Table 4 shows the number of
employees by form of employment or status of employment. It clearly identified therapid growth of temporally workers especially after 1990. Among the temporary
workers, 68.9% are female workers. Female workers are usually hired as temporary
workers although they sometimes want to be regular workers.

3. Recent rends of industrial relations
1) Reduced rate of unionization
Under the economic depression in 1990s, trade unions could not strongly demandhigher wages and maintenance of number of employees without lay-off. Figure 2
indicates trend of union members since 1950. The union members came to the peakin1980, but then the total unions members are declining slowly even in Japan. The
decline of trade union member is also found out in developed countries like USA
and UK.
Figure 4 indicates estimated unionization rate from 1950 to 2001. The
unionization rate was high just after the Second World War, but it declined even in
1980s because unions are confined mainly in manufacturing and public sectors andamong large companies. Due to the increase of non-regular workers and employees
in service sectors, the unionization rate could not grow corresponding to theincrease of employees.
2) Small number of labor disputes
According to the decease of unionization, labor disputes like strikes and lockouts
also decreased. Table 5 shows trends of labor disputes from 1985 to 1998 Europe,
USA, and Asia. It indicates that the number of disputes, employees involved, andworking hours lost in Japan declined drastically especially after 1990. The same
trend can also be identified in Europe and USA. Indonesia and Thailand may haveanother political reasons for large number of labor disputes. Generally speaking,under the economic depression in developed countries, union may not be able to rely
on labor disputes to realize their demands against management.
3) Trends of wage levels

Under the economic depression and low unionization rate, workers can cot easily
demand drastic increase of wages in Japan. Figure 4 indicates the absolute amountof monthly cash payment from 1960 to 2000. Absolute amount of cash payment
increased drastically from 1960 to 1980 due partially to high inflation andbargaining by unions. However, in 1990s, absolute amount of nominal wage cannot
be increased, but sometimes decreased on average. Some large companies did not
accept the union demands of annual increase of basic wage, which was formal
consensus between unions and managements after the rapid economic growth
period. Therefore unions and workers have to face severe choice between wage
increase and job keeping.
4) Development of labor management consultation organization
Low unionization rate of Japanese companies dose not mean that many employees
do not have any method to communicate with management concerning working
conditions. Many Japanese companies with or without unions arrange so-calledlabor management consultation organization like work counsel. Under thisorganization, representatives of employees of a company can discuss many
problems such as wage level, bonus, wage increase, working hours, leaves withpayment, training, and management policies concerning production and sales, andso on which may affect working conditions and future life of the employees. The
main difference from collective bargaining is that the labor management
consultation does not permit any strikes to employees.
Figure 5 shows the agendas of labor management consultation organization in thelast three years ending in 1997. Employees and management exchange a lot of
information concerning their mutual interests so that they can discuss any
problems on the base of real information. It is true that Japanese companies arequite successful to keep stable industrial relations with this consultation system.

4. Issues expected in recent industrial relations
Rengo Institute of Life Development published a recent report concerning the changesof company organization and working life of employees in 2002. Figure 6 indicates
responds from companies based on questionnaires survey.
In the field of employment, main issues predicted in the discussion of industrial
relations are job security (51.8%), job security up until 65 years old (43.9), dispatch andseparation, and number of employees. Management and employees have to talk franklyand find out some solutions to keep job security of regular employees and extension ofwork opportunity of senior workers until 65 yeas old when national pension will start tobe paid.
In the field of working conditions, they concern about reforms of retirement allowanceand company pension (64.0), changes of bonus and allowance (57.5), reforms of wage
system (50.0), and mental health (36.0). Under the severe economic conditions
companies intends to reduce total labor cost and flexible use of wage fund to stimulatetalented employees. However, employees want to maintain former income level to keep
their family and secure company pension.
In the field of management policy, the main arguments are reforms of wage system andperformance evaluation system (61.4). Companies cannot follow the traditional wage
system of nenkoutinnginn and syuusinnkoyou. They try to transform employment
system and company-employee relations. Trade unions also cannot insist on the
traditional wage system and employment system under the severe global competition of
their company. The traditional employment system might change slowly by the
initiative of management.

5 Work sharing; a new target of increased employment
1) Four types of work sharing
Ministry of health, labor and welfare made a questionnaire survey to 4,000 employees
in 200 companies in November 2000 for obtaining information about work sharing.
According to that report, four types of work sharing are identified as is shown in Table
6.
The first type is a kind of emergency measure to avoid dismissing employees of acompany with sharing jobs within the employees. This type is usually applied tocompanies in low performance and to all employees of that company. To share jobs,
they accept shorter regular working hour, reduced overtime, increased holydays andshort period of lay-off with reduced wages, although labor productivity would bemaintained.
The second type is a device to keep especially the employment of senior workers underhigh unemployment rate of senior workers. This type of work sharing is confined tosenior workers at the age of 55--65 within a company. Their work opportunity will becreated by their shorter regular working hour, abolishment of their overtime andlonger holydays.

The third type is a measure to create jobs by reducing regular working hour of many
workers by law or regulations under long unemployment of a country. This measuremeans sharing work between employees and unemployed workers by reducing regular
working hour, and between senior and young workers by reducing working hour ofsenior workers and promoting employment of young workers. This method usuallyneeds subsidiary to companies applying shorter working hour from government.
The fourth type is a policy to use many forms of employment by utilizing various
working style of life. It promotes supportive working environment for female andsenior workers, work and family balance, choice between free time and income, andkeeping talented workers to their company. The devices to realize these types of work
sharing are job sharing(two persons share the same job.), transforming the full-timework into part-time work, and flexible working hour and day.
One or plural types of work sharing mentioned above can be used according to theconcrete situations of company or country. We need to access pro and corn of thesetypes.

2) Merits and demerits of the four types
According to the same report, companies discussing the first type are only 19.5% ofcompanies researched. 77.3% of the companies answered no intention of introducingthat type of work sharing. They points out not so mush decrease of labor cost as shorter
work hour as its demerit. Workers themselves points out the worry of reduced wages.
Therefore the first type doses not attract the much interests of both companies andworkers.
The second type obtained positive response from 48.4% of companies and 66.0% of
workers. 41.5% of companies answered that they are discussing or intend to discuss innear future. Therefore, companies and workers support the second type of work
sharing.
The third type of work sharing does not obtain support from both companies andworkers. Only 14.0% of company and 27.5% of workers answered that work sharing by
shorter regular work hour with enactment will work effectively. Japanese companies
usually do not like to be regulated in shorter working hour with enactment.
36.7% of companies answered that they are discussing or intend to discuss this type ofwork sharing in some future. However, 61.2% of them said that they cannot introduce
job sharing and 34.5% of the companies answered that job sharing can be applied
depending on the kind of jobs. 75.3% of workers support the fourth type of work

sharing.
The main reasons why companies support the fourth type of work sharing are, first,
they can keep talented workers, and second, it helps the image-up of the companies.
On the other hand, workers support the fourth type due to the promotion ofwork-family balance, increased leisure time, more time for skill and education.
On the other side of the coin, 36.7% of companies point out of its demerits that theycannot identify the responsibility of the two persons, and that it will decrease theproductivity and increase the labor cost. Some of the companies already applying thejob sharing indicate that it brings some problems in promotion of the applicants.
Workers points out some worry about the treatment of wages and pension.
Among the four types of work sharing, both companies and workers under severe
economic conditions in1990s positively accept the second and fourth types. However,
we need further discussion about better social and economic environment for defusing
the many types of work sharing.

3) Some cases of work sharing
There are many companies and local governments, which introduced some types ofwork sharing in the last few years. Tokyo Factory of Sanyo Electric Co., Anritu, Hino
Auto Manufacturing Co., Citizun Mekatoronics Co. in private sector and local
government like Hyogo prefecture, Aich prefecture, Oita prefecture are some examples.
Here, we will explain Tokyo Factory of Sanyo Electric Co. in private sector and Aichi
prefecture in public sector.
(1) Sanyo Electric Co. Sanyo intended to transfer their plant of air conditioner andrefrigerator to China. About 2,000 employees at Tokyo Factory were to be
redundant. She has to transfer 400-500 employees at Tokyo Factory to anotherplants in Japan, and dispatch 200 employees to auto Manufacturing companies
outside Sanyo. At the same time she applied work sharing to 1,000 employees at
Tokyo Factory among 10,000 employees from October 2002.

The 1,000 employees

share the same job with two persons. The wage of these employees reduced at
maximum by 20 %. The trade union of Sanyo accepted this work sharing toprotect the job security of whole Sanyo employees.
(2) Aichi prefecture. Aichi prefectures divided simple jobs from standard job content
of the public employees and give them to temporary employees within local
government office. The wages of these temporary workers comes from former
overtime payment to regular employees. Therefore, regular employees do not have

to work overtime, but reduced the overtime payment.
4) Union attitudes towards work sharing
Rengo, the representative federation of Japanese trade unions, clearly understands
the difficult economic as well as employment situation of Japan. Commenting on work
sharing supported by government and employers organizations, she points out thatdevices to reduce total amount of labor cost by transforming regular work to temporary
work can not be named “work sharing.” She still insists on the necessity of abolishingthe differences of working conditions based on the differences of working hours andemployment forms before introducing work sharing. Or it is prerequisites for work
sharing that they do not plan production based on overtime work, and that employees
can use all of the paid holydays, and that they clear up unpaid overtime work.
Denkirengo (Federation of Electric Trade Unions) insists the importance of
establishing the concept of payment for working hour because Japanese workers are
not accustomed to that concept due to the traditional idea of lifetime employment andseniority wage. Zensenndoumei also insists that the type of keeping senior workers
and the type of various work style would be the most important measures for theJapanese workers to increase employment opportunity.
The opinions of Rengo concerning work sharing are summarized in the appendix of
this paper.

6. Recent issues in employment
1) Employability of regular employees
Under the severe economic conditions in1990s, companies realized that theycannot guarantee lifetime employment to all of their employees and cannot give
all of the education and training periodically. They started to say that employees
themselves try to get training and knowledge for their working life and that thecompanies will help employees to develop their employability, which can beevaluated in the labor market.
Under the new concept of employability, companies tried to provide many
training and education courses to their employees with request to pay someamount of money to the companies. The employees who intend to take a certain
career path for their working life have to pay some money to the lectures
provided by their companies. It will stimulate spontaneous efforts of industrious
employees to improve their skill and knowledge. The companies will reward theseindustrious employees by higher wage for their high performance or bypromotion.
2) Positive actions for female workers
With the law of equal employment opportunity enacted in 1986, government
makes a lot of efforts to stimulate companies to hire and promote many female
employees to management positions. Companies also tried to hire and keep
talented female workers to their companies. Government, companies and tradeunions started social campaign to change anti-female atmosphere at shop floors
and offices. Companies are prohibited to treat female employees unequally withmale employees.
One of the unequal treatments of female workers is shown in the low rate offemale managers among management positions. The new equal employment law
supports companies to take a positive action to choose more female employees tomanagement positions. Some companies gave additional training for female
employees to obtain enough qualifications to be selected to a manager.
Government often advocates choosing female representatives to administrative
committees.
3) Supports for young workers
Many graduates especially from senior high school face difficulty to find out jobs
suitable to them. Companies prefer university graduates under high demands of
new technical knowledge and quick training for practices at work. They have to
wait to find out regular job with taking some temporary work in uncertain periodof time. They can live with such temporary job so long as they live with theirparents.
Some senior high school tried to provide internship to their students to makethem realize the actual working life. Japanese national government built a
museum to show what some professions are like. Students can experience job
activities of any professions at the museum named “ watashino sigotokan”(housefor my profession).
Another device to make successful matching between young students and theirjob is to increase career counselor at schools and employment security offices. At
the first stage, we need to develop the new professionals of career counselor. They
will advice many workers who intend to change their job after graduating theirschool.

4) Encouragements for senior workers
Senior workers over 60 years old in Japan still want to work so long as they arehealthy and strong enough to move as ordinary people. Work is a good chance tohave good human relations with other people and to confirm their contribution tosociety. Therefore they want to work with even less than the standard wages.
Government is expected to provide opportunities for senior workers to work or to
make some activities.
Companies also try to utilize skill and knowledge of senior employees, but
hardly pay the same amount of wage as young workers to senior workers. They
continue to hire the senior employees with shorter working hour and lessresponsibility so that senior employees can continue their work in good health
until 65 years old when they start to obtain pensions.
There are social organizations named “silver human resource center” in every
city and town. After senior workers register at that organization, they are asked
to work at some place near their residence and can get some rewards for theirservice. The center is not a company but a kind of local association, which takecare of senior people. The center sometimes arranges some social events topromote good human relations among senior people in residential area. They canenjoy social life and work with their friends.
7. Measures for increased employment opportunity
1) Differences of measures between rapidly and slowly growing countries
Measures for stimulating employment opportunity would differ depending on
the economic conditions. Countries under rapidly growing need many workers
who can accept any jobs. Government has to provide many training courses andvocational schools as well as good elementary schools. The main problems forincreasing employment opportunity might be vocational training and educationof young people.
However, slowly growing countries cannot provide many employment
opportunities for different groups of age. They have to share the limited numberof employment opportunities among many types of workers. Work sharing would
be one of the solutions under that situation.
2) Promotion of frontier industries
One of the best solutions for increased employment is the rapid economic
growth of a country. Economic growth brings demands for many jobs andworkers. In Japan at this moment, information industry, medical industry,
welfare industry for aged people, biotechnology industry are expected to grow up
in near future. These industries need high level of professionals who requests
long period of education.

3) Promotion of various types of employment
Regular employment is the typical form of employment. But it is a fixed cost forcompanies, which brings a big burden in economic depression. Companies want
to change the fixed cost of labor into variable cost, which can be flexible
according to economic conditions. Therefore, they hired more tart-time workers,
contract workers, temporary workers instead of regular employees.
At the same time, the workers who want shorter working hours at schooling,for example, prefer non-regular employees because they are not requested towork overtime. Therefore, many forms of employment also help workers toarrange their own work style. That is one of the main reasons why temporary
workers grow rapidly in1990s in Japan.
4) Equal treatment of regular and short working employees
One of the worst problems of non-regular workers is the big difference of hourly
wage rate between regular and non-regular employees. Hourly wage rate ofpart-time workers at almost same job content at store, for example, is around70-80 % of that of regular workers. Companies usually insist the difference ofworking conditions and responsibility of regular employees. However, workers
and trade unions request the equal payment for equal-value work.
5) Many supports for female workers
Many social supports for workingwomen are requested. Under the concept ofequal participation of men and women into social activities, husbands are also
asked to take care of their children at home and at school. Now in Japan, young
couples take their children on the street with a baby carriage. Government
plans to extend the nursery leave for 1-3 years and push a campaign for maleworkers to use nursery leave. We need to promote favorable environment for
female workers not only at work palace but also at home to increase theemployment opportunity of women.

6) Extended employment of senior workers
In the aged society like Japan, it will be a social target to prepare some
opportunity for senior people to take part in social activities. Longevity ofJapanese people is already more than 80 years old. Senior people over 60 years
old have to find out some kind of social activities including work. Pension forsenior people is to be postponed to 65 years old in a few years. Therefore, senior
people over 60 years old, which is compulsory retirement age at lifetime
employment.
Some companies offer extended employment for their employees over 60 years
old with fewer amounts of wages. The senior employees may continue theirformer job with less responsibility and working hours. Or they may betransferred to easier job until 65 yeas old. Employees often choose this kind ofextended employment because they are accustomed to these shop and people oftheir company.

7) Social supports for young workers
Recent young students are not so familiar with working life of their father andmother. They do not have a chance to visit factories or office outside theirschool and cannot grow up enough to work as regular employees without
vocational training. Companies cannot afford to provide long in-house training
for all new comers.
To make the young students accustomed to working life, some companies
introduced a provisional employment system, which means that some students
work in three months at a company as test employment. If the company andthe students find out to be suitable each other, the students are officially hired.
If they do not like each other, then a new provisional employment will start.
This practice intends to avoid to easily hire and fire young workers.

8.Conclusing remarks
1) Work sharing in slowly growing countries
Work sharing is a new policy to increase employment in slowly growing countries
including European countries. However, this practice has some difficulty in its
technical aspects and needs many preconditions to implement successively. The
idea can be accepted among government, employers and employee, but its

realization faces many difficulties, which were resolved in the long period of timein Holland.
2) Balance among employment opportunity, working hours and wages
One of the difficulties of work sharing is that workers have to reduce wages by
the shorter working hours. Companies often ask workers to choose whether theywant to keep their job or loose their wage. Under high unemployment rate at labormarket, employees have to accept fewer wages instead of firing some friends of thesame company. Therefore, the important point of the arguments of work sharing is
how to make a new balance of employment opportunity, working hours and wages
in a new economic situation of each country. Social conditions of Japanese economy
cannot follow at this moment the structures of “part-time economy” like Holland.
The best solution to create employment in Japan would be to provide many formsof employment and working style for female, senior, and young workers. They
would create a kind of secondary labor market against male and active workers.
But they will find out employment opportunity by themselves.

3) Balance between short and long term policies
One of the best solutions to create employment opportunity would be to stimulate
national economy to grow up rapidly. However changes of national economy andsocial structures take long time and need much effort of government and economic
organizations. We have to establish a strategy to move national economy upwards
steadily.
But at the same time, we have to solve urgent problems to save unemployment of
employees caused by bankruptcy, for example. The policies to promote
employment of senior, female, young workers will also take long time toaccomplish their targets. We need both aspects of long and short-term policies.
(the end)[2003.8.17 658]

Figure1 Per Capita National Income 2000
(1000 US $)

35
30
25
20

United States
Japan

15

UnitedKingdom
Germany

10

Korea

5
0
1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Source:OECD, National Account Vol.2, Economic Social Research Institute Cabinet Office Government of Japan.
National Account for FY2000.

Ｔａｂｌｅ １ Ｒｅａｌ Ｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃ Ｇｒｏｗｔｈ Ｒａｔｅ １９９９(%)
Ｃｏｕｎｔｒｙ
1997
1998
1999
Ｊａｐａｎ
1.8
-1.1
0.8
Ｕｎｉｔｅｄ Ｓｔａｔｅｓ
4.2
4.6
4.2
Ｆｒａｎｃｅ
1.9
3.2
2.7
Ｇｅｒｍａｎｙ
1.5
2.2
1.5
Ｉｔａｌｙ
1.8
1.5
1.4
Ｕｎｉｔｅｄ Ｋｉｎｇｄｏｍ
3.5
2.6
2.3
Ｃｈｉｎａ
8.8
7.8
7.1
Ｉｎｄｏｎｅｓｉａ
4.7
-13.1
0.8
Ｍａｌａｙｓｉａ
7.3
-7.4
5.8
Ｓｉｎｇａｐｏｒｅ
-6.4
9.3
5.4
Ｔｈａｉｌａｎｄ
-0.4
-10.2
3.3
Source:OECD,National Account Vol.2,Economic Social Research Institute Cabinet Office, GovernmentofJapan,National Accounts for FY2000
IMF,International Financial Statistics May 2001
IMF,International Financial Statistics Yearbook2000
JETRO,White Paper on International Trade Japan2000

Ｔａｂｌｅ ２ Ｕｎｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔ Ｒａｔｅ ｂｙ Ａｇｅ ａｎｄ Ｓｅｘ

Ｔｏｔａｌ
１５−２４
２５−３４
３５−４４
４５−５４
５５−６４
６５ ａｎｄ ｏｖｅｒ

1980
2.0
2.0
4.0
1.9
1.2
1.4
4.0
2.2

1990
2.1
2.0
4.5
1.8
1.2
1.1
3.4
1.4

1997
3.4
3.4
6.9
3.3
2.1
2.1
5.0
2.0

1998
4.1
4.2
8.2
4.1
2.8
2.5
6.3
2.6

1999
4.7
4.8
10.3
4.8
3.1
3.2
6.7
2.9

2000
4.7
4.9
10.4
5.0
2.9
3.5
6.8
3.2

（％）
2001
5.0
5.2
10.4
5.5
3.4
3.7
7.0
3.2

Ｆｅｍａｌｅ Ｔｏｔａｌ
１５−２４
２５−３４
３５−４４
４５−５４
５５−６４
６５ ａｎｄ ｏｖｅｒ

2.0
3.2
2.9
1.7
1.5
1.2
0.0

2.2
4.1
3.1
1.8
1.5
1.4
0.0

3.4
6.3
5.5
2.4
2.0
2.5
0.6

4.0
7.3
6.2
3.3
2.3
0.9
0.6

4.5
8.2
6.6
3.7
3.0
3.3
0.5

4.5
7.9
6.4
3.7
3.1
3.6
1.1

4.7
8.7
6.9
4.1
3.2
3.7
1.1

Ｔｏｔａｌ
Ｍａｌｅ

Source:Ministry of Public Management,Home Affairs,Posts and Telecommunications,
Annual Report on the Labour Force Survey

Ｔａｂｌｅ ３ Ｎｕｍｂｅｒ ｏｆ Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｂｙ Ｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｙ（１００００ persons)
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001 Male

Female

1,265

2,370

3,306

3,971

4,835

5,322

5,391

5,368

5,331

5,356

5,369

3,201

2,168

56

94

29

30

29

35

33

33

33

34

38

21

17

1,208

2,276

3,277

3,941

4,806

5,287

5,358

5,344

5,298

5,322

5,331

3,180

2,151

Ｆｉｓｈｅｒｉｅｓ

22

26

18

15

13

10

9

8

7

8

9

7

2

Ｍｉｎｉｎｇ

48

42

18

15

13

10

9

8

7

8

9

4

1

Ｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎ

88

198

305

427

462

551

563

548

544

539

520

440

80

Ｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇ

451

799

1,144

1,135

1,306

1,307

1,307

1,258

1,223

1,205

1,185

793

392

Ｗｈｏｌｅｓａｌｅ ａｎｄｒｅｔａｉｌ ｔｒａｄｅ；ｆｉｎａｎｃｉｎｇ ａｎｄｉｎｓｕｒａｎｃｅ；ａｎｄ ｒｅａｌ ｅｓｔａｔｅ

162

449

731

1,003

1,288

1,399

1,407

1,426

1,428

1,426

1,423

699

724

Ｔｏｔａｌ
Ａｇｒｉｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ
ａｎｄ ｆｏｒｅｓｔｒｙ
Ｎｏｎ−ａｇｒｉｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉｅｓ

Ｔｒａｎｓｐｏｒｔ ａｎｄｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ
ａｎｄｅｌｅｃｔｒｉｃｉｔｙ，ｇａｓ，ｗａｔｅｒａｎｄ ｈｅａｔ ｓｕｐｐｌｙ
Ｓｅｒｖｉｃｅｓ

161

237

340

362

384

426

426

422

423

427

421

341

80

175

388

558

788

1,142

1,361

1,408

1,432

1,434

1,478

1,536

718

818

Ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔ

120

-

161

199

195

214

215

217

214

214

211

166

46

Source:Ministry of Public Management,Home Affairs,Posts and Telecommunications,
Annual Report on the Labour Force Survey

Note:

Figures for 1980 and thereafter include Okinawa prefectureＴａｂｌｅ ４ Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄ Ｐｅｒｓｏｎｓ ｂｙ ｓｔａｔｕｓ ｉｎ Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔ(10,000 persons)
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

1998

1999

2000

2001 Ｍａｌｅ

Ｔｏｔａｌ

3,572

4,472

5,094

5,536

6,250

6,514

6,462

6,446

6,412

3,783

2,629

Ａｇｒｉｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌ

1,741

1,492

842

532

411

317

307

297

286

155

131

Ｔｏｔａｌ

1,831

2,979

4,251

5,004

5,839

6,197

6,155

6,150

6,126

3,628

2,498

Ｔｏｔａｌ

404

537

614

698

682

605

602

585

554

391

164

-

-

-

180

185

180

175

172

166

134

32

-

-

-

518

498

425

427

414

389

257

132

224

306

354

354

330

240

234

224

215

41

174

1,202

2,132

3,277

3,941

4,806

5,334

5,298

5,322

5,331

3,180

2,151

- 1,966

3,005

3,567

4,296

4,726

4,666

4,660

4,649

2,953

1,696

Ｓｅｌｆ−
ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄ
ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ Ｗｉｔｈ
ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓＮｏｎ−ａｇｒｉｃｕｌｔｒａｌ

Ｗｉｔｈｏｕｔ
ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ
Ｆａｍｉｌｙｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
Ｔｏｔａｌ
Ｏｒｄｉｎａｒｙ
Ｒｅｇｕｌａｒ
ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ
１）
ＥｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓＴｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ
ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ
２）
Ｄａｉｌｙ
ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ
３）Ｆｅｍａｌｅ

-

84

162

252

389

488

510

546

564

175

389

-

82

109

123

121

121

121

116

1.9

52

66

Source:Ministry of Public Management,Home Affairs,Posts and Telecommunications,
Annual Report on the Labour Fource Survey

Notes;

1)Ordinery regular employees refer to persons who are employed for more than a year or who work on contracts ofno specific period excluding directors.
2)Temporary employees refer to persons who are employed for specific periods of a month or more but not more than a year.
3)Daily employees refer to persons who are employed on a daily basis or for specific periods of less than a month.

Figure 2 Members of Labour Unions(1,000 persons)
15,00011,60512,0009,000
6,000

12,369 12,265 12,285 12,093

11,825 11,539

11,212

7,662
5,774

3,000
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Basic Survey on Labour Unions.
Notes: Members; Based on Enterprise Labour union which, in most cases, are comprised of the unions of a single
enterprise.

Figure 3 Estimated Unionization Rate
(%)
50

46.2

40
32.2

35.4
30.8

30

25.2

22.6

22.4

22.2

21.5

20.7

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

20
10
0
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Basic Survey on Labour Unions.

Ｔａｂｌｅ ５ Ｔｒｅｎｄｓ ｉｎ Ｎｕｍｂｅｒ ｏｆ Ｌａｂｏｕｒ Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ，Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ Ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ，ａｎｄ Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ Ｄａｙｓ Ｌｏｓｔ

(Disputes,1,000employees,1,000day)

1985
Ｊａｐａｎ １）
Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ
627
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ 123.4
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ
264.1
Ｕｎｉｔｅｄ Ｓｔａｔｅｓ ２） Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ
54
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ 323.9
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ 7,079.1
Ｆｒａｎｃｅ ３）
Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ
1,901
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ
22.8
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ
726.7
Ｇｅｒｍａｎｙ ４）
Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ−
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ
78.2
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ
34.5
Ｉｔａｌｙ ５）
Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ
1,341
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ 4,842.8
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ 3,830.8
Ｕｎｉｔｅｄ Ｋｉｎｇｄｏｍ ６） Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ
903
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ 791.3
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ 6,402.0
Ｉｎｄｏｎｅｓｉａ ７）
Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ
78
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ
21.1
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ
557.0
Ｍａｌａｙｓｉａ ８）
Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ
25
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ
9.0
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ
36.0
Ｔｈａｉｌａｎｄ
Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ
4
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ
0.6
Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ ｌｏｓｔ
13.1

1990
284
84.3
144.5
44
184.9
5,925.5
1,529
18.5
528.0
777
257.2
363.5
1,094
1,634.0
5,181.3
630
298.2
1,903.0
61
31.2
316.6
17
98.5
302.0
9
4.3
71.6

1996
1997
1998
193
178
145
23.2
47.2
26.0
42.8
110.2
98.0 Ｓｏｕｒｃｅｓ：
37
29
34
272.7
338.6
387.0
4,888.6 4,497.1 5,116.0−− 1,745−− 121.0−− 346.0 Notes:
200
144
46
165.7
13.5
4.0
98.1
52.9
2.0
791
1,103
1,689.0
435.4
1,930.0
580.4
244
216
166
364.3
130.0
91.0
1,303.0
234.7
282.0
346
234
−
221.3
145.6
−
2,496.5 1,250.4
−
9
4
12
1.0
0.7
1.8
2.6
2.1
2.7
18
23
−
8.7
11.9
−
92.1
150.6
−

Ｊａｐａｎ：Ｍｉｎｉｓｔｒｙ ｏｆ Ｈｅａｌｔｈ，Ｌｏｂｏｕｒ ａｎｄ ｗｅｌｆａｒｅ，Ａｎｎｕａｌ Ｒｅｐｏｒｔ ｏｎ Ｓｔａｔｉｓｔｉｃａｌ Ｓｕｒｖｅｙｓ ｏｆ Ｌｏｂｏｕｒ Ｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｓ.
Ｇｅｒｍａｎｙ：Ｇｅｒｍａｎ Ｆｅｄｅｒａｌ Ｓｔａｔｉｓｔｉｃａｌ Ｏｆｆｉｃｅ，Ｓｔａｔｉｓｔｉｓｃｈｅｓ Ｊａｈｒｂｕｃｈ １９９７.

Ｏｔｈｅｒｓ：ＩＬＯ，Ｙｅａｒｂｏｏｋ ｏｆ Ｌａｂｏｕｒ Ｓｔａｔｉｓｔｉｃｓ.
1)Disputes that last under a half day are excluded. The employees involved isthe number of workers who actually took part in the dispute.
2)The number of disputes and the employees involved are for disputes that began
during the year in question,excluding disputes involving under 1,000 employees
and disputes lasting under one day.
3)Localized (disputes on the single-enterprise level), agricultural ,and civil service
disputes are excluded Starting in 1985,the number of disputes is in establishment
units.
The number of employees involved is calculated from the average number of
empl4)Prior to 1992 data refers to formerF.R. of Germany.After 1993 data refers to All
Germany.The employees involved and working days lost on March 10,1990 and earlier
arefor former F.R.of Germany.When the working days lost exceeds 100,disputes lastingunde5)The working days lost is calculated by the standard of a 7-hour working day.
6)When the working days lost exceeds 100,disputes lasting under one day and those
involving under 10 employees are included.The number of disputes excluded politicalstrikes.
7)The working days lost is calculated by the standard of a 7-hour working day.
8)Only syrikes are included.

Figure4 Trends in Wage Levels-Monthly Cash Payment(Norminal and Real)amount
450
408.9

413.1

421.4

415.7

400

396.3

398.1

1999

2000

370.2
350
300

1,000yen

263.4
250
200
150
100
50

75.7
24.4

0
1960

1970

1980

1990

1995
1996
Absolute amount

1997

1998

Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and welfare, Monthly Labour Suvey
Notes: 1) Real wage indices calculated from real wage index = Nominal wage index / CPI
2) “Absolute amount” prior to 1969 and “rate of increase” prior to 1970 are exclusive of wages of service workers
3) Figures are for regular employees in establishments with 30 employees or more.

Figure 5 Ratio of Labour Unions by Subjects of Negotiation and Sessions Through which
Negotiation was Held (Collective Bargaining & Labour Management Consultation
Organization) and by Whether With or Without Labour Management Consultation
Organizations in the Past 3 Years1
0

10

20

30

40

50

32.1

Employment and Personnel affairs
23.3
25.7

Child-care leave system, care leave sysytem

8.6

Conclusion renewal, or revision of comprehensive
collective agreement
Interpretation and criticism of collective agreement

31.9

31.3

Session through labour
management consultaition
organizaition(with labor
management consultaition
organization)

41.8

Session through collective
barganing(with labor
management consultaition
organization)

19.3
53.0

18.4
9.7

43.4

57.2

17.0

Welfaremanagement policy

(%)

32.7

9.0
12.5

Working environment

Equal treatment of male employee and female
employee

58.9
63.1
61.5
57.1
63.8

45.6

Working hours

Health management

70

52.0

Wage

Training

60

30.7

Session through collective
barganing(without labor
management consultaition
organization)

24.6
14.0
15.5

49.7
20.6
31.6

19.6
18.0
11.7
14.4

25.3

Source: Ministry of Health, Labour and welfare, Survey on Collective Bargaining and Labour Disputes, 1998.
Notes: 1) The last 3 years means from 1 July 1994 to 30 June 1997.

Figure6 Issues predicted in industrial relations0

Job security
Job seturity upto 65 years old
Number of employees.Dispatch and separation
Transfer
Reforms of wages
Bonus and allowances
Reforms of retirement allowance and company pension.Reforms of fringe benefits
Shorter work hours
Flexible working hours
Improvement of working environment
Mental health
Restructuring of human resourcedevelopement
Reforms of wage system and evaluation system.Grievances of wages and evaluation.Not specified

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

51.8
43.9
34.2
39.5
24.6
50.0
57.0
64.0
29.5
21.9
10.5
14.0
36.0
16.7
61.4
21.9
10.5

Source: Research report on changes of organization and work, Institute of Rengo Life Development, July 2003.

Table 6 Four Types of work sharing
Types by purpose

Ｂａｃｋｇｒｏｕｎｄｓ

Ｓｈａｒｉｎｇ ａｍｏｎｇ ｗｈｏｍ Ｍｅｔｈｏｄｓ ｏｆ ｓｈａｒｉｎｇ

１）Emergent Measure：work sharing among
employees to avoid
dismiss
positive: 19.5%
negative: 77.5%

・Ｌｏｗ ｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃ
ｐｅｒｆｏｒｍａｎｃｅｏｆ ｆｉｒｍｓ

・ａｍｏｎｇ ａｌｌ ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ
ｉｎ ａ ｃｏｍｐａｎｙ

・Ｒｅｄｕｎｄａｎｔ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ2)Keeping Senior Workers：
ａｍｏｎｇ ｓｅｎｉｏｒ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
Ｓｈｏｒｔｅｒ ｗｏｒｋ ｈｏｕｒ・ａｍｏｎｇ ａ ｓｅｎｉｏｒ ｗｏｒｋｅｒ
ａｍｏｎｇ ｓｅｎｉｏｒ
ｇｒｏｕｐ
・Ｅｘｔｅｎｓｉｏｎ ｏｆｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ
・ａｍｏｎｇ ｂｅｆｏｒｅ−ａｎｄ−ａｆｔｅｒ
ｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔｔｏ ｍａｉｎｔａｉｎ ｔｈｅｉｒ ｊｏｂ
６０ ｙｅａｒｓ ｏｌｄ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
ｕｎｔｉｌｌ ６５ ｙｅａｒｓ ｏｌｄ
positive: 41.5%

３）Ｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ Ｊｏｂ：
ｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｄ ｗｏｒｋ
ｏｐｐｏｔｕｎｉｔｉｅｓ ｂｙｓｈｏｒｔｅｒ ｗｏｒｋ ｈｏｕｒｏｆ ｅｖｅｒｙ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
no support

４）Ｖａｒｉｏｕｓ Ｗｏｒｋ
Ｓｔｙｌｅｓ：ｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｄ ｗｏｒｋ
ｏｐｐｏｒｔｕｎｉｔｉｅｓ ｂｙｍａｎｙ ｆｏｒｍｓ ｏｆｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｓｔｙｌｅ
positive: 36.7%

・Ｌｏｎｇ ｔｅｒｍｓ ｏｆ
ｈｉｇｈｕｎｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔ
ｒａｔｅ・ｓｈｏｒｔｅｒ ｏｖｅｒｔｉｍｅ ｗｏｒｋ・ｓｈｏｒｔｅｒ ｒｅｇｕｌａｒ
ｗｏｒｋ ｈｏｕｒｓ
・ｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｄ ｈｏｌｙｄａｙｓ
・ｌａｙ−ｏｆｆ・ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ ａｎｄｕｎｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ

・ｓｈｏｒｔｅｒ ｒｅｇｕｌａｒ
ｗｏｒｋ ｈｏｕｒ ｂｙ ｌａｗｓ

・ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｓｅｎｉｏｒ ａｎｄｙｏｕｎｇ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ

・ｓｈｏｒｔｅｒ ｗｏｒｋ ｈｏｕｒ ｆｏｒｓｅｎｉｏｒ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
ａｎｄ ｈｉｒｉｎｇ ｏｆｙｏｕｎｇ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ

・Ｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｐｏｓｉｔｉｖｅ
ｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓ ｆｏｒ ｆｅｍａｌｅ
ａｎｄ ｓｅｎｉｏｒ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
・Ｂａｌａｎｃｅ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ
ｗｏｒｋ ａｎｄ ｆａｍｉｌｙ ｌｉｆｅ
・Ｖａｒｉｏｕｓ ｐｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅ ｏｆ ・ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｐｒｅｓｅｎｔ
ｉｎｃｏｍｅ ａｎｄ ｌｅｉｓｕｒｅａｎｄ ｆｕｔｕｒｅ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
ｂａｌａｎｃｅ・Ｄｅｓｉｒｅ ｏｆ ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
ｓｅｌｆ−ａｃｔｕａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ
・Ｋｅｅｐｉｎｇ ｔａｌｅｎｔｅｄ
ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ ｆｏｒ ｆｉｒｍｓ

・ｊｏｂ ｓｈａｒｉｎｇ（ｔｗｏ ｐｅｒｓｏｎｓ ｓｈａｒｉｎｇ
ｏｎｅ ｊｏｂ）
・ｔｒａｎｓｆｏｒｍ ｏｆｆｕｌｌ−ｔｉｍｅ ｗｏｒｋ
ｉｎｔｏ ｐａｒｔ−ｔｉｍｅ ｗｏｒｋ・ｆｌｅｘｉｂｌｅ ｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ ｄａｙｓ
ａｎｄ ｈｏｕｒｓ

Ｃｈａｎｇｅ ｏｆ ｗａｇｅｓ Ｔｅｒｍｓ ｃｏｒｒｅｓｐｏｎｄｉｎｇ

・ａｂｏｌｉｔｉｏｎ ｏｆ ｏｖｅｒｔｉｍｅ
・ｄｅｃｒｅａｓｅｐａｙｍｅｎｔ，・ｋｅｅｐｉｎｇ ｔｈｅ ｆｏｒｍｅｒ
ｄｅｃｒｅａｓｅｄ ｂｏｎｕｓ，ｌｅｖｅｌ ｂｙ ｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｄ
ｓｔｏｐｐｉｎｇ ｔｈｅ ｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｄ
ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｖｉｔｙ
ｐａｙｍｅｎｔ

・ｏｆｔｅｎ ｋｅｅｐｉｎｇ
ｔｈｅ ｆｏｒｍｅｒ ｗａｇｅｓ
・ｄｅｃｒｅａｓｅ・ｗａｇｅｓ ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇ
ｔｏ ｗｏｒｋ ｓｔｙｌｅｓ

・Ａｕｔｏｎｏｍｏｕｓ ｗｏｒｋ
ｈｏｕｒ，ｆｌｅｘ−ｔｉｍｅSource: Research report on work sharing, Ministry of Welfare and Labor, April 2001.

Appendix 1【６】

RENGO White Paper, 2002

Toward a New Modes of Work
The Challenge of Work Sharing【6-1】While unemployment is increasing, working time is growing longer.
Japanese workers suffer from an extreme imbalance between their mode of working andmode of living.
Quantitative imbalance stands out. There are so many unemployed workers on the
one hand, but on the other hand those who have jobs are forced to work for long, including
those who have to put in service overtime (unpaid overtime).
Labor force surveys show that workers who have to put in long working time haveincreased significantly in the past several years.
More than half of the workers covered by RENGO’s livelihood survey are performing“service” overtime. This number is still increasing.
The imbalance between increasing unemployment and growing working time is
becoming more serious as employment restructuring proceeds.
【6-2】Gaps in working conditions between typical and atypical workers are expending
In qualitative terms, an imbalance of Working conditions exists between typical andatypical workers. As unemployment rises, the gap is becoming even wider.
Taking advantage of this gap, employers are replacing typical workers withatypical workers for the sake of cost reduction. Blatant assaults on working conditions
are frequently reported. There have been cases like one company which, having fired allof its regular workers, immediately hired other workers through a subsidiary as
lower-paid regular workers to do the same job.
【6-3】Even by international standards, the imbalance between working and living
conditions is large in Japan.
Thirdly, there is serious imbalance between working life and daily living. In a survey by
the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 70% of female and 40% of male repondants said
that they found it difficult to balance their working and family life. While compatibility
between these two aspects of life is an ideal for society, the real situation is moving in the
opposite direction.
An international comparison reveals that working time is longer and family time

RENGO White Paper, 2002
shorter in Japan than in other countries. This imbalance can be attributed at least partly
to the low premium rate of overtime work and weak regulations on overtime.
【6-4】Lets us remove this imbalance through work sharing and create new modes of work!
Work sharing is one of the means to remove the imbalance that affects working life andfamily life.
Here we are not talking about employment adjustment by individual enterprises.
We are Talking about work sharing through working time cuts, implemented as national
polices based on a social consensus.
It has quantitative and qualitative aspects: (1) reducing unemployment by cutting
overtime (service overtime, in particular) and (2) expanding choices of working modes by
the through application of the principle of equal treatment for all.
On the first issue, the Japan Productivity Center for Socio-Economics Development(JPS-SED) estimated that 900,000 jobs could be generated by abolishing service overtime,and 1,7000,000 jobs with the abolition of all type of overtime. What matters is how thismacro possibility can be translated into enterprise-level reality. In this regard, social
mechanisms are needed to support companies that practice work sharing, For instance, it
may be useful to subsidize firms that increase employment through cuts in working time.
It is also important for trade unions to check if management is not utilizing thework sharing slogan simply as a means to cut wages. Strict control of working time andthe abolition of service overtime are necessary predictions for work sharing.
As regards (2), new social rules should be gradually introduced to abolish thedistinction between “typical” and “atypical” workers. At present, typical workers are
increasingly being replaced by atypical workers. Unless this tendency is stopped, it will
be difficult to practice work sharing as a way to expand workers’ choices of work modes.
【6-5】In order to create new modes of work, social work rules should be established andthe social infrastructure improved.
To introduce the desired new modes of work, existing employment practices as well as thelabor market structure should be critically reviewed, since existing systems fail to clearly
define jobs, and end up preserving working condition disparities between typical andatypical workers. Social infrastructure should be strengthened, including proper worker
training systems.
RENGO and Nikkeiren previously worked out a joint declaration on the

RENGO White Paper, 2002
promotion of a social consensus on employment issues. They jointly set up a study groupon multiple modes of work and work sharing, in order to conduct studies on related issues.
Similar joint studies are being constructed by local government offices, unions, andemployers at the prefectural level.
【6-6】Let us move forward from the transformation of work to the transformation ofsociety
By introducing new modes of working, we are transforming Japanese society.
By modifying the work-centered distribution of time in favor of spending more
free time with our families and for other activities, we will be stimulating demand andthus invigorating the economy. Also, we will become able to develop our capacities under
our own initiative. On the company side, the acceptance of new modes of work will makethrough reviews of company performance inevitable with a view to raising operational
efficiency. This in turn will increase the free time available to workers.
Greater free time will facilitate the spread of new lifestyles in which both men
and women can work and share family responsibilities equally. People will be able tospend more time in community activities and enjoy hobbies with their friends. Thus,
workers will be able to develop social relationships through channels other than theircompanies. All this will contribute to the development of civil society and theimprovement of the quality of life.
We are challenging the approach of market supremacy by transforming our modeof work. There can be no security or stability in societies where the pursuit of profit
through cut-throat competition is seen as the supreme value. Such societies generate only
conflict and poverty. We must now set out to change the status quo in order to introduce asociety where work is given the highest value.

Discussion Paper
No.
2002・1

AuthorNobuyuki Isagawa

2002・2

Nobuyuki Isagawa

2002・3Mahito Okura

2002・4

Elmer Sterken
Ichiro Tokutsu
Mahito Okura
Mahito Okura
Nobuyuki Isagawa
Koji Okubayashi
Toshinori Takashina

2002・5
2002・6
2002・7
2002・8

2002・9Hajime Shimizu

2002・10 Nobuyuki Isagawa
2002･11

Nobuyuki Isagawa

2002･12Kenji Kutsuna
Richard Smith

2002・13 Kunio Miyashita
2002・14 Hajime Shimizu
2002・15 Hajime Shimizu
2002・16 Koji Okubayashi
2002・17 Fumitoshi Mizutani
Shuji Uranishi
2002・18 Kazuhisa Otogawa
2002・19 Atsuo Takenaka
2002・20 Tsuneo Nakano

2002・21 Tsuneo Nakano
2002・22 Fumitoshi Mizutani
Shuji Uranishi
2002・23 Atsushi Takao
Mahito Okura
2002・24 Fumitoshi Mizutani
2002・25 Fumitoshi Mizutani
Takuya Urakami
Yasuyuki
Miyahara
2002・26
2002・27 Nobuyuki Isagawa
2002・28 Mitsutoshi Hirano

Title
Cross Holding of Shares, Unwinding Cross Holding of
Shares, and Managerial
Entrenchment
A Theory of Stock Price Behavior following Repurchase
Announcements
An Equilibrium Analysis of the Insurance Market
with Vertical Differentiation
What are the determinants of the number of bankrelations of Japanese firms?
Review Article：Adverse Selection in Insurance Market
Welfare Effect of Firm Size in Insurance Market
Does Investment Horison Affect Investment Strategy ?
Research Report of Careers and Employment Process ofWorkers over 60 years old :a Case of a Japnaese
Manufacturing Company
On the Existence of Tax Equilibrium : Incomplete Market
with Capital Income Tax
Cost of Financial Distress and Debt Restructuring :Debt Forgiveness and Equity-for-Debt Swap
Open-Market Repurchase Announcements, Actual
Repurchases, and Stock Price Behavior in Inefficient
Markets―revised version of No.2001･36―
Why Does Book Building Drive Out Auction Methodsof IPO Issuance?
Evidence and Implications from Japan
International Logistics and Modal Choice
Incomplete markets with capital income tax and public
goods
On the possibility of Pareto improving of tax-equilibrium
China-Japan Comparison of Work Organization
The Post Office vs. Parcel Delivery Companies:
Competition Effects on Costs and Productivity―revised version of No.2001･33―
Earnings Forecast and Earnings Management of JapaneseInitial Public Offerings Firms
The Classification of Foreign R&D Units
The Dutch East India Company and its Corporate
Governance―revised version of No.2000･40―
The British East India Company and its Corporate
Governance
Privatization Effects on TFP Growth and Capital
Adjustments
Some Notes on the Privatization of Postal Life Insurancein JapanPrivately Owned Railways’ Cost Function, Organization
Size and Ownership
A Private-Public Comaprison of Bus Service Operators
Principal-Multiagent Relationships with Costly
Monitoring
Unwinding of Cross Shareholding under Managerial
Entrenchment
Contingency Model for Personnel Grading System―Issues on Design and Management for Qualification
System and Job Grading System―

Date(in Japanese)

1／ 2002(in Japanese)

1／ 20022／20023／2002(in Japanese)(in Japanese)(in Japnaese)

3／20023／20023／20024／2002(in Japnaese)

4／2002(in Japnaese)

4／20025／20025／2002(in Japnaese)(in Japnaese)

6／20026／20026／20027／20027／20028／2002(in Japanese)(in Japanese)

8／20028／2002(in Japanese)

8／20028／2002(in Japanese)

9／20029／20029／2002
10／2002
10／2002(in Japanese)

11／2002

Discussion Paper
No.
Author
2002・29 Atsushi Takao
2002・30 Yasuhiro Shimizu
2002・31 Hideki Murakami

2002・32 Atsushi Takao

2002・33 Nobuyuki Isagawa
2002・34 Takuji Hara
2003・1 Katsuhiko Kokubu
2003・2 Kazuhiro Tanaka
Fumitoshi Mizutani
2003・3
Shuji Uranishi
Yang Jia Yin
2003・4
Koji Okubayashi
2003・5

Mitsutoshi Hirano

2003・6

Kazuhisa Otogawa

2003・7

Nobuyuki Isagawa
Tadayasu Yamashita

2003・8Kenji Kutsuna
Marc Cowling

2003・9

Noriko Masumura

2003・10

Nobuyuki Isagawa
Katsuhiko Okada

2003・11 Mitsutoshi Hirano
Kenji Kutsuna
Richard Smith
Kenji Kutsuna
2003・13 Janet Kiholm Smith
Richard L. Smith
2003・122003・14 Hideya Kubo
2003・15 Hideki Murakami
2003・16 Norio Kambayashi
2003・17 Nobuyuki Isagawa
2003・18 Nobuyuki Isagawa
2003・19 Huang Lin
2003・20 Koji Okubayashi

Title
On the Emergency Effect of the late FUKUZAWA,
Yukichi in Introducing of Modern Insurance into Japan
Amortization of Intangible Assets before Newark
Morning Ledger
An Economic Analysis of Duopolistic Competition
between Gulliver and Dwarf airlines:
The case of Japanese Domestic Air Markets
Simulation Model to Consider the Penetration of Modern
Insurance in Japan −Confirmation of Emergence andPhase Transition of New Japanese Risk-Bearing System
by Evolutional Economics
Mutual Shareholding and Unwinding of Mutual
Shareholding as Stockpile for Business Recovery
TLOs in Japan in the life science area : present and future
Environmental Accounting for Corporate Management
Embeddedness and Entrenchment of Managers
The Effects of Privatization on TFP Growth and Capital
Adjustments
Labour Turnover of Japan-Affiliated Companies inShanghai
Generation and Resolution of Asymmetric Information in
Human Resource Management –In the Cases of Job
Rotation in Two Retailers in JapanMarket Liquidity around Quarterly Earnings
Announcements
Lender’s Risk Incentive and Borrower’s Risk Incentive
Determinants of Small Business Loan Approval:
Evidence from Japanese Survey after 1997 Financial
CrisisVoluntary Corporate Disclosure and the Cost of Debt:
The Case of Quarterly Reporting
Corporate Financial Strategy and Stock Price Behavior
in a Noise Trader Model with Limited Arbitrage
Two Modes of Economic Organization in the Duality
Principle and Asymmetric Personal Information
Why Does Book Building Drive Out Auction Methods of
IPO Issuance? Evidence from Japan (Revised version)
Banking Relationships and Accessto Equity Capital Markets:
Evidence from Japan’s Main Bank System
The Present Condition and Problem of JapaneseCorporate Pension Systems
An empirical analysis of the spillover and dynamic
effects of low-cost airline’s presence on rival’s price: US
duopoly case
Japanese Style of Management Education
Unwinding of Cross Shareholding for BusinessRestructuring
Unwinding of Cross Shareholding: A Signalling
Approach
Strategies and Store Development of Carregour in the
Chinese Continent
Emp lo yme nt Situation and Measu res for
In cr easing Emp lo yme nt Oppor tun ities;
Th e Cas e o f Jap an(in Japanese)Date
11／2002(in Japanese)

11／2002
11／2002(in Japanese)

12／2002

12／2002(in Japanese)(in Japanese)(in Japanese)

12／2002
1／20032／20032／2003(in Japanese)

3／2003(in Japanese)

3／20033／2003(in Japanese)

3／20033／2003(in Japanese)

4／20034／2003(in Japanese)

5／20035／20035／2003(in Japanese)

6／2003(in Japanese)

7／2003(in Japanese)(in Japanese)

7／20037／2003(in Japanese)

7／2003(in Japanese)

8／20038／2003