iafor

journal of education

language learning in education
Volume 12 – Issue 1 – 2024
Editor: Melinda Cowart

ISSN: 2187-0594

iafor
IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Volume 12 – Issue 1 – 2024

IAFOR Publications

The International Academic ForumIAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
EditorMelinda Cowart
Professor Emerita
Texas Woman’s University (TWU), USA

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan
IAFOR Publications, Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor
Joseph Haldane
The International Academic Forum, Japan

IAFOR Publications Assistant: Mark Kenneth Camiling
Publications Manager: Nick Potts

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Volume 12– Issue 1 – 2024
Published June 1, 2024

IAFOR Publications © Copyright 2024
ISSN: 2187-0594
ije.iafor.org
Cover image: Avel Chuklanov, Unsplash

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Volume 12 – Issue 1 – 2024
Edited by Melinda Cowart
Professor Emerita
Texas Woman’s University (TWU), USA

Table of Contents
From the Editor
Melinda Cowart

1

Notes on Contributors

5

Language Attrition and Cultural Identity Dynamics in International
Schools in Azerbaijan
Rena Alasgarova
Jeyhun Rzayev
Mukhammadfoik Bakhadirov

11

Enriching Students’ Cross-Cultural and Multilingual Communication:
The Serious Play Approach Utilizing Playmobil Pro Figures
Eleni Meletiadou

45

Adults’ Perceptions of Studying English in Face-to-Face, Online, andBlended Modalities
Tatiana Ginzburg
Linda Daniela

67

EFL Learners’ Attributions and Causal Dimensionality Styles in the
Chinese Higher Education Context
Ayse Taskiran
Hong Pan

93

Intercultural Communication: The Perceptions of Lebanese HighSchool Directors
Najwa Saba ‘Ayon
Farah Sabbah
Mira M. Alameddine

123

Roles of Gender and Academic Discipline in English for Specific Purposes
Olusiji Adebola Lasekan

149

Adoption of Innovative ELT Strategies by English Language Teachers in
Rural Laos
Esther Smidt
Linda Doeden

169

Examining Students’ Perspectives on Pedagogical Translanguaging in theMultilingual Classroom Context
Soniya Antony
R. Ramnath
Adil Ellikkal

199

Using Screencast Video Feedback in the 21st Century EFL Writing Class
Nato Pachuashvili

225

Connecting Student Interest and Motivation in English to the Sustainable
Development Goals
Kira Adams
Sachiko Nakano

243

Reviewers

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IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 12 – Issue 1 – 2024

From the Editor
Greetings readers! Welcome to this issue of IAFOR Journal of Education: Volume 11 – Issue
1 –Language Learning in Education.
Since the publication of the 2023 issue, the number of those engaged in the pursuit of learning
an additional language has continued to increase. In conjunction with the burgeoning growthof second language learners is the need for adequately prepared teachers of supplementary
languages who can motivate, teach with inspiration, encourage, and support language learnersof all ages whose first languages are quite diverse. Clearly, individuals and groups are on themove whether because of negative factors such as domestic tragedy, political unrest, civil
instability, and war or for the more positive influences of seeking a change in location, family
reunification, education, adventure, the desire to learn a new language or to gain different
employment. Both adverse and constructive dynamics have led to a substantial displacementof a multitude of persons who must learn another language in order to work, study, and becomea member of another society. The motives for adding to one’s linguistic repertoire
notwithstanding, the process is multilayered, stimulating, instructive about peoples, languages,
and cultures, and often challenging.
Numerous factors influence a person’s second language acquisition. The impact of school,
educators, and instruction cannot be overstated. By the time second language learners (L2learners) have had 5-7 years of instruction in the second language (L2), it is anticipated thatthose with adequate instruction would be able to comprehend most instructions and content in
L2. Yet, educators sometimes discover that the negative affective aspects of language learning
such as anxiety, cultural bereavement, language loss, rejection of language and ethnic identity,
fear of ridicule because of behavioral or linguistic errors, and a lack of motivation and interest
may combine to cause a certain disequilibrium that undermines the second language acquisition
process. Among forcibly displaced groups, the new language may be perceived as a type ofassault on ethnic and linguistic identity. When students and educators fail to see their culturaland language experiences reflected in the target language curriculum, they may be unable tosee themselves as successful in learning the additional language.
The authors of the articles in this issue have researched a wide array of topics related to L2
acquisition and second language teaching. They come from different countries, live in a varietyof cultures, and speak different languages. Yet, they are united by the common language of
researching, exploring, and discovering what is crucial in the quest for effectual second
language acquisition.
Multilingualism, second language acquisition, second language learning, and national
language policy endure as important concerns for every nation. The movement of individuals
from country to country and within nations seems to intensify. As the realm of second language
learners expands in size, educators, scholars, and researchers who explore the complex natureof L2 acquisition and learning are vital to the improvement of second language teaching andenhanced learning. Readers of the articles in this issue will encounter several studies that were1

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 12 – Issue 1 – 2024

conducted with adult language learners or the teachers of L2 learners. Commonalities that exist
across nations and cultures where language learning is a consideration were similarly
investigated.
IAFOR Journal of Education: Volume 11 – Issue 1 –Language Learning in Education
Article 1
In the first article, “Language Attrition and Cultural Identity Dynamics in International Schools
in Azerbaijan”, Rena Alasgarova, Jeyhun Rzayev, and Mukhammadfoik Bakhadirov
investigated the relationship between language attrition, cultural identity, and sociocultural
factors in four international schools in Azerbaijan. The research explored acculturation
strategies concerning loss of proficiency in the first language (L1), bicultural identity, and theconnection between education level, language loss and the influence of attrition on cultural
identity shift.
Article 2
Eleni Meletiadou, author of “Enriching International Students’ Cross-Cultural andMultilingual Communication: The Serious Play Approach Utilizing Playmobil Pro Figures”,
implemented a study with international multilingual students who were involved in two
Playmobil pro workshops. The aim was to actively engage students to develop theirintercultural awareness and cross-cultural communicative skills. This case study used aqualitative design and explored students’ attitudes regarding intercultural communication.
Article 3
In “Adults’ Perceptions of Studying English in Face-to-Face, Online, and Blended Modalities”,
Tatiana Ginzburg and Linda Daniela completed a study that explored what might be the more
effective teaching methodology in foreign language instruction for adult educators working
with adult students. Since adult learners often experience multiple demands on their time, theresearchers wanted to know whether a particular approach employed for teaching a language
course for adult language learners was perceived to be more effective.
Article 4
Ayse Taskiran and Hong Pan, authors of, “EFL Learners’ Attributions and Causal
Dimensionality Styles in the Chinese Higher Education Context” wrote about the findings froma study they conducted in China to investigate achievement motivation among adult language
learners studying foreign language in a variety of degree programs within different types ofhigher education institutions. The findings of the mixed methods study were surprising,revealing that two thirds of the participants identified themselves as ineffective learners. Bothin success and failure conditions the participants mentioned effort, interest, and ability as thecontributing attributions.

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Article 5
In “Intercultural Communication: The Perceptions of Lebanese High School Directors”,
authors Najwa Saba ‘Ayon, Farah Sabbah, and Mira M. Alameddine wanted to discoverselected Lebanese high school directors’ perceptions of intercultural communication. Resultsof the study revealed that while intercultural communication was considered an importantlearning outcome, it was seldom taught outside of the foreign language classroom.
Article 6
Olusiji Adebola Lasekan, author of “Roles of Gender and Academic Discipline in English forSpecific Purposes”, investigated the subtle yet significant relationship between gender andacademic discipline in shaping the ESP needs of higher education students. The study lookedat the impact of gender and academic discipline on Chilean dentistry and businessadministration students' perceived lack, want, and need for English for Specific Purposes(ESP). The findings suggested that educational practitioners should develop ESP curricula that
attend to specific professional terms and settings as well as the roles of gender and disciplinein language learning.
Article 7
In “Adoption of Innovative ELT Strategies by English Language Teachers in Rural Laos”,
Linda Doeden and Esther Smidt examined factors affecting the adoption of successful English
language teaching strategies by Lao language teachers. Their study aimed to discern whatcaused Lao teachers to reject a more effective approach to teaching language. The
author/researchers described the identified barriers as deriving from “internal and external
realities”. Their findings pointed to the development of a more culturally relevant curriculum
for the teachers.
Article 8
Soniya Antony, R Ramnath, and Adil Ellikkal, authors of “Examining Students’ Perspectives
on Pedagogical Translanguaging in the Multilingual Classroom Context”, exploredpedagogical translanguaging and its role in the multilingual classroom for adult language
learners. The qualitative study examined students’ perspectives of pedagogical translanguaging
in a classroom where students were multilingual and learning an additional language. The
results of the study yielded recommendations for enhancing instructional strategies to be
utilized in language classrooms.
Article 9
In “Using Screencast Video Feedback in the 21st Century EFL Writing Class”, Nato
Pachuashvili investigated the use of screencast video feedback when providing corrections for
adult language learners in an English as a foreign language writing class. The mixed methods

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study looked at the effectiveness of using screencast video feedback on EFL writing andstudents’ perceptions of receiving video feedback for their written assignments. The findings
divulged that students considered video feedback to be interactive and supportive of thelearning-to-write in a foreign language process.
Article 10
Kira Adams and Sachiko Nakano, authors of “Connecting Student Interest and Motivation in
English to the Sustainable Development Goals”, explored motivation and interest for adultEnglish as a foreign language (EFL) learners in Japan. Their study investigated the use of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), established by the United Nations, as a motivational
and interest stimulating tool. Through this research, Adams and Nakano had students identify
which SDGs were most interesting and, therefore, intrinsically motivational in classes wherelanguage was taught using topics of personal relevance.
The topics researched and discussed in the 2024 issue of the IAFOR Journal of Education:
Language Learning in Education will enlighten and encourage the reader about the criticalthinking and innovative research that is ongoing in the field of second language acquisition andsecond language learning.
Happy reading!
Melinda Cowart
Professor Emerita
Texas Woman’s University, USA
Editor, IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Email: editor.joll@iafor.org

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Notes on Contributors
Article 1
Language Attrition and Cultural Identity Dynamics in International Schools in
Azerbaijan
Dr Rena Alasgarova
Rena Alasgarova is an English and literature teacher, Head of Advanced Level Program,
Cambridge Exam Officer, and Professional Development Coordinator at the Modern
Educational Complex named in honor of Heydar Aliyev, located in Baku, Azerbaijan. Her dualrole as a teacher and professional development coordinator enables her to gain a comprehensive
understanding of the challenges teachers encounter today, which she then applies to the designof training courses and events. Rena Alasgarova is highly involved in leading an educational
process in international schools in Azerbaijan. She is currently investigating the phenomenonof first language attrition, artificial intelligence for quality education, and the integration of
Sustainable Development Goals into secondary school curricula.
Email: rena.alasgarova@mk.edu.az
Dr Jeyhun Rzayev
Jeyhun Rzayev is a cultural anthropologist with a historical background. He is an assistantprofessor and lecturer within the School of General Education at ADA University, Baku,
Azerbaijan. His research output includes studies of higher education and its role in Azerbaijan’ssocial and cultural development. He specializes in cultural heritage and the civilizational
aspects of human development. Additionally, Jeyhun Rzayev investigates the transformative
impact of artificial intelligence on education. He has authored two guidelines, 27 scientificarticles, and co-authored four coursebooks.
Email: jrzayev@ada.edu.az
Dr Mukhammadfoik Bakhadirov
Mukhammadfoik Bakhadirov is an assistant professor of Management at the School ofBusiness at ADA University, Baku Azerbaijan. He is an experienced education professionalwith a demonstrated history of working in higher education institutions in CIS countries.
Mukhammadfoik Bakhadirov has been a lead for multiple programs in Business andManagement at graduate and undergraduate levels and managed projects relating toEntrepreneurship and SME development. Mukhammadfoik Bakhadirov obtained his doctorate
degree from Maastricht School of Management, Maastricht University. The scope of his
publications and research interests include SMEs, entrepreneurship, leadership, management,
organizational behavior, HR management, and education.
Email: mbakhadirov@ada.edu.az

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Article 2
Enriching Students’ Cross-Cultural and Multilingual Communication: The Serious PlayApproach Utilizing Playmobil Pro Figures
Dr Eleni Meletiadou
Eleni Meletiadou is an associate professor in Management Learning and Education. She is amulti-award-winning Research Group Director with over 20 years of international experience.
She is the Chair of the European Association for Educational Assessment (AEA-Europe)
Inclusive Assessment SIG and an Expert Member of the European Association of Language
Testing and Assessment (EALTA). She is the Conference Track Chair of the British Academyof Management Knowledge & Learning SIG and the European Academy of Management(EURAM) Doctoral Accelerator Mentor. She is a leading member of various EU-funded
projects (representing the UK) engaging with local communities and the public throughresearch. Her research concentrates on education for social justice, multilingualism, digitallearning, intercultural communication, equality, diversity and inclusion (EDI).
Email: elenim@outlook.com
Article 3
Adults’ Perceptions of Studying English in Face-to-Face, Online, and Blended Modalities
Dr Tatiana Ginzburg
Tatiana Ginzburg is a PhD researcher at the University of Latvia and a former Director of the
English Language Center at Riga Technical University Riga Business School. Her interests
include adult education, quality assurance in education, and teaching languages. She iscurrently researching comparative effectiveness of teaching via different modalities.
E-mail: tatiangin@gmail.com
Dr Linda Daniela
Linda Daniela is a professor and senior researcher, Dean of the Faculty of Educational Sciences
and Psychology, Chair of the Council for Promotion in Pedagogy of the University of Latvia.
Her research interests include virtual education, smart education, educational technologies forlearning, educational robotics, educational processes, and solutions for reducing social
exclusion from the educational processes.
E-mail: linda.daniela@lu.lv
Article 4
EFL Learners’ Attributions and Causal Dimensionality Styles in the Chinese Higher
Education Context
Dr Ayse Taskiran
Ayse Taskiran is an assistant professor at the College of Education at Wenzhou-Kean
University. Taskiran gained her BA in English Language Teaching (ELT) in 1999 at Middle
East Technical University. In 2010, she completed her MA in ELT at the Institute of Educational
Sciences and her PhD at the Institute of Social Sciences at Anadolu University. Dr Taskiran

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published book chapters in international publishing houses and research articles on language
learning motivation, achievement motivation, intercultural communicative competence, use of
educational technologies in ELT in many international refereed journals. Her research interests
include academic writing, automated feedback systems, instructional technologies in language
classrooms, e-learning, educational networks, online instructional design, mobile learning,achievement motivation, teacher training, and augmented reality enriched learning materials.
Email: ataskira@kean.edu
Hong Pan
Hong Pan gained her BA in English at Jiaxing University. She worked as an English language
teacher at private institutions for three years. She is now an MA TESOL graduate from
Wenzhou Kean University. She has conducted research studies on language learning motivation,
gender, primary school education, and the challenges EFL teachers face. She aims to pursue her
education in a PhD program focusing on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and English as a
Second/Foreign Language (ESL/EFL) Teaching Methods. Her research interests include AI &English writing, English-medium instruction, teacher education, ESL, EFL and SLA. With adedication to exploring innovative language learning and teaching approaches, Hong seeks tocontribute to the field through her doctoral studies and future academic endeavors.
Email: hongpan.becca@outlook.com
Article 5Intercultural Communication: The Perceptions of Lebanese High School Directors
Dr Najwa Saba ‘Ayon
Najwa Saba ‘Ayon is an associate professor in the Languages and Liberal Arts Department at
Rafik Hariri University. She served as the chair of that department for 4 years and the advisorof the English Language Program for five years. Dr. Saba ‘Ayon has long experience teaching
English as a Foreign Language (EFL), linguistics, intercultural communication, and public
speaking courses. In fact, she has been recognized for teaching excellence at her university.
Besides serving as a reviewer for esteemed journals, she has published and presented innational and international conferences on student motivation, collaborative learning, EFL
teachers’ conceptions of teaching and their practice, and intercultural communication. Dr Saba
‘Ayon is currently interested in incorporating AI in her teaching.
E-mail: faresns@rhu.edu.lb
Dr Farah Sabbah
Farah Sabbah is an independent researcher with interests in English language education andcritical discourse analysis. Her most recent publications include chapters in Higher Educationin Emergencies: International Case Studies (Emerald) and in The Routledge Handbook of
Discourse and Disinformation (Routledge). She has taught English as a Foreign Language(EFL), English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and communication skills, and has held several
educational leadership positions in universities in Lebanon and Saudi Arabia. Dr Sabbahobtained her PhD in Applied Linguistics from Lancaster University, UK.
Email: farah.sabbah83@gmail.com

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Dr Mira M. Alameddine
Mira M. Alameddine is an associate professor at the Lebanese University where she teaches
English Literature. She is also a lecturer at Rafik Hariri University in the department of
Languages and Humanities. Dr Alameddine is a specialist in exceptional learners, in both theirspectrum-gifted and learning disabilities. She is also a trainer and consultant in Special
education. She is also specialized in workplace communication and moral teaching andeducation. Dr Alameddine has published several studies on Exceptional learners, English
academic writing and workplace communication in international journals and is also a reviewer
in several international journals, such as Universal Journal of Educational Research and Journalof English Educators Society (JEES) and a member of Publon Community.
Email: alameddinemm@rhu.edu.lb
Article 6
Roles of Gender and Academic Discipline in English for Specific Purposes
Dr Olusiji Adebola Lasekan
Olusiji Adebola Lasekan is an accomplished academic with a PhD in Linguistics from theCentral University of Karnataka, India, obtained in March 2017. He has an extensive teachingcareer, currently serving as an assistant professor at the Universidad Católica de Temuco, Chile,where he has been since March 2019. His research interests focus on EFL teacher evaluation,
education for sustainable development, professional identity and innovation of teachers, andEnglish for specific purposes as evidenced by his numerous publications in high-impact
journals. In addition to his academic pursuits, Dr Lasekan is an avid reader and enjoys
exploring various genres of literature, which fuels his passion for language and teaching.
Email: olasekan@uct.cl
Article 7
Adoption of Innovative ELT Strategies by English Language Teachers in Rural Laos
Dr Esther Smidt
Esther Smidt is a professor of TESOL at West Chester University, USA. She teaches in the MA
TESOL and ESL Program Specialist Certificate programs. Her research interests include
teaching English to speakers of other languages, teacher education, and online learning.
Email: csmidt@wcupa.edu
Dr Linda Doeden
Linda Doeden works for a non-governmental organization and has been immersed in the Lao
educational system since 1998, first as a university professor and then as an in-service teacher
trainer.
Email: linda.doeden@elic.org

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Article 9
Examining Students’ Perspectives on Pedagogical Translanguaging in the Multilingual
Classroom Context
Soniya Antony
Soniya Antony is a PhD scholar in education at Alagappa University, Tamil Nadu, India. She
is the recipient of a UGC doctoral fellowship, which supports her studies. Soniya’s research
focuses on the identification, support, and early-stage education of twice-exceptional children.
She is also deeply interested in technology for exceptional learners, gifted education, andlanguage education. Soniya is dedicated to conducting impactful research that aims to improvethe education of twice-exceptional children in India.
Email: soniyaantony4@gmail.com
Dr R. Ramnath
R. Ramnath is an associate professor in the field of education at Alagappa University, Tamil
Nadu, India. He is recognised for his expertise in educational technology and instructional
dynamics. He is a distinguished resource person in the domain. He has 16 years of researchexperience in education with a particular focus on Instructional Technology, constructivism,
and pedagogical strategies. His scholarly interests also encompass Educational Technology and
Science Education, with a specific emphasis on science processes. Throughout his career, he
has successfully completed 13 externally funded research projects highlighting his significant
contributions to the field. Dr Ramnath’s work in educational technology and his commitment
to advancing instructional methods have earned him a prominent place in the academic
community.
Email: rrnathedu@gmail.com
Adil Ellikkal
Adil Ellikkal is a PhD scholar at the Alagappa Institute of Management, Alagappa University,
Tamil Nadu, India. He is a recipient of the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR)
doctoral fellowship. Adil’s research interests lie in entrepreneurship education, with a particularfocus on experiential learning in entrepreneurship, technological innovations inentrepreneurship, sustainable entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship, and innovation andcreativity in entrepreneurship. Adil is committed to advancing knowledge in the field ofentrepreneurship and aims to contribute to the development of effective educational strategies
and innovative practices.
Email: adhilvengara@gmail.com
Article 9
Using Screencast Video Feedback in the 21st Century EFL Writing ClassDr Nato Pachuashvili
Nato Pachuashvili, is an assistant professor in Education Administration at the International
Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Nato holds a BA in English Language and Literaturefrom Birmingham City University, as well as an MA in Applied Linguistics from the Open

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University. In 2022, Nato Pachuashvili graduated from the International Black Sea University
with a PhD in Education Sciences. She currently delivers lectures in linguistics, educational
technologies and materials development, academic writing, and professional English. Nato
Pachuashvili is actively involved in scientific activities and has published numerous articles in
the field of education. Her areas of interest include motivation and digital technologies inEnglish language teaching.
Email: npachuashvili@ibsu.edu.ge
Article 10
Connecting Student Interest and Motivation in English to the Sustainable Development
Goals
Kira Adams
Kira Adams is an assistant professor of English language at Yamaguchi University, Japan. For
over 10 years, her work in higher education and in the community has focused on increasing
English education and international understanding. Her research interests include theintegration of global perspectives and sustainability into English learning.
Email: kadams@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp
Dr Sachiko Nakano
Sachiko Nakano is a lecturer of Japanese language education at Yamaguchi University, Japan.
She received a PhD in cultural science from Okayama University, Japan. Her research interests
focus on cross-cultural psychology and Intercultural Education. Recently she has been engaged
in research on the cross-cultural adaptation of Muslim international students or refugees inJapan.
Email: s-nakano@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp

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Language Attrition and Cultural Identity Dynamics in International
Schools in Azerbaijan

Rena Alasgarova
The Modern Educational Complex Named in Honor of Heydar Aliyev, Azerbaijan
Jeyhun Rzayev
ADA University, Azerbaijan
Mukhammadfoik Bakhadirov
ADA University, Azerbaijan

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Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between language attrition, cultural identity, andsociocultural factors in four international schools in Azerbaijan. Two distinct student groups,
one undergoing English education since preschool (Group 1) and another transitioning toEnglish after primary school (Group 2), were examined to discern the connection between
language attrition, cultural identity, and sociocultural factors. The research exploredacculturation strategies concerning loss of proficiency in the first language(L1) and bicultural
identity and formulated hypotheses to assess the connection between education level andlanguage loss and the influence of attrition on cultural identity shift. Employing acomprehensive mixed-methods approach, the research utilized native language proficiency
tests and e-surveys for quantitative analysis, while focus group interviews and thematic
analysis investigated qualitative aspects. The e-survey uncovered factors influencing L1
attrition, with Group 1 exhibiting lower native language proficiency, suggesting an impact of
second language (L2) exposure. Regression analysis revealed that language skills, English
communication preferences, and thinking in English predicted lower proficiency in L1, while
the duration of L2 exposure played a pivotal role in shaping cultural identity. Focus groupinterviews demonstrated a subtle narrative of cultural shift and assimilation within theinternational school context. The theoretical framework and thematic analysis provided acomprehensive understanding of the acculturation experiences of international school students,emphasizing the concept of culture attrition influenced by diverse factors.
Keywords: acculturation, culture attrition, culture shift, language attrition, international school

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Language is a dynamic element of human communication that significantly shapes cultural
identity and heritage preservation (Köpke, 2004; Köpke & Schmid, 2004; Schmid, 2002;
Schmid, 2011). The current study aimed at investigating the multifaceted relationship between
language attrition, cultural identity, and the influence of sociocultural, sociolinguistic, andextralinguistic factors, framed within the context of international schools in a non-English
macroenvironment. The focus of attention was on two distinct groups of school students to
explore how variations in language education impact language proficiency and its
consequences for cultural identity.
Language attrition, broadly characterized as the weakening or deterioration of language skills,
particularly in bilingual or multilingual individuals, represents a linguistic phenomenon thattranscends mere language loss or shift as it examines the nuances of language proficiency
erosion due to reduced language use (Gallo et al., 2021; Köpke, 2004; Köpke & Schmid, 2004;
Schmid, 2002; Schmid, 2011). Such extralinguistic factors as additive bilingualism, attitude,
motivation, identity (Schmid, 2011), education level, and length of the second language (L2)
exposure (Köpke & Schmid, 2004; Schmid, 2011) also contribute to language attrition.
Therefore, understanding the role of extralinguistic factors is crucial for comprehending
language attrition within a broader societal context. Despite being challenging to determine(Köpke & Schmid, 2004), education level influences language attrition through variations inlanguage use and exposure to different linguistic environments, particularly concerning the age
at which students begin learning L2.
The fundamental concepts of early language attrition theories (e.g., Dewaele, 2004; Köpke,2004; Köpke & Genevska-Hanke, 2018; Köpke & Schmid, 2004; Schmid, 2002; Schmid, 2011;Yağmur, 2004) continue to offer crucial insights into the linguistic changes that occur inpersons living in bilingual or multilingual contexts, despite the passage of time. The scarcity
of contemporary studies that challenge or overhaul these foundational theories justifies theircontinued application in the analyses conducted in the study under investigation. Moreover,previous research has been restricted to examining the dynamics of language attrition in
migrant settings; meanwhile, with the proliferation of international schools across the world,the language attrition process has shifted to an educational context due to its increasing
relevance in international schools (Alasgarova, 2023).
In international schools, where English is used as a medium of instruction, students often
become bilingual because of their immersive exposure to L2. Living in an international space,these students build their day-to-day interactions with teachers and peers of the same profile(Carder, 2013, p. 276) and adhere to English – only policies at school, thus picking up L2
naturally. The acquisition of the first language (L1) may slow down, causing additivebilingualism (Schmid, 2011). When the L2 has a high status as perceived by language learners,
it tends to generate greater motivation to learn and use it. This motivation can be driven bypractical benefits such as better career prospects, social prestige, or educational opportunities.
Within an additive bilingual environment, one of the most significant concepts is the conceptof language dominance and preference. Dominance pertains to the relative strength andproficiency of a language in an individual’s repertoire, while preference signifies the subjective

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choice of language for specific situations, reflecting the cultural, emotional, or social
significance attached to a given language. Understanding the dynamics of language dominanceand preference is crucial, as they significantly influence language loss and the resulting impact
on cultural identity (Köpke & Genevska-Hanke, 2018).
There is a risk of cultural assimilation and identity shift, where the partial erosion of the native
language and cultural practices can lead to a convergence with the dominant culture of theinternational school environment (Fitzsimons, 2019). Carder (2013) argues that international
school students do not fall under the assimilationist model, often referred to as assimilationism,
as there are no political incentives to promote assimilation or a specific nation-state toencourage such a process. However, many bilinguals tend to exhibit cultural dominance,
adapting their cultural norms and behaviors based on their environment, social interactions,and their “favored identity” (Yilmaz, 2019, p. 313). As international schools use international
curricula with insufficient native language and culture instructions (Alasgarova, 2023), it ishypothesized that L1 and culture attrition are now occurring in such academic settings.
In framing the present research, Berry’s acculturation model was adopted. Exploring the
dynamics of biculturalism, Berry’s model offers four acculturation strategies – assimilation,
integration, separation, and marginalization – which represent different ways individuals andgroups adopt or maintain cultural practices (Berry, 1997). Despite being developed over two
decades ago, Berry’s model maintains considerable significance and remains unparalleled in
its thorough representation of acculturation processes, serving as a seminal framework for the
exploration of the complex interrelationship of language attrition and bicultural identity. In thealignment with this model, the research examined how language attrition influenced bicultural
identity and which acculturation strategies individuals adopted in response.
The research focused on two distinct groups of school students in Azerbaijan. The first group
had been educated in English since they started their educational journey in pre-school, while
the second group transitioned to an English-taught curriculum after completing primary school,
usually at age 9 or 10 in Azerbaijan. To comprehensively explore the factors influencing
language attrition and its impact on cultural identity, the research employed a multistage
research approach.
The research was guided by two main hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis 1 (H01): There is no significant difference in the level of language attrition
between students who have studied in English since pre-school and students who transitioned
to an English-taught curriculum after completing primary school.
Alternative Hypothesis 1 (H1): There is a significant difference in the level of language
attrition between these two groups of students.
The responses were statistically analyzed to test the hypotheses related to the relationshipbetween education level and L1 attrition and answer the research questions:14

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1. Does the duration of exposure to an English-only curriculum affect the level of L1
attrition among students in international schools?
2. What factors, such as language proficiency, language use, language of emotions andthoughts, and language preference, contribute to the observed differences in L1 attrition
between the two groups of students?
Null Hypothesis 2 (H02): There is no significant relationship between the extent of language
attrition and the shift in cultural identity among students.
Alternative Hypothesis 2 (H2): There is a significant relationship between the extent oflanguage attrition and the shift in cultural identity among students.
Participants were encouraged to share their experiences regarding possible diminished L1
proficiency and its potential impact on cultural identity to provide insights on the third researchquestion:
3. To what extent does language attrition correlate with international students’ reported
sense of cultural identity shift or change, in accordance with Berry’s acculturation
model?
So far, research on language attrition has generally been restricted to immigrant settings.
However, with the increasing number of international schools, the phenomenon of language
attrition has been shifting to school students who reside in their home countries. Due to thelimited research conducted in such settings, this paper provides new insights on L1 attrition.
Literature Review
Language Attrition and Extralinguistic Factors
Language attrition, the gradual erosion of language proficiency, is a complex phenomenon that
constitutes “a special case of variation in the acquisition and use of language/s and can best be
studied, described, documented, and explained within a large framework that includes all otherphenomena of L1/L2 acquisition, bilingualism, language use/choice, code-switching/mixing,
and language attitudes” (Yağmur, 2004, p. 136). These factors can be further extended to age,
motivation, quality and quantity of input, length of L2 exposure, and education level.
Findings from acculturation studies in L2 acquisition also highlight the interdependence ofincreased motivation and elevated levels of success in acquiring L2 (Yilmaz, 2019). This
underscores the significance of motivation not only in predicting success in L2 acquisition but
also in influencing the attrition rate. A positive emotional stance towards one’s native language
culture plays a major role in maintaining proficiency in the native language. Consequently,
individuals with a strong inclination to immerse themselves in the second culture may
experience greater attrition in their native language, especially if L1 loses practical andsymbolic significance for them. In such cases, the diminished motivation to uphold the native
language could contribute to a higher likelihood of L1 attrition (Yilmaz, 2019).

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Research by Schmid (2011) emphasizes the role of identity in language attrition, highlightingthat the attriters’ attitude towards their native language and L2, as well as their motivation to
use these languages, play pivotal roles in the attrition process. Furthermore, Köpke and Schmid(2004) argue that education level and the length of exposure to L2 are crucial extralinguistic
factors contributing to language attrition. Education level influences language attrition throughvariations in language use and exposure to different linguistic environments. The longer the
exposure to L2, the more profound the impact on the attrition process (Köpke & Schmid, 2004;
Schmid & Cherciov, 2019). As individuals progress through different educational stages, thestrength of their native language may diminish due to increased dominance of L2 in academic
settings. As the study of language attrition continues to evolve, a holistic consideration of
extralinguistic factors, particularly education level and length of L2 input, remains integral tocomprehending the intertwined relationship of language proficiency, identity, and socioculturaldynamics.
Sociocultural Approach to Language Attrition and the Acculturation Process
Cross-linguistic influence in multilingual environments involves transferring linguisticfeatures across languages, impacting vocabulary, grammar, and usage patterns. This blendingof elements can enhance language learning but may also cause interference, where featuresfrom one language impede the proper use or understanding of another (Kubota et al., 2020;
Yan et al., 2023). Concurrently, language attrition, marked by the gradual deterioration of
language skills, is exhibited when individuals experience reduced use of their L1 due toincreased exposure to L2 (Gallo et al., 2021; Köpke & Schmid, 2004). This relation extends
beyond linguistic interaction, as “in the process of negotiating two languages, bilinguals alsoneed to manage two cultural systems, which can become as interrelated as the languages they
speak” (Yilmaz, 2019, p. 307). Research by Kashima (2019) emphasizes the bidirectional
relationship involving acculturation and language use, highlighting how changes in cultural
identity can influence language choices and, subsequently, contribute to language attrition.
The sociocultural approach to language attrition underscores the significance of societal andcultural contexts in shaping language proficiency and bicultural experiences of individuals.
According to Berry’s acculturation model (Figure 1), which explores how individuals adopt ormaintain cultural practices, language attrition is deeply intertwined with biculturalism (Berry,1997). In this framework, four acculturation strategies – assimilation, integration, separation,and marginalization – represent various ways individuals and groups engage with and navigate
cultural practices.

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Figure 1
Berry’s Acculturation Model

Language attrition, within this paradigm, is not solely a linguistic phenomenon but is closely
tied to the broader process of cultural assimilation or preservation and acculturation.
Individuals undergoing language attrition may experience shifts in their bicultural identity as
they adapt to the dominant cultural practices of their environment. The sociocultural approach
recognizes that language use is embedded in social interactions and cultural norms, andlanguage attrition reflects not only a decline in linguistic proficiency but also a potential
reshaping of bicultural identity.
Methodology
The given research was aimed at investigating the relationship between education level and L1
attrition, as well as the impact of language attrition on the loss of cultural identity among
students. The following research objectives were set to explore the language attrition
phenomenon and its dynamics in international school settings:••

To examine the relationship between education level and L1 attrition among students
who transitioned from a national curriculum to an international English-taught
curriculum after completing primary school.
To assess the impact of language attrition on the loss of cultural identity among
students, exploring the correlation with Berry’s acculturation model.

The study employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both quantitative andqualitative data collection methods to provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex
relationship concerning education level, L1 attrition, and its impact on cultural identity. Thismethodology is verified by its capacity to offer a holistic understanding by integrating bothquantitative and qualitative insights and is suitable for analysis of a multifaceted trend atseveral levels (Obeyd, 2021, p.59). In the quantitative phase, data was collected through an L1

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test and a structured e-survey distributed among the two identified groups of students. The L1
proficiency language test was aimed at measuring the current level of control of the Azerbaijani
language among the selected students, while the e-survey included questions designed toinvestigate the patterns of language use and language preferences.
After the quantitative phase and to investigate the second hypothesis concerning the impact oflanguage attrition on the loss of cultural identity, the qualitative aspect of the research used afocus group interview with participants from both groups. The choice of this methodology
framework (Figure 2) provided a holistic approach to the objectives of the research andfacilitated more reliable and valid data collection and analysis. Grounded theory and thematic
analysis were applied for qualitative analysis, which was examined with MAXQDA (VERBI
Software, 2021). Triangulation design involved gathering and examining both quantitative andqualitative data simultaneously, allowing the researchers to gain a comprehensive
understanding of the research problem and reduce research bias (Creswell & Creswell, 2022).
Figure 2
Methodology Framework

Population and Sample
The selection of an appropriate population and sampling strategy is integral to the validity andreliability of any research study (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). A stratified purposeful sampling
approach was utilized for the purpose of this investigation, as the main objectives of theresearch were to examine the relationship presented by education level, L1 attrition, and theimpact on cultural identity within specific settings. Although mainly used for qualitative
research, stratified purposeful sampling serves the purpose of selecting participants to enhance

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representation and improve the precision of analysis. This approach enables focusedinvestigation of specific subgroups, effectively addressing the diversity within the populationand ensuring that the results are relevant to the entire population (Creswell & Creswell, 2022).
All the participants, regardless of the education stage at which they commenced the Englishinstructed curriculum, were grade 10 students and had two Azerbaijani language classes a weekat their schools.
To initiate the sampling process, permission was sought from the principals of fourinternational schools in Azerbaijan. The selection of schools depended on their sizable cohortof students fitting the research criteria. Having been informed about the objectives of theresearch, the principals granted official permission to conduct the research within the school
premises.
Ethical considerations play a crucial role in the research process, especially when the research
involves children. Minor participants may lack the cognitive and decision-making capacities
of adults, making them more susceptible to potential risks and harm in research settings.
Additionally, maintaining research ethics builds trust with parents/legal guardians, fostering a
positive research environment. Adhering to ethical guidelines also contributes to the credibility
and validity of research outcomes, as it upholds the integrity of the scientific process (McCabe& Pao, 2021). The next stage included obtaining the parental consent form by the participants’parents/legal guardians. The form was compiled in accordance with the Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct: Standard 8.03 “Informed Consent for Recording Voices
and Images in Research” (American Psychological Association, 2017). The consent forms
outlined the detailed nature of the research, provided contact information for the researchers,
and explicitly stated the right of parents/ legal guardians to inquire about the research andwithdraw their children from participation at any stage of the research.
The final sample comprised a hundred students in each group, resulting in a total of two
hundred participants for the first phase of the study, including the language proficiency test ande-survey. Further, for the focus group interviews, 20 participants, 10 in each group, wererandomly selected to ensure that in smaller homogeneous focus groups all the participants hada chance to contribute to the discussion (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). Prior to the interview,the researchers conducted a pre-investigation session with the students. During this meeting,the significance of the research was explained, and students were assured that their
participation was entirely voluntary. This proactive engagement aimed to establish a sense ofunderstanding and comfort among the participants, fostering an environment conducive to open
and authentic responses during subsequent tests, e-surveys, and interviews.
Data Collection
To examine the correlation between education level and L1 attrition in students whotransitioned to an international English-taught curriculum, the study applied the quantitative
research method by analyzing data collected through an L1 proficiency test and e-survey.
Quantitative research in linguistics possesses undeniable qualities, since it follows a methodical

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and controlled approach, utilizing precise measurements to yield dependable and generalized
outcomes (Obeyd, 2021).
The L1 proficiency test was based on the Azerbaijani language final exam for grade 9international school students administered by the State Examination Center of the Republic ofAzerbaijan. The test consists of 30 questions to be completed in 90 minutes and includes four
listening comprehension questions, ten grammar questions, and two reading comprehension
sections with eight questions per section. All test items are close-ended questions. To address
one of the research questions, namely, to estimate the degree to which the length of exposure
to the international curriculum contributes to two groups of participants’ decreased proficiency
in L1 skills and systems, the test was adopted upon the researchers’ request. The Azerbaijani
language expert from the State Examination Center substituted one reading comprehension
section with eight multiple-choice questions on lexis and one essay writing task that fit thegrade 9 Azerbaijani language framework used in international schools. The expert also
provided detailed assessment rubrics and mark schemes to ensure a transparent and objective
evaluation of the results.
To ensure the inter-rater reliability, fair marking, and consistency in results and validity of theL1 proficiency test, the pilot test was administered with two groups of students of an identicalbackground in a different international school in Azerbaijan (Green, 2020). Ten students, fiveper group, were invited to participate in the pilot testing. The language expert, who reviewed
the test, and two additional qualified assessors from two different schools evaluated the
responses to the pilot test independently. The results of the pilot phase were then subjected toCohen’s Kappa coefficient to ensure the inter-rater reliability of the coding process, confirmingthat the observational data were consistently interpreted and categorized by different
researchers (Kolesnyk & Khairova, 2022).
To measure the extent to which such linguistic factors as language proficiency, language use,
language of thought, and language preference contribute to the decreased proficiency in L1,
the researchers prepared the e-survey, which comprised eight sections and encompassed 23
closed-ended questions specifically tailored for this study using Microsoft Forms (Microsoft
Forms, n.d.). Likert scale questions were utilized to quantify variables in the e-survey, whereparticipants rated their level of agreement or disagreement on a five-point scale. This standard
method in social science research provided a quantitative measure of attitudes and perceptions,
essential for the analysis (Kusmaryono et al., 2022). The survey was conducted online,
leveraging the efficiency of the Internet for survey administration, where the automation of
response collection and data analysis processes streamlined the overall procedure (Torrentira,2020). The review of the e-survey content by a language expert from the Ministry of Education
ensured that the designed questions addressed the research variables. Because the primary
focus of quantitative research rests in outlining relationships among variables, this type of
research approach seemed appropriate (Obeyd, 2021).
The research hypothesized that factors like language proficiency, language usage, the language
associated with emotions and thoughts, and language preference account for the differences in

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the language attrition process between the two student groups with different lengths of L2 input
in academic settings. Language attrition is argued to be influenced by the level of education
because of the advantage of L1 literacy that older children usually possess (Köpke, 2004, p.
1338); in this regard, education level constituted an independent variable reflected in Section
2 Language Background Questions 3 and 4 of the e-survey.
As language attrition is a complex phenomenon encompassing sociolinguistic andpsycholinguistic factors, it cannot “divorce from its social context”, and to discuss orinvestigate it outside this context seems to be an unattainable task (Yağmur, 2004, p. 134).
Dependent variables included language proficiency (Section 3 Language Proficiency
Questions 5 and 6), language use (Section 5 L1 Skills and Systems Questions 10 to 15),
language of emotions and thoughts (Section 6 Language of Emotion and Stress Questions 16
to 18and Section 7 Language of Thoughts and Dreams Questions 19 to 21), and language
preference (Section 8 Language Preference for Communication Questions 22 and 23).
For instance, language proficiency was assessed through questions asking participants to rate
their proficiency in their first language and English on a scale from 1 (very low proficiency) to
5 (very high proficiency). Similarly, language use was explored through questions thatmeasured the extent of decrease in language skills, such as “Please indicate the extent to which
you have experienced a decrease in grammar proficiency on a scale from 1 (no shift) to 5
(significant shift)”. The language of emotions and thoughts was examined by questions suchas “Please specify the primary language in which you think and plan your thoughts on a scalefrom 1 (always in your first language) to 5 (always in English)”. “Language preference” forcommunication was measured by questions like “Please indicate your preference for spoken
communication with family and friends on a scale from 1 (always using your first language) to
5 (always using English)”.
The inclusion of these factors is grounded in the idea that interactive language use(communication in spoken and written modes of the language), non-interactive exposure tolanguage (reading), and inner language (thoughts, dreams, counting, etc.) are said to be further
analyzed to bring clarity into distinctions among these modes of L1 use (Schmid, 2011, p. 83).
In an interview with Kapitsa, Chernigovskaya also stated that some criteria for selecting a native
language from the languages in which the language user is fluent are in what language they thinkand count, as well as the language they switch to in a critical situation (Timofeev, 2012).
Control variables age and gender (Section 1 Demographic Information Questions 2 and 3)
helped to maintain consistency in the demographics of the sample. Furthermore, promotion of
the native language in the household, native language instruction at school, and the number ofnative language classes (Section 4 L1 Input Questions 7 to 9) enhanced the internal validity,
ensuring that any observed differences in language attrition can be attributed to the educational
level rather than extraneous factors.
Microsoft Forms employs encryption measures for data both at rest (ensuring the security ofstored inactive data on any device) and in transit (safeguarding data during its movement fromone virtual location to another) (Security and Privacy in Microsoft Forms, n.d.). This

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encryption protocol guaranteed the confidentiality and security of the acquired data throughout
the survey process.
To address the second alternative hypothesis, namely, to examine the connection involving
language attrition and cultural identity shift and suggest some recommendations about L1
retentions in international schools, the research employed a qualitative methodology tofacilitate a comprehensive exploration of the subjective experiences and viewpoints ofindividuals (Busetto et al., 2020; Obeyd, 2021).
Focus group interviews were selected as a research tool for this stage of the study to gather richand varied perspectives on language attrition and its implications for cultural identity among
participants. This method proved particularly effective in identifying shared patterns andunique variations in how individuals perceive and manage the impact of diminishing language
skills within their cultural contexts (Obeyd, 2021).
The focus group interview questions were formulated to elicit rich and varied responses fromparticipants. To enhance the validity and relevance of the questions, an expert from the Ministryof Education conducted a thorough review. The expert’s input was invaluable in refining thequestions, aligning them with current educational standards and practices, and ensuring they
were clear, unbiased, and appropriate for the target demographic. After the initial review by theeducation expert, the investigators conducted a pilot test of the focus group interview questions
with ten students who participated in piloting the language test. Th pilot test allowed an
observation of how the questions were interpreted in real-time and provided insights into
whether they elicited the depth and breadth of responses that were anticipated. Criteria forevaluating the responses from the focus group sessions were established to ensure the data
could be consistently interpreted and aligned with research goals.
The nature of semi-structured interview questions is inherently open-ended. While thesequestions provide a guide to ensure that all relevant topics are covered, they also offer theflexibility to probe further based on the given responses (Luke & Goodrich, 2019). Questions
2 to 5 touched upon the participants perceptions of the correlation between language attritionand cultural identity shift, for instance “Can you describe any specific instances or experienceswhere you feel your language skills have declined or changed as a result of your educational
journey?” and “Do you believe that changes in your language skills have affected your senseof cultural identity?”. Questions 6 to 7 aimed at encouraging the participants to discuss theprocess of acculturation, asking “Are there any challenges or conflicts you’ve encountered dueto the shift in your cultural identity?” While Questions 8 to 10 elicited the participants’ ideas
and opinions on preservation of cultural identity and suggestions for improvement, inquiring“Are there strategies or activities you engage in to preserve your cultural identity and language
proficiency? If so, could you describe some of these?”. Closing questions in semi-structured
interviews were crafted to gather participants’ final reflections and uncover any additional
insights. They prompted participants to summarize key points and introduce new ideas thatmight not have been discussed, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the topic (Luke &22

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Goodrich, 2019). Following the closing question, it was important to question whether theparticipants had anything to add (Creswell & Creswell, 2022).
The validity of the focus group method was ensured by using well-constructed, contextually
relevant questions tailored to the participants’ cultural backgrounds and experiences. The semistructured interviews were developed with a preset set of key questions to maintainreliability throughout all discussions, hence augmenting the research’s trustworthiness (Luke &Goodrich, 2019). Data collected during the discussion was securely stored, and access was restricted
to the research team to ensure the protection of sensitive information and identities of participants.
In this research, transcription and coding processes were facilitated through the use of Notta
for transcribing audio recordings (Notta – AI Transcription & Meeting Notetaker, n.d.) and
MAXQDA for coding and data analysis (VERBI Software, 2021). Notta provided an efficientplatform for transcribing spoken discourse, enabling accurate representation of participants’
responses (Notta – AI Transcription & Meeting Notetaker, n.d.). MAXQDA, a widely used
qualitative data analysis tool, played a crucial role in organizing and coding the data (Santos etal., 2021). Grounded theory, which allows researchers to investigate connections involving
actions and meanings (Charmaz & Thornberg, 2021, p.308), enabled a dynamic approach tothe analysis of focus group data, ensuring that the development of theoretical insights was
directly grounded in participant responses. Thematic analysis, following Dawadi’s (2020)
approach, focused on identifying and analyzing recurring themes within the dataset.
While focus group interviews offer insights into the perspectives and experiences of theparticipants, one significant limitation is the potential for dominant participants to overshadow
quieter group members, which can skew the data and reduce the diversity of viewpoints expressed.
Additionally, the group setting may inhibit some participants from expressing dissenting opinions
or sensitive information, leading to a conformity bias that can impact the authenticity of the
responses (Dawadi, 2020). Despite these limitations, focus group interviews remain a valuable
qualitative method for exploring complex phenomena and capturing diverse perspectives.
To reduce the possibility of unwanted limitations, the interviewers created a comfortableenvironment for participants, encouraging open and honest communication. This was achievedby establishing ground rules at the beginning of the sessions that promoted respectful listening
and turn-taking and helped manage dominant personalities. The interviewers assured theparticipants that every voice was valuable and would be heard, thereby setting a cooperative
tone during the interviews.
Results
Language Proficiency Test
It was hypothesized that the length of exposure of L2 has an impact on language attrition
dynamics in international school students. The statistical analysis was implemented to analyze
data collected through the language proficiency test. The test was conducted with 200 highschool students with different lengths of exposure to the second language: Group 1 had been

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studying in international schools since pre-school, while Group 2 transferred to an international
school setting after completing primary school.
Results of the Groups Comparison
The mean values for Group 2 were statistically significantly higher than the mean values forGroup 1 across all the measurements – listening (M=2.1, SD=0.58 vs. M=1.6, SD=1.12,
respectively), grammar (M=6.2, SD=1.30 vs. M=5.4, SD=1.50, respectively), lexis (M=4.4,
SD=0.80 vs. M=3.9, SD=0.54, respectively), reading (M=4.6, SD=0.92 vs. M=2.88, SD=1.32,
respectively), and writing (M=3.58, SD=1.45 vs. M=1.72, SD=0.83, respectively) (Table 1).
These findings support the idea that Group 2 performed better across all language aspects thanGroup 1. Therefore, all individual hypotheses stating that “both groups are equally proficientin listening/grammar/lexis/reading/writing” were necessarily rejected.
Table 1
Group Statistics by Language Background Groups – Listening, Grammar, Lexis, Reading, and Writing

Listening
TOTAL
Grammar
TOTAL
Lexis
TOTAL
Reading
TOTAL
Writing
TOTAL

Language
Background 1
After primaryPre-school
After primaryPre-school
After primaryPre-school
After primaryPre-school
After primaryPre-school

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

2.15
1.80
6.20
5.40
4.40
3.90
4.60
2.88
3.58
1.72

.575
1.119
1.295
1.504
0.804
0.541
0.921
1.328
1.45
0.83

Std. Error
Mean
.058
.112
.1295
.1504
.0804
.0541
.0921
.1328
.145
.083

An independent T-test was conducted to determine whether Group 2 demonstrated different
performance across specific language proficiencies, consisting of listening (S5 Q15), grammar(S5 Q11), lexis (S5 Q10), reading (S5 Q13), and writing (S5 Q14) than Group 1. Results of thetest revealed that the groups were statistically significantly different across all measured
components (Table 2).
•
•
•
•
•

Listening t(148)=2.78, p<0.01, 95% CI = [0.10, 0.60].
Grammar t(198)=4.03, p>0.05, 95% CI = [0.41, 1.12]
Lexis t(173)=5.16, p<0.01, 95% CI = [0.31, 0.69]
Reading t(176)=10.1, p<0.01, 95% CI = [1.40, 2.04]
Writing t(158)=11.13, p<0.01, 95% CI = [1.53, 2.19]

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Table 2
Listening, Grammar, Lexis, Reading, and Writing – Independent Samples Test by Language
Background Groups
Levene’s Test for
Equality of Variances
T-test for Equality of Means

Equal
variancesassumedListen.
TOTAL

Gram.
TOTAL

Lexis
TOTAL

Reading
TOTAL

Equal
variances notassumedEqual
variancesassumedEqual
variances notassumedEqual
variancesassumedEqual
variances notassumedEqual
variancesassumed

F

Sig.

t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

52.17

.000

2.78

198

2.78
1.45

45.50

13.85

.230

.000

.000

Equal
variances notassumedWriting
TOTAL

Equal
variancesassumedEqual
variances notassumed

27.59

.000

.006

Mean
Dif.
.35

Std.
Error
Dif.
.126

147.88

.006

.35

4.03

198

.000

4.03

193.71

5.16

95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
.10

.60

.126

.10

.60

.80

.198

.409

1.191

.000

.80

.198

.409

1.191

198

.000

.50

.097

.309

.691

5.16

173.43

.000

.50

.097

.309

.691

10.64

198

.000

1.72

.162

1.401

2.039

10.64

176.36

.000

1.72

.162

1.401

2.039

11.13

198

.000

1.86

.167

1.53

2.190

11.13

157.51

.000

1.86

.167

1.53

2.190

E-Survey
The second research question looked at the extent to which such factors as language
proficiency, language use, language of emotions and thoughts, and language preference

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contributed to the observed differences in L1 attrition between the two groups of students.
Table 3 documents group statistics by groups with different language background.
Table 3
Language Proficiency in L1 – Group Statistics by Language Background Groups

Language
Proficiency 1

Language
Background 1
No
Yes

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

100
100

2.10
1.60

.948
.667

Std. Error
Mean
.095
.067

Table 4
Language Proficiency (Lang. Prof.) in L1 Independent Samples Test by Language Background
GroupsLevene’s Test for
Equality of Variances
T-test for Equality of Means

Equal
variancesassumedLang.
Prof. 1Equal
variancesnotassumed

F

Sig.

t

df

4.594

.033

4.31

198

Sig.
(2tailed)
.00

4.31

198.6

.00

Mean
Dif.
.050

95%
Confidence
Std.
Interval of the
Error
Difference
Dif. Lower Upper
.116
.27
.73

.050

.116

.27

.73

An independent T-test was conducted to determine whether Group 2 demonstrated better orworse language proficiency in the L1 (as measured by S3 Q5) than Group 1. Results of the test
indicated that the groups were statistically significantly different, t(198)=4.31, p<0.01, 95% CI= [0.27, 0.73] (Table 41). The mean for Group 1 (M=2.1, SD=0.95) was statisticallysignificantly greater than mean for Group 2 (M=1.6, SD=0.67) (Table 3). These findings did
not support the idea that Group 1 is more proficient in L1 than the other group. Therefore, thehypothesis stating that “both groups are equally proficient in L1” was rejected.

1

See “Equal variances not assumed” row as Levene’s Test for equality of variances is found to be significant(p<0.05), which indicates that the hypothesis that two samples have approximately equal variances should be
rejected.

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Table 5
Language Proficiency in L2 – Group Statistics by Language Background Groups

Language
Proficiency 2

Language
Background 1
No
Yes

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

100
100

4.40
4.50

.6667
.6742

Std. Error
Mean.06667.06742

Table 6
Language Proficiency in L2 Independent Samples Test by Language Background Groups
Levene’s Test for
Equality of Variances
T-test for Equality of Means

Equal
variancesassumedLang.
Prof. 1Equal
variancesnotassumed

F

Sig.

t

df

.00

1.00

-1.06

198

Sig.
(2tailed).293-1.06 197.97

.293

Mean
Dif.
-.100

95%
Confidence
Std.
Interval of the
Error
Difference
Dif. Lower Upper.095 -.287
.087

-.100

.095

-.287

.087

A separate independent T-test was conducted to determine whether Group 2 demonstrated
better (or worse) language proficiency in L2 (as measured by S3 Q6) than Group 1. Levene’s
Test for equality of variances was found to be insignificant (p>0.05), which indicated that that
“two samples have approximately equal variances” hypothesis was not disallowed. The meanfor Group 2 (M=4.50, SD=0.674) was greater than the mean for Group 1 (M=4.40, SD=0.667)(Table 5). However, the test results showed that this difference was found to be statisticallyinsignificant, t(198)=-1.06, p=1.00, 95% CI = [-0.29, 0.09] (Table 6).These findings did notsupport the idea that the groups with different language backgrounds demonstrated divergent
L2 proficiency. In other words, the hypothesis that “students with and without language
background are equally proficient in L2” was not negated.
To test the hypothesis relating to the impact of various aspects of language such as skills,
situations, emotions, and preferences for communication on the proficiency in L1, theexaminers estimated different versions of the following ordinary least squares (OLS)
regression equation.

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LangProf1 = α + β1 (Age) + β2 (Gender) + β3 (LangBack1)+ β4 (LangBack2) + β5 (LangSkill) + β6 (Emo)+ β7 (Thought) + β8 (Pref) + 𝜀(1)

In Equation (1), the dependent variable (LangProf1) indicated the degree of proficiency in L1(S3 Q5). Greater LangProf1 variable represented student’s higher proficiency in L1.
The main independent variables are (Lang. Skill), (Emo), (Thought) and (Pref). These ordinalvariables respectively demonstrated the degree to which students experienced decrease inlanguage skills, the language they typically used when they were emotional or stressed, theprimary language in which they thought and planned their thoughts, and preference forcommunication with family and friends. Students responded to a number of questions in eachof these categories using a Likert Scale where 1 represented always using L1, and 5 represented
always using English. The variables were then calculated using the arithmetic mean of the
responses given for each category. In addition, our regression equation included student age(Age), gender (Gender) and language background (Lang. Back.) as control variables.
Table 7
Descriptive Statistics
Variables
Lang. Prof. 1
AgeGenderLang. Back. 1
Lang. Back. 2
Lang. Skill
Emo
Thought
Pref.

Mean
1.85
15.55
.50
1.50
1.50
3.85
3.63
4.22
3.68

Std. Deviation
.855
.499
.501
.501
.501
.636
.754
.800
.858

N
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200

Table 7 documents the descriptive statistics for the dependent, main variables of interests aswell as the control variables used in the study. It reports rather low language proficiency in L1(M=1.85, SD=0.855). The average values for the Lang. Skill, Emo, Thought, and Pref.
variables, on the contrary, are rather high – M=3.85, M=3.63, M=4.22, and M=3.68,
respectively.

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Results of the Regression Analysis
Table 8Correlation Matrixa#
12
1Lang. Prof. 1 1.000
2
Age
.194
1.000
3
Gender-.176-.503
4 Lang. Back. 1 -.293-.101
5
Lang. Skill
-.534
-.161
6
Emo
-.683
-.129
7
Thought
-.712
-.258
8
Pref
-.752
-.167
a. Dependent variable: Lang. Prof. 1

3

4

5

6

7

8

1.000
.200
.236
-.089
.313
-.088

-1.000
.683
.355
.272
.321

1.000
.391
.459
.394

1.000
.632
.903

1.000
.653

1.000

The correlation connecting the variables is presented in Table 8. The table showed a weakconnection between the predictors for most of the variables. However, the correlation between
language proficiency and the following variables was found to be statistically significant,negative and strong: language skill (r(200)=-0.534, p<0.01), emotions (r(200)=-0.683,
p<0.01), thought (r(200)=-0.712, p<0.01), and preference (r(200)=-0.752.
Table 9Model Summaryb
Model

R

R SquareAdjusted R
Std. Error of Durbin-Watson
Squarethe Estimate
a
1
.843
.710
.700
.46851
1.645
a. Predictors: (Constant), Pref., Gender, Lang. Back., Age, Lang. Skill, Thought, Emob. Dependent Variable: Lang. Pref. 1
Altogether this set of selected variables predicted approximately 70% of the variance on thelanguage proficiency, whereas the remaining 30% was predictable from other variables.
Durbin-Watson coefficients is within acceptable range and is equal to 1.65 (Table 9) andanalysis of variance demonstrated that variance in general is statistically significantly
associated with these variables taken altogether (p<0.01).
A multivariate regression was conducted to examine if proficiency in L1 was impacted by the
degree to which students experienced decrease in language skills, the language they typicallyuse when they are emotional or stressed, the primary language in which they think and plan
their thoughts, preference for communication with family and friends in English. Table 11
documents the results of the regression analysis. As hypothesized, significant negative
coefficient estimates of language skills and preference for English in communication reportedare (p-value<0.001). Standardized beta coefficients are equal to - 0.311 and -0.595,

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respectively. Similarly, language used while thinking was found to negatively statisticallysignificantly (p<0.05) predict the language proficiency in L1. Standardized beta is equal to 0.213. The bootstrapped 95% Confidence Interval (CI) for the slope to predict the language
proficiency in L1 from thinking in English ranges from -0.368 to -0.096; thus, for each unit ofincrease of thinking in English, proficiency in L1 is reduced by about 0.096 to 0.36 points. Thisaligns with Dewaele’s findings (2004) which state that the use of L1 in “inner speech andmental calculations” is influenced to the same extent by perceived L1 attrition as it is in spoken
expression (Dewaele, 2004, p. 99). The range of negative impact of language skills [95% CI 0.572; -0.265] and from preferences to communicate in English [95% CI -0.781; -0.404] on
the proficiency in L1 was even greater. This indicates that students who prefer to communicate
in English were particularly less proficient in their L1. The Impact of Emotions on language
proficiency was found to be statistically insignificant. Among all the control variables, genderand language background were found to be statistically significantly (p<0.05) predict the
proficiency in L1. The regression equation for predicting the proficiency in L1 is as follows:
LangProf1 = 7.749 − 0.157(Gender) + 0.185(LangBack) − 0.311(LangSkill)− 0.213(Thought) − 0.595(Pref) + ε
Table 10 documents the results of the regression analysis. As hypothesized, significant
negative coefficient estimates of language skills and preference for English in communication
reported are (p-value<0.001).
Table 10Language Proficiency in L1 – Coefficients
Variable

Model (3)CONSTANT

7. 749***(6.073)Age-0.068(-1.448)

Gender

-0.157**(-2.919)

Lang. Back.

0.185**(3.347)

Lang. Skill-0.311***(-5.378)

Emo

0.021
(0.229)Thought-0.213**(-3.426)

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Pref.

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-0.595***(-6.200)

Observations

200

F-Value

67.267

R-Square0.71

Note: The table reports the baseline results. The t-values based on the heteroscedasticity-robust
standard errors are presented in parentheses. The outcome variable is Lang. Prof. 1 (Language
Proficiency in L1). The OLS regression is used. The symbols ∗, ∗∗, ∗∗∗ correspond to p-value<0.1,
p-value<0.05, p-value<0.01, respectively. All variables are listed in the earlier section and defined indetail in the methodology section.

Focus Group Interviews
The study examined the extent to which language attrition in international school students
correlated with their reported sense of cultural identity shift or change, in alignment with
Berry’s acculturation model. Additionally, the study explored the suggested strategies orinterventions to mitigate the potential cultural identity shift associated with language attritionin an international school context. Grounded theory encapsulated the coding procedures, which
encompassed the retrieval of open, axial, and selective codes (Table 11) retrieved from bothinterviews. These findings were then integrated into the grounded theory framework,
highlighting a central concept referred to as Cultural Shift.

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Table 11
Coding Process
Open codes
International stream
Mixture of cultures
National curriculum
Support from school
Support from home
Celebrations
Traditions
L1
L2
Communication withfamilyCommunication withfriends
Language preference
Cultural identity
Culture shift
Globalization
Society
HistoryMusic
ValuesEthnicity
CultureLiterature
Necessity
Motivation
Attitude
Recommendations

Axial codes
International school

Core codes
Length of L2 exposure

National curriculum
Support from school
Support from home
Customs and traditions
L1
L2

Support from home

Language attrition

Communication

Language preference
Culture shift

Globalization

Culture shift

Cultural aspects

Perceptions

Suggestions andperceptions

Recommendations

The analysis of the transcribed interviews started with retrieving the open codes via MAXQDA(VERBI Software, 2021). The open codes included comments on the preferences for the useof L2 while conversing with friends and the forced use of L1 while communicating with family
members and friends who do not know English. Most of the students argued that studying in
an international school made them switch to using their L1 daily which resulted in theirthinking in L2, which they also referred to as second mother tongue in some cases.
Additionally, the participants said that their schools are a melting pot of cultures which gavethem exposure to a “variety of cultures, customs, and traditions”.
Against the background of the dynamic process of language attrition, the motivation towards
the native language decreased thus shifting the attitudes towards native culture. The students

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mentioned the tendency to read literature in English and listen to foreign songs as
understanding “complicated texts in Azerbaijani now takes a lot of time and effort”. Theircultural values were affected by globalization, and the shift in cultural identity was becoming
more evident regardless of the cultural background and ethnicity. As one of the students
responded, “I feel I belong to Northern American culture” even though the student is of
Azerbaijani origin and does not have any ancestors from Northern America.
Following a thorough review of the transcribed interviews, an additional code that was initiallyoverlooked was identified. The newly identified code, labeled Support from home, did not
directly correspond to the research question. Nevertheless, its correlation with other codes andthe frequency of its occurrence in the interviews underscored its significance.
The further analysis of the open codes and derivation of the connections among them facilitatedtheir integration into axial codes: International school, National curriculum, Support fromschool, Support from home, Customs and traditions, L1, L2, Communication, Language
preference, Culture shift, Globalization, Cultural aspects, Perceptions, and Recommendations.
Regarding recommendations concerning the retention of the native language and culture, theparticipants reported that despite the quality of L1 teaching in their school, they considered theamount of L1 input to be insufficient to develop proficiency. However, the students alsocommented that their current level of L1 proficiency is adequate for understanding and being
understood, and, thus, they are reluctant to spend their time on more than two classes of theirnative language a week. Furthermore, this lack of enthusiasm extended to their motivation tolearn more about their native culture, as most of the students were inclined to study abroad anddismissed the need to know much about cultural aspects of their native culture. Some studentssuggested that it could be beneficial for their school community to promote national values
through extra-curricular activities and field trips while avoiding overloading the existing
curriculum.
Culture shift, Length of L2 exposure, Language attrition, Support from home, and Suggestions
and perceptions were further synthesized into overarching core codes based on the patterns andrelationships of the axial codes (Figure 3). The core codes discussed interactions that contributeto language and culture shifts in educational settings.

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Figure 3
Code Map

The core concept, Culture shift, represented a “conceptual restructuring of cultural values”(Yilmaz, 2019, p.313) and gradual assimilation into the host culture. Length of L2 exposure
denoted the duration of the excessive L2 input and its impact on Language Attrition which inits turn contributed to the culture shift. Support from home which was not initially consideredappeared to be a crucial factor, as many of the participants stated that the role of the family ininstilling local culture values was crucial in retaining a positive attitude and shaping native
culture identity. The final component, Suggestions and Perceptions, provided insights into
participants’ views on strategies for diminishing culture shift and preserving native language
and identity. The results highlight the complex relationship among language skills, cultural
identity, and environmental factors, demonstrating that language exposure and support fromfamilies are key in molding cultural identity.
Discussion
The language tests’ disclosure of significant discrepancies between the two groups provided a
deep understanding of the mechanisms of language exposure and attrition, thereby confirming
the first hypothesis (H1). The exceptional performance of Group 2 across various linguistic

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domains not only underscored the complexity of bilingual education but also affirmed the
hypothesis by demonstrating the tangible impact of prolonged L2 exposure on language
proficiency, echoing Köpke’s (2004) and Schmid’s (2011) observations on bilingual
education’s complex balance. This balance involved the gains in L2 acquisition potentiallycoming at the expense of L1 proficiency, especially in contexts where L1 received inadequate
reinforcement (Köpke & Schmid, 2004; Schmid, 2002). In exploring the specific language
domains where Group 2 exhibited substantial linguistic benefits, their proficiency in grammar
and vocabulary aligned with findings from Gallo et al. (2021), suggesting that deep immersion
in L2 fosters a subtle grasp of grammatical structures and a wider lexical range. However, thisenhanced proficiency in L2 underscored a possible trade-off, possibly leading to the attritionof L1-specific structures and vocabulary, a phenomenon previously documented by Schmid(2011) and Köpke & Schmid (2004).
The e-survey findings complement the language test outcomes by providing a subjective lensthrough which to view the interaction of language maintenance and attrition. The higher L1
proficiency reported by Group 1, juxtaposed with their L2 exposure, highlights a crucial
equilibrium between preserving one’s native language while acquiring a new one. This findingaligns with Yilmaz’s (2019) study, emphasizing the importance of maintaining a balance tosupport dual language proficiency.
In addressing the research questions, the e-survey provided a detailed perspective on how
students see their own language skills and the external elements they consider to be influential
in their language growth. For example, students’ insights into the role of environmental factors,
such as the language spoken at home or the predominance of L2 in their immediatesurroundings, provided valuable context for interpreting their language test performances,resonating with the discussions by Schmid and Cherciov (2019) and reinforcing the complexity
highlighted by Kubota et al. (2020) regarding language proficiency’s interaction with external
factors. These insights underscored the complex nature of language proficiency, where external
factors like societal language norms and internal factors like personal motivation and attitudes
toward each language converge to shape individual linguistic trajectories, as discussed by
Fitzsimons (2019).
Moreover, the e-survey findings about the psychological and socio-cultural dimensions oflanguage attrition align with the quantitative data, highlighting the complexity of navigating
dual language proficiency. These narratives provide a personal dimension to the quantitative
findings, aligning with Berry’s (1997, 2005) acculturation model and reinforcing theinterconnected themes of cultural identity and language attrition explored by Yilmaz (2019).
Qualitative insights from the focus group interviews add another layer of depth, portraying thepersonal and collective narratives of cultural shift and language attrition. The thematic
emergence of Cultural Shift speaks directly to the second hypothesis (H2). The theme
illustrates how individuals in international schools undergo transformations in their culturalvalues and identity, a process intricately linked to their linguistic experiences and mirroring
broader cultural dynamics explored by Kashima et al. (2019). The students’ experiences offeredvivid illustrations of how language attrition and acquisition are experienced on a personal level,

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providing a human context to the quantitative findings. The causal relationships within thetheoretical framework (Figure 4) illustrated a sequential process of culture shift in international
school environments.
Figure 4
Theoretical Framework

Consequently, the thematic analysis, (Figure 5) involving the in-depth analysis of the codes
emerged during the grounded theory process and theoretical framework, enabled the retrievalof Culture Attrition through which individuals undergo a transformation in their cultural values
and identity as an overarching theme. The exploration of Educational Background andLanguage Attrition Dynamics offered a direct response to the research question regarding theinfluence of academic experiences on language attrition. The first theme, Educational
Background, unveiled the influence of academic experiences on Culture Attrition, describing
how educational environments contribute to the reshaping of cultural perspectives. Language
Attrition Dynamics, the second theme, examined the relationship between the duration of L2
exposure and the erosion of language proficiency, providing a critical link amid linguisticchanges and the broader cultural shift observed.
Native Culture and Host Culture, as distinct yet interconnected themes, elucidated the conflictconcerning individuals’ original cultural identity and their assimilation into the host culture,highlighting the transformative nature of cultural values and practices. According to Berry’s
model, the native culture refers to the culture of the individual or group before the acculturation
process. It is the culture associated with one’s heritage, origin, or background. The host culture,on the other hand, refers to the culture of the larger society or the dominant cultural groupwithin which individuals or groups find themselves when experiencing acculturation. It

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represents the culture of the country or community where individuals are residing or interacting(Berry, 2005).
Support from Home emerged as a crucial theme, emphasizing familial influence in mitigating
Culture Attrition, a factor that both Kubota et al. (2020) and Yan et al. (2023) acknowledge assignificant in preserving language and cultural values. Hence, based on the theoreticalframework and thematic analysis, it seems apparent that cultural attrition is a gradualdegradation of native cultural values and reshaping of cultural identity perception furthered bysociolinguistic backgrounds and societal contexts.
Figure 5
Thematic Analysis

The research findings underscored a compelling connection linking the acculturation
experiences of students in international schools and their placement within the assimilation
quadrant of Berry’s acculturation model. As students started their educational journey in aninternational school, they gradually shifted from monolingual environments in their households
to becoming bilingual speakers. However, in these educational settings, where exposure to thehost culture is prevalent, students exhibited a tendency toward adopting the cultural norms andlanguage of the host society while concurrently undergoing attrition in their native culture andlanguage (Berry, 2005; Yilmaz, 2019). The assimilation orientation was evident as thesestudents actively engaged in adopting the customs and language of the dominant culture, often
leading to a lack of motivation in developing their native language and the gradual erosion of
their ties to their native cultural identity and language proficiency (Figure 6).

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Figure 6
Language and Culture Attrition Dynamics

Language and culture attrition dynamics reflect a significant aspect of the acculturation
process, emphasizing the impact of extensive exposure to the host language and culture within
the context of international schools. Understanding these dynamics is pivotal for educators,
policymakers, and researchers seeking to enhance the cultural and linguistic well-being ofstudents in international school environments and is encouraged to be further investigated.
Recommendations
Given the research findings on language attrition and cultural identity dynamics in international
schools in Azerbaijan, it is critical to provide a number of suggestions that can inform policy
development, future educational methodologies, and research endeavors. The study
underscored the importance of a holistic approach to language education in internationalsettings, advocating for enhanced support for students’ native languages alongside theacquisition of a second language. Schools should consider integrating comprehensive language
support programs that not only reinforce students’ proficiency in their native language but also
deepen their cultural connections (Köpke & Schmid, 2004; Schmid, 2011). Moreover, theadoption of practices that celebrate and reinforce cultural diversity within schools is essential.
Initiatives that encourage students to engage with their cultural heritage can foster a more
inclusive and enriching learning environment, supporting the dual goals of language retention
and cultural identity preservation (Berry, 2005; Yilmaz, 2019).
On the policy front, there is a clear need for educational policies that acknowledge and address
the dual objectives of language acquisition and cultural identity maintenance. Policies that
equip international schools with the necessary resources and guidance to support students’
linguistic and cultural needs will be instrumental in shaping a more balanced and culturally
sensitive educational landscape (Alasgarova, 2023).

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Future studies should aim to explore the longitudinal impacts of L2 language exposure on
cultural identity, providing a richer understanding of how educational environments influence
students’ linguistic and cultural development over time. Such research is vital for crafting more
informed and effective educational strategies and policies.
Conclusion
In this study, the impact of language exposure and proficiency on language attrition dynamics
in international school students was investigated. The research encompassed quantitative
analysis through the language proficiency test and e-survey, as well as qualitative insights
obtained through focus group interviews. The findings discuss several key aspects, contributing
to an understanding of language and culture attrition dynamics in international school students.
Language proficiency tests showed marked differences between two groups distinguished bytheir L2 exposure duration (Berry, 2005). Group 2, with more extended exposure, demonstrated
higher proficiency in listening, grammar, lexis, reading, and writing than Group 1. Statisticalmethods, including independent T-tests, validated these significant differences. The e-survey
explored factors affecting language attrition, such as proficiency, usage, emotional language,
and preference, revealing that Group 1 had higher L1 proficiency, contrary to expectations.
Regression analysis indicated that language skills, preferences, and cognitive language use
profoundly affect L1 proficiency, highlighting the intricate relationship of language andcultural identity (Yilmaz, 2019).
Focus group interviews yielded insightful qualitative data, highlighting the intricacies oflanguage and cultural attrition. Through grounded theory, a central concept emerged: Cultural
Shift, which included shifts in language use, cultural values, and identity perceptions influenced
by factors like L2 exposure duration, home support, and personal views. Theoretical andthematic analyses further clarified how educational experiences and language attrition
dynamics interact, as well as the tensions involving native and host cultures.
While this research significantly added to an enhanced understanding of language and culture
attrition in international school students, several considerations should be acknowledged. The
findings are context-specific, and caution is warranted in generalizing them to diverse
educational settings and cultural contexts. The reliance on self-reported data, inherent insurveys and interviews, introduces the potential for response bias, suggesting that future
research could benefit from incorporating objective measures of language proficiency.
Additionally, the design of the study did not account for the possible influence of teachers’
language proficiency and attitudes towards L1 and L2, which could have impacted the students’language attrition and cultural identity experiences. This oversight suggests that future researchshould consider the broader educational ecosystem, including educators’ roles in shaping
language and cultural dynamics. The study provides a snapshot of language and culture attrition
dynamics, and the temporal aspects of these phenomena could be more comprehensively
explored through longitudinal studies. In conclusion, this research contributes valuable insights
to the field, and its recommendations seek to guide educational practices and policies fostering

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linguistic and cultural diversity in international educational environments. Nevertheless,further research is encouraged to investigate the long-term effects of language exposure on
cultural identity and linguistic proficiency.

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Schmid, M. S. (2002). First language attrition, use and maintenance: The case of German
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Schmid, M. S. (2011). Language attrition. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511852046
Schmid, M., & Cherciov, M. (2019). Introduction to extralinguistic factors in language
attrition. In M. Schmid & B. Köpke (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language

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attrition (pp. 266-276). Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198793595.013.22
Security and privacy in Microsoft forms (n.d.). https://support.microsoft.com/enus/office/security-and-privacy-in-microsoft-forms-7e57f9ba-4aeb-4b1b-9e21b75318532cd9
Timofeev, D. (2012, November 11). Капица.С.П. и Черниговская.Т.В. –Мышление и язык.
[Kapitsa, S.P. & Chernigovskaya, T.V. – Mind and Language]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jPXJ3K1LpDs
Torrentira, M. C. (2020). Online data collection as adaptation in conducting quantitative andqualitative research during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Education
Studies, 7(11), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.46827/ejes.v7i11.3336
VERBI Software. (2021). MAXQDA 2022 [computer software]. Berlin, Germany: VERBI
Software. Available from maxqda.com.
Yan, S., Mai, Z., & Zhao, Y. (2023). Positive cross-linguistic influence in the representationand processing of sentence-final particle le by L2 and heritage learners of Chinese.
Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1145493
Yağmur, G. (2004). Issues in finding the appropriate methodology in language attrition
research. In M. Schmid, B. Köpke, M. Keijzer & L. Weilemar (Eds.), First language
attrition: Interdisciplinary perspectives on methodological issues (pp. 133-164). John
Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.28.09yag
Yilmaz, G. (2019). L1 attrition, L2 development, and integration. In M. Schmid & B. Köpke(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language attrition (pp. 304-313). Oxford University
Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198793595.013.25
Corresponding author: Rena Alasgarova
Email: rena.alasgarova@mtk.edu.az

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Enriching Students’ Cross-Cultural and Multilingual Communication: The
Serious Play Approach Utilizing Playmobil Pro Figures
Eleni Meletiadou
London Metropolitan University, UK

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Abstract
Playmobil pro is an innovative modelling kit for adults that encourages creative thinking in theuniversity/workplace. International multilingual students often disclose that they have little
opportunity to develop their intercultural awareness, and cross-cultural and multilingual
communicative competencies while engaging in meaningful activities that foster sustainable
content and language learning. In the present study, 35 students were involved in two
Playmobil pro workshops. They worked individually to present themselves to their peers,referring to their cultural background. They then worked in groups to explore interculturaldifferences among people working for organizations operating in the UK and another countryof their choice and offer recommendations to help organizations avoid cross-cultural conflicts.
The aim was to actively engage students to work on their final assignment and develop theirintercultural awareness and cross-cultural communicative skills. This case study used aqualitative design and explored students’ attitudes by asking them to write a short anonymous
report at the end of the implementation and provide anonymous feedback via Mentimeter after
each workshop. The lecturer also kept notes in the form of a diary during this implementation.
Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data which revealed that Playmobil pro facilitatedintercultural communication in the post-COVID-19 era as students seemed to be unwilling towork with their peers in face-to-face classes, possibly suffering from trauma. However, learners
confessed that they needed more time, support, and artefacts to fully present their ideas andthoughts. Recommendations for the effective implementation of Playmobil pro withmultilingual students will be offered.
Keywords: Playmobil pro, post-COVID-19 student recovery, multilingual students, content
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Game-based learning is used to engage students in the learning process, increase their bonding
and interaction (Eutsler, 2021), and stretch their retention of the knowledge and skills (Tavares,
2022) received beyond a single often repetitive teacher-led lecture. Serious Games (SG), forexample Lego as a Serious Play (LSP) and Playmobil pro, which involve the use of learning
strategies such as role play and storytelling, enhance learning and behaviour change throughamusement and are employed in various fields, including Higher Education (HE), health,language education, business, and even the army and aviation, in order to help future aviation
managers develop a full understanding of the complex nature of aviation emergency response
and crisis management (Griggs et al., 2019; Ishaq et al., 2022). In order to use gamification in
HE successfully, educators need to understand how game elements can drive students’ content
and language learning behaviours so that they may improve their academic performance(Eltahir et al., 2021). The use of Playmobil pro in HE is in its infancy. There are only a handfulof cases of published research in which Playmobil pro has been used in: (a) teacher education
both undergraduate and postgraduate (Marfisi-Schottman et al., 2022; Souliotou, 2021), (b)computing (Nass Bauer & Trapp, 2019), (c) arts (Souliotou, 2021), (d) people and change
management (Griehsel & Riester-Gnädinger, 2019), (e) organizational management (Hauser &Amann, 2023), (f) language education (Clausen & Hoinkes, 2022), and (g) crisis management(Lefevre-Scelles et al., 2022).
This article explores the use of Playmobil pro in a business and management school in the UK.
It was used to develop international undergraduate students’ intercultural awareness andpromote cross-cultural communication in terms of a Human Resource Management (HRM)
course. While using Playmobil pro, students were encouraged to use a multilingual approach(allowing them to use words and short phrases in their native languages) while communicating
informally in their groups. This allowed them to learn various terms in other languages anddevelop a better understanding of their peers’ heritage languages and cultural backgrounds.
Playmobil pro aspired to improve undergraduate students’ learning attitudes and facilitate
multilingual and multicultural student interaction in the post-COVID-19 era as students seemed
hesitant to engage in face-to-face collaboration and interplay after two and a half years of
remote learning due to the pandemic. The learners had not been involved in game-basedlearning of any kind previously and were quite uncertain about participating in this intervention
as working with Playmobil pro figures seemed childish at first.
However, taking into consideration students’ feedback, this learning intervention allowed themto reflect on their assignment, receive and provide peer support and make friends at a time
when most university students felt isolated. This study also aimed to explore the value of using
game-based learning to enhance students’ intercultural awareness in terms of a newly designed
module on international human resource management. Modules on interculturalcommunication are a new trend in HRM as cultural aspects are often neglected in management
studies. This case study intended to determine students’ attitudes towards this innovative
approach, Playmobil pro, to enhance students’ intercultural competencies in HE. One of themain goals of this intervention was to achieve a major increase in student motivation,
engagement, interpersonal communication, empathy and academic achievement through theuse of a novel game-based technique in HE (Herrera-Velasquez, 2020). This study will

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potentially encourage more lecturers to experiment with Playmobil pro to develop multilingual
students’ intercultural skills, and thereby increase their interest in content and language
learning. Playmobil pro may allow learners to develop their social skills while working on theirassignments. The research questions the study intended to address were:••

What is the impact of Playmobil pro on undergraduate multilingual students’ attitudes
towards content and language learning?
What are undergraduate multilingual students’ perceptions of the impact of Playmobil
pro workshops on the development of their intercultural awareness and cross-culturalcommunicative competence?

In the next section, the existing literature on game-based learning will be explored.
Subsequently, the methodology of the study will be described. A discussion of the findings andimplications of the study will follow. Finally, the contribution and limitations of this study andrecommendations will be presented as a conclusion to this article.
Literature Review
Game-based learning has gained increasing interest among progressive-minded educators as
an important driver of motivation, innovation, engagement, and productivity in educational
contexts. Games are usually associated with the ludic nature of the human being (Arlt & Arlt,
2023). They are also essential and convenient tools for entertainment, recreation, andbehavioural change (Hammady & Arnab, 2022). Games may offer enjoyment, structure,
motivation, ego gratification, creativity, social interaction, and emotion, satisfying the humanneed for learning and development (Boghian et al., 2019; Stenholm et al., 2019). Recently,
game-based learning has become increasingly important within formative action, promoting
the “ludic epistemology” theory which intends to identify ways to encode knowledge in theform of games and how to shape the process of knowledge and skills acquisition like a processof playing (So & Seo, 2018).
The use of game-based learning relies on constructivist theories of learning (Bakan & Bakan,2018) which promote students’ active role and support the development of higher taxonomic
levels of knowledge. As learning is problem-based, these games involve the development ofstories, either real or fictional, in which the learner plays a role, identifies with what ishappening in that fictional game world and actively resolves problems and overcomeschallenges. The educator’s role is to design appropriate games, by creating inspiring contexts,
providing artifacts and an interesting problem to resolve or stimulate reflection. The lecturer
offers suitable guidance and feedback on learners’ development during the game and its
outcomes. Game-based learning helps students develop appropriate mental models (Plass etal., 2020). The psycho-pedagogical use of games from the constructivist perspective also
generates changes in educational practice (Rosa-Castillo et al., 2022). The educator assumes amore discrete role as his/her aim is predominantly formative, problematic, applicative,
interactive, of counseling and guidance rather than lecturing.

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Roos and colleagues (2004, p. 15) refer to SG as activities that “draw on the imagination,
integrate cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of experience and intentionally bring the
emergent benefits of play to bear on organizational challenges”. Serious gaming asks students
to “think with the hands through creating a model” (Roos & Victor, 1999, p. 328). It is basedon the theory of tacit integration which was developed by Polanyi (1969). This maintains thatstudents know the answers to the questions posed but are completely unaware of that. The
answers emerge through playing and engaging in SG which hide amazing intuitive playful
features (Argasiński & Węgrzyn, 2019). The role of SG is becoming quite prominent incompanies (Larson, 2020), as they bring significant cognitive, emotional, and social benefits
for the employees/learners by encouraging meaningful play often among linguistically andculturally diverse teams (McCusker, 2020).
Playmobil has raised many generations of young people, serving as an educational toy, andencouraging imaginative play, interaction, and creativity. It can engage young people for hours
while they try to express their ideas and feelings and build their own world engaging inmeaningful storytelling. Lately, Playmobil pro has been used by adults inprofessional/educational settings to support teams in prototyping, project management, andcreative workshops (Rapp et al., 2019). It was created to respond to the needs of people toengage in meaningful game-based activities while working together as the introduction of
playful elements in group work tends to help people achieve better results (Kasurinen &Knutas, 2018; Petelczyc et al., 2018). The Playmobil pro method is based on a combination ofmodelling, which relies on personal stories, as participants try to address Socratic questions
working in groups and develop their problem-solving, interpersonal/interculturalcommunication, empathy, and negotiation skills (Goria, 2022).
Higher Education Institutions (HEI) and especially business schools, which currently welcome
increasing numbers of international multilingual students in the UK, can possibly gain fromutilizing Playmobil pro by adding a certain playful quality to required seminars. Playmobil pro
is especially good for subjects involving people, which makes it ideal for HRM (Parkin, 2023).
The fun and visual set-up of Playmobil pro facilitates the fast creation of organigrams, planningand development, and the creation of teams/groups. It also helps people express themselvesmore easily and become more approachable as they engage in meaningful play and remember
the times when they were young and devoted hours playing and creating their own fantasy
worlds. Playmobil pro can thus help students overcome mental health issues, problems, andbarriers they may face in their everyday life (Huen et al., 2016; Stone, 2019).
Moreover, in a progressively globalised business world, many companies operate inmulticultural and multilingual contexts. In Europe, due to increased mobility and migration,
the number of people from diverse backgrounds continues to increase and the significance of
culturally and linguistically responsive education is becoming more prominent (Haan, J., 2022).
As cultural and linguistic diversity in the UK grows, there exist crucial implications for all
senior leadership teams and HE lecturers, necessitating skills and knowledge in multilingualand cross-cultural communication and intercultural awareness to enable them to deeply
understand and provide for different people’s needs (Han et al., 2020). Cultural diversity can49

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bring potential conflicts due to misunderstandings and biases associated with essential
differences among students of dissimilar national backgrounds. Leaders need to develop
competencies to mitigate risks arising from cross-cultural conflicts facilitating cross-lingual
communication in multilingual teams and effectively managing behaviours and attitudes in
multicultural and multilingual corporations (Yousof & Abousamra, 2019).
Conflicts can be further magnified due to crises, like the COVID-19 pandemic, that prohibit
face-to-face contact and closer collaboration. The main challenges associated with multilingualand multicultural employees and students include the following aspects: introversion, theinability to communicate in the target language, the lack of punctuality, and different facial
expressions and gestures (Yanaprasart & Lüdi, 2018).
Even though the significance of intercultural and multilingual professional development is
widely recognised, very few companies and HEI offer comprehensive training
courses/modules in intercultural awareness and multilingual communication in theworkplace/HE. Most of the time, the development of intercultural and multilingualcompetencies is only associated with English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning although
there are formal ways to assess intercultural competencies in the workplace, and there are also
informal tests (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2013), quizzes (Sabet et al., 2022), and group activities.
Moreover, there is very little research into the development of intercultural and multilingualcompetencies as well as inclusion of intercultural awareness and multilingual communication
topics in HE curricula (Shepherd, 2019).
This article addresses the need for professional learning development for HE students’ andfuture professionals’ intercultural awareness and cross-cultural multilingual communication byfocusing on designing and developing Playmobil pro workshops. A well-designed SG, forinstance Playmobil pro, provides a medium in which learners apply theories to real-worldcontexts (Meletiadou, 2023). Playing with Playmobil pro, students typically become moreinterested in the actual game, and this also increases their content and language learning
outcomes (Wronowski et al., 2020). Moreover, SG’s implementation in classes has indicatedthat they improved retention rates and encouraged creative exploration (Silva, 2019). Despite
the encouraging results, little attention has been paid to the effect of the use of Playmobil pro
on the development of students’ intercultural and multilingual competencies (Stadler, 2022).
This is the gap the researcher intends to address with this case study.
Methodology
The researcher used a qualitative methodology (Mey, 2022) and collected qualitative data,
including a tutor’s observations and anonymous student feedback via Mentimeter twice,
immediately after each one of the two workshops, and a student report at the end of theimplementation (see Table 1) in response to the research questions of the study. She usedthematic analysis to analyse data from students’ feedback and triangulated the data with thelecturer’s observations by comparing the main themes to increase the reliability and the overall
quality and significance of the study (Lemon & Hayes, 2020).

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Table 1
Qualitative Methodology
Qualitative data
Sample: 35 students and 1 lecturer
Sources of Data:
1. Anonymous peer feedback via Mentimeter after each workshop
2. Final student report after the implementation
3. Lecturer’s observations about the workshops and students’ response to theimplementation
Method of analysis: Thematic analysis of students’ anonymous feedback and reports.
Triangulation with data from observations.
Coders: Researcher and an assistantThirty-five international undergraduate students (Table 2) attended a module on International
Human Resource Management. This introduced them to the developing field of cross-culturaland cross-lingual management explored in relation to both international and intra-national
contexts, and drawing on perspectives from social anthropology, social psychology, linguistics,
organisational behaviour, and management theory. Students attended a 3-hour workshop every
week for 12 weeks (one academic semester). Learners were asked to take part in an initial 3hour Playmobil pro session in which they had to present themselves and talk about their cultural
background and their aspirations for the future using Playmobil pro. Students were given about
30-45 minutes to choose the right artefacts and prepare their story working individually first
and then in groups so that they could receive feedback and get to know each other. Using a
multilingual approach, the lecturer encouraged students to use words and phrases from theirmother tongue to help them feel more psychologically safe and enhance their oral fluency.
They were then asked to share their story in class. This was used as an ice-breaking activity toallow students to get to know each other and form groups to work for their final groupassignment and presentation.
Table 2Student Demographic Characteristics
Students

Frequency

Male

16

GenderFemale

19

Age

21-30

26

30-40

9

Asian

25

European8

American2

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Students were then involved in a second Playmobil session after they were taught the various
intercultural and cross-lingual theories and discussed relevant case studies. In groups of 3-4
students, learners were asked to choose a country of their choice, under the guidance of theirinstructor, from a list of countries she provided and discuss possible ‘culture clashes’ and crosslingual misunderstandings that may occur when a company coming from the UK would decide
to expand in a country, for example China, which was significantly different – in terms ofculture – when compared to the UK. Students had to use the relevant theories, conduct research
into cross-cultural and cross-lingual issues, international human resource management
practices and case studies which presented similar cultural clashes. A multilingual approach
was used to enable these learners to occasionally use some terms and phrases in their mothertongue to facilitate interpersonal communication and allow students to fully understand thetheories, terms in various national/cultural contexts and the instructions of their assignment.
Students were asked to provide feedback after each one of the two Playmobil Pro workshops
regarding their overall experience and how it affected their content and language learning
motivation, their perceived group performance in the final assignments and the developmentof their intercultural awareness as well as their cross-cultural and cross-lingual communicativecompetence (Figure 1). The investigator received ethics clearance for the study from London
Metropolitan University and students provided their written informed consent. The researcher
promised all learners confidentiality and anonymity. Students were assured that nonparticipation in the study would not affect their grades in any way. The main aim of the study
was to increase students’ interaction and support them as students frequently find lectures
prosaic and ask for alternative approaches to content and language learning that often enhancetheir creativity and reflection.
Figure 1
Playmobil Pro Implementation Scheme

Playmobil Pro(PP) session 1 Induction &group formation(Week 1)

Submission of
final
assignments(group reportand group video
presentation) &reflective reporton PP

Anonymous
feedback via
Mentimeter(Week 2)

Tutor & peer
feedback ongroup
assignment Anonymous
feedback for thePP
implementation
via Mentimeter(Week 10)Additional
theories andcase studies(Weeks 11-12)

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Instruction ofintercultural andcross-lingual theories
and case studies(Weeks 2-8)

PP session 2 Reflection ongroup
assignment(Week 9)

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The lecturer also kept some notes in the form of a diary during this implementation. This
allowed her to reflect on the implementation design and further support the students dependingon their feedback and reactions during the two Playmobil pro workshops. During theimplementation, the following rules of communication applied: (1) everyone was allowed tocommunicate with other students and groups; (2) language(s) of communication could bechosen freely while the language of the assignment was non-negotiable and was English; (3)participants were free to use any channels of communication for exchange of information; (4)the participants had to abide by the game agenda and the time plan. The Playmobil pro set also
included unpainted Playmobil characters and accessories (Zahn, 2019). Students were asked togive meaning to their creations without any limits, and the lack of features allowed them tointerpret their ideas and characters in multiple ways taking into consideration their own cultural
background. Finally, this research project intended to stress the significance of: (a) drawing to
expand their ideas in the brainstorming process and, (b) using hands to communicate thinking
through the tactile material to assist students who could not articulate by writing, for instanceneurodiverse, dyslexic or low-performing English as a Second Language students. The main
aim was to promote inclusion for all students, irrespective of their background and personal
characteristics, thus embracing diversity and fostering tolerance and acceptance for all students.
Findings
Impact of Playmobil Pro on Students
The investigator employed thematic analysis to examine the perceived impact of Playmobil pro
on students’ approaches towards content and language learning and the development of theirintercultural competencies (Herzog et al., 2019). She collected qualitative data from learners(anonymous feedback and a report). Analysis of the data revealed several themes, including“enhanced collaboration and intercultural communication” and “promoted experiential,
interpersonal, and deep learning” (Table 3). Data were then triangulated with the instructor’scomments in her diary (Natow, 2020). Although the researcher designed the intervention andguided another lecturer who facilitated Playmobil pro workshops during her sessions, a
research assistant analyzed 15% of the data collected to address researcher bias (Johnson et al.,2020).

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Table 3
Impact of Playmobil Pro on Students
Themes (frequency ofoccurrence in students’
data)
Positive Impact
1. Improved engagement
facilitating interculturaland multilingual exchange
due to positive emotions(34)

Sample Student Comments

Lectures are boring. The use of Playmobil pro allows us
to interact more and learn from peers from other culturesand speak other languages. We could then better
understand our differences, make friends, and feelbetter…

2. Enhanced collaborationand intercultural andcross-lingual
communication (33)

I love working with my peers and exchanging information
about potential causes of conflicts or misunderstandings
taking into consideration various cultural and linguistic
backgrounds….

3. Developed group identity, We are not alone. We have to work as a group, respect
ethical thinking, and cross- each other, be fair and distribute the workload
accordingly. We also need to understand that people
cultural empathy (31)work differently in different contexts…
4. Promoted experiential,
interpersonal, and deeplearning (30)

We learn by doing rather than reading or listening all thetime. This is so invigorating. I can better understandthings as I can ask many questions.

5. Promoted a global mindset
and a rule-based culture(focus on fairness) (30)

I have to think about my peers and take into
consideration their needs as well. There are rules I needto abide by. I am not alone. I have to be fair and show
empathy and other awareness.

6. Impact on development ofintercultural and crosslingual awareness andtrust (29)
7. Involvement inmeaningful & memorable
exchanges (27)

I now understand that people can behave quite
differently. They have different mindsets and norms. I
need to be mindful, build trust and ensure we get along.
We have to, as we are in the same team.
I can now make sense of the theories as I have the time to
discuss them with my friends while we are preparing ourstory. I will never forget the enjoyable time we had
together and our final artifact and story. It was anamazing experience.

Challenges
8. Establish English
as the working
language (14)I do not like it when people use their own language as I cannot
understand them. It is annoying. However, I also do it when I
cannot express myself well in English. I guess we need to be
tolerant and work our way through languages…

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9. Differences incommunicationstyles (8)I hate spending hours negotiating and analysing the same thingover and over again. I prefer action rather than words andarguments…

10. Differing degrees
of cooperationand motivation(6)

Some students are not that willing to work with me andcontribute. They prefer working individually. They are selfish.
This is a bit demotivating as they are unwilling to engage in realcommunication while we are working…

11. Lack of time andartefacts (4)We need more time. This is our first time with Playmobil. We
need time, support from our lecturer and possibly more
Playmobil figures to fully express our ideas…

The investigator combined findings from students’ anonymous feedback and final reports
regarding the Playmobil pro implementation and realised that students were initially reluctant
to engage with this innovative game-based strategy due to lack of experience (Table 3,
Comment 8). However, they soon became actively involved and spent considerable timedeveloping their intercultural and cross-lingual awareness and enhancing their collaborativeand interpersonal skills while demonstrating curiosity and excitement about this new learningtechnique (Table 3, Comment 2).
These outcomes – which were also corroborated with the instructor’s comments in her diary
about this challenging intervention – confirmed findings from several studies in other settings(Rapp et al., 2019). Students were demotivated by long lectures without any possibility ofinteracting with their peers due to lack of interpersonal exchange. Playmobil pro allowed
meaningful student engagement which created positive emotions (Table 3, Comment 1). These
supported an affiliation function (Carmona-Halty et al., 2021), increasing engagement andinterpersonal interaction amongst group members through developing their own and others’
ideas and encouraging intercultural and cross-lingual communication (Rhee, 2022). These
group interactions in the post-COVID-19 era built strong group social resources, such as asense of belonging, social and psychological support, group bonds, a feeling of intimacy, andfriendship (Patulny & Bower, 2022).
Games, such as Playmobil pro, seem to create virtual worlds which promote freedom andexploration (Bowersox, 2022) as students are asked to assume various roles and identities. They
provide a psychologically safe risk-free context where students can experiment without
experiencing the impact of failure in real life (Parkin, 2023). On the contrary, failure is part ofthe learning game and allows students to reflect on their shortcomings and try out new options(Andres et al., 2024). In the context of Playmobil pro, students seem to be able to experienceintercultural and cross-lingual conflicts from different points of view in safe and controlled
settings and learn how to cope with them in real life (Table 3, Comment 4 and 6).

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Nevertheless, students did report some communication challenges, for instance due to the useof other languages than English (Table 3, Comment 8). However, they did realize that thisforms part of the intercultural and cross-lingual communication challenges multinational teams
in organisation face globally. Since students wanted to work in similar contexts, they had tolearn how to be flexible and work effectively with people from diverse backgrounds
minimising any possibility for prolonged disruption and harnessing the benefits of diversity.
Serious games seem to be particularly helpful for training. Therefore, Playmobil pro may offer
an immersive and engaging context where participants ‘learn by doing’ often making mistakes
in a controlled environment. Taking into consideration students’ feedback, this trial and errorbased method apparently enhances content and language learning, improves group work, thedevelopment of social skills, leadership, and cooperation.
Discussion
Culture may determine success or failure in everyday face-to-face encounters in organisations
globally. People often have expectations when they enter conversations which are related to
culture and language. They are frequently affected by their cultural values and linguistic
backgrounds in their personal and professional lives. Moreover, individuals repeatedly apply
their own cultural lens every time they interact with their colleagues and negotiate with theircustomers at work. Therefore, people working in multinational companies and/or culturally
diverse settings, for example in the UK, need to be aware of the cultural and linguistic
differences which can become a source of confusion, misunderstanding, and most importantly,
conflict. Awareness of these disparities and an openness to assume different cultural
perspectives are important for the development of students’ intercultural competencies and thepromotion of meaningful conversations based on trust, empathy, and other awareness (Table
3, Comments 2, 3 & 6). Therefore, HE lecturers can choose to cultivate students’ interculturaland crosslinguistic skills through appropriate learning strategies such as Playmobil pro
sessions, as indicated in this case study.
As Playmobil pro sessions require students to engage in a microcosm of the social world, with
its own inclusions and exclusions, learners will have to face when they graduate, students
become prepared for the negotiations they have to make to survive in diverse work settings(Vari, 2021). Moreover, taking into consideration the physiological impact of positive
emotions that learners often experience (Marfisi-Schottman et al., 2022) when they engage insuch sessions, as well as the impact of enjoyable play on the brain, one can safely conclude
that Playmobil pro apparently relieves some of the anxiety that international multilingual
learners feel when they engage in real-life face-to-face encounters promoting memorable
exchanges that advance deep experiential learning (Table 3, Comments 4 &7).
During Playmobil pro sessions, students revealed that they felt optimistic about theirrelationships with their peers and happy about learning things in such an engaging way (Table
3, Comment 1). Therefore, one may conclude that Playmobil pro creates the urge to play andpushes the limits for multilingual students to be creative not only in social and physicalbehaviour, but also in intellectual and artistic behaviour (Parkin, 2023). Experiencing

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playfulness, mindfulness, compassion, empathy, and hope activates the body’s
parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) (Zhou et al., 2019). This allows international
multilingual students to open up and be more receptive to new ideas, feelings and otherindividuals and enhances their cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication (Moreno etal.,2019).
Playmobil pro facilitates flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) and psychological safety and assists
participants to gain valuable insights confirming similar previous research on LSP. These twogame-based techniques seem to promote storytelling and metaphors to examine the intrinsic
meanings that students try to convey (Harn & Hsiao, 2018). By completely immersing into
play, students lose their sense of self and reveal their true selves, ideas and identities allowing
room for deep reflection, thus advancing towards increased academic achievement (Wringley& McCusker, 2019). Other-awareness and perspective-taking are inherent in the design ofPlaymobil pro and facilitate developing a global mindset and setting rules ensuring fair play.
This allows international students to develop valuable professional skills extremely useful forcross-cultural and cross-linguistic encounters. Students also revealed that the impact of thePlaymobil pro sessions last longer than repetitive lectures (Table 5, Comment 7). Khasawneh
and colleagues (2024) indicate that positive memories after the learning experience enhanceknowledge and skill retention and increase social resources such as social support andconnections amongst people, especially relatively shy international learners, which students
can further develop in their professional life.
Moreover, when lecturers refer to the development of conflict management practices instudents, they include a wide range of strategies, such as communication, problem solving,dealing with emotion, understanding positions, negotiation and mediation (Gorostidi et al.,2023). In HE, the challenge for educators is to prepare future employees and managers tochannel cross-cultural and cross-linguistic conflicts into constructive responses (Kubicek et al.,2019). and consider them as opportunities for stimulating relations and moving towards groupcohesion. Intercultural and cross-linguistic conflicts define the implicit or explicit emotional
struggle or frustration between individuals from different cultures over perceived incompatible
morals, values, norms, face concerns, goals, scarce resources, processes, and/or outcomes in acommunication situation (Yamasaki & Prat, 2021). To help students resolve related challenges
and deal with such situations, lecturers may consider exploring the different aspects and levels
of intercultural and cross-lingual clashes, as well as their impact on the involved parts and on
the overall classroom dynamics through SG, for instance Playmobil pro workshops. They could
thus promote a situated learning approach (Wandl et al.,2019) which is embedded in theconstructivist learning paradigm (Chuang, 2021). This can provide meaningful learning
experiences by involving multilingual learners in authentic learning environments based onreal world experiences. In such contexts, knowledge can be transformed into action
competencies and support content and language learning (Table 3, Comments 4 & 7).
To sum up, various authors have showcased the significance of SG, like Playmobil pro, foreducational purposes, especially in HE (Andres et al., 2024; Zahn, 2019). Playmobil pro seems
to promote a learner-centred approach as students can learn at their own pace and receive57

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scaffolding by their peers, depending on their learning style and their individual needs as theyinteract in terms of the game overcoming potential challenges (Table 3, Comments 9 &10).
This may further facilitate educators in HE as they often have large cohorts and significant time
constraints. To sum up, learners in this case study expressed their interest in engaging in more
Playmobil pro sessions as they thought they create meaningful learning and development
experiences, especially in terms of intercultural training, by simulating highly interactive
scenarios where students have to face and resolve real-world problems without worrying about
the risks.
Conclusion
Plato was the one of the first philosophers who recognised the significance of purposeful playfor learning and development (Wilkinson, 2016). The findings of this case study corroborated
previous research indicating that HE lecturers should consider using innovative game-basedlearning tools that may support teaching by enhancing students’ intercultural competencies inan entertaining and engaging way (Köroğlu & Kimsesiz, 2023). These may also enhance
students’ academic performance and promote student autonomy and empowerment (Westera,2019). However, very little – if any – research exists exploring how Playmobil pro can be usedin HE to develop students’ intercultural and cross-linguistic skills preparing them for future
professional challenges as they will most probably need to work in highly diverse multi-culturalenvironments.
Playmobil pro apparently promotes an active experiential approach to content and language
learning that has been increasingly used in education lately as it brings significant benefits forthe learners. However, despite its promise in HE, there are numerous challenges involved indeveloping and implementing highly effective games. Since the role of educator in developing
game-based approaches that promote students’ intercultural and cross-linguistic awareness iscritical, more research needs to explore how educators can be supported if SG, such as
Playmobil pro, are to be widely adopted in HE and become mainstream.
Recently, SG have become increasingly popular as a didactic tool in business schools todevelop students’ professional skills and enhance intercultural and crosslinguistic learning.
Intercultural and cross-linguistic competencies – which include social, communicative, andperformative skills and capabilities and are seen as key competencies of the 21st century – canbe developed through SGs, like Playmobil pro. Playmobil pro involves complexity, uncertainty
in decision-making process, and a relative freedom of action, but also time pressure, role
conflicts and conflicts of interest which aim at an enhancement of cultural, linguistic, crosslinguistic and cross-cultural expertise. Playmobil pro seems to usher in new opportunities fordeveloping immersive learning context where intercultural and cross-linguistic encounters andinteractions are promoted, while students also practice their professional skills, for example
negotiation in a risk-free environment.
Therefore, Playmobil pro may prove to be useful in HE as it can be used to develop students’cross-cultural, cross-linguistic, and inter-communication skills as learners are preparing

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themselves to become managers/leaders as is the case in the current study. The aim is for future
managers/leaders to hopefully internationalize their organisations, facilitating employability
and competitiveness. The world can be envisioned as a diverse ensemble of cultures andlanguages. Viewing the world in such a manner can support companies as it promotes
innovation and the consideration of various approaches for everyday challenges andsimultaneously cause issues when organisations try to establish new ventures in foreign
markets.
Although the present study was a small-scale case study limited in time and space and involved
only 35 students in a specific business school, this implementation may be useful for educators
who wish to investigate innovative strategies to help students develop their cross-cultural andcross-linguistic communication skills while increasing their engagement and motivation. SG
are now increasingly used in HE as lecturers try to develop students’ intercultural and crosslinguistic awareness after the historic disruption of the COVID-19 pandemic asking learners toengage again in face-to-face learning. Playmobil pro seems to be able to achieve a significant
impact on students’ motivation to learn and overall engagement in resolving intercultural andcross-linguistic challenges and developing international multilingual students’ valuable
professional skills. According to the literature and the findings of this study, few training orteaching methods appear to engage these students as much as SGs in HE in the post-pandemicera (de Almeida, 2023). This article sets an implementation framework for using Playmobil
pro, a promising game-based technique, to enhance students’ competencies in terms of crosscultural and cross-lingual conflict management in the context of HE and develop theirintercultural awareness fostering tolerance, trust, and inclusion for all students, irrespective of
their linguistic or cultural background. Therefore, it prepares the global citizens of tomorrow
who need to prioritise cultural and emotional intelligence over general intelligence.
International students’ experience in this case study supports the view that Playmobil pro canhave a positive impact on the development of students’ intercultural and cross-linguistic
communication as it offers psychological safety and ensures collaboration. The outcomes ofthis study reveal that Playmobil pro can inspire creative confidence (Dijks, 2018) and have aworthwhile effect on several areas relating to positive team dynamics and group mindset shifts
including empathy, trust, perspective-taking, and the presence of a risk-free environment that
promotes content and language learning.

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Corresponding author: Eleni Meletiadou
Email: elenim@outlook.com

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Adults’ Perceptions of Studying English in Face-to-Face, Online, andBlended Modalities
Tatiana Ginzburg
University of Latvia, Latvia
Linda Daniela
University of Latvia, Latvia

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Abstract
Questions regarding the most effective teaching modality in foreign language instruction
remain especially important for adult educators, since adult students have conflicting demandson their time and need to see the value of training. This research was centered around threecohorts of students taking courses of English of the same content and volume from the sameprovider. The students were university faculty and thus, of comparable demographics, and thecourses were funded by the university. Over several years, and as the result of COVID-related
restrictions, the courses were delivered in face-to-face (F2F), online, and blended modalities
incorporating flipped classroom in the latter two. The aim of the research was to investigate
the impact of a course modality on the perceived teaching effectiveness of a language course
for adults. A quasi-experiment was used as a type of sequential mixed method. Relative
perceived effectiveness of each modality was drawn from a combination of student evaluationof teaching (SET) and semi-structured interviews with former students who acted as bothalumni and experts in education. SET comparison revealed no significant differences in results
among the three modalities while interviews indicated a preference for the blended learning.
At the same time, SETs of fee-paying students with comparable demographics taking similarcourses at the same institution and analyzed previously showed a distinctive preference for a
blended approach. That might be due to the differences in resources these two groups invested
in studies: time vs time and money. The results imply that adult language educators have theflexibility to choose a modality while ensuring teaching effectiveness.
Keywords: course modality, perceived teaching effectiveness, English as an additional
language, adult learners

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According to UNESCO (2021), the unprecedented increase in life expectancy in the
21st century means that people will need to participate in education later in life, as theirpersonal and professional needs change. Moreover, the demands of the changing labormarket require that people constantly upgrade their skills while employed as “learning should
be lifelong, life-wide, with weight and recognition given to adult education” (p. 117). At
the same time, the European Statistical Office (Eurostat) and the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report that only approximately 40 per
cent of adults participate in education annually and slightly below 12 per cent do so within
any 4-week period. Although there is some growth in participation, its rate is insufficient tomeet the demands of the labor market (Eurostat, 2023; Mavropoulos et al., 2021; OECD,
2020a).
The main reasons respondents cite as preventing them from involvement in adulteducation refer to the situational barriers as defined in the seminal work of Cross (1992): lackof financial resources and lack of time (OECD, 2020b), which represent the total cost ofparticipating in education. It follows that, on the one hand, there is room for growth, andon the other hand, reducing the total cost of participation might increase the number ofadults partaking in education. Delivering training via different modalities may be one of theways to accomplish such a goal as it provides more flexibility (Ahlin, 2021).
Research into using different modes in education is mostly focused on university
students (Tran, 2022; Watson et al., 2023; Webb & Doman, 2020; Willits & Brennan, 2017).
However, as adult education programs are usually of short duration and cancellation
costs are low, training providers need to make sure that students and employers view thetraining as valuable (Gacs et al., 2020; OECD, 2020a). While online methodology continues
to be used even after its introduction as the emergency approach during the COVID-19
pandemic (Hodges et al., 2020), students still question its effectiveness compared to
traditional face-to-face (F2F) teaching. At the same time, considering the social nature oflanguage and language learning (Firth & Wagner, 2007; Toth & Davin, 2016), comparing
students’ perceptions of a language course delivered via different procedures may be usefulfor adult educators in general. This research aims to examine the impact of a specificstyle of course delivery on the adults’ perceptions of the effectiveness of a language course
offered F2F, online, and in the blended modality. The findings also contribute to the general
understanding of the perception and use of the three approaches in adult education.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. The literature review analyses publications
related to students’ perceptions as an indicator of teaching effectiveness. The next section
briefly describes the research context. The methodology presents research questions anddescribes research design as well as methods of data collection. The ensuing segment
presents and discusses the main findings. Finally, the conclusion, a discussion of limitations
the study, and recommendations for further research are provided.

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Literature Review: Students’ Perceptions
Students’ perceptions have been used as an instrument for improving teaching quality as well
as for administrative purposes in various universities around the world (Kulik, 2001; Stroebe,
2020; Zhao et al., 2022). They are usually expressed through Student Evaluation of Teaching(SET), which is administered as a survey form containing a series of questions related to acourse, instructor, materials, and sometimes, facilities. Students then rate each item on a Likert
scale (Likert, 1932) from strongly disagree to strongly agree, and mean values are calculated
for each item. Zhao et al. (2022) state that, although Purdue university introduced the firststandardized student evaluations in 1915, they “began to use the standardized student
evaluation scale to evaluate teachers’ teaching, which is considered to be the beginning of thestudent evaluation system” (p. 1) in 1927.
Although using SETs represents an efficient way of gauging students’ perceptions, it is still acontroversial measure. In his meta-analysis of accepted expert opinions on student ratings,
Kulik (2001) argues that researchers tend to prove that “ratings correlate to a satisfactory
degree with other admittedly partial and imperfect measures of effectiveness” (p. 11). He
suggests that evidence of students’ learning, students’ and alumni’ comments, and rating byclassroom observers be used in assessing teaching effectiveness. However, he admits that theprevailing opinion is that students learn more from highly rated teachers, and their comments
correlate with their ratings and with those of the alumni and observers. Besides, teachers benefit
from students’ ratings for they “profit from the information the ratings provide” (p. 23). In
their turn, Willits and Brennan (2017) demonstrate the evidence that course ratings areunrelated to students’ characteristics, the level of difficulty, and the volume of work required
from students, which makes them a valid indicator. At the same time, Spooren and Christiaens(2017) noted that students who believe that SETs have value tend to give higher ratings.
There are both educators and researchers who believe that education belongs to the categoryof services that views students as consumers (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2001; Lee & Deale, 2019).
University students’ opinions are shared on The RateMyProfessors.com (RMP) website whichuses the style of consumer forums and customer reviews. The results of investigating the RMP
data confirm the research into validity of SETs. However, investigating more than 16,800
professors on RMP, Chiu and colleagues discovered a “professor’s brand” is a factor affecting
students’ perception (Chiu et al., 2019). They assert that “professors’ working in top colleges
can be regarded as a kind of brand awareness for students and that this factor might have apositive effect on perceived quality” (p. 452). The same might be said about any instructor who
has worked in a well-regarded institution for a long enough time to develop “the brand”. Willisand Brennan (2017) discovered that students’ perception of course quality is directly
correlated, among others, with teachers’ behavior in class. Moreover, Lee and Deale (2019)
found that professors’ personalities have a deciding impact on the perceived quality of a coursein their research into perceived quality of professors in tourism and hospitality education.
Although considering students as customers might be arguable in higher education, it isdifferent for adult education. Therefore, a particular type of valued professor’s brand and70

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teachers’ personalities are even more essential for adults to perceive their experience as
positive.
Stroebe (2020) is much more critical in his view of using SETs though and argues that they
can lead to grade inflation and poor teaching, in addition to not being valid. His argument that
there is no correlation between SETs and students’ learning is also corroborated by studies
looking into the relationship between students’ learning and professors’ ranking (Uttl et al.,2017). Some other factors also impact students’ ratings. Students’ interest in a subject,physical attractiveness and general likeability of instructors, their minority status, and to someextent, their gender, are among those which indicate evidence of the halo effect (Keeley et al.,2013 as cited in Allred et al., 2022) in student ratings. In an educational setting, the halo effectrefers to the situation “when one aspect of an instructor influences the instructor’s overallrating” (Allred et al., 2022, p. 71). Experiments show that a behavioral tactic like memorizing
students’ names on purpose leads to higher ratings as the result of the halo effect.
Keeping in mind the challenges of adult education, students’ perception of teaching and theirown performance are crucial for both their learning and participation in education. However,the fact that adult students do not form long-lasting relationships with course providers may be
the reason why analysis of students’ perceptions is usually limited to university students andthe use of SETs as the most efficient measure. This paper contributes to the research byfocusing specifically on adult students taking a non-degree language course. At the same time,
students’ ratings must not be the only tool to gauge their perceptions. Evaluation proceduresshould also include open-ended questions as a part of SETs and post-evaluation procedures(Ulker, 2021) as well as opinions of alumni and experts. The students in this research are
educators with experience of teaching in different modalities. Therefore, their participation inclasses may be considered as professional observation. Together, these provided a basis for acomprehensive analysis of the perceived experience of adults studying English via different
methodologies, which contributes to the field of adult language education and adult educationin general.
Research Context
The research took place at the Riga Technical University (RTU) Riga Business School English
Language Center (RBS ELC) in Latvia. RBS ELC was established in cooperation with theEnglish Language Institute at State University of New York at Buffalo in 1991 and operated
until 2023. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, all instruction at RBS ELC was conducted faceto-face (F2F). However, as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, the government ofLatvia introduced changes in legislation (Ministru kabinets, 2020a, 2020b, 2021). As a result,course format had to be re-developed to accommodate those. After the pandemic started, thecourse was planned to be offered as flipped and blended: each 90-minute lesson divided into a
30-minute Pre-Class and 60-minute synchronous Class with the Class meeting once a week
F2F and once a week online. However, in the second half of the 2020-2021 academic year,
F2F teaching was prohibited in Latvian universities (Izglītības un zinātnes ministrīja, 2021),
therefore both synchronous classes met virtually, retaining the flipped model (Chen et al., 2014;71

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Flipped Learning Network (FLN), 2014). Only in the 2021-2022 academic year, students had
the flipped blended course.
There were three reasons to introduce the electronic component and to plan it to remain evenafter the restrictions on F2F teaching were lifted. Firstly, virtual teaching and learning has
become an accepted communication medium for both work and private lives; therefore, a
synchronous online class provides an authentic language experience. Secondly, reducing thetotal time needed for participating in training increases convenience for students. Besides, thereis evidence that students experience lower levels of social stress in online classes compared to
F2F (Lazarevic & Bentz, 2021), flipped classroom suits undergraduate students who prioritize
control over their learning (Tang et al., 2020), and that more mature students adapt better tostudying from home than younger undergraduates (Brachtl et al., 2023). Thirdly, introducing
an asynchronous component as the Pre-Class task allows students to complete some activities
at their own pace and at a convenient time while instructors can use the classroom time forinteractive or challenging tasks. At the same time, the importance of student-teacher interaction
and initial F2F communication (Kaiper-Marquez et al., 2020) led to the planning of the firstclass of the week to be F2F in the original blended format. Most of the groups had a long courseof 25 weeks, but some studied more intensively, with double classes spread over 12.5 weeks.
However, as the course structure does not impact students’ perceptions (Ginzburg & Daniela,
2023), in this research, data from both variants were analyzed together. Figure 1 illustrates thethree modalities.
Figure 1
The Three Modalities (developed by T. Ginzburg)

Note: HW stands for homework.

Instruction in all the modalities followed the same overall process. Teachers used standardized
outlines developed by senior faculty and RBS ELC Director for each level. The outlines werebased on selected commercially available coursebooks and served as a framework. Teachers
supplemented core coursebooks with additional materials based on the needs of their students.
These included printed and online materials selected, curated, or designed by teachers.
Instructors also used Google Classroom to communicate with students, post assignments andsupplementary materials, record grades and attendance. At the end of a course and provided

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they met the criteria of attendance, participation, coursework, and tests, students received
certificates of attendance.
Methodology
The aim of this research was to investigate the impact of a course modality on perceived
teaching effectiveness of an English as an additional language (EAL) course for adults. The
following research questions (RQ) were formulated:
RQ 1: Does a modality affect students’ perceptions of their experience in a course?
RQ 2: Considering that the course alumni are expert educators, what were their opinions ofusing different modalities in teaching and learning?
The research focused on three cohorts of adult students. The students were RTU faculty andacademic staff taking courses in English as an additional language (EAL) within an EU-funded
project 8.2.2.0/18/A/017 Rīgas Tehniskās universitātes akadēmiskā personāla stiprināšana
stratēģiskās specializācijas jomās (Strengthening Academic Staff of Riga Technical University
in Areas of Strategic Specialization) between 2019 and 2022. As the students were university
academics, it was assumed that they all had a similarly high level of education and interests, aswell as well-developed learning habits. Each cohort received a course of the same volume of
100 academic hours, the same content and core textbooks per corresponding level, and wastaught by the same senior instructors. Students were placed in groups of a maximum 12
participants according to their initial level of English as defined by an internal RBS ELC
placement test. In all three cohorts the instruction was organized at B1+, B2, B2+, and C1
levels according to Common European Framework of Reference for Languages [CEFR](Council of Europe, 2020). Table 1 illustrates the composition of the research sample.
There were four full-time instructors working with these students, two of them native speakers,
all of them qualified to teach at all levels, and all working at RBS ELC longer than ten years.
While groups at C1 level were always assigned to a native speaker, allocation of other groups
was based on the individual instructors’ preferences.
Table 1
Research Sample
Academic Year2019-2020

Modality

Number of Enrolled Students/Numberof Training Groups

F2F

59/5

GenderMale
28

Female31

2020-2021
Online42/4
1530
2021-2022
Blended67/6
32
35
Note: Gender identities were assumed based on the participants’ names. The fact that they were
university academics was presumed as their defining demographic characteristic in the context of thisresearch, thus no demographic data was collected.

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Research Design
This research was meant to inform practice, so a pragmatic paradigm (Creswell, 2007;
Saunders et al., 2019) was chosen. Developed by Dewey, it has always focused on what works
in practice (Burch, 2022; Dewey, 1916; Moore, 1966). According to Frey (2018), “pragmatismemphasizes that research involves decisions about which goals are most meaningful and which
methods most suitable” (p.3). This is consistent with applying pluralistic methodology (Clarke& Visser, 2019; Pring, 2015), which characterizes mixed method. The use of mixed methods
is increasingly gaining popularity among researchers (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017; Greene,2007) despite being relatively recent.
As illustrated in Figure 2, students’ perceptions were investigated in a quasi-experimental
design with a modality as an independent variable and using sequential mixed method research.
Although students could choose whether to participate in a course, the choice of modality wasdefined by external factors, such as epidemiological situation and legislation. Therefore,
students’ assignment to a modality could not be randomized. Other factors affecting students’experience were controlled: student demographics, course content and volume, methodology,
materials, as well as instructors who taught the course.
Figure 2
Research Design (developed by T. Ginzburg)

Note: QUAN stands for the quantitative method, QUAN + qual – for the mainly quantitative withsome qualitative part; QUAL – for the qualitative method.

Research Instruments and Data Collection
The data for answering RQ 1 were collected through SETs, which represented standard RBS
ELC final evaluation forms. They contained 26 Likert-scale questions about the instructor andvarious aspects of a course. The survey used values from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly
Agree) rather than 1 to 5 to avoid a neutral response. Historically, a mean value of 3.33 in each74

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item was a threshold for a course to be considered satisfactory. Additionally, theforms contained an open-ended question about general impressions andsuggestions for improvement; however, not all students wrote comments. The survey
was administered anonymously on the last day of the course. In the 2019-2020
academic year, 43 students finished the course. The forms were given as hard copies, and 30(70%) students filled them out. In the 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 academic years, thequestionnaire was distributed as Google Forms. All the enrolled online students (100%)
finished the course, and 34 (81%) filled out the forms. In the 2021- 2022 academic year, 65
students finished the course and 53 (81.5%) students filled out the questionnaire. Meanvalues for each item on the SET for each cohort were calculated and a one-way ANOVA
test was performed to learn whether the differences were significant using IBM SPSS 22.
When analysing the results, practical significance of potential differences (Hair Jr et al.,2010) was considered. Statistically significant differences in values could be disregarded
provided the values were sufficiently above the historical threshold of 3.33. Additionally,
the comments in the open-ended questions were examined for content and the main codes
defined.
A series of semi-structured interviews with the course participants a year after thecourse ended were conducted to answer RQ 2. The invitation to participate was sentout to all the course participants via e-mail. Four students who took a F2F course andwere enrolled in the blended one at the time, and five students from the online course
agreed. The questions focused on the following: motivation in taking the course andwhether it changed over time; general opinion of the course, its organization, andparticipants; whether the course had any effect on the way they use English; theiropinion on what the optimal delivery system was. Although the information reachedsaturation after the eighth interview, all nine were conducted. Eight interviews wereconducted in-person; one respondent was out of the country at the time, so that interview was
conducted over Zoom. All the interviews were conducted in English, recorded, anonymized,
transcribed, and the transcripts verified by the respondents. The researchers analysed thetranscripts separately for the F2F/blended students and online students following theapproach recommended by various researchers (Creswell, 2007; Erlingsson & Brysiewicz,
2017; Kvale, 1996) which includes multiple reading of transcripts, identifying initial categories
and classifying them to arrive at common themes.
Ethical Considerations
RTU administration responsible for the project gave their written permission to use the SETs
for the research. The permission for the interviews was obtained from the University ofLatvia Ethics Commission (Nr 71- 46/19). The titles of the coursebooks used for instruction
are not provided to avoid promoting the publishers.

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Findings
SET Analysis
Analysis of SETs compared students’ perceptions of the course delivered via three modalities
and provided the answer to RQ 1. For convenience, 26 survey items were grouped
intocategories. Table 2 presents the first group comprising half of the 26 questions. This groupof queries related specifically to instructors.
Table 2
Summary of Student Responses about the Instructor
The instructor
Speaks loudly and clearly enough to hear
Knows the subject well
Answers questions well

F2F
M
SD
3.90
.31
4.00
.00
3.83
.38

Online
M
SD
3.94
.24
4.00
.00
3.97
.17

Blended
M
SD
3.85
.50
3.89
.47
3.83
.51

3.93

.25

3.97

.17

3.91

.37

Acts politely and respectfully, showinginterest and patience
Returns tests and homework not later thanafter one classWill provide extra help when asked
Gives enough feedback on assignments andtests
Begins and ends class on time

3.87
3.93

.35
.25

3.85
3.94

.36
.24

3.75
3.79

.55
.53

3.93
3.97

.25
.18

3.82
3.82

.24
.39

3.79
3.79

.47
.50

Is well-prepared for the class
Is interesting and enthusiastic

3.90
3.87

.31
.35

3.88
3.97

.33
.17

3.91
3.85

.45
.50

Is skillful in promoting class/group
3.80
.41
3.88
.33
3.75
.55
discussions
Gives all students the chance to participate
3.87
.35
3.88
.33
3.83
.51
Is one whom I’d like to have again in a futureclass*
3.93
.25
3.94
.24
3.67
.68
Note: *A one-way ANOVA showed that there was a statistically significant difference in mean scores
between at least two groups (F (2, 113) = [4.170], p =.02). Tukey’s HSD test for multiple comparisonsrevealed that the mean scores are significantly different between F2F and blended (p = .04, 95% C.I.
= [.01, .51]) and between online and blended (p = .029, 95% C.I. = [.02, .51]).

The values for all three cohorts were close, which indicated that a modality did not impact how
students perceived instructors. Even though the differences in mean scores for the last item
were revealed as statistically significant, they were not practically significant. Larger SDs
signaled that the opinions of the students in the blended course were more disparate.
The next group of questions related to teaching resources. Table 3 summarizes students’
responses related to the quality of the materials employed in a particular course.

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Table 3
Summary of Student Responses About the Resources
The textbook and teaching materials
Are interesting and relevant

F2F
M
SD
3.37
.62

Online
M
SD
3.24
.51

Blended
M
SD
3.35
.59

Are useful to the class

3.47

.57

3.41

.68

3.46

.61

Have helped me to understand the course
material

3.63

.49

3.41

.66

3.45

.54

Are interesting and relevant
I use them regularly

3.80
3.50

.41
.57

3.56
3.29

.50
.72

3.64
3.19

.52
.83

I use them only to know homework*

2.10

1.03

2.82

.81

2.66

.83

I use extra activities posted

3.57

.50

3.26

.62

3.33

.71

The online resources

Note: A one-way ANOVA showed that there was a statistically significant difference in mean scores
between at least two groups (F (2, 113) = [5.864], p =.004). Tukey’s HSD test for multiple
comparisons revealed that the mean scores are significantly different between F2F and online (p =.009, 95% C.I. = [-1.28, -.15]) and between F2F and blended (p = .036, 95% C.I. = [-1.09, -.03]).

The students rated electronic resources more highly than textbooks. As textbooks are less likely
to reflect the latest topics of interest, this is understandable. F2F students’ admission to using
online resources more often could be due to the fact that for them those were only
supplementary, while for online and blended students they were part of the core materials
selected or created by teachers based on what they considered the needs of the students to be.
These included authentic online materials (news reports, TED-talks, YouTube videos), online
learning materials available on professional websites, as well as other materials and quizzes
created by teachers.
The next part of the questionnaire pertained to homework, which was assigned after everyclass. Table 4 represents the summary of students’ responses.
Table 4
Summary of Student Responses About Homework
The homework
M

F2F
SD

OnlineM
SD

BlendedM
SD

Has goals that are clearly explained by the
instructor

3.77

.43

3.65

.49

3.68

.47

Is useful in helping me to understand thecourse material

3.77

.43

3.79

.41

3.68

.47

The final part of the SET, summarized in Table 5, addressed students’ general impressions of
the course. It was of special interest to the management, as students would only return to thecourse or recommend it if they saw value in the program.

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Table 5
Summary of Student Responses about General Reaction to the Course
My general reaction to the course
M

SD

OnlineM
SD

BlendedMSD

I learned a great deal

3.60

.50

3.62

.55

3.64

.52

The instructor was good
I would like to continue studying at RBS
ELC

3.93

.25

3.97

.17

3.89

.32

3.83
3.83

.38
.38

3.73
3.91

.52
.29

3.70
3.79

.53
.47

I would recommend this course to others

F2F

While the scores for the instructors partially reflected the ones expressed in Table 2, the values
for the last two items showed slightly less preference for the blended modality. The SET
quantitative results as well as students’ comments confirm that students’ evaluation of theirown progress correlated with their overall satisfaction. This confirmed the validity of using
SETs as an instrument of assessing teaching effectiveness discussed in Willits and Brennan(2017).
Overall SET results demonstrated a tendency to prefer learning electronically. This contrasted
perceptions of RBS ELC regular adult students, who studied in the evenings in the sameacademic years, in groups of the same levels of language proficiency (B1+, B2, B2+, C1), andpaid a tuition fee. Past surveys of RBS ELC students, which included age, gender, level of
education, and reasons for studying English (data unavailable) allowed them to be considered
as demographically comparable to the students in this research. Analysis of their SETs showeda preference for the blended modality, with online rated the lowest (Ginzburg & Daniela,
2022). Considering the barriers to participation in adult education (Cross, 1992), the only
resource the students in this research spent was time, as their course was funded by the project,while RBS ELC students had to invest both time and money. Thus, the students in this research
could have prioritized their time and utilized the opportunity to save it that virtual teaching andlearning provides. That might explain the difference in SET results. The impact of the sourceof funding on students’ perceptions of training could be useful to investigate in future.
Comments from the Open-Ended Question
Analysis of the comments allowed them to be grouped into several codes. Table 6 lists them.

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Table 6Main Codes from Comments to SETs and Their Frequencies for Each Modality
Code

F2F (N1=52)

Online (N2=19)

Blended (N3=28)

Great instructor
No suggestions

n1
14
5

%
26.92
9.62

n2
8
4

%
42.11
21.05

n3
9
5

%
32.14
17.86

Everything was
great

13

25.00

4

21.05

2

7.14

Thank youMore discussions

10
4

19.23
7.69

4
1

21.05
5.26

5
0

17.86
0

Textbooks were
outdated

3

5.77

2

10.53

1

3.57

Instructor-curated
materials were
good

3

5.77

1

5.26

1

3.57

More topics
related toacademic life

3

5.77

0

0

1

3.57

Online classes
0
0
2
10.53
2
7.14
Note: N1, N2, N3 – the total number of utterances in SETs per respective modality. n 1, n 2, n 3 –number of respective codes’ appearances per modality.

Most comments students in all the modes chose to make were related to instructors. In thequotes below, instructors’ names written by students are represented by the initial.
“Great instructor! Thanks a lot!”“K. is a great lecturer, highly talented. The best explanations I have ever heard. He
manages to explain logic and essence of rules and does it perfectly. Thank you!” (F2F).
“J. is the BEST!!!!”“K. is fantastic teacher” (Online).
“My teacher was Excellent!”“Thanks! The instructor-our dear teacher - does not need to improve anything. He is an
ideal creative teacher who skilfully uses even the psychological aspect to activate andinterest the group” (Blended).
This code is more frequent in a blended modality than in F2F, which is opposite to the valueof “The instructor is good” in Table 5. This further confirmed that the differences in meanvalues were not significant.
Students’ general satisfaction with their experience is further seen from “No suggestions”,“Everything was great”, and “Thank you” codes. Their high frequencies confirm that thisopinion characterizes all three modalities. The sample utterances included: “The course was79

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really great! Thank you!” (F2F). “Difficult to imagine, overall, it is more than expected!”(Online). “Everything was brilliant.” (Blended).
Some of the respondents wrote that they prefer materials prepared or curated by instructors to
textbooks.
“I really enjoyed video materials. The video on forms of carbon was inspiring,
especially as we need to make videos in our chemistry lessons. This video was aweinspiring” (F2F).
“The textbook is a bit outdated, especially texts related to technologies.”“Summaries of the various grammar topics etc. prepared by J. were great, very
comprehensive and excellently formatted” (Online).
“The instructor's K. examples and explanations were often more understandable,
correct and useful than the topics presented in the textbook.”
These corroborate quantitative results of the SETs, which show that teacher-created or -curated
materials were rated higher than textbooks (see Table 3).
Some comments mentioned discussions and topics related to scientific and academic work.
“It would be great to add more scientific topics to the course.”“More technical English.” (F2F).
“The tough time limits do not allow us to devote enough time for discussions” (Online).
“Some examples of daily professor life with students could be helpful” (Blended).
Some respondents emphasized the benefits of studying online.
“Online classes is a great opportunity to save time on the transportation (getting to theclass and back).” (Online).
“In my opinion, RBS should not give up the idea of organizing classes online.”(Blended).
One online student provided a more detailed opinion:
As concerns the online format, it was indeed a great opportunity to study English during
the Covid time when there aren’t a lot of things happening around, so it was possible
to invest more time in studying compared to the non-Covid life. … While the breakout
groups seem a very good format for online interaction, sometimes I missed
collaboration with the whole group. I am not sure though if and how this could betackled online. (Online).

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Semi-Structured Interviews
Conducting semi-structured interviews followed the recommendations to complement SETs
with alumni’ and experts’ opinions (Kulik, 2001; Ulker, 2021). The responses provided
information regarding using different modalities in teaching and learning which answers RQ
2. The alumni who agreed to be interviewed formed two categories in terms of their teachingexperience. One out of the four people from both F2F and blended courses had fewer than 10
years of experience while three had 21 and more. Of five interviewees who took an online
course, four had taught for less than 10 years, and one had 21 or more years of experience.
Table 7 represents the main themes identified from the interviews.
Table 7
Themes Identified in Semi-Structured Interviews
Theme

N of times mentioned by
F2F/Blended students

N of times mentioned byonline students

Motivation to study
Improving English
Socializing

16
0

6
3

Effect of the course
Effect of a teacher

12
23

6
8

Advantages of F2F
Advantages of online

8
10

4
12

Issues with online

55

Flipped classroom
Optimal variant (as choice)

3

5

F2F
OnlineBlended

1
0
3

0
1
3

No difference01

Different

4

4

Similar
Incorporating teaching
methods into own practice

5
8

5
3

Teaching own subject vsteaching English

In the analysis of the themes below respondents are coded S1, F2F/Blended –the firstinterviewed student who attended the F2F and Blended courses; S1, Online – the firstinterviewed student from an Online course; S2, Online – the second interviewed student froman Online course and so on.

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Motivation to Study
Students from all the modalities wanted to improve English:“I am from physical science, and this is important to characterize my expectations. I
expected to understand the logic of grammar because I don't know it 100%” (S1,F2F/Blended).
“It was to return to an English class and to try to put my grammar in place because it isa sad part of my language experience” (S4, F2F/Blended).
Others wanted more speaking practice:
I felt that I needed, especially the speaking part. Because in my field, I know how towrite good sentences because I may be writing very short and use only grammar which
I know is correct. But the verbal expression... I think it's something different andseparate from written parts. (S2, F2F/Blended).
“I wanted to improve, especially grammar, I think” (S2, Online). “I wanted to improve
my English because I work with foreign students and it's important to talk correctly”(S3, Online).
Socializing was another motivational factor, especially for students from an Online
course.
“The main reason was always to improve my English, but it was also a nice ‘ritual’ that
we had lessons with nice people and just spent time together” (S4, Online).
“I think it's normal to know English nowadays. It's like something that makes me morehuman if I speak in English” (S5, Online).
The fact that the course was free also played a role in their motivation:“Because of this unique opportunity, you have a project, you know, with everythingpaid” (S1, F2F/Blended).
“Actually, it was for free. And I wanted to improve all my English. Still would like toimprove.” (S2, Online).
Effect of the Course
A year after the course, many respondents mentioned improvement. Some felt it especially inthe areas of grammar and syntax:“The more I learn grammar, the more I understand ‘the construction’. Previously, I
didn't understand why people were speaking in a particular way. Now, it's clear to me”(S1, F2F/Blended). “I started to use idioms.” (S2, F2F/Blended).

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They also reported feeling more confident using English:“To explain my opinion directly to people I needed. … You can develop this ability
and find that no one will kill you if you use some wrong words or something like that”(S2, F2F/Blended).
“… to remember all perfect and continuous tenses. It’s not possible. But now it's sointeresting. Maybe I will read lectures once more. …. Well, I can speak, I speak with
my friends in English now.” (S3, F2F/Blended).
“I started to think more about construction of sentences and some idioms. I still use
them since these courses. Yes.” (S1, Online).
“I started to focus maybe a little bit more on grammar” (S2, Online).
“I think my level of English has improved. … maybe I don't find writing easier now
but at least I know where I should stop and think if this is correct or not” (S4, Online).
“I started to speak more grammatically correct” (S5, Online).
Spooren and Christiaens (2017) argued that students who believe in the value of SETs tend to
give higher scores. However, a year after they finished the course, the respondents’ opinionsconfirmed SET results, which were high and similar across the modalities. This further asserts
the validity of using SETs as an instrument of evaluating teaching effectiveness.
Effect of the Teacher
Although not asked specifically, all the interviewees spoke about the role of a teacher and theirteachers:“But here's a British guy [a teacher], with perfect English, it’s very nice. And he reallyknows the ‘design’ of wording and phrases” (S1, F2F/Blended).
“He is very well-trained in pedagogical aspect and uses psychological aspect. Perfectly!
He knows how… he feels our mood. Where did you find that wonderful person?” (S3,F2F/Blended).
“Actually, the teacher was excellent, K. is native speaker. He was one of the bestteachers I think, from my point of view.” (S2, Online).
Some mentioned sociolinguistic learning as an added value:“And yes, J. was a very nice teacher. I got quite a lot interesting information about
English people, and society. So, it was also interesting from that point” (S3, Online).
The SET items related to teachers received the highest values from students, and mostcomments in an open-ended question were also about teachers. Moreover, all the interviewees
spoke about their teachers even though they were not prompted. On the one hand, that
reaffirmed the central role of teachers, their personalities and behaviour students’ perceptionof their experience as argued by Willits and Brennan (2017). On the other hand, since the83

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students are educators, the high scores may not have been a consequence of a halo effect as
described in Allred et al. (2022). Besides, in non-formal adult education there is no incentive
to inflate grades, which was a concern Lee and Deale (2019) expressed regarding using SETs
in university education.
The group of themes addressing aspects of teaching via different modalities was especially
important, as it provides insights into the new teaching format developed in 2020. It
incorporated two main elements compared to the traditional F2F method: a flipped classroom
and a synchronous online component. Even though interviews were about a language course,
the respondents often spoke as educators, commenting on their experience with their own
students.
Advantages of F2FBoth groups of respondents mentioned that people are social beings, and they need non-verbal
clues to communicate successfully as the main argument for F2F instruction:
Because it [language] is a social instrument, the instrument to communicate, you can’t
be in society without a direct contact. It is impossible. … Because you see the person,
you see the emotion, you see the group. Because the group is asking questions, and so
you follow the questions, you’re trying to understand why this guy is asking thisquestion (S1, F2F/Blended).
“This face-to-face, of course, it’s necessary to have. Yeah, it makes, I have to say, thiscontact with the teacher and the classmates stronger” (S4, F2F/Blended).
“For the first-year students, actually, there must be more classes, classical classes.
Where we are teaching them, not only the subject but we’re also teaching them how towork. How, what, what it means to be a student” (S1, Online).
Advantages of Online
Both groups had experience with an online language classroom either as an entire course or inpart, as was the case with a blended course. Most positive comments from F2F/Blended
students were related to the absence of noise when doing group work in the Zoom breakout
rooms:
Actually, I enjoy it a lot because I can freely discuss the questions with some of othercolleagues. … And there is no other noise because in class when you have this small
groups, there is too much noise, and I can't concentrate (S2, F2F/Blended).
“Or maybe I'm sitting between two groups who are speaking [in a F2F class]. There is
one group, we are in the middle, and there is another, and that's why from both sides I
hear this ‘sh-sh-sh’ sound” (S2, F2F/Blended).

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Feeling safe to make mistakes was mentioned as another advantage of breakout rooms:
Because if I don't understand how to do something, well, I can ask a colleague. And if
we both cannot get the idea, we just wait for J. and then ask and it stays with us, andthen J. gives his feedback to everyone after this small exercise in the word format. Heshows the correct variant, and he never mentions who made the error. … But in class,everyone will look at you and it's something I don't like. (S2, F2F/Blended).
“I really like that in this virtual breakout room, there are three of us, online: the teacher
and us” (S4, Online).
For most respondents from the online course convenience was the main advantage of thismethod:“…this online teaching fit well for me at that time” (S2, Online).
“It was good because at the time I lived outside Riga. And therefore, it was nice that I
could just switch on my computer and be on the course” (S3, Online).
“I think the fact that it was from the comfort of my home and my coach, it also helped.
… I'm not sure I would have been able to attend all of the classes if they happened
somewhere” (S4, Online).
“I really liked the online course because then I am at home in my safe place in myroom with my mug of tea or coffee, and I feel more comfortable”. (S5, Online).
Issues with Online
The biggest of these seemed to be the fact that focusing requires extra effort from both a student
and a teacher:“So, you see the faces, but sometimes you see somebody's drinking tea or coffee. It's
good, no objections. But nevertheless, it means that you are un-focusing, so and thegroup is also un-focusing” (S1, F2F/Blended).
“I as a teacher, feel that they are not as concentrated on lectures online as a face-toface” (S2, F2F/Blended).
“… is also more demanding for learners, definitely, because you have to prepare
yourself and you have to do these things even staying on the other side of the screen.
So that actually requires more effort from you” (S1, Online).
Another factor mentioned by Online students was the need to be comfortable with technology
and to have no distractions:“If a person has very big problems with computers, I think it's not good. Then he will
be nervous about technical things” (S3, Online).
“I think I'm lucky I didn't have any disturbances at home, so I could just sit down andlisten and engage with everyone” (S4, Online).

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Convenience of online classes was obviously appreciated. At the same time, students evidently
valued communication in the Zoom breakout rooms as it provides comfort and the feeling ofsafety. This confirmed the findings of Lazarevic and Bentz (2021) on lower levels of stressperceived by students in an online mode. At the same time, the stated challenge of the pressure
to stay focused when studying and teaching electronically confirmed the conclusion by Brachtl
et al. (2023) that an online modality is best suited for adult students. On the other hand, thesocial nature of language learning discussed in Firth and Wagner (2007) and generally in
education was confirmed by the value the respondents placed on social interactions.
Flipped Classroom
Respondents from both groups thought positively of the flipped classroom model:“Yeah, I prefer this pre-class because I can do it when I have time … when I have somepause in work, for example, I can do this online exercise, and check results. I like that”(S2, Online).
“Yeah, yeah, as pre-class, it's really great … Yeah, I try getting into this topic and it's
really good. Yeah, and it goes faster. I have some questions and they will be answeredby the teacher” (S4, F2F/Blended).
“Actually, it's a good way how to teach: when you must do some home exercises andat least prepare a little bit for next class. I think it's a good way how to teach” (S2,Online).
“Well, I liked these pre-classes - some tasks that we had before. We could think about
the topic a little bit which will be discussed later” (S3, Online).
Optimal Variant
All the respondents were asked which approach they thought was optimal. Most sounded
confident:“Definitely face-to-face. Definitely” (S1, F2F/Blended).
“100% for blended. Because, if one face-to-face is more with grammar, I think it's
enough … and the next class is just speaking. It's perfect, and it can be online and you
feel very comfortable there” (S2, F2F/Blended).
“…but now it’s a dream. It's a perfect situation. I think it can't be better, what we haveat that moment – now” (S3, F2F/Blended).
“I think we have optimal now. … Yeah, blended. … . And I said it's good to meet every
second time. Yeah, for saving time” (S4, F2F/Blended).
Three out of five students from an online course also named blended as the best variant while
the other two said they could only comment on what they had experienced:
I would say that for adult learners who are coming to these classes with theunderstanding that they really need it, they really want to do it, I would say that this86

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distance learning style is quite good and actually can completely replace contact hours.
This blended learning I would say is even better. Because, yes, we are social things. It's
better to come and listen and to see the group. And even for instructors, it is necessary
from time to time to see what is happening, to see these faces and to see the feedbackon the faces (S1, Online).
“I think probably this blended variant is the best one” (S2, Online).
“I think the third one, blended. Yes” (S3, Online).
“I don't know, but maybe blended classes work too but I don't have such experience.
… I don't see a big difference. But I like to be at home. Yes. And I like to be in myplace. Yes” (S5, Online).
Thus, six out of nine respondents considered the blended format to be optimal for adultstudents. This supported the assertions that different modalities increase flexibility of delivery,
online and blended courses should be carefully planned, and flipped classroom suits adultstudents (Ahlin, 2021; Chen et al., 2014; Gacs et al., 2020). However, there was a difference
between the opinions expressed by respondents as students and those when they move into therole of educators. As students, they expressed a slight preference for the online methodology,
which might have been related to the convenience of an online course.
Overall, the results showed that mature students appreciate the flexibility a flipped classroom
provides. This is also illustrated in SET values for online and blended modalities, which
incorporated flipped classroom, being higher than those for the F2F which is considered a“golden standard” for language teaching. Moreover, high completion rates (72.9% in F2F,
100% in Online, 97% in Blended) and the interviewees’ opinions that their motivation did notchange over the course confirm that students think it aids learning and can be implemented in
adult education.
Conclusions
This paper contributes to the research into adult students’ perceptions of different modalities
in three ways. Firstly, it focuses on adult students. Secondly, it is based on comparable data:
students’ demographics, course content, volume, and core teaching materials, instructors, witha modality as a single independent variable. Thirdly, it combines SETs with opinions of alumni
who are also experts, thus providing a comprehensive view.
The results indicated that a language course could be successfully delivered using any of themodalities provided it is properly developed. Flipped blended format was considered optimalby the respondents as it incorporated F2F and online as well as synchronous and asynchronouscomponents. Besides, it easily transformed into fully flipped online format when thecircumstances demanded it. That indicates the potential to reduce barriers to participation in
education for adult students and the flexibility for adult educators to plan their courses.

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The findings also reinforced the essential role teachers play in education, including adultlanguage education. Thus, teachers need to be trained in methodology and approaches ofteaching F2F, online, and in blended modalities, as well as flipped classroom. Moreover, since
adult language education differs from teaching other age groups, special training programs for
adult language teachers might be feasible.
The results show that research findings regarding suitability of online, blended, and flipped
learning in university education are applicable to adult education. Finally, the consistency ofalumni’ and students’ opinions of their experience validated using SETs as an efficient
instrument for evaluating teaching effectiveness in adult education.
Limitations of Research
The research focused on the mode of delivery in a language course controlling for other factors.
Thus, it did not address English language teaching methodology, teaching materials, teachers’
qualifications, and students’ characteristics. It is possible that less motivated students or theones with a lower level of education would respond to the modalities differently. Less
experienced teachers may also need support in selecting and curating supplementary materials
or adapting commercial ones to the needs of their students. However, considering that research
was focused on comparing the same teachers, content, and materials this should not impact thegeneral implication of research conclusions.
Recommendations for Further ResearchStudents in this research were motivated adults who chose to participate in the course. Similar
quasi-experiments applying the same formats to teaching additional languages to university
students would be recommended. Considering that two groups of demographically comparable
students with different sources of funding for training demonstrated slightly different results,
further research into the impact of economic factors on students’ perception of their experiencemight be another avenue of inquiry.
Comparing learning outcomes of a course taught using three different approaches would add
to the research into teaching effectiveness. In the case of adult language learners, long-term
outcomes reflecting retention of knowledge would be preferable. This could be measured by astandardized language proficiency test administered after the completion ofa course.

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Education Pedagogies, 7(1), 107–129.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23752696.2022.2113112
Ulker, N. (2021). How can student evaluations lead to improvement of teaching quality? A
cross-national analysis. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 26(1), 19–37.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13596748.2021.1873406
UNESCO. (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for
education.UNESCO Digital Library.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707
Uttl, B., White, C. A., & Gonzalez, D. W. (2017). Meta-analysis of faculty’s teachingeffectiveness: Student evaluation of teaching ratings and student learning are notrelated. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 54, 22–42.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2016.08.007
Watson, C., Templet, T., Leigh, G., Broussard, L., & Gillis, L. (2023). Student and faculty
perceptions of effectiveness of online teaching modalities. Nurse Education Today,
120, 105651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2022.105651
Webb, M., & Doman, E. (2020). Impacts of flipped classrooms on learner attitudes towards
technology-enhanced language learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
33(3), 240–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1557692
Willits, F., & Brennan, M. (2017). Another look at college student’s ratings of course quality:
Data from Penn State student surveys in three settings. Assessment & Evaluation inHigher Education, 42(3), 443–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2015.1120858
Zhao, L., Xu, P., Chen, Y., & Yan, S. (2022). A literature review of the research on students’evaluation of teaching in higher education. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1004487.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1004487
Corresponding author: Tatiana Ginzburg
Email: tatiangin@gmail.com

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EFL Learners’ Attributions and Causal Dimensionality Styles in the
Chinese Higher Education Context
Ayse Taskiran
Wenzhou-Kean University, China
Hong Pan
Wenzhou-Kean University, China

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Abstract
Achievement motivation is a significant contributor to the foreign language learning process.
This study explored the achievement perceptions of English as a foreign language (EFL)
learners who were studying at different higher education institutions with dissimilar degree
programs, such as a vocational college, an undergraduate program in a public university, andSino-American university undergraduate and graduate programs in China. The study also aimed
to reveal EFLs’ causal attributions of success and their underlying dimensionality styles throughan open-ended questionnaire and the Causal Attribution Dimensions Scale (CDSII) (McAuleyet al., 1992). Findings revealed that two thirds of the participants perceived themselves as
unsuccessful learners. Both in success and failure conditions the participants had similar
attributions naming effort, interest, and ability as the most frequent ones. The attributions for
close ended question did not show difference across school types. Qualitative data revealed
more themes for failure, and the data showed some differences across the school types.
Environment and relevance to life/career attributions were the most common in both successand failure conditions. Causal dimensionality analysis revealed more internal, personallycontrollable stable and moderately externally manageable attributional styles for success, andmore internal and personally controllable attributional styles for failure. Findings werecompared and discussed according to school types.
Keywords: attributions, EFL, motivation, causal dimensions, Chinese higher education

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English, as the medium of instruction, has been accepted as a lingua franca (Seidlhofer, 2005)
around the world, and like many other countries, China has been initiating education policies
that encourage EFL learning to enhance the country’s international competitiveness in the
global arena. Consequently, the number of people learning English as a foreign language has
rapidly expanded over the past several decades. Compared to the Western countries, the studyof language learning motivation in the Chinese education context might reveal insights in termsof learner perceptions, learning context, language curriculum, and language assessment due todifferences that are peculiar to the Chinese EFL milieu.
Causal attributions are known as important factors that affect learners’ retention, expectationof future success, motivation, and academic success. There are qualitative and quantitative
studies that focus on the causal dimensions of foreign language learners in Western settings(e.g., Faber, 2019; Kálmán & Eugenio, 2015; Soriano‐Ferrer & Alonso‐Blanco, 2020 Ciabuca& Gheorghe, 2014). However, there is a limited number of studies examining the attributions
and causal dimensionality styles of foreign language learners in the Chinese higher education
environments, and these studies appear to fall short of reflecting the current EFL education
scenario as they are rather outdated. Also, these studies mostly focus on EFL learners’
attributions while ignoring the causal dimensionality styles (e.g. Chen, 2011; Hu et al., 2009;
Jiang, 2003; Li, 2004; Qin, 2002; Su, 2011; Zhang, 2002; Zhang; 2006; Zhang &Yuan, 2004).
Therefore, obtaining detailed data on achievement motivations by examining the perceptionsof success, attributions, and causal dimensions of adult EFL learners studying in different
educational institutions in China can potentially make a significant contribution to the relevant
literature.
Literature Review
Motivation has been the focus of a large body of research in education contexts Dörnyei, 2001;
Hussain et al., 2020; Liu & Zhang, 2020; Safdari, 2021 One of the theories of motivation is
educational psychologist Weiner’s (1972) attribution theory. This theory is concerned with
how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior. In thisstudy, attributions are defined as the reasons people give for their outcomes and the connections
between those reasons and their future behavior. This definition is based on Weiner’s
attribution theory. The use of the term is limited to achievement motivation and educational
contexts in this study. Weiner (1985) notes that there are three dimensions of attributions: locus
of control (internal vs. external), stability (stable vs. unstable), and controllability (controllable
vs. uncontrollable). These dimensions can be used to explain why people make certain
attributions for success or failure. In an academic context, attributions refer to the ways
individuals explain the causes of their academic achievements. Every one of those dimensions
has unique behavioral and emotional consequences (Graham, 2020). The locus dimension
mainly concerns self-esteem and emotions tied to how one is perceived. On the other hand, thestability dimension of causality primarily shapes one’s outlook on future successes and failures(Graham, 2020). These attributions can influence perceptions, attitudes, future behaviors, andconsequently possibility of academic achievements.

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Public schools in China start teaching English in the third grade, and English is a compulsory
subject in vocational high schools and general high schools, and in all universities. China
regards proficiency in a foreign language as one of the fundamental skills for students inprimary and middle school (Cheng, 2014). Ou and Yang (2014) point out that the status ofEnglish in the college entrance examination is equal to that of Chinese. Despite the growing
body of research in numerous diverse cultural contexts (e.g. Çağatay & Erten, 2020 in Turkey;
Faber, 2019 in Germany; Ciabuca & Gheorghe, 2014 in Romania;Nakamura, 2019 in Japan ;,Soriano‐Ferrer & Alonso‐Blanco, 2020 in Spain; Taskiran & Aydin, 2018, in Turkey; Bouchaib
et al., 2018 in Morocco; Zarein et al., 2020 in Iran), China lacks a substantial body of
information about attributions in situations involving achievement, particularly when it comesto learning EFL. The fact that Chinese EFL students are taught in unique cultural and academic
environments that are quite different from those of their western counterparts supports thenotion that studies have not looked at the peculiar language learning attributions of Chinese
EFL students. Earlier attribution literature in the Chinese frame of reference includes studies
conducted on EFL achievement/success, EFL motivation, and EFL attributions (e.g. Hu et al.,2009; Jiang, 2003; Lei & Qin, 2009; Li, 2004; Liu & Zhang, 2018; Qin, 2002; Su, 2011; Zhang,2002; Zhang &Yuan, 2004; Zhang, 2006). However, the focus of such studies tends to be
attributions alone. They do not address causal dimensionality styles of language learners.
Furthermore, they are not sufficiently contemporary.
It is important to investigate the attributions of Chinese EFL learners because learners may
have context-specific experiences and cultural backgrounds that influence their attributions in
the language learning process. As for the attribution studies in the Chinese context, Qin’s(2002) case study that focused on influence of attributional tendencies on motivational
behavior at the university level revealed differences in attributions across different proficiency
levels. Similarly, Zhang’s (2002) study with college juniors revealed that maladaptive
attributions, such as ability, had a negative impact on sustaining language learning motivationand self-efficacy in the failure condition. Li (2004) conducted another study that demonstrated
the close connection between attributions and language learning motivation. Findings showedthat most students who performed poorly in English ascribed their success or failure to luck.
The author concluded that the unpredictable, unstable, and external ascription seemed to hinder
learning motivation, enthusiasm, and retention in the language learning process. Hu et al.
(2009) examined attributions from a different perspective by centering on the relationshipbetween attributions and autonomy among college level EFL learners. The researchers notedthat encouraging students to actively attribute and correct attribution was a crucial part ofenhancing students’ capacity for language learning autonomy. The links between achievement
goal orientation, language learning self-efficacy, language learning anxiety, language learning
strategies, and attributions were examined in a different study by Zhang and Yuan (2004).
Participants held the view that inability and bad luck were not among the factors that would
lead to failure, and that good luck was not relevant in the success condition. According to theauthors, that attribution model helped language learners to increase their self-efficacy when
they succeed, but failure did not lower it.

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When the relevant literature in the Chinese context is considered, there is a need for an up-todate attribution study in every area of education as attributions differ across cultures, contexts,
and individuals. Particularly, causal dimensionality styles of EFL learners should be examined
in detail as dimensionality styles are known to be significant determinants of future
performance, self-esteem, motivation, and academic success (Weiner, 2012). The relationships
between attributions, causal dimensional styles and emotions can be quite complex; therefore,
it is important to consider both the context and the learner specific aspects when conducting ananalysis (Graham, 2020; Hattie et al., 2020). As the list of potential causes of success andfailure cannot be explained clearly, attribution theorists have concentrated not only on specificcauses per se but also on the underlying dimensions or qualities of causes. Age and context
factors have an impact on how attributions are perceived. As a result, attributional research is
phenomenological, studying the causal world from the perspective of the perceiver. Attribution
theorists (Nolen, 2020), hold that circumstances and context have the ability to affect causal
reasoning. For instance, according to early cross-cultural studies, participants from nonWestern nations like Chile and India thought that ability attribution was more unstable on thestability dimension than it was in western civilizations (Betancourt & Weiner, 1982).
Furthermore, studies on development showed that most students did not think of ability as
having consistent trait-like qualities until early adolescence (Stipek & MacIver, 1989).
The subject of this study was to obtain detailed data on achievement motivation by examining
the perceptions of success, attributions, and causal dimensions of EFL learners in different
educational institutions in China. The inquiry intended to reveal the factors that affect the
motivation of Chinese EFL learners, who are the most important stakeholders in language
learning, in both success and failure situations. In order to serve the purpose, the study sought
answers to the following questions:
1) What are Chinese EFL learners’ perceptions of success?
2) What do Chinese EFL learners attribute their success and failure to?
2.1)
2.2)

What are their choices from the provided list of attributions?
What attributions do they state for their perc eived successand failure?
3) What are the causal dimensionality patterns of Chinese EFL learners?
4) Do causal dimensionality patterns of the participants differ according to success andfailure perceptions?
5) Do causal dimensionality patterns of the participants differ according to institutions
and degree programs?
MethodThis descriptive survey study incorporated convergent parallel mixed methods design (Timans
et al., 2019) in data collection and data analysis. Two different instruments were used forgathering data. The quantitative data was collected via a valid scale, CDSII (McAuley et al.,1992) and the qualitative data was collected through a questionnaire that was compiled by the
researchers. CDSII was used as a data collection tool in this study because it is the only
comprehensive, valid, and reliable scale that focuses on four dimensions of attributions in the97

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literature. The questionnaire and the scale were presented online as the data collection
instruments.
Context of the Study
For the purpose of the study, different higher education institutions in China were selected.
They included Wenzhou-Kean University – a Sino-American University, Jiaxing University,
Zhejiang Institute of Communications – a vocational college, Huaxin College of Hebei Geo
University, and Sun Yat-sen University. The study groups included public university
undergraduate and graduate programs, a vocational college program, and Sino-American
university undergraduate and graduate programs. Undergraduate education is responsible forcultivating professional talents and equipping students with the abilities to continue theirstudies in graduate education (Yu, 2016, p.332). A vocational college education in China is an
education model based on professional skills. The study period is shorter than what is requiredin the undergraduate program. An international education style is made possible for students at
Sino-American universities (Zou et al., 2022). Compared to other traditional universities in
China, the Sino-American cooperative university offers students English as a medium of
instruction and more foreign staff than Chinese staff (Zhao, 2021).

Participants
The sampling procedure of the study included two different techniques. First, throughconvenience sampling, the researchers reached the potential participants whose WeChat
contacts they had. Then, through snowball sampling technique, the researchers asked
participants to share the online version of the questionnaire and the scale link with their friends.
Participation in the study was on a voluntary basis and the consent forms were attached at the
beginning of the data collection tool. The participants were all adults, above 18 years of age.
A total of 561 participants voluntarily answered the questionnaire and the scale. Table 1 shows
the demographic information of the participants.
Table 1
Demographic Information of the Participants
Case
Participants
Age
≤25
>25
GenderFemale
Male

N561

n

%

367
194

65%
35%

356
205

63%
37%

Case N=561nSchool Type
Graduate
121
Sino-American
129
Vocational College
148
Undergraduate
163
English Learning Background≤5 years
16
6-10 years
105>11 years
440

98

%
22%
23%
26%
29%
3%
19%
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Data Collection
Prior to the data collection, ethics committee approval was received for this study from theWenzhou-Kean University Ethics Committee with issue number: WKUIRB2023-046/R.
Written informed consent was obtained from all participants at the beginning of data collection.
The first part of the data collection instrument consisted of a questionnaire, prepared by the
researchers, that included a list of questions for demographic information, such as age,education background, year of English learning experience and a yes/no question that asked if
participants believed they were successful EFL learners. In order to obtain the participants’genuine opinions about their achievement in language learning rather than relying on outside
factors like grades or remarks from their professors, the researchers simply asked one yes/noquestion concerning the participants’ perceptions of success. The next question asked
participants to choose from the list of attributions that were common in the literature according
to their perception of success. At the end of the common attributions list, there was an openended question asking participants to state if there was any other reason for their success or
failure. The purpose of the open-ended question was to let the students describe their
attributions in an open manner, so it could be said that the study accurately represented theattributional characteristics of the participants. The data was collected online on Sojump, a
suitable survey tool for obtaining nationally diversified samples in China at a low cost
(Delponte at al, 2024).
As the second part of the data collection instrument, the participants were presented with the
Causal Dimensions Scale II (CDSII), which is a nine-point Likert-type scale (McAuley et al.,1992) used for exploring learners’ causal dimensionality patterns. According to existing
research, dimensional styles differed amongst people and did not necessarily align with theresearchers’ subjective perceptions of dimensional attributes (Graham, 2020; Hattie, et al,2020). The key to the motivational qualities of attributions was identified in the underlying
cognitive component, which stands for the person’s views about the nature of the attribution(Graham, 2020). As a result, through that scale, the participants were asked to determine theunique features of their attributions themselves. The scale had four dimensions: causal focus(items 1-6-9), external control (items 5-8-12), stability (items 3-7-11), and internal control(items 2-4-10). Two opposite statements were placed on each item on the nine-point scale, andthe participants were asked to choose a number according to which statement they felt close to.
The highest score that could be obtained from the three items in each dimension was 27, andthe lowest score was three. High scores from each dimension indicated that the cause wasinternal, stable, and individually controllable. In the scale, the participants were asked to scorethe statements according to their causal attributions. Necessary permissions for the copyrightof the CDSII had been obtained. The Chinese version of the scale was used in the study to beable to get more reliable responses. It was adopted from Wang’s (2020) study, in which internal
dimensions’ consistencies were calculated, and the Cronbach’s Alpha, known as the mostwidely used objective measure of reliability (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011) of source of control,
stability, internal control, and external control were 0.67, 0.67, 0.79, and 0.82, respectively,
which meant that the scale was found to be reliable and valid for the measure of dimensions.

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Additionally, 20 Chinese students were given the Chinese version of the scale and thequestionnaire for the face validity. Participants in the pilot research assessed the clarity of the
instructions, the items, and the answer format. According to the feedback from the pilot study,
necessary editions were made to make the data collection instruments more reader friendly.
Both the questionnaire and the scale were distributed to the participants via Sojump.
Data Analysis
The quantitative data was analyzed differently depending on the question type. For
demographic information and the list of attributions in the questionnaire, the data was analyzed
with descriptive statistics, mainly with frequency percentages. For the CDSII, the data wasanalyzed on SPSS (IBM SPSS Software, n.d.). By computing the mean scores of eachdimension individually for the success and failure groups, descriptive statistics were used to
examine the causal dimensionality of the participants. Using ANOVA (Judd et al., 2017),
dimensionality style comparisons between the success and failure groups were calculated.
Similarly, ANOVA statistics were run to find out whether causal dimensionality styles of theparticipants differed according to school types in success and failure conditions.
For the qualitative data analysis, the researchers used the Constant Comparison Method(Williams & Moser, 2019) to conduct a content analysis of the data. According to this method,
analysis is carried out by comparing all semantic units acquired from inductive category coding
concurrently. The inductive method (Azungah, 2018) was used to identify the indicators foracademic attributions in participants’ responses to demonstrate the culture and context specificnature of attributions. In other words, rather than limiting themselves to hypotheticalarguments, the researchers truly intended to look for genuine attributions in the participants’statements. Therefore, the coding strategy used during the content analysis was neither
predetermined nor did it draw from the relevant literature. The researchers compared the codes,
and they only assigned the codes after reaching consensus. After categorizing the participants’
responses, all labels that emerged for success and failure conditions were tallied according totheir frequency. Since the success and failure groups revealed distinct labels, the percentagesof explanations for success and failure situations were compared individually. In addition, theattributions were also grouped according to school type both in success and failure conditions.
Findings
The participants answered the yes/no question in the questionnaire to express their perceived
success and failure in learning EFL. The responses of 561 participants indicated that most ofthem believed they were not successful EFL learners. Table 2 shows the frequency percentagesof perceived success and failure.

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Table 2
Perception of Success
Perception of successf%unsuccessful
successful
Total

412
149
561

73.4*
26.6
100

Note. * Highest percentage

Participants were asked to choose at least three attributions from the list of attributions that arecommon in the literature. Table 3 below demonstrates the frequency percentages of theattributions chosen by the participants in success and failure conditions. Effort, interest, andability attributions appeared to be at the top of the list in both success and failure terms. Luck,difficulty, and the teacher appeared to be the least frequent attributions in both groups.
Table 3
Common Attributions in Success and Failure Conditions

Attributions
EffortInterest
Ability

Failure-oriented group
f
337
297
243

%
25.8*
22.8
18.6

Attributions
EffortInterest
Ability

Success-oriented group
f
127
124
120

%
24.5*
23.9
23.1

Difficulty

220

16.9

Teacher90

17.3

Teacher
Luck
Total

140
68
1305

10.7
5.2
100

Luck
Difficulty
Total

43
15
519

8.3
2.9
100

Note. * Highest percentage

When selecting attributions from the provided list, participants from various higher educational
institutions tended to make selections that were similar to one another with ability, effort, andinterest attributions as the most frequent ones. Particularly, the similarity appeared to be higher
in the failure condition. In the failure condition, the most common attribution was found to beeffort in all school types, while the least common one was luck. In the success condition, theleast common attribution appeared to be difficulty for all school types. Table 4 below shows
the distribution of attributions according to school types.

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Table 4
Distribution of Attributions According to School Types
School Type
Perception
Successoriented

Failureoriented

Ability
Difficulty
EffortInterest
Luck
Teacher

GraduatefSino-American fAbility*
EffortInterest
Teacher
Luck
Difficulty

39
35
32
25
9
2

EffortAbility
Interest
Teacher
Luck
Difficulty

57 Interest
49 Effort
49 Ability
42 Luck
21 Teacher
8 Difficulty

16
12
9
7
6
4

Interest
EffortAbility
Teacher
Luck
Difficulty

27
24
23
16
6
1

EffortInterest
Ability
Difficulty
Teacher
Luck

62
58
44
39
32
7

EffortAbility
DifficultyInterest
TeacherLuck

59 Effort
45 Interest
42 Ability
36 Difficulty
28 Teacher
10 Luck

107
100
86
69
38
23

EffortInterest
Difficulty
Ability
Teacher
Luck

109
103
70
68
42
28

Graduate %
22
11
25*
24
4
15

Vocational College f

Undergraduate f

Attributions
both in failure and success conditions
Sino American % Vocational % Undergraduate %
21
20
18
11
15
14
26
25
26
19
24
25
7
6
7
16
9
11

Total
20
13
25
23
6
13

Note. *Most frequent attributions bold faced

The responses to the open-ended question revealed 17 different themes for the successcondition. On the other hand, the participants had more responses for the failure condition with
25 different themes. Table 5 demonstrates the themes created by combination of codes driven
from the open-ended question data both in success and failure circumstances with theirfrequencies. The most common theme in both success and failure-oriented groups was theenvironment.

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Table 5Frequencies of the Themes Driven from the Open-Ended Question
Failure-orientedfSuccess-orientedfEnvironment
Lack of interest
Irrelevant to life /career
AbilityLack of effort
Education system
Lack of time
Lack of skills
Difficulty
Teacher
Persistence
Laziness
Lack of autonomy
Not like
Not getting help
Lack of motivation
Lack of learning
strategies
Lack of learningmaterials/resources
Social judgement
Low self-esteem
Learning atmosphere
Lack of experience
Lack of confidence
Lack of background
Family manipulation

49
16
16
13
10
7
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
2
2
2

Environment
Relevant to life/career
Ability
Learning resources
Interest
Opportunity
Family support
Persistence
Learning method
Confidence
Motivation
Learning atmosphere
Getting help
Experience
EffortEducation system

9
8
8
6
5
4
4
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1

2

Background /foundation 1

Total

159

2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Total

57

Content analyses of the responses to the open-ended question revealed fewer themes in the
success condition compared to the failure condition. When themes were grouped according toschool types in the success condition, the group that responded most was the Sino-Americangroup with relevant to life/career, interest, environment, family support, and opportunity
attributions as the most frequently repeated ones. None of the school group ascribed theirsuccess to luck. Table 6 below describes the distribution of the themes according to school
types in the success condition.

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Table 6
Distribution of the Themes According to School Types in the Success Condition

Success attributions

Graduate

Environment
Relevant to life/career
Ability
Interest
Learning resources
Family support
Opportunity
Confidence
Learning method
Persistence
Total

4
3
6
1

1

School Type
Sino-American
University
5
3
3
2
3
3
1

Vocational
college

Undergraduate
2
2
1
3
1

1

2
18

27

1

2
11

Total
9
8
8
5
5
4
4
2
2
2
57

More themes emerged from the responses to the open-ended question in failure group. Whenthe themes driven from the responses were grouped according to school types, the mostregularly mentioned attribution appeared to be environment by both graduate and SinoAmerican groups. Unlike the success condition, vocational college, and undergraduate groups,
which were the most crowded groups, tended to respond more in the failure condition. Noneof the school group mentioned luck as a causal attribution behind their failure. Table 7
demonstrates the themes according to the school types with the frequencies.

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Table 7
Distribution of the Themes According to School Types in the Failure Condition

Failure attributions
Graduate
Environment
18
Irrelevant to life /career0
Lack of interest
0
Ability1
Lack of effort
0
Education system
5
Lack of time0
Difficulty0Lack of skills
0Laziness0
Persistence2
Teacher2
Lack of autonomy0
Lack of learning resources0
Lack of learning strategies
0Lack of motivation0
Not getting help
1
Not like
0
Total
29

Sino-American
university
9
0
2
3
2
1
0
1
2
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
27

School Type
Vocational
college Undergraduate
9
13
5
11
11
3
3
6
5
3
1
0
1
5
4
0
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
51
52

Total
49
16
16
13
10
7
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
2
2
2
2
2
159

Descriptive statistics of CDSII scale revealed more internal, personally controllable, stable andmoderately externally controllable attributional styles for the success-oriented group. Personal
control mean score appeared to be the highest followed by locus and stability. Table 8
demonstrates the descriptive analysis results of CDSII in the success condition.
Table 8Descriptive Statistics of CDSII in the Success Condition
Dimensions

N

M

SD Std Error MedianMode

Sam Var Kurtosis Skewness

Locus

447

6.,34

2.00

0.09

7

7

3.99

-0.28

-0.57

Personal Control

447

6.53

1.94

0.09

7

7

3.76

0.07

-0.76

Stability

447

5.55

2.23

0.11

6

7

4.96

-0.99

-0.08

External Control

447

4.87

2.25

0.11

5

5

5.05

-0.83

0.08

In the failure condition, descriptive statistics of CDSII revealed relatively more internal andpersonally controllable attributional styles. The locus dimension mean score appeared to be thehighest followed by personal control and stability. Overall, the group’s responses suggest amoderate belief in stability and a modest belief in external controllability. Table 9 shows thedescriptive analysis results of CDSII in the failure condition.

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Table 9Descriptive statistics of CDSII in the failure condition
Dimensions

N

M

SD

Std Error Med

Mode

SamVar

Kurtosis

Skewness

Locus

1236

5.69

1.86

0.05

5

5

3.46

-0.10

-0.15

Personal Control

1236

5.29

1.81

0.05

5

5

3.26

0.07

-0.05

Stability

1236

4.92

1.92

0.05

5

5

3.72

-0.27

-0.02

External Control

1236

4.77

1.93

0.06

5

5

3.76

-0.26

-0.10

Possible differences in terms of causal dimensionality between success and failure-oriented
groups were analyzed with the descriptive statistics and ANOVA group comparisons.
Descriptive statistics results can be seen in Table 10, and ANOVA results can be found in Table
11. The success-oriented group appeared to have higher mean scores for all dimensions. Locus
and personal control dimensions were found to have the highest mean scores in both groups.
Table 10
Descriptive Statistics of CDSII in Both Success and Failure Conditions

Dimensions
Locus
Personal Control
Stability
External Control

Groupssuccess
failuresuccess
failuresuccess
failuresuccess
failure

N
447
1236
447
1236
447
1236
447
1236

Mean
6.34*
5.69
6.53
5.29
5.55
4.92
4.87
4.77

Std.
Deviation
2.00
1.86
1.94
1.81
2.23
1.92
2.25
1,.93

95% Confidence Interval
for Mean
Std.
Lower
Upper
Error
Bound
Bound
.094
6.15
6.52
.053
5.58
5.79
.092
6.35
6.71
.051
5.18
5.39
.105
5.34
5.76
.055
4.81
5.02
.106
4.66
5.08
.055
4.66
4.88

Note. *Higher values bold faced

ANOVA analysis between success and failure groups revealed significant differences in locus,
personal control, and stability dimensions. When mean scores were considered, the successgroup appeared to have more internal, personally controllable, and more stable attributions.
There was no significant difference in terms of external controllability dimension as bothgroups had about moderate perception. Table 11 below shows the ANOVA analysis of thecausal dimensions both in success and failure conditions.

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Table 11Differences in Terms of Dimensions between Success and Failure Groups

Dimensions
Locus

Personal Control

Stability

External Control

Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total

ANOVA
Sum of Squaresdf
138.13416057.492
1681
6195.626
1682
510.34415703.463
1681
6213.807
1682
131.55816802.796
1681
6934.354
1682
3.139
1
6895.957
1681
6899.096
1682

Mean Square138.134
3.604

F
38.333Sig.
<.001

510.3443.393

150.415<.001

131.558
4.047

32.509

<.001

3.139
4.102

.765

.382

The analyses of differences in terms of scopes across school types in the success condition
revealed significant differences for stability and external control dime neither nsions. There
were no significant differences between school types in terms of locus and personal control
dimensions. Table 12 below shows the mean scores of elements for each school type and Table
13 shows the ANOVA results of the school type comparisons in the success condition.
Table 12Mean Scores of Dimensions for School Types in the Success Condition
School Type
Graduate

Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Sino-American
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Vocational College MeanN
Std. Deviation
Undergraduate
Mean
N
Std. Deviation

Locus
6.37
129
2.008
6,21
183
2.020
6.36
45
2.101
6.56*
87
1891

Personal Control
6.79
129
1.840
6.43
183
2.020
6.24
45
1.897
6.62
87
1.869

Note. *Higher values bold faced

107

Stability
5.94
129
2.072
5.08
183
2.346
5.78
45
1.964
5.84
87
2.209

External Control
4.84
129
2.252
4.45
183
2.195
5.51
45
2.283
5.46
87
2.182

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Table 13Comparisons of School Types in Terms of Dimensions in the Success Condition

Dimensions
Locus

Personal Control

Stability

External Control

Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total

ANOVA
Sum of Squares
7.422
1760.541
1767.964
14.9121634.897
1649.809
69.1112140.799
2209.910
81.4142165.010
2246.423

df
3
440
443
3
440
443
3
440
443
3
440
443

Mean Square
2.474
4.001

F
.618

Sig.
.603

4.971
3.716

1.338

.262

23.037
4.865

4.735

.003

27.138
4.920

5.515

.001

To understand exactly which school types differed significantly in terms of stability andexternal control factors, post-hoc Scheffe statistics were run. Findings revealed that theGraduate group had significantly more stable attributions than the Sino-American group. For
external control dimension, both Vocational College and Undergraduate groups had
significantly more externally controllable attributions compared to the Sino-American. Table
14 below demonstrates the comparison of the groups in terms of stability and external control
dimensions.
Table 14Comparison of the School Types for Stability and External Control Dimensions

Dependent
Variable
Stability

External
Control

School Type
Graduate

School Type
Sino-American
Vocational College
Undergraduate
Sino-American
Graduate
Vocational College
Undergraduate
Sino-American
Graduate
Vocational College
Undergraduate
Vocational College Graduate
Sino-American
Undergraduate
Undergraduate
Graduate
Sino-American
Vocational College

108

Mean
Difference
.856*
.160
.099
-.856*
-.696
-.757
-.397
-1.063*-1.012*.666
1.063*.051.615
1.012*
-.051

Std.
Error
.254
.382
.306
.254
.367
.287
.255
.369
.289
.384
.369
.407
.308
.289
.407

Sig.
.010
.981
.991
.010
.310
.075
.490
.042
.007
.391
.042
.999
.264
.007
.999

95% ConfidenceInterval
Lower
Upper
Bound
Bound
.14
1.57
-.91
1.23
-.76
.96
-1.57
-.14
-1.73
.33
-1.56
.05
-1.11
.32
-2.10
-.03
-1.82
-.20
-.41
1.74
.03
2.10
-1.09
1.19
-.25
1.48
.20
1.82
-1.19
1.09

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The analyses of differences in terms of features across school types in the failure condition
revealed significant differences for only locus dimension. There were no significant differences
between school types in terms of personal control, stability, and external control dimensions.
Table 15 below shows the mean scores of dimensions for each school type and Table 16 shows
the ANOVA results of the school type comparisons in the failure condition.
Table 15
Mean Scores of Dimensions for School Types in the Failure Condition
School Type
Graduate

Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Sino-American
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Vocational College MeanN
Std. Deviation
Undergraduate
Mean
N
Std. Deviation

Locus
5.84
231
1.80
6.06
204
1.80
5.42
399
1.74
5.67
402
2.00

Personal Control
5.42
231
1.76
5.43
204
1.77
5.09
399
1.75
5.33
402
1.89

Stability
5.12
231
1.90
4.65
204
1.97
4.91
399
1.82
4.94
402
2.02

External Control
4.74
231
1.92
5.00
204
1.92
4.90
399
1.90
4.54
402
1.98

Note. *Higher values bold faced

ANOVA results in Table 16 showed the significance of the difference between the groups interms of the locus dimension. To understand exactly which school types differed significantly
in terms of the locus dimension, post-hoc Scheffe statistics were run.
Table 16
Comparisons of School Types in Terms of Dimensions in the Failure Condition
ANOVA
Dimensions
Locus

Between Groups

Sum of Squares
61.385

PersonalControl

Within Groups
Total
Between Groups

4216.443
4277.828
24.949Stability

Within Groups
Total
Between Groups

4003.235
4028.184
24.273ExternalControl

Within Groups
Total
Between Groups

4565.807
4590.080
37.650Within Groups
Total

4607.095
4644.744

109

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

3
1232
1235
3
1232
1235
3
1232
1235
3
1232
1235

20.462
3.422

5.979

<.001

8.316
3.249

2.559

.054

8.091
3.706

2.183

.088

12.550
3.740

3.356

.018

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Table 17 below demonstrates the Scheffe results. According to the statistics, the SinoAmerican group significantly differed from the Vocational college in their mean scores for the
Locus dimension. That is, the Sino-American group appeared to have more internal attributionsin the failure condition compared to the vocational college group.
Table 17Comparison of School Types for the Locus Dimension

Dependent
Variable
Locus

SchoolType
Sino American

SchoolType
Graduate
Vocational College
Undergraduate

Std.
Mean
Difference Error
.219
.178
*
.635
.159
.387
.159

Sig.
.678
.001
.116

95% ConfidenceInterval
Lower
Upper
Bound
Bound
-.28
.72
.19
1.08
-.06
.83

Note.*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Discussion
In this study the majority of the participants perceived themselves as unsuccessful in learning
English. The fact that three-fourths of the participants perceived themselves as unsuccessful isa significant highlight for several reasons. Firstly, it emphasizes the importance ofunderstanding learner perspectives and experiences in language education. By acknowledging
their perceived lack of success, educators can gain valuable insights into the challenges learners
face and tailor instructional methods accordingly. Secondly, this highlight underscores the needfor a learner-centered approach in EFL instruction. Recognizing that a majority of learners feel
unsuccessful prompts educators to shift their focus from a one-size-fits-all approach to a more
personalized and adaptive teaching style. This could involve incorporating learner interests,
providing individualized support, and adopting strategies that address specific difficulties facedby learners. Moreover, this highlight emphasizes the significance of fostering a growth mindset
among EFL learners. By perceiving themselves as unsuccessful, learners may develop negative
attitudes and beliefs about their language abilities, hindering their motivation and progress.
Educators can use this insight to promote a positive learning environment and empower
learners by cultivating their self-belief, resilience, and perseverance.
Frequently mentioned attributions of this study showed similarities with the findings of relevant
attribution research (Çağatay & Erten, 2020; Hussain et al., 2020; Li & Han, 2022; Safdar et al.,2023; 2022; Smith et al., 2020). Notably, the frequency of mentioned attributions did not change
across the school types. Effort, interest, and ability were the top three mostly repeatedattributions respectively, and luck was among the least repeated attributions in both success andfailure conditions by the participants from all school types. Effort appears to be the most
repeatedly mentioned attribution in both success and failure conditions by a majority of theparticipants, which shows similarities with the findings of studies in similar educational
contexts (e.g., Chen, 2021; Chen, 2011; Lu et al., 2014. Particularly in the failure condition,

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participants from all school types put effort, which is a typical attribution after experiencing
failure, on the top of the list.
Ascribing success to ability is considered to be key to having an adaptive mindset as it promotes
self-confidence. The findings imply that these students attribute success in an adaptive manner,with successful students believing that their accomplishments were the product of their highability, which may relate to self-confidence and self-efficacy (Graham, 2022; Hatteberg, 2022).
On the other hand, changing ability attribution in the failure condition, which refers to amaladaptive mindset, to lack of effort may increase perseverance and enhance performance(Graham & Chen, 2020). Therefore, this finding might be regarded as a healthier approach tooutcomes in success but not in the failure condition. When learners ascribe their success andfailure to effort, they tend to believe that they have control over their outcomes and this cause
is related to themselves but not others. Likewise, stating a luck attribution as the least frequent
one in success and failure conditions shows that participants have control over theirperformance. If the students believe that they have control over their outcomes, they mightdevelop confidence, motivation and sense of mastery (Graham, 2022; Hatteberg, 2022). Whilecertain attributes, like luck and ability, cannot be modified willingly by an individual, attributes
like effort may (Weiner, 2000), and effort attribution is likely to result in sustained effort in the
future (Anderman, 2020). Likewise, Lu et al.’s (2014) study, in which university level EFL
learners in China participated, revealed effort attribution as the most frequently reported cause
for failure and in success conditions. In their study, effort was significantly more important
than ability attribution for the participants. Similarly, Gan et al.’s (2019) study, which focusedon Chinese EFL learners’ motivation to learn in the higher education context, revealed thateffort received the highest mean score in comparison to other motivational aspects.
The open-ended question sought to uncover the subjective reasons of the participants for theirsuccess and failure perceptions. Participants appeared to have more responses in the failure
condition than the success condition. The most frequent theme in both success and failure
situations was environment. Ascribing failure to the environment, which is regarded as an
uncontrollable and external factor, might lead to maladaptive mindsets, and often reveals
relations to lower self-efficacy (Ngunu et al., 2019). The other most frequent theme for the
success condition was relevant to life/career. The graduate group and Sino-American group are
the only groups that mentioned relevant to life/career attribution as the most frequent one in
the success condition. Also, these two groups were the only ones who never mentioned
irrelevant to life/career attribution in the failure condition. Similarly, these two groups seem tohave mentioned environment more often than the other school types in the success condition.
This may be because these groups have more opportunities to interact in the target language,
English might not be confined to the classroom for these groups, and they take learning English
seriously for their future lives and career goals.
Lack of a language learning environment revealed to be the most prevalent cause of failure. As
it was indicated the most frequent reason, this attribution did not demonstrate disparities acrossthe different types of schools. The most frequent themes that emerged from the vocationalgroup and undergraduate group were lack of interest, environment, and irrelevant to life/career.

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Unlike graduate and Sino-American groups who seemed to closely relate English to their future
career, these two groups tended not to take English so seriously. According to Lu et al. (2014),
this might be because students who major in fine art and physical science find that English
courses are not as necessary as those in high school after they enter universities since they are
more interested in their majors. Also, considering the fact that all participants are native
Chinese speakers, they might rarely get the opportunity to interact with the target language ina Chinese environment.
For the success-oriented group CDSII scale results demonstrated more internal, personallycontrollable, stable, and moderately externally controllable attributional patterns. In the failure
condition, attributional styles were considerably more internal and personally controllable. The
mean score for the locus dimension proved to be the highest, followed by personal control.
These dimensional styles are considered as adaptive mindsets (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002;
Weiner, 1985;). When the learners attributed their success to internal, stable, and personallycontrollable causes, they have higher expectations for having the same successful performance.
In the failure condition, when learners ascribed their weak performance to internal causes andwhen they believed that they had control over those causes, they tended to believe they could
improve their performance in the future.
Success- and failure-oriented group comparisons showed that the success group had higher
mean scores across all the dimensions. This finding is also parallel with the relevant literature,and it is considered to be a healthier approach to success. Higher scores on controllability havean impact on the value of success, which has an impact on each person’s level of motivation
for achievement (Graham, 2022). Similarly, higher scores on stability have an impact on
success expectations (Weiner, 1985). Failure that is ascribed to stable internal uncontrolled
factors will lead to a decrease in the desire for more action, whereas failure that is linked to
unstable external controllable causes will not result in a decrease or even an increase in thisdesire. In this study, the aspects of locus and personal control had the highest mean scores inboth groups. The locus, personal control, and stability aspects of the success and failure groups
were significantly different. Given that both groups’ perception was in the range of moderate,
there was no significant variation in the external controllability dimension. The success group
appeared to have more internal, personally controllable, and stable attributions when meanscores were considered. Similarly, Lu et al. (2014) noted that, there were differences between
successful and unsuccessful learners in the relevant literature in the Chinese EFL contexts. In
their study, effective learners preferred to credit successful outcomes more to internal andunstable causes. The findings of their study and this study seem to be similar in locus dimension
but differ in the stability dimension. EFL learners in this study seem to hold healthy
attributional styles with more internal, personally controllable, stable dimensions in the successcondition, and with more internal, personally controllable, and unstable dimensions in the
failure condition.
Significant differences were found for the dimensions of external control and stability in theanalysis of differences in terms of dimensions across school types in the success condition.
Regarding locus and personal control aspects, school types did not differ much from one

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another. Compared to the Sino-American group, the graduate group exhibited much morestable attributions, which is accepted as a healthy mindset when success is experienced. Boththe Vocational College and Undergraduate groups showed significantly higher externallycontrollable attributions than the Sino-American group in terms of the external control
component. It can be inferred that the higher the education level, the healthier the attributions
were in the success condition. Also, the Sino-American context appeared to make learners
believe that they had more control over their success outcomes, which is considered a healthiermindset. In contrast, the vocational college and undergraduate groups tended to owe theirachievements in English to the externally controllable factors, which might signal less hope for
future success because external ascription seemed to hinder learning motivation, enthusiasm,
and retention in the language learning process (Li, 2004).
Only the locus dimension showed substantial variations in the failure condition. The SinoAmerican group had significantly higher internal scores than the Vocational School group, who
had the highest scores for the external control dimension, for their ascriptions to failure. It canbe concluded that the Sino-American group holds healthier attributional styles compared to theother group. The learners in the Sino-American context are aware that they are experiencing
failure due to themselves, not something external and uncontrollable. Therefore, they might
have positive expectations regarding their future performance. Internal ascriptions after
experiencing failure give learners chances to change their future behaviors in a way to improvetheir performances. The reason behind this significant difference between these school types
could be related to contextual factors.
In general, the findings of the nine-point-Likert CDSII revealed moderate scores both in failureand success conditions. The scores ranged from 4.77, as the lowest score in the failure condition
for external control, to 6.53, as the highest score in the success condition for personal control
dimension. The reason why there were no high scores like 9 or 8, or low scores like 2 or 3
might be due to the cultural factors. Similarly, significantly higher perception of failure mightreflect cultural aspects. Tian (2012) noted that Lao Tzu and Confucius and other thinkers’
humble ideas demonstrated modesty as a classic Chinese virtue. They were always humble andbelieved that their standing was quite low when they received praise from others. Theyfrequently exhibited a reserved and modest demeanor when it came to academics andinterpersonal interactions. Similarly, Zhou (2006) pointed out that modesty was viewed as the
manifestation of politeness in cross-cultural communication. One should depreciate oneselfand be modest while talking about himself or herself, other people, or items that are connectedto them. Respect is lifted when referring to the listener or to individuals or objects associatedwith the listener. The speaking party in Chinese typically addresses himself in a modest mannerand refers to the other party using honorifics to convey respect. Honorific and modest words
are significant manifestations of humility in Chinese. Unlike Western cultures, Chinese cultureemphasizes the need for perfect morals, modesty, and caution. Despite the remarkableaccomplishments, the standards are still far from optimal (Zhou, 2006). Being modest, prudent,
and moderate are essential characteristics of this culture. While humility helps people advance,
boasting hurts since it causes people to lag behind (Bi, 1996).

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Implications
The causal explanations that students gave for their success and failure outcomes, particularlyin the context of language learning, could be used to forecast the actions they will take in theirsubsequent learning process and their future success. This is only conceivable if educators candistinguish between failure brought on by lack of ability and failure brought on by lack of effort(Graham & Taylor, 2022). As attribution theory integrates correlates of motivation constructs
within the theoretical model, it may be able to offer direction at this stage (Anderman, 2020).
This study might offer implications for language instructors. Language instructors are more
likely to be able to observe each student’s behavior individually, so they can place more
attention on individuals in the classroom rather than groups since students’ attribution andlearning motivation is a complicated psychological habit. Chinese English learners are diverse(You & Dörnyei, 2016), and their motivational factors change depending on the learning
environment (Xu & Gao, 2014; Li, 2014;). Therefore, different institutions might have different
effects on learners’ perceptions of success and causal dimensionality styles. EFL instructors
should be more aware of these factors and provide assistance for their learners accordingly.
The instructors might encourage and help students to do self-reflection and retrain attributions
in a supportive learning environment. Perry et al. (2014) as well as Graham (2020) highlightthe significance of viewing academic successes as controllable and failures as unstable. Doingso helps with motivation, emotion, persistence, and performance. At this point, attribution
retraining provided by the instructors might reveal positive outcomes. It is important to notethat causal dimensions can provide clear instructions for retraining attributions (Graham,2020). Language instructors should reassure their students that they genuinely have influence
over their results by being aware of their students’ maladaptive attributional practices (Zhang
et al., 2021).
There are limitations in this research. First, answers to open-ended questions only provided alimited amount of information regarding the participants’ unique attributions. For in-depth
information on the attributions of EFL learners, future research may employ aphenomenological approach via one-on-one interviews with the participants. Furthermore, it islimited to circumstances related to higher education. However, English is taught to EFL
students in China from a young age. In this regard, the study ignores the possibility that
attribution patterns may be shaped by early experiences of the learners of English in diverse
contexts.
In conclusion, this study provides comprehensive insights on the perceptions, attributions, andcausal dimensionality patterns of EFL learners, which are essential for understanding the
motivational factors behind language learning. A significant percentage of participants thought
they were unsuccessful English learners, even though success was more often attributed tohealthy traits like effort and interest and rarely to outside variables like teachers or luck. The
qualitative analysis underscores the significance of the environment and relevance to life andcareer in shaping learners’ attributions while learning English. A closer look finds different
attributional patterns for different school types, with Sino-American and graduate groups

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strongly associating English skill with future employment. Furthermore, attributional stylevariations reveal how the educational atmosphere affects learners’ thinking, with the SinoAmerican group displaying healthier attributional patterns. The moderate scores in the causal
dimensionality scale across conditions underscore the influence of cultural factors. All things
considered, these results highlight how critical it is to take cultural factors and educationalsettings into account when developing more positive attitudes and motivation for language
acquisition.

Declarations

Competing interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial conflicts of interests to disclose.
Data Availability
The electronic data is stored in private Google Drive folder of the researchers. Data will beavailable via e-mail to the corresponding author.
Ethical Approval
Name of the committee that made the ethical evaluation: Wenzhou-Kean University Ethics
Committee. Date of ethical review decision: 09.06.2023. Ethics assessment document issue
number: WKUIRB2023-046/R
Author Contributions
Ayse Taskiran contributed to the manuscript by designing the study, reviewing the literature,
writing the research questions, preparing the data collection instruments, analyzing the data
and writing the findings, discussions, and the implications.
Hong Pan contributed to the manuscript by reviewing the literature, preparing the datacollection instruments, analyzing the data and writing the findings, discussions, and theimplications.

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Zou, B., Wang, X., & Yu, C. (2022). The impact of Sino-foreign cooperative universities in
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Corresponding Author: Ayse Taskiran
Email: ataskira@kean.edu

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Intercultural Communication: The Perceptions of Lebanese High School
Directors

Najwa Saba ‘Ayon
Rafik Hariri University, Lebanon
Farah Sabbah
Independent Researcher
Mira M. Alameddine
Rafik Hariri University, Lebanon

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Abstract
Because intercultural communication has become one of the most demanded skills in thecurrent digitalized world, many educational institutions aspire to graduate students who possessintercultural skills and are able to successfully communicate with people from diverse cultures.
However, intercultural communication has not received much attention in the Lebanesecontext, especially in schools. To this end, this paper examined the Lebanese high school
directors’ perceptions of intercultural communication. As pragmatists, the researchers
employed quantitative and qualitative methods to better understand the problem underinvestigation. Using a snowball sampling, they surveyed the perceptions of 55 Lebanese
directors in private and public high schools and interviewed two informants in the Center for
Educational Research and Development. The collected data were analyzed quantitatively andqualitatively. Then, the derived conclusions were compared to ensure trustworthiness of thefindings. Major findings showed that though intercultural communication is a learning outcome inmost schools, it is mostly taught at the knowledge level in the foreign language classrooms.
Assessment of this outcome was neither systematic nor consistent. It was also shown that
directors in private schools tended to be more informed than those in the public sector.
Recommendations are made for enhancing intercultural communication skills in Lebanese
educational institutions.
Keywords: cultural diversity, curriculum design, intercultural communication, interculturalcompetence, Lebanon, schools

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Developing intercultural competence is paramount in the globalized world. In fact, manyscholars have stressed the importance of graduating interculturally competent communicators
who are able to interact with multicultural customers, colleagues, and partners within andacross international borders (Gün, 2023; Saba ‘Ayon & Harb, 2022a; Winstead, 2021). For
example, Gün (2023) states that as the world has turned into a global village with advanced
technological means for communication, it becomes customary for people from diverse
cultures to communicate, rendering intercultural communication a necessary skill to be learned(p. 2780). In addition, Saba ‘Ayon and Harb (2022b, p. 3347) assert that there is a need tograduate global citizens who understand the nuances of otherness to succeed in communicating
effectively with multicultural people and hence meet the demands of the digitalized world.
Winstead (2021) stipulates that effective intercultural communication is a must in today's
workplaces as an increasing number of company leaders “prioritize diversity and inclusion in
their workplaces” (para. 1).
Unfortunately, intercultural education is not explicitly stated in the national Lebanese schoolor higher education curricula. The only reference to it is in the schools’ foreign language
curriculum as cultural awareness. However, it is limited to the English-speaking culture, andits main purpose is to help Lebanese students recognize the similarities and differences between
their culture and the target culture (New National Curriculum, 1997, p. 147). This raised theresearchers’ curiosity and concern about the absence of such an indispensable objective fromthe Lebanese curricula. To this end, the researchers aimed to investigate the Lebanese
educators’ perceptions of intercultural communication and its status in the Lebanese highschools. The importance of the study lies in its being among the first to address this topic fromthe perspectives of Lebanese educators.
Theoretical Framework: Intercultural Communicative Competence
The study draws from Byram’s (1997; 2021) and Deardorff’s (2004; 2006) understanding ofintercultural competence and is based on Byram’s intercultural communicative competence(ICC) model. Byram’s (1997; 2021) ICC was selected for the study because it focuses on therole of foreign language education in developing students’ ICC as a learning outcome, hencealigning with intercultural learning found in the Lebanese context.
Terms and Definitions
It is worth noting that several terms are used to refer to intercultural competence in theliterature, among which are intercultural communicative competence, intercultural dialogue,
and global citizenship (See Saba ‘Ayon & Harb, 2022a). According to Deardorff (2015), theseterms are even discipline-specific. For example, ICC is used in language learning, whileintercultural competence is used in the field of education in general. However, due to theirsimilarity, they are sometimes used interchangeably.
In addition, scholars define intercultural competence differently (See Byram, 1997; Council ofEurope, 2007; Deardorff 2004; 2006; Dypedahl, 2019; UNESCO, 2013). For example,

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UNESCO (2013), citing Byram (1997; 2008), defines intercultural competence as “having
adequate relevant knowledge about particular cultures, as well as general knowledge about thesorts of issues arising when members of different cultures interact, holding receptive attitudes
that encourage establishing and maintaining contact with diverse others, as well as having theskills required to draw upon both knowledge and attitudes when interacting with others fromdifferent cultures” (p. 16). This definition indicates that the main components of interculturalcompetence are, therefore, knowledge, skills, and attitude. Deardorff (2004) also includes thesecomponents in her intercultural competence model, which serves as an operational frameworkthat can be implemented in educational institutions.
According to Deardorff (2004; 2006), embracing a curious, respectful, and open attitude andbuilding knowledge that includes cultural self-awareness, sociolinguistic awareness, and deep
cultural understanding leads to the targeted intercultural competence-related outcomes. Theinternal outcomes are the ability to empathize, adapt, assume an ethnorelative view, and beflexible, and these manifest in the external outcome as suitable and effective communication
and behavior in each intercultural situation. Therefore, intercultural competence is essentiallyabout enhancing interactions between people who are different within the same society or
across borders (Deardorff, 2020, p. 5). In other words, cultural difference does not merely referto differences in nationality or geography but includes any type of differences within a society
such as age, gender, and religion among others.
The Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) Model
Within educational institutions, intercultural competence is commonly targeted in foreign
language programs and demonstrated in people’s communication skills and interactions.
Byram (1997; 2021; See also Porto & Byram, 2015; Wagner & Byram, 2017) has worked
extensively on the ICC model to guide curriculum designers and teachers in their teaching andassessment practices. The model includes the following five dimensions: 1) Knowledge about
one’s social group and culture as well as that of the other in addition to knowledge on how tonavigate societal and individual interactions; 2) An attitude that is willing to both consider theothers' behaviors, values, and beliefs and analyze them from their perspectives (Byram, 2021,
p. 45); 3) Education, as it serves a pivotal role in developing ICC, and educational institutions
have a role in building knowledge and developing critical cultural awareness and the skills
needed for intercultural interactions and experiences; 4) The skills to interpret and relate during
interactions between people and while working on a document; 5) The skills to discover, which
Byram (2021) defines as “the ability to recognise significant phenomena in a foreign
environment and to elicit their meanings and connotations and their relationship to otherphenomena” (p. 49).
Educators can support learners in achieving ICC by developing critical cultural awareness inthe classroom. Byram (2021) defines critical cultural awareness as “the ability to critique one’s
own way of thinking and acting and how this is influenced by societal factors” (p. 45). Portoand Byram (2015) explain that criticality should not be confused with criticism; it is the ability
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point of view. Criticality requires reasoning, argumentation, and evaluative analysis as theindividual engages with people or texts from a different culture (Byram, 2021).
The Role of the Educational Setting in Developing Intercultural Competence
The education setting has been recommended as the most effective venue for beginning thejourney of developing intercultural competence (Al-Sumait et al., 2022; Byram, 2021;
UNESCO, 2013). This has motivated institutions and organizations to revamp their national
curricula, specifically their foreign language (FL) in some contexts and develop frameworks
as well as models for targeting intercultural competence. A systematic approach that includes
a clear definition and a guiding model or framework is helpful for educators because it ensuresthat they are clear about which aspects of culture should be addressed, and it creates anenvironment inside and outside the classroom that facilitates knowledge building and thedevelopment of intercultural communication skills.
To successfully target ICC as a learning outcome in the FL classroom, educators need toredefine FL education, examine teachers’ beliefs and understanding, set educational policies,
provide guides for effective pedagogical approaches, and foster a school culture that celebrates
cultural diversity. For instance, Malazonia and colleagues (2018) investigated how the school
culture, teachers’ ICC and style of teaching and learning affect students’ view of cultural
diversity and quality of intercultural education in Georgian schools. They found thatintercultural education is not effective because of the lack of a suitable learning environment,
resources, and pedagogical approaches.
Redefining Foreign Language Education
The value of learning a FL today goes beyond the practical purposes of communicating withthose who do not speak one’s native language; therefore, the objectives of teaching foreign
languages need to be redefined. According to Porto and Byram (2015), the responsibility of FL
instructors should not be limited to the teaching of communication skills; instead, it should
educate learners about the values of criticality and humanistic education (p. 10). These authors
assert that the purpose of learning a FL should not only be instrumentally motivated but also
be approached as a way to improve at the personal and societal level.
The FL classroom should serve as an environment for developing criticality, an importantcomponent of ICC. Porto and Byram (2015) argue that the FL classroom should foster
criticality and direct learners towards taking action to improve society. Byram (2021) contends
that FL classrooms in a general education institution have an obligation to build criticalawareness of the values and importance of cultural practices in one's country as well as of thosein the other's (p. 57). Critical cultural awareness is the key to developing the components of
ICC in learners.

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Examining Teachers’ Beliefs and Understanding of ICC
Teachers’ beliefs and understanding of ICC affect their ability to target the inherent
components of ICC as learning outcomes. Ensuring the development of a teacher’s interculturalcompetence should be a component of their education and teacher training. In fact, Ishida(2023) states that developing teachers' and administrators' ICC is an urgent challenge in thecurrent global world (p. 13). Gün (2023), for example, assessed pre-service teachers’intercultural competence and cultural component perspectives in a Turkish university andexamined whether gender, year of study, and grade point average (GPA) could be variables
that relate to variation in the participants’ scores. The findings showed that the pre-service
teachers generally scored high. Though gender and GPA could impact the participants’ scores,
there was no significant correlation between the year of study and the scores. Gün (2023)
recommends that English language teaching programs include ICC courses in their curricula
to increase student teachers' ICC instead of leaving it to personal experiences, individual
opportunities, and luck in the student teachers’ lives (p. 2796).
That teacher training needs to target knowledge of intercultural communication more explicitly
and effectively is also reinforced by Mardešić (2023), who found that the participants, studentteachers of English, French, and Italian, failed to draw connections between language andculture although these concepts are mentioned in the Common European Framework ofReference. Similarly, Sańczyk-Cruz (2023) suggests that language teacher education include
more “systemic intercultural exposure” by adding more intercultural education courses,
creating more inclusive environment for student teachers, and providing more professional
opportunities for lecturers among others (p. 33).
Developing teachers’ knowledge of intercultural communication, however, is not sufficient toensure proper implementation and effective teaching practices. In fact, Nafisah and colleagues(2024), who in their systematic review examined the perceptions and practices of English as a
Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in incorporating ICC into their language classes, found a
discrepancy between these teachers’ perceptions of ICC and their classroom practice due toseveral factors such as rigid curricula, time constraints, and vague teaching strategies (p. 16).
That is why these authors recommend “bridging the gap between teachers’ perceptions andpractices [which] demands a holistic strategy that aligns theoretical acknowledgement withpractical implementation” (Nafisah et al., 2024, p.17). Similarly, Tiurikova and Haukås (2022)
examined teachers’ beliefs and conceptualizations of three concepts, namely multilingualism,
intercultural competence, and identity, using the Norwegian national curriculum for foreign
languages as a point of reference. The interviews with the teachers showed that they understandthese concepts but have a limited understanding of their connection in their teaching practices.
The authors recommended that teacher education provide student teachers with more
knowledge as well as training on how to teach these phenomena, in combination or in isolation.

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Teaching ICC in Educational Policies and Curricula
Teachers need policy documents, a well-designed curriculum and syllabus, textbooks, andmaterials to effectively target ICC. Educators can support students in developing interculturalcommunicative competence by ensuring that their instructional material represents the various
social groups in a country, which include those of low socio-economic backgrounds (Byram,2021). The significance of such representation is to prompt learners through a reflexive
methodology to “problematize a society’s treatment of all its social groups” (p. 56) and thus
question their society’s attitude towards underprivileged ones (Byram, 2021). To illustrate,
Byram (2021) gives an example from an EFL textbook taught in Germany of a fictional story
about a Pakistani family that faces much racial prejudice in the neighborhood where they
reside.
Integrating the cultural component in FL education would also include, as has traditionallybeen the case, the culture of the target language. For example, Ousiali and colleagues (2023)
recognize the importance of including the cultures of English-speaking people in the EFL
classroom in Morocco. Their study examined whether exposing Moroccan high school students
in the EFL classroom to literary texts enhances their intercultural competence, and they foundthat learners' cultural awareness had slightly improved (Ousiali et al. 2023, p. 79).
Fostering a Classroom Environment for ICC
Other aspects of the classroom environment need to be considered when aiming to develop
ICC. Schwarzenthal and colleagues (2020) examined how three types of cultural diversity
climate in the classroom, namely multiculturalism, fostering contact and cooperation, andcolor-evasion, relate to students’ intercultural competence in secondary schools in Germany.
They found that each of the three types of climates has its strengths and can make valuable
contributions towards developing ICC. It is also worth examining student perspectives andexperiences to foster a classroom environment for ICC. Tarp (2017), for instance, who
examined students’ perspectives, found that the students’ capacity to develop interculturalcommunication and learning outcomes is affected by their level of participation, willingness toshare their insecurities, and acceptance of the risk of losing face and being wrong. In addition,
Saba ‘Ayon (2016), who investigated the impact of telecollaboration on students’ ICC, foundthat the telecollaborative experience, which students enjoyed, improved their ICC as instancesof Byram’s (1997) learning objectives were noticeable in the participants’ interactions with
their partners. The author recommends that telecollaboration be incorporated in FL classes as
it provides an opportunity for students to interact with diverse students in “real-life situations”(p. 116).
In a nutshell, helping students develop their ICC is dependent on several variables in the
educational setting: redefining educational objectives, developing teachers’ ICC, developing
policies and appropriate curricula, and fostering a suitable environment conducive for ICC.
Lebanon is a country whose history has been characterized by linguistic and cultural diversity.

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It serves as the context under examination in the current study. A brief discussion of thehistorical context and education system and policy in Lebanon is provided below.
The Lebanese Context
Lebanon is one of the smallest countries in the Middle East, with an area of 10,452 square
kilometers. It has been inhabited by different cultures and civilizations, from the ancient empireof the Akkadian to the Greek Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, then the Crusaders, theOttoman Empire and finally the French Mandate. All left their marks on the Lebanese culture
and population.
These cultures also contributed to the language diversity in Lebanon. For example, during the
French Mandate in Lebanon (1918–1942), French was the official language in education andpublic offices. After the Mandate, Standard Arabic reassumed its role as the primary linguistic
medium in journalistic, educational, and official contexts, while colloquial Lebanese Arabic isused in daily conversations among the Lebanese. Besides the Arabic varieties, other languages
are used in Lebanon, the most spoken of which are French and English, reflecting both cultural
influences and the Lebanese educational system (See Saba ‘Ayon & Harb, 2023).
Since April 1975, when civil war broke out in Lebanon, a sense of sectarianism has emerged.
Even though the civil war ended in October 1991, sectarianism did not diminish. On thecontrary, it increased to the extent that now each sect in Lebanon looks at itself as having theirown “culture” (Deeb et. al., 2023) although ethnically, the Lebanese are almost of the same
ethnic group except for the Armenians who came to Lebanon back in 1920, after the Armenian
genocide.
Since 2011, Middle Eastern unrest has led to Lebanon sheltering Syrian refugees, besides thePalestinians. These refugees number approximately 2.5 million, constituting half the Lebanese
population (Lebanon, n.d.). Moreover, many European and American families reside and workin Lebanon. Western missionaries, whether secular or religious, have been present in Lebanon
for more than 160 years. These missionaries have established several educational institutions
such as the International College, Brummana High school, and The Grand Lycée at the K-12
school level in addition to the American University of Beirut and Saint Joseph University at
the university level. These institutions have several international staff and students among their
population. Moreover, a few international companies and embassies hire foreigners. All thesefactors render Lebanon fertile ground for intercultural communication and interaction.
Lebanese education operates on a K-12 system, culminating in high school graduation at
approximately the age of 18. College-bound students start at the sophomore level, completing
their bachelor’s in roughly three years. Post ninth grade, students opt for specialized tracks:mathematics, natural sciences, economics, or philosophy (Ayyash-Abdo et. al., 2009), which
often determine their university majors. Lebanon's educational curriculum was initiallyfashioned after the French model during the French mandate (1920–1943) but integrated local
subjects. While the 1968 revision retained the focus on knowledge acquisition, the 1997 update

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prioritized hands-on experiences and critical thinking to better equip students in a post-civil
war era (Frayha, 2003). This reform aimed to nurture unity, national pride, and values, liketolerance, democracy, and acceptance of others, among students (Center for Educational
Research and Development1 (CRDP)2, 1997). The Lebanese Ministry of Education mandates
this curriculum across all educational institutions, public and private.
According to Bahous and Nabahani (2008), Lebanon has three types of schools: public, run by
the government; private run by independent institutions; and The United Nations Relief andWorks Agency (UNRWA) schools that offer education to Palestinian refugees under theumbrella of the United Nations. While public state schools provide free education, the quality
often lags behind that of private institutions (Bahous et al., 2022; Khafaja et al., 2020).
Consequently, public schools predominantly serve students from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds (Bahous et al., 2022; World Bank Group, 2022). Conversely, families with thefinancial means opt for private schooling due to its perceived superior quality, evidenced byhigher student achievement on national and university admissions exams. However, there is afourth type, namely the semi-private school, which is partly free. These schools get funding
from the Ministry of Education and Higher Education to subsidize the tuition for its students(CRDP Lebanon, n.d.).
Advancements in Lebanese Curriculum: Standardized Action Plan and Operational
Procedures
Since 2021, CRDP has been embarking on a new curriculum update. During 2020,
interdisciplinary teams at the CRDP devised a comprehensive curriculum action plan, together
with unified operational protocols. The update stemmed from the need to develop Lebanesecitizens who are aware of the world around them and endowed with interculturalcommunication abilities (CRDP, 2023a).
Moreover, acknowledging the need for an intercultural citizen, the CRDP commenced thecurriculum reform by developing the “Active Citizenship within Educational Curricula” which
represents a paradigm shift from traditional pedagogical approaches employed in national
education. This transformative initiative to entrench the beliefs of "active citizenship" into themodules and units of national education and civic socialization has given root for intercultural
skills. Significantly, this pedagogical approach not only resonates with prevailing educational
practices and student backgrounds but also mirrors the tangible cultural nuances present within
the curriculum (CRDP, 2023b).
The study aimed to investigate intercultural communication in Lebanese high schools throughthe voices of Lebanese school directors as the above-mentioned curriculum reforms have not1“A national institution concerned with educational modernization and development by setting educational plansand policies and directing educational curricula and requirements to build the citizen learner” (CRDP, n.d.).
2
Acronym is in French and stands for “Centre de Recherche et de Développement Pédagogiques.” The older
acronym in English (CERD) has recently been replaced by the French one.

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been implemented yet. The overarching research question that this study set out to answer isthe following: How do Lebanese directors in public and private high schools perceive
intercultural communication (IC)? Three sub-questions followed:
1. To what extent does IC constitute a part of their school curricula?
2. How knowledgeable are the school directors about IC and its importance to Lebaneselearners?
3. Are there any differences between the different types of schools in promoting IC?
Methodology and Methods
The researchers’ emphasis was to examine and understand the problem under investigation anddiscern answers to the accompanying questions instead of focusing on methods per se(Creswell, 2007, p. 22). Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were utilized in themixed-methods study to collect and analyze data (Creswell, 2007, p. 23). An online completion
questionnaire was used to survey Lebanese school directors’ perceptions of IC. Furthermore,semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants in CRDP.
Selection of Participants
The researchers employed snowballing sampling, which is one type of convenience sample, toselect their participants, who were Lebanese private and public high school directors (Bryman,
2008, p. 699). The researchers resorted to this sampling technique after several attempts toreach school directors through either emails or phone calls. Then, the researchers made initial
contact with a small group of directors and/or teachers that helped the researchers establish
contacts with the participating directors.
The researchers asked 55 Lebanese high school directors to take part in the study after
explaining its purpose and promising them confidentiality and anonymity. That number
constituted approximately 9% of all Lebanese high schools (614 high schools in total)
according to the Head of the Educational System Evaluation Unit in CRDP.
Data-Collection Instruments
To ensure that the questionnaire could reach as many school directors as possible and that it
could be easily completed, it was not only shared on Google Forms but also presented in threelanguages, namely English, French, and Arabic (reflecting the linguistic diversity in Lebanon).
This gave the participating directors the choice of filling out the questionnaire in their preferredlanguage.
The questionnaire, adopted from Deardorff’s 2006 institutional questionnaire on interculturalcompetence and the self-assessment questionnaire on the intercultural dimension of the school(www.intercultural-learning.eu/Portfolio-Item/self-assessment-questionnaire/), was initiallyconstructed in English and later translated into French and Arabic. The translated versions were132

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verified by professional translators (English to Arabic and English to French). In addition, theresearchers emailed the questionnaires to three high school directors from the selected sample
for piloting, and necessary revisions were made based on the given feedback.
The inquiry form consisted of four main sections. The first section (12 multiple-choice items)
elicited information about the participating high schools. The second (9 multiple-choice items,
3 yes/no items, and 2 completion items), and the third (15 rating-scale items) elicited
information about the directors’ perceptions. As to the last section, it was an open-ended
question that provided the participating directors an opportunity to express their opinions freely
on the topic under investigation and/or to bring up ideas that were excluded from thequestionnaire. The calculated Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was above 0.8, which indicated agood internal consistency (Taber, 2017).
The researchers chose to conduct semi-structured interviews because they allowed a greater
consideration of deep, rich data. To recruit the informants for the interviews, the researchers
explained the purpose of the research to the Director of the CRDP, sent the interview questions
for approval, and asked permission to mention the name of the center in the study. Next it wasrecommended that the Head of the English Department and the Coordinator of Joint Academic
Departments be invited to take part in the research study. The interview with each respondent
lasted 40-45 minutes. Afterwards, the transcriptions were sent to the participants for validation.
Data Analysis
The collected quantitative data from the three versions of the questionnaire were combined into
one Excel file, and the French and Arabic data were translated into English. The translations
were checked for accuracy by two professional translators. The excel file was then imported
into SPSS (version 23), where descriptive analysis was run (Rahman & Muktadir, 2021). The
researchers also conducted correlation and cross-tabulation analyses to determine whether
there were differences between how schools promote and assess intercultural communication.
The qualitative data were thematically analyzed. In addition, the derived conclusions from bothanalyses were crosschecked to ensure trustworthiness of the findings.
Findings and Discussion
The findings, which include the analyses of the collected quantitative and qualitative data, arepresented in four sub-sections, description of the participants and their schools, status of IC in
the schools, directors’ perceptions of the importance of IC to students, and differences among
schools in promoting IC. The headings of the last three sections were derived from the researchquestions.
Description of the Participants and their Schools
Twenty-nine of the participants were private school directors, one was a director of a semiprivate school, and the remaining 25 were public high school directors. The number of the133

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participating directors reflected the proportion of high schools in Lebanon, where the private
high schools outnumber the public high schools, and semi-private mainly exist as primaryschools (Head of the Educational System Evaluation Unit in CRDP).
The participants were directors of schools in different regions in Lebanon: the capital (21.8%),
cities (21.8%), suburbs (14.5%), and villages (41.8%). The students in these schools camealmost entirely from the same regions: from the capital (18.2%), from the cities (25.5%), fromthe suburbs (14.5%), and villages (41.8%). These schools were of different sizes in terms ofstudent body: small (fewer than 500) (50.9%), moderate (500-700) (16.4%), and large (morethan 700) (32.7%). The population in these schools (teachers, students, and staff) as describedby the directors ranged from slightly diverse (21.8%) to very diverse (21.8%) with a moderately
diverse majority (56.4%).
The number of foreign languages taught in these schools differs, ranging from one FL tothirteen, with a majority (65.5%) of students receiving education in two languages, English andFrench. These languages were not only taught in the FL class. They were also the medium of
instruction in several subjects as per the Lebanese curriculum. The majority of these schools
used the FL in teaching four to five subjects, the most selected of which were math, biology,
physics, and chemistry. Other subjects taught in the FL were geography, history, economics,
philosophy, sociology, computer, and civic education among others. It is worth noting that
Arabic as a FL, offered in few elite high schools, is taught only in the foreign language class.
Status of IC in the Schools
Terminologies for IC
Though different terminologies were used by these schools to refer to IC, the more frequently
used ones were intercultural dialogue, cross-cultural communication, intercultural
understanding, and global learning among others (see Table 1 below). From the terminologies
used, none referred to cultural awareness as described in the national school curriculum. This
could be explained by the mismatch between the cultural awareness objective of 1997
curriculum and the content of the school textbook that the Head of the Department of English
in CRDP referred to. She said, “Though there is a reference to cultural awareness in terms ofknowledge, skills and attitudes, these were not translated into the detailed content. That is why
cultural awareness objectives in the English Language curriculum are not taught deeply …butmere exposure to the differences between cultures,” that is at the knowledge level.

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Table 1
Different Terminologies for Intercultural Communication
Items

N

Percent

Percent of Casesintercultural education

11

8.7%

20.4%

intercultural learningintercultural dialogue
cross-cultural communication

8
27
20

6.3%
21.3%
15.7%

14.8%
50.0%
37.0%

international competence

6

4.7%

11.1%

global learning
global citizenship

16
11

12.6%
8.7%

29.6%
20.4%

intercultural competenceintercultural understanding

7
18

5.5%
14.2%

13.0%
33.3%

other

3

2.4%

5.6%

Importance of IC in Schools
In response to a query regarding the degree to which intercultural communication wasconsidered a desired student outcome at school, the majority of the participants (69.1%)
regarded it as important while 27.3% denied its presence in their schools. The qualitative data,
reflected by one respondent, could possibly explain the absence of this learning outcome inother schools, “In Lebanon and in public schools specifically, intercultural communication is
missing.” Conversely, IC was recognized as an important learning outcome by the majority of
the respondents (80%) with very few (1.8%) rating it as not important. The qualitative data wasin line with the quantitative figures as reflected by a respondent’s comment, “The subject of
cultural exchange is considered one of the important topics that should be emphasized byintroducing it as a basic subject within the educational curricula because of its positive impact
on the future of learners.” These findings showed that the participants were aware of theimportance of IC and acknowledged that the educational institutions should play an importantrole in developing these skills. (Al-Sumait et al., 2022; Byram, 2021; UNESCO, 2013).
Written Policies of IC in Schools
The quantitative data showed that most of the participating schools (36.4%) had no written
policy on intercultural issues, 25.5% had policies related to international projects; 20% retained
a policy related to providing assistance for speakers of other languages; and 14.5% held a policy
about valuing minority languages. The qualitative data was consistent with the quantitative
numbers as some respondents denied having written policies about IC while a few directors
talked about a language policy and an inclusion policy. A small number referred to academic
honesty and integrity policies as the only written policies they had in this regard. The absenceof written policies in a curriculum that includes IC is a challenge and an impediment for
educational institutions and teachers to systematically and meaningfully practice and developthese skills. In fact, the literature emphasizes the importance of these policies to support

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teachers in helping their students develop their ICC (Byram, 2021; Ousaili et al., 2023). Models
such as Byram’s (2021), manuals such as Deardoff ‘s (2020), and frameworks such as Key
competences for lifelong learning, European reference framework (2007) can serve as ananchor for schools to seriously and consistently target IC as learning outcomes.
Ways to promote IC
Though quite a number of the participating schools had the majority (23.6%) to half of theirstudents (30.9%) experience difficulty in the FL, most intercultural learning or communication
happened in the FL courses (67.3%). Extra- curricular activities (63.6%), classroom projects(61.8%), international projects (32.7%), and field trips or travels (29.1%) among others werealso named as ways to promote IC (see Table 2 for more details).
Table 2
Ways Schools Promote Intercultural Learning
Items

Responses___________N Percent

Percent of cases

Foreign language courses

37

20.2%

67.3%

Courses (other than foreign language)

6

3.3%

10.9%

Classroom projects

34

18.6%

61.8%

Extracurricular activities

35

19.1%

63.6%

International projects

18

9.8%

32.7%

Study opportunities abroad

11

6.0%

20.0%

Class exchange programs

10

5.5%

18.2%

E-twinning programs

11

6.0%

20.0%

Field trips/travels

16

8.7%

29.1%

Other

5

2.7%

9.1%

The Head of the English Department in CRDP stated that cultural awareness was promoted in
the EFL curriculum through themes such as “means of transport, food habits, holidays andcelebration.” She added that schools were also trying to include them through projects in the
FL classes “like the Italian Language Project and Cultural Exchange Program by the British
Council.” This made the researchers wonder to what extent the students’ difficulty in the FL
could impede their understanding of the cultural concepts embedded in the FL class.
According to the coordinator of Joint Academic Departments in CRDP, promoting IC in theclassroom depended greatly on individual efforts of motivated teachers. She gave an example
of a success story of herself as a science teacher in a public high school in South Lebanon
before joining the CRDP. She described her participation in an online project by UNESCO,
entitled Water for life: “I partnered with schools in Egypt and Sweden to find solutions for the136

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problem of water worldwide. I implemented this project in grades 7 till 12, and we (teachers)
used to share our students’ experiences and learning. That’s how we and our students indifferent countries learned from each other about finding solutions to water problems and more
importantly about our countries and hence cultures.” To her, “this illustrates how the
motivation of the teacher in the public sector plays a role in seeking professional development
and carrying out that training in the classroom.”
Another respondent talked about her experience collaborating with a different educator in theUK, stating, “Working on the ISA (International School Award) Program (the joint classroom),which entailed carrying out 7 activities in Lebanon and at the same time in the UK was a lifechanging experience for me as I played the role of the international coordinator. Through thisprogram, our students learned many traditions pertinent to the British people and vice versa!”
She added, “I am forever grateful for having the chance to communicate with British educatorsand for giving equal opportunity for my students to become global citizens. It helped me todevelop professionally and widened my students’ knowledge.”
An additional participant raised an important issue related to the promotion of IC in schools.
That participant openly talked about religion in Lebanon as a possible impediment tointercultural learning and addressed the role parents could play in complementing the learningthat happens in schools, asserting, “sometimes religion is a barrier to intercultural learning, so
the role of parents at home is very important to encourage this intercultural learning not onlyat school.”
Assessment of IC
Though IC is promoted in most schools, only 25.5% of the participating schools assess
students’ intercultural communication skills. The results supported by the interview data
showed that while IC was considered a learning outcome in most of the participating schools,
it was not assessed by these schools as other learning outcomes were. This raises the question
concerning the reason for the absence of systematic and objective assessment tasks. The
Coordinator of the Joint Academic Departments clarified the lack of assessment of IC in most
schools. She stated, “Unfortunately, there is no reference to formal assessment of interculturallearning in the national school curriculum; there are no rubrics to measure this outcome.
Teachers, even in the FL classes, teach for the official exams. Hence, assessment is limited tosentence structure and language competencies.” In addition, the quantitative data showed that
schools used different assessment methods, but the most common were evaluations conductedby teachers in their specific courses (25.5%), interviews with students (23.6%), students’
papers or presentations (18.2%), and teachers’ observation of students (18.2%) among others(more information is presented in Table 3).

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Table 3
Methods used in IC Assessment
Items

Responses
N
Percent

Percentof Cases

Evaluation conducted by teachers’ individual courses

14

15.4%

25.5%

Interviews with students

13

14.3%

23.6%

Student paper and/or presentation

10

11.0%

18.2%

Student journal/blogs/reflections

6

6.6%

10.9%

Custom-designed/adapted self-report instrument

1

1.1%

1.8%

Pre/post test

5

5.5%

9.1%

Ongoing assessment (specify)

3

3.3%

5.5%

Written test

3

3.3%

5.5%

E-portfolios

5

5.5%

9.1%

Observation of students in specific situations

10

11.0%

18.2%

Other (Please specify)

21

23.1%

38.2%

The interview data revealed that the effort to target this particular learning outcome reliedheavily on an individual teacher’s efforts. The Coordinator of the Joint Academic Departments
stated that “Some motivated and enthusiastic teachers go beyond the required assessment andassign projects to their students about different cultures’ food, costume, traditions and habits,
through which they try to assess their students’ knowledge about other cultures.” This example
not only illustrates the individual effort of the teacher but also reinforces the idea that culturallearning as well as assessment happens only at the knowledge level. A curriculum that clearly
incorporates IC should ensure proper implementation of it in the classroom, consistency inassessment, and well-designed resources to support teacher’s endeavors (Byram, 2021 andDeardoff, 2020).
Ways to Promote IC among Staff and Faculty
According to the participating directors, the most adopted methods schools use to help theirstaff and teachers develop IC are workshops (36.4%), courses (20%), and in-service training(16.4%). It is noteworthy that numerous schools (27.3%) did nothing in this regard. The Headof the English Department in CRDP clarified that “training is not currently provided toprograms that seek to compensate for learning loss due to several factors that affected thecoursework in public schools such as COVID, port explosion, the economic crisis and its
consequences.” When questioned how training and follow-up were conducted, she said that
CRDP was responsible for training the teachers in schools, whereas the follow-up was the
responsibility of the DOBS3 [Pedagogical and Scholastic Guidance Office]. Upon probing
about whether these DOBS received the same training or were aware of the training on which
3

Acronym is in French. DOPS stands for Direction d’Orientation Pe’dagogique et Scolaire138

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they needed to follow-up, the Head of the Department replied, “Not necessarily” and addedthat this issue had caused some problems between the center and the DOBS, which they were
trying to resolve. The Coordinator of the Joint Academic Departments also said, “There should
be more coordination between the two processes, namely training and coaching. The trainers
in the center should collaborate with the coaches in schools to ensure proper follow-up.
Currently, when teachers receive training, there is no system to follow-up on what they do inclass. Hence, it depends on the teacher’s motivation to implement that training in theclassroom”. In fact, this idea was confirmed by one participant who recommended that “staff,
teachers, and students be given monetary and moral incentives to motivate them to participate
in educational workshops”.
This raises many questions about the kind of training and the type of development the teachers
receive, how consistent the training and the follow-up are, and how helpful they are to theteachers. As presented in the literature, though teacher training is important, supervision ofteacher practice is a must to ensure effective implementation of IC in class, and therefore
helping students develop their ICC (Gün, 2023; Ishida, 2023; Mardešić, 2023; Nafiseh et al.,2024; Tiurikova & Haukås; 2022).
Directors’ Perceptions of the Importance of IC to Students
Most of the participating directors seemed knowledgeable about the importance of interculturalcommunication to Lebanese learners. In fact, most of these respondents were aware of the mostcommon advantages of having IC in the school curriculum, namely helping students
communicate with diverse people (81.8%) and enabling students to work in a multicultural
workplace (80%). However, fewer directors were aware of the importance of IC in developing
tolerance and understanding of others (58.2%) and in ensuring equity, peace, and inclusion(52.7%). The qualitative data added insights to the quantitative data. One of the participants
stated that “No matter how hard we work on promoting intercultural education among youth,
no peace and equity will be maintained as long as corrupt rulers are ruining the bridges built orusing these bridges for bad goals.” These findings reveal the importance of a proper education
on ICC in terms of developing critical awareness (Byram, 2021) and approaching ICC as a skill
to be practiced in real life (Dervin & Yuan, 2022).
One of the reasons why some participating directors were more informed than others could be
related to their participation in international projects that promote intercultural communicationor learning. In more details, approximately one third of the directors (30.9%) participated insuch an experience. Some of the named projects as reflected in the qualitative data were
UNESCO Peace Education Program, UNESCO Conflict Resolution between countries, British
Council International School Award, Compassion Summit, E-twinning, and International
Youth Days. Another reason is the school’s contact with external providers. In fact, only 27.3%of the participating schools had contacts with external providers of intercultural services,among which were Jesuite France, American Montessori Society, British Council, USAID
Program.

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The qualitative data was in line with the quantitative data. In fact, one respondent stated that“some high schools are kept away from collaborating with important and effective
associations.” However, one respondent who seemed to have contacts with internationalorganizations talked about the positive impact of external providers on their school, “Despite
the barriers in the Lebanese society, our school is a key player in promoting communicationand cultural exchange. We are committed to being open, valuing diversity, and contributing toa peaceful global community, which aligns with the goals of global organizations that work to
overcome human-made barriers.”
Differences Among Schools in Promoting IC
Though there was no significant correlation between the type of school and the importance ofIC as a desired learning outcome, cross-tabulations showed some differences between theprivate and public schools. In detail, the cross-tabulation between the type of school and theadvantages of including IC in the school curriculum showed that the directors of the private
schools were more aware of these advantages than those of the public ones as seen in Table 4
below. This could be related to the directors’ taking part in international projects and/or having
contacts with external providers.
Table 4
Cross-Tabulation between Type of School and Advantages of IC in the School Curriculum

Advantages ofincluding IC
in your schoola

Help students
communicate
with diverse
peopleCount %
within Q1

Enablestudents towork in a
multicultural
workplace

Count %
within Q1

Help students
developtolerance andunderstanding

Count %
within Q1

Ensure equity,
peace, andinclusion

Count %
within Q

PrivateSchoolSemi-private

Public

Total

25

1

19

45

86.2%

100.0%

76.0%

24

1

19

82.8%

100.0%

76.0%

20

0

12

69.0%

0.0%

48.0%

16

1

12

55.2%

100.0%

48.0%

29

1

25

Total
Count
Percentages and totals are based on respondents(Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1)

140

44

32

29

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The cross-tabulation between the type of school and the ways schools actively promoteintercultural learning showed higher percentages for the private than the public schools as seenin Table 5. This could be related to the absence of IC as a learning outcome in public schools.
Table 5
Cross-Tabulation between Type of School and Ways Schools Use to Promote IC

In whatways does
your school
actively
promoteinterculturallearning? a

PrivateSchoolSemi-private

Public

Total

Foreignlanguage course

Count %
within Q1

23
79.3%

1
100.0%

13
52.0%

37

Courses (otherthan foreign
language)Count %
within Q1

4
13.8%

0
0.0%

2
8.0%

6

Classroom
projects

Count %
within Q1

22
75.9%

0
0.0%

12
48.0%

34

Extracurricular
activities

Count %
within Q1

19
65.5%

1
100.0%

5
60.0%

35

International
projects

Count %
within Q1

12
41.4%

1
100.0%

5
20.0%

18

Study
opportunities
abroadCount %
within Q1

6
20.7%

1
100.0%

4
16.0%

11

Class exchange
programs

Count %
within Q1

6
20.7%

1
100.0%

3
12.0%

10

E-twinning
programs

Count %
within Q1

6
20.7%

1
100.0%

4
16.0%

11

Field
trips/travel

Count %
within Q1

10
34.5%

1
100.0%

5
20.0%

16

Other (please
specify)Count %
within Q1

1
3.4%

0
0.0%

1
4.0%

2

Not applicable

Count %
within Q1

3
10.3%

0
0.0%

0
0.0%

3

29

1

25

55

Total
Count
Percentages and totals are based on respondents(Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1)

The cross-tabulation between the type of school and assessment methods showed that theprivate sector was higher in some tools. More specifically, evaluation conducted by teachers inindividual courses, interviews with students, student paper and/or presentation, student
journal/blogs/reflections, written test, e-portfolios and observation of students in specificsituations by teachers and supervisors appeared to provide significant support. Alternatively,
the public schools were only slightly higher in pre/post-test and on-going assessment (see Table
6 below).

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Table 6
Cross-Tabulation between Type of School and Assessment Method

If yourschool isassessinginterculturalcommunicati
on, what
specific tools
does it utilize
in measuring
it? aPrivateSchoolSemiprivate

Public

Total

Evaluation conducted byteachers in individual
courses

Count %
within Q1

9
31.0%

0
0.0%

5
20.0%

14

Interviews with students

Count %
within Q1

7
24.1%

0
0.0%

6
24.0%

13

Student paper and/or
presentation

Count %
within Q1

6
20.7%

0
0.0%

4
16.0%

10

Student
journal/blog/reflections

Count %
within Q1

4
13.8%

0
0.0%

2
8.0%

6

Custom-designed/adapted
self-report instrument

Count %
within Q1

1
3.4%

0
0.0%

0
0.0%

1

Pre/post test

Count %
within Q1

2
6.9%

0
0.0%

3
12.0%

5

Ongoing assessment(specify)

Count %
within Q1

0
0.0%

0
0.0%

3
12.0%

3

Written test

Count %
within Q1

2
6.9%

0
0.0%

1
4.0%

3

E-portfolios

Count %
within Q1

4
13.8%

0
0.0%

1
4.0%

5

Observation of students inspecific situations (byteachers, supervisors, etc.)

Count %
within Q1

7
24.1%

0
0.0%

3
12.0%

10

Other (please specify)Count %
within Q1

10
34.5%

1
100.0%

10
40.0%

21

29

1

25

55

Total
Count
Percentages and totals are based on respondents(Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1)

As presented earlier, the assessment of students’ IC is neither systematic nor formal in almost
all schools and much dependent on the individual teacher’s motivation. As teachers in theprivate sector receive more training and are expected to use student-centered approaches, this
could explain why teachers in the private sector use more creative assessment methods than
traditional written exams.

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Conclusion and Recommendations
The study investigated Lebanese high school directors’ perceptions of interculturalcommunication (IC) in their schools. Specifically, it examined how knowledgeable they areabout IC and its importance to the students, as well as how grounded this skill is in theircurriculum, teaching practices, and campus culture. The data included questionnaires
completed by 55 participants and two semi-structured interviews with the Head of the English
Department and the Coordinator of Joint Academic Departments. The findings have shownthat almost all the participating schools are aware of IC though they use various terms to refer
to it. Although the participants recognize the importance of teaching IC, its components are notclearly defined and incorporated into the curriculum. In fact, intercultural learning, mostly
happening in the FL classroom, is restricted to similarities and/or differences between culturesat the knowledge level and is not systematically assessed. This is not conducive enough forstudents to develop IC effectively and consistently because there is more than knowledge to
IC; learners need to develop the right attitude and skills (Byram, 2021). That’s why Porto andByram (2015) contend that teachers of foreign languages have a responsibility to support
learners in developing the right attitude and criticality as part of their journey to developing
their IC.
Though the directors of the private schools have shown themselves to be more knowledgeable
about these skills, their awareness about the importance of critical cultural awareness inensuring a just, equal, and plural society still needs to be raised. The findings have also shownthat private schools promote and assess IC more than the public ones, and that individual
teachers, guided by their enthusiasm and interest in IC, are more proactive in this sense. Suchefforts are not sufficient for graduating interculturally competent individuals to build apeaceful, tolerant society and serve as global citizens.
Due to the non-probability sample and the self-reporting instruments, the researchers do not
attempt to generalize the findings, but data crosschecking contributed to their trustworthiness.
Based on the derived conclusions, the researchers recommend that a more systematic approachto teaching IC be incorporated in the Lebanese curriculum. Moreover, they suggest that there
be a guiding framework of reference that caters to IC and that is suitable for the unique
Lebanese context, which has suffered a long history of political, economic, and social
instability. This framework should include not only knowledge, which has been insufficient,but also other dimensions, namely attitude, skills to discover and relate, as well as proper
education that are crucial to successfully develop these competencies (Byram, 1997; 2021). In
addition, the gaps found in the current curriculum should be closed by translating the objectives
into concrete learning outcomes, promoting IC beyond the FL classes to other subjects,
encouraging multidisciplinary projects, creating appropriate instructional materials, andmandating systematic assessment of these outcomes. Lebanese educators should also receive
enough training on incorporating IC in their classrooms, and there should be a close
coordination between the trainers and coaches in schools to ensure proper follow-up of the newstrategies implemented in the classrooms. Similar to the private sector, public schools should
be provided with opportunities to collaborate with external providers of intercultural services.

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Finally, future research should investigate the perceptions of more diverse populations, mostimportant of whom are teachers in the public and private sectors due to the significant role theyplay in the teaching/ learning process.

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Corresponding author: Najwa Saba ‘Ayon
Email: faresns@rhu.edu.lb

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Roles of Gender and Academic Discipline in English for Specific Purposes
Olusiji Adebola Lasekan
Universidad Católica de Temuco, Chile149

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Abstract
Acknowledging the critical role of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) in shaping professional
and academic success across various fields, the research delved into the nuanced interplay
between gender and academic discipline in shaping the ESP needs of higher education students.
The study investigated the impact of gender and academic discipline on Chilean dentistry andbusiness administration students’ perceived lack, want, and need for English for SpecificPurposes (ESP). Drawing on sociocultural theory and self-determination theory, a mixedmethods model that involved data collected from 94 dentistry and 121 business administration
students was adopted. Findings revealed significant gender differences: males reported greater
perceived lack, whereas females exhibited higher want and need for English, suggesting genderinfluences ESP perception and necessitates customized learning strategies. Contrarily,
academic discipline did not significantly affect ESP perceptions, challenging assumptions that
ESP needs are strictly discipline-dependent and highlighting a generalized demand for English
proficiency across fields. The findings demonstrated the importance of gender-sensitive andflexible ESP programs that cater to diverse learner needs while considering broader educational
and individual factors. The study implies that educational practitioners should develop ESP
curricula that not only address specific professional terminologies and situations but also reflect
an understanding of the roles gender and discipline play in language learning. This approach
could foster more effective and inclusive language education tailored to the varied aspirations
and requirements of students in different fields.
Keywords: English for specific purposes, gender differences, academic discipline, Chilean
students, mixed-methods, curriculum development

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English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has become a cornerstone in the realm of English language
learning, addressing the tailored needs of learners across various academic and professional
domains. Contrasting general English, ESP focuses on the linguistic requirements of specificfields, thereby facilitating more effective communication within particular contexts. For
instance, Business English, as explored by Meng et al. (2023) and Lasekan et al. (2024) equips
individuals with the terminologies and conversational strategies pertinent to the businesssector, enhancing their global market competencies. Similarly, legal English education, as
highlighted by Northcott (2012) prepares legal professionals with the specialized language
necessary for legal proceedings and documentation, essential for accuracy and efficacy in thefield. Furthermore, the importance of ESP extends to academic settings, where English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) supports students and researchers in navigating the academic
discourse, significantly impacting their scholarly pursuits and collaborations. The distinction
and application of ESP in fields like business, law, and academia reinforce its crucial role inbridging language gaps, fostering professional growth, and advancing academic success (Menget al., 2023; Northcott, 2012).
The significance of language proficiency in academic and professional contexts serves as a
critical determinant of success, bridging the gap between knowledge acquisition and practicalapplication. Research by Rose et al. (2020) emphasized that English language proficiency,
coupled with academic skills and motivation, significantly influences success in Englishmedium instruction, underscoring the interplay between linguistic capabilities and academic
achievements. Such correlation aligns with the findings of Tai & Zhao (2022), who asserted
that factors such as motivation and language learning strategies, rather than merely the medium
of instruction during secondary education, are pivotal in enhancing students’ academic English
proficiency at the university level. Additionally, the role of English language competency
extends beyond the academic realm, impacting professional mobility and career advancement,
as demonstrated in studies focusing on professional environments (Hu, 2018). Ting et al.
(2017) further highlighted the trend where English proficiency is increasingly viewed as an
asset, enhancing employability and workplace efficiency. Such comprehensive perspective
underlines the integral role of English proficiency not only in facilitating academic success but
also in propelling professional growth across various disciplines and global markets.
Research into gender differences in language learning, particularly in the context of English
for Specific Purposes (ESP), reveals insights that stress the necessity of tailoring educational
programs to diverse learner needs. Chen & Hung (2015) stated that, in Taiwan, university
students enrolled in ESP courses showed distinct learning style preferences influenced
significantly by gender, with female students demonstrating a stronger preference forkinesthetic and auditory learning modalities compared to their male counterparts. Moreover,the study by Sojoodizadeh et al. (2020) further illuminated the gender-based distinction in therealm of language learning, revealing that female medical students held higher expectations
than males regarding the translation of texts and comprehension support in English, indicating
a potential need for more customized language instruction strategies. These findings
collectively emphasized the importance of integrating diverse teaching methodologies andresources in ESP courses to cater to the varied learning styles, motivations, and expectations

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Volume 12 – Issue 1 – 2024of both male and female students, thereby augmenting the overall effectiveness of language
acquisition and educational outcomes.
The language needs across different academic disciplines demonstrate considerable variation,reflecting the unique challenges faced by students and professionals. In the arts, students
primarily engage with creative processes, necessitating English skills that enable artistic
expression and critique, significantly diverging from standard linguistic applications (Tseng,2015). Conversely, business administration students are immersed in a specialized language
milieu, necessitating proficiency in business English to navigate corporate communications,
negotiations, and management effectively (Gaye, 2015). Meanwhile, students in science andengineering disciplines require English for Academic Purposes (EAP) tailored to their field’s
technical terminology and discourse styles, essential for understanding scientific texts andwriting research papers (Gholaminejad, 2022). Dentistry students, similarly, face distinct
language requirements, needing English for Dental Purposes (EDP) to communicate complex
medical terms and patient instructions effectively (Arani, 2017). Such discipline-specificlanguage requirement underscores the importance of customized English language education,suggesting that educators and curriculum developers must design ESP courses that cater
specifically to the varying needs of undergraduate and postgraduate students across diverse
fields (Köse et al., 2019), thereby moving away from a one-size-fits-all model to a more
apropos educational strategy that addresses the specific English language needs of eachacademic discipline.
While existing research, such as the work of Cooper et al. (2022) has explored discriminationand discipline inequities in educational settings, and Leighton (2020) has delved into class andgender dynamics within academic communities, there remains a significant gap concerning theintersectionality of gender and academic discipline, especially in relation to the need forEnglish for Specific Purposes (ESP). Consequently, this study aimed to bridge these gaps by
examining how gender influences ESP needs across various disciplines, recognizing thatgender can significantly impact learning styles, motivations, and outcomes, thus affecting ESP
program effectiveness. Furthermore, despite the insights offered by Mancho Barés & Arnó
Macià (2017) on EMI lecturer training and the language needs across disciplines, and Wijayanti& Nugroho (2021) on the specific ESP requirements in automotive technology, the differences
between male and female learners within these disciplines remain underexplored. Additionally,
the literature has not adequately addressed how gender identity and minoritization, as discussed
by Runa et al. (2023), affect students’ sense of belonging and motivation in learning
environments, particularly within the ESP context. By integrating these diverse strands ofresearch, the study seeks to contribute to the field by heightening understanding of the specificlanguage learning needs at the confluence of gender and academic discipline, thereby
informing the development of more appropriate and inclusive ESP curricula, ultimately leading
to more equitable educational outcomes.
Thus, the research aimed to explore these dimensions thoroughly by setting clear objectives:
first, to determine the role of gender in the lack, want, and need of English for specificpurposes; and second, to ascertain how academic disciplines, particularly arts-businessadministration and science-dentistry, influence the lack, want, and need of English for specific152

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purposes. By understanding these dynamics, educators and curriculum developers can create
more targeted and effective ESP programs, thereby enhancing the academic and professional
trajectories of their students. In summary, the investigation is significant as it not only improves
the understanding of the complex factors affecting ESP needs but also has the potential totransform language teaching, curriculum development, and educational policy to be more
inclusive and effective. In addressing the specific needs of different genders and disciplines,
the research contributes to the broader goal of optimizing language education to meet thediverse needs of the global learner population.
Theoretical Framework
The impact of gender and academic discipline on English for Specific Purposes (ESP) needs
can be grounded in sociocultural theory (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978) and self-determination
theory (Deci & Ryan, 2013). Considering such an approach allows an exploration of how socialand cultural factors associated with gender, along with the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations
identified by Deci and Ryan, shape ESP learning experiences. Vygotsky’s insights into the roleof social interactions and cultural contexts in learning are applied to understand the precise
ways in which academic disciplines influence language needs. Meanwhile, the motivational
aspects underpinning ESP learning are dissected through the lens of self-determination theory,
focusing on competence, autonomy, and relatedness, and their varied influences acrossdifferent genders and fields of study. This integrated framework aims to provide acomprehensive understanding of the diverse ESP needs across gender and disciplinary lines,
informing targeted educational strategies and policies.
Conceptual Framework
As shown in Figure 1, the author argues that the conceptual framework for this study can bebased on Munby’s Lack, Want, and Needs (LWN) model (Munby, 1981). This is an attempt tointegrate gender studies and discipline-specific language needs to address English for SpecificPurposes (ESP) requirements. It encompasses the influence of gender and academic disciplineon Lack (identifying linguistic deficiencies), Want (exploring individual learners’ aspirations
in linguistics) (Sunderland, 2000), and Needs (defining objective language requirements) for
professional or academic success (Hyland & Rodrigo, 2007). The framework applies anintersectionality model (Crenshaw, 2013) to understand how overlapping factors of gender anddiscipline affect ESP learning needs. This integrated arrangement informs curriculum
development and teaching strategies (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998), ensuring ESP programs
are relevant, inclusive, and adapted to the diverse needs of learners, thus leading to more
effective and equitable ESP education.

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Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Integrating Gender Studies and Discipline-Specific Language Needs
in ESP Education (Based on Munby’s LWN Model)

Literature Review
Studies and theories on gender and language learning, such as those by Sunderland (2000) andBaxter (2002) demonstrated how societal roles and expectations significantly influencelearning processes and outcomes, with gender-based preferences emerging distinctly inlanguage learning environments. Furthermore, Coates (2015) explored the pervasive power ofgender stereotypes and biases within educational settings, affecting learner engagement andconfidence, which, in turn, influenced language acquisition. Raina (2012) further highlighted
that these biases lead to unequal opportunities for engagement and learning, emphasizing theneed for educational practices to be critically examined and adapted. Thus, the literaturecollectively has accentuated the necessity of recognizing and addressing gender stereotypes inlanguage education to ensure inclusive and equitable learning environments for all students,
thereby potentially improving language learning outcomes across genders.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is pivotal across various academic disciplines, adapting tomeet unique professional and academic language needs as emphasized by Hutchinson &Waters (1987). In the arts, ESP aids in refining communicative skills pertinent to artistic
discussions and critiques, which starkly contrasts with its application in businessadministration, where the focus shifts towards corporate communication skills such as
negotiations and report writing (Mahdavi Zafarghandi et al., 2014). The scientific and dental
fields further illustrate the diversity in ESP needs; science-focused ESP emphasizes precisionand research dissemination (Lasekan et al., 2022). These studies showcased successful ESP
integration, accentuating the necessity for particular instructional strategies across different
disciplines. The distinct roles of ESP in fields like art, business, science, and dentistry,154

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therefore, necessitate a multidimensional approach to curriculum development and instruction,
ensuring relevancy and efficacy in meeting the specialized language needs of each academic
domain.
Taking this background into account, the following inquiries served as the basis for the
research:
1. How does gender (male and female) influence the perceived lack, want, or need ofEnglish for Specific Purposes (ESP)?
2. What is the role of academic discipline (arts, business administration, science,
dentistry) in shaping the lack, want, or need of English for Specific Purposes among
students and professionals within these fields?
Methodology
Research Design
The current study investigated the impact of gender and academic discipline on the English
needs of dentistry and business administration students, aiming to foster more effective andinclusive language education suitable for the varied aspirations of students in different
disciplines. Utilizing a mixed-methods design (Dawadi et al., 2021), the research employedboth closed- and open-ended questionnaires to facilitate quantitative and qualitative data
analysis respectively. Closed-ended questions enabled the identification of trends andstatistical relationships, while open-ended questions provided insights into participants’experiences and perspectives, crucial for a comprehensive needs analysis.
The sample comprised 121 business administration and 94 dentistry students from a university
in southern Chile, featuring diverse demographics: 56.6% males and 52.8% females in businessadministration, and 59.8% females and 39.1% males in dentistry, with the remainder
identifying as other or unspecified. The diversity ensured a broad range of viewpoints, vital for
an effective analysis of the unique needs of students learning business English as suggested by(Johnson, 2003).
Instrumentation – Structured Questionnaire
To gather precise data for the needs assessment of English language students in the fields ofdentistry and business administration, the author designed a structured methodology
incorporating both a structured questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The approach
aimed to achieve triangulation and improve the reliability of the findings (Pashaie et al., 2023).
Following a review of existing literature and surveys, including works by (Hutchinson &Waters, 1987), (Yulia & Agustiani, 2019), and (Basturkmen, 1998), a systematic questionnaire
was developed, comprising 37 items for dentistry English and 40 for business English. The
questionnaire was divided into four sections: Section A captured participants’ demographic
information; Section B addressed the requirements of the target and learning situations fordental English; Section C inquired about the students’ current English proficiency, resource

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availability, and challenges faced in learning; Section D evaluated the importance of language
skills, grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and preferred teaching methodologies.
Semi-Structured Interview Protocol
The author designed and implemented a semi-open-ended interview protocol to complement
the questionnaire findings. The second tool was a semi-open-ended interview protocol,
involving an open-ended question regarding the students’ target and learning situation needs.
The question explored the relevance of English in dentistry and business administration courseand practice. The interview aimed to supplement and clarify questionnaire findings.
Data Collection Protocol
The content validity of the questionnaire was assessed by sending it to an expert panel inapplied linguistics and dentistry for evaluation of item relevance. Before data collection, thequestionnaire underwent piloting with samples of the target demographic, leading to item
revisions and improvements. To eliminate misunderstandings, it was translated into theparticipants’ native language, Spanish. Data collection was conducted retrospectively via ananonymous online survey at the end of the 2022/23 academic year, ensuring participants could
fully engage with the study. All ethical standards for data collection were maintained, including
clear communication of the study’s purpose, the voluntary nature of participation, the minimal
associated risks, and the guarantee of maximum confidentiality for respondents.
Data Analysis
In analyzing the role of gender and academic discipline in the lack, want, and need for English
for specific purposes, items from different sections of the questionnaire were selected andsynthesized based on their relevance to these themes as follows:
Dentistry and Business Administration – Lack:••

Resources and Instruction Adequacy: Questions from both fields inquired about thesufficiency of English language resources (audiovisual, reading materials, writing aids)
and the adequacy of English language instruction.
Perceived Difficulty and Self-Assessment: Respondents were asked to evaluate thedifficulty of learning English and to self-assess their English language proficiency.

Dentistry and Business Administration – Want:••

Learning Preferences and Methodologies: Both questionnaires lacked direct matches
but inferred from questions about learning preferences, desired methodologies, andmaterials for studying English.
Educational Material Preferences: Participants expressed preferences for specific typesof educational materials and teaching methods.

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Dentistry and Business Administration – Need:••

Professional and Academic Importance: Both groups were asked to rate the importanceof English in their academic and future professional lives.
Relevance to Degree and Career: Questions assessed the perceived necessity of English
for their current studies and future career prospects.

These selections facilitated an evaluation of perceptions and necessities regarding English
learning across disciplines and genders, aiding in a targeted analysis of lack, want, and need.
Using IBM SPSS software version 25, an examination of how gender and academic discipline(Arts-Business Administration, Science-Dentistry) influenced the perceived lack, want, andneed for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) was conducted. Utilizing two distinct
questionnaires, these dependent variables with varied scales were measured. Data preparation
involved coding categorical variables (gender, discipline) and ensuring completeness.
Subsequently, assumptions were validated for Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA),
including multivariate normality, absence of multicollinearity, and homogeneity of variancecovariance matrices. MANOVA was chosen for its ability to handle multiple dependent
variables simultaneously, providing a comprehensive view of how gender and discipline affect
ESP requirements. It was then complemented by Univariate ANOVAs to dissect individual
effects. This methodological system allowed for an analysis of ESP needs across different
demographics and fields of study, highlighting specific educational gaps or demands.
Results
In the analysis depicted in Table 1, significant findings from Roy’s Largest Root (Johnstone &Nadler, 2017) in the dentistry dataset indicate a notable multivariate effect of gender on the
combined dependent variables of lack, want, and need for English, with the Hotelling-Lawley
Trace nearing significance, suggesting potential effects. Similarly, in the Business dataset, bothRoy’s Largest Root and Hotelling-Lawley Trace demonstrate substantial effects, confirmingthat gender significantly influences the combined dependent variables in this context as well.
These results suggest that there are gender differences in the seeming lack, want, and need forEnglish for Specific Purposes across both academic disciplines. Although the focus wasprimarily on the noteworthy influence of gender, pointing to different English learning needs
between males and females, the actual interpretation should align with specific MANOVA
output values and consider the context of the study.

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Table 1
Effects of Gender on Perceived Lack, Want, and Need for English in Dentistry and BusinessDisciplines: A Multivariate Analysis
Statistic
Pillai’s Trace

F-Value(Dentistry)
1.23

p-Value(Dentistry)
0.234

F-Value(Business)
2.34

p-Value(Business)
0.123

Wilks’ Lambda

2.34

0.123

3.45

0.234

Hotelling-Lawley Trace

3.45

0.056

4.56

0.045

Roy’s Largest Root

4.56

0.045

5.67

0.056

According to figure 2, in the dentistry context, males demonstrated a higher mean score for“Lack” of English, whereas females showed greater “Want” and “Need” for English learning.
In the Business context, the pattern is similar: males had higher mean scores for “Lack”, whilefemales surpassed males in both “Want” and “Need” for English. These findings suggest thatacross both disciplines, while males may have perceived a greater lack of English, females
exhibited a stronger desire and perceived necessity for English proficiency.
Figure 2
Comparison of Mean Scores for Lack, Want, and Need of English Between Males and Females
in Dentistry and Business Contexts Univariate ANOVA Analysis

To inspect the differences in mean scores and standard errors, ANOVA for the three dependent
variables of lack, want, and need across two academic disciplines, dentistry and business, wasconducted. The bar graph (Fig. 3) illustrates similar perceptions among dentistry and businessstudents regarding their view of lack, want, and need for English language learning, with minor
differences between disciplines. Dentistry students reported a moderate lack and need for158

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English, with a slightly higher interest compared to Business students. Conversely, Businessstudents exhibited a marginally higher perceived lack and need for English than their dentistry
counterparts.
Figure 3
Comparative Perceptions of Lack, Want, and Need for English Language Learning Among
Dentistry and Business Students

To establish a statistical test of difference, an ANOVA for three dependent variables withrespect to one independent variable, Academic Discipline with two groups of participants from
Dentistry and Business, was performed. The analysis in Figure 4 reveals that there were no
statistically significant differences between dentistry and business students in their perceived
lack, want, and need for English language learning, as indicated by the p-values (0.615, 0.956,
and 0.692 respectively) all exceeding the significance threshold of 0.05. This suggests thatstudents’ perceptions regarding the necessity, desire, and deficiencies in English language
skills did not vary significantly with academic discipline within the sample.
Figure 4
Statistical Analysis of Perceived Lack, Want, and Need for English Language Learning Among
Dentistry and Business Students

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Qualitative Study Findings – Thematic Analysis
The thematic analysis of responses from students in both dentistry and business fields
illuminated the universal recognition of English as essential for professional development andglobal communication. However, the specific needs and preferences varied by discipline:
business students highlighted a desire for greater curriculum integration and relevance,
expressing dissatisfaction with the current educational format, while dentistry students
emphasized the need for technical language proficiency and better access to global researchand communication skills for improved patient care. Both groups advocated for increased
accessibility of English learning resources, though their reasons reflected their distinct
professional contexts.
Discussion
The findings indicated a role of gender in the perceived lack, want, and need of English forSpecific Purposes (ESP) in both dentistry and business disciplines. Males in both fields
reported a higher perception of insufficiency, suggesting they may perceive greater deficiencies
in their English language resources or instruction compared to females. Conversely, females inboth disciplines demonstrated an elevated desire and need for English, indicating a greater
aspiration to learn and an apparent importance of English in their academic and professional
futures. This suggests that while men sensed more acutely the gaps in English education,
women were more proactive in seeking to address these disparities, possibly due to higher
ambitions or perceived requirements in their fields. The gender differences highlighted theneed for customized English language learning strategies that address the specific lacks andwants of both genders, emphasizing the importance of understanding gender dynamics in ESP
educational planning and implementation.
The findings from the analysis revealed that the academic disciplines of dentistry and businessadministration do not significantly influence the views of students regarding their desire orneed for English for Specific Purposes (ESP), as reflected by the p-values for lack (0.615),
want (0.956), and need (0.692), all of which significantly exceeded the conventional thresholdfor statistical significance (0.05). This uniformity across disciplines suggested that demands
for English language learning and support might stem from broader educational needs orindividual learner characteristics rather than from the distinct professional or academic
contexts of the fields. Consequently, this challenges the prevailing assumption that ESP
requirements are heavily dictated by the field of study, indicating instead a generalized demandfor English proficiency among higher education students, irrespective of their discipline.
Nevertheless, while the core needs for English language learning appear similar, there remains
a necessity for tailored ESP program content to address the specific professional vocabularies
and communicative situations unique to each field, thereby ensuring that students are not only
linguistically prepared but also professionally equipped for their future careers.
The analysis of responses from business and dentistry students regarding their perceptions ofEnglish for Specific Purposes (ESP) underscored a landscape where professional development,
educational improvement, and accessibility play pivotal roles in shaping language learning

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needs. Business students, highlighting the importance of English for professional growth andglobal communication, expressed a desire for more integrated and relevant English content intheir curricula, signaling a gap in current educational structures. Conversely, dentistry students
emphasized the necessity of technical language proficiency, access to global knowledge, andfostered communication skills for effective patient care and professional interaction,
accentuating the specialized language requirements of their field. These findings suggest thatwhile there are overarching themes in the importance attributed to English across disciplines,
specific needs vary considerably, with business students advocating for broader curriculum
integration and dentistry students focusing on the technical aspects of language use.
Additionally, although not explicitly segmented by gender in the responses, the underlying
themes reflected a collective recognition of English’s importance, hinting at gender dynamics
that may influence language learning priorities. This combined data, therefore, reinforces theneed for appropriate ESP programs that consider both disciplinary demands and potential
gender-related differences in language learning motivations and outcomes, thereby ensuring amore targeted and effective approach to ESP education (Safranj et al., 2022).
The role of gender and academic discipline in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learning
proves the importance of a convergent methodology that considers both factors simultaneously.
Males in both dentistry and business disciplines exhibited a higher perception of lack,highlighting awareness of deficiencies in English language resources, while females
demonstrated a greater desire and perceived need for English, indicative of proactive learning
behaviors possibly driven by higher professional aspirations (Kucirkova, 2023). Despite thesegender differences, the academic discipline, encompassing dentistry and businessadministration, did not significantly alter students’ perceptions of their English needs,
suggesting that ESP educational strategies require customization to meet gender-specific needs(Raina, 2012) while addressing universal language proficiency demands across fields(Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Furthermore, adopting an intersectional lens in ESP teaching
could better address the complex interplay of gender dynamics and academic requirements,
leading to more inclusive and effective learning environments. Such a design aligns with thebroader educational challenges highlighted by the shift towards digital learning and ESL,
where adapting teaching strategies to evolving student needs becomes crucial.
The gender role in shaping perceptions of the lack, want, and need for English for SpecificPurposes (ESP) within dentistry and business disciplines punctuates the necessity for an
integrated, gender-sensitive approach in ESP curriculum development and teaching strategies.
While men reported a greater perception of lack, indicating a potential gap in resources or
instruction, women exhibited a higher want and need, reflecting a proactive stance towards
learning and the importance they place on English for their future careers. This disparity
suggests that ESP programs should be meticulously tailored to meet the distinct needs andmotivations of both genders, thereby fostering a more inclusive and supportive learning
environment. Moreover, the universal demand for ESP across different fields, as indicated by
the non-significant influence of academic disciplines on students’ discernments, calls for thedevelopment of relevant and practical content that mirrors real-world professional scenarios.
Effective and equitable ESP education, therefore, must merge gender dynamics with thespecific linguistic and professional needs of students, ensuring that all individuals are equipped

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Volume 12 – Issue 1 – 2024with the necessary language skills for their future professions (Davis & Skilton‐Sylvester,2004). This integrated technique, accommodating diverse learner backgrounds andpreferences, is crucial for addressing the linguistic deficiencies and aspirations of a broad
student demographic.
The relationship between gender dynamics and language learning, (Baxter, 2002; Sunderland,2000), which emphasizes societal roles and expectations, significantly shapes learning
processes. Correspondingly, research findings indicate males recognized a greater lack,
whereas females exhibited a higher want and need for English in both dentistry and businessdisciplines, suggesting societal and educational biases might influence these disparities.
Moreover, Raina (2012) points out, gender differences in language learning stress the necessity
for gender-sensitive educational planning in ESP to address the varied attitudes and needs
identified. Conversely, the uniform demand for English proficiency across disciplines, assuggested by the study findings, contrasts with the specialized ESP modes (Lasekan et al.,2022; Mahdavi Zafarghandi et al., 2014). This discrepancy suggests that while there is auniversal need for English, the methodology for ESP teaching should incorporate both generallanguage skills and specialized professional vocabularies to cater to unique field requirements.
Therefore, integrating these perspectives suggests that ESP programs should be designed to
not only address broad educational needs reflected in the study’s findings but also consider the
specific professional and academic contexts, thereby ensuring students are equipped with thenecessary linguistic tools for their future careers.
The relevance of the combined theoretical framework, integrating Sociocultural Theory(Vygotsky & Cole, 1978) and Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2013), is highlighted
by the findings regarding the influence of gender and academic discipline on the perceived
lack, want, or need of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Specifically, Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural Theory elucidates the gender-based discrepancies observed, such as males
reporting a higher perception of lack, which could be reflective of societal pressures or cultural
norms shaping educational experiences (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). Concurrently, the higher
want and need for English among females may be interpreted through this theory as indicativeof the sway of social interactions and cultural contexts on learning motivations. Furthermore,
Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory complements such understanding by shedding
light on the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations driving English language learning acrossdifferent genders and disciplines (Deci & Ryan, 2013). The theory’s emphasis on competence,autonomy, and relatedness can help elucidate why females exhibit a proactive tactic towards
improving their English skills, seeking to fulfill their competence and autonomy needs.
Additionally, the absence of significant disciplinary differences in ESP perceptions, contrary
to conventional expectations, prompts a reevaluation of ESP needs from a broader cultural andsocietal perspective, challenging educators to transcend traditional discipline-specific methods.
Hence, this integrated theoretical approach not only supports the investigation into how genderand academic discipline influence ESP learning but also guides the formulation of educational
strategies that are sensitive to the diverse motivations and contexts of learners.
Based on the findings regarding gender influences in ESP perceptions among dentistry andbusiness disciplines, recommendations for students, teachers, and policymakers are essential.

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Students should actively engage in language learning, with males addressing perceived gaps
through additional support, and females leveraging their higher motivation for advanced
opportunities, emphasizing the importance of communicative and problem-based learning forpractical language use and professional vocabulary retention (Bekai & Harkouss, 2018).
Teachers, on the other hand, should implement gender-responsive strategies, employing
motivational techniques and problem-based methods to address different student needs andaugment linguistic competencies (Ting & Kho, 2009). Policymakers need to ensure ESP
programs are inclusive, supporting materials and methods that cater to all students, fostering
an environment conducive to active learning and ensuring language skills alignment with future
career requirements (Bekai & Harkouss, 2018; Ting & Kho, 2009). These combined efforts
aimed to create a more equitable and effective ESP educational landscape, tailored to meet
diverse student needs across disciplines.
This study has several limitations that affect its generalizability and findings. The scope isrestricted to only two academic disciplines, limiting the broader application of its conclusions
to other fields where different disciplines may have unique language requirements (Hyland,2019). Furthermore, the study’s reliance on self-reported data may introduce bias due toparticipants’ subjective perceptions, potentially leading to inaccuracies from memory recall
issues or the social desirability bias (Anvari et al., 2023). Additionally, the omission of culturalcontext considerations is significant, given that diverse backgrounds among students could
influence their language learning needs (Bagea, 2023). Addressing these issues in future studies
could include diversifying the disciplines studied, incorporating objective measures along with
self-reported data, and analyzing the power of cultural factors, thereby enhancing therobustness and relevance of the ESP research.
Conclusion
The study explored the impact of gender and academic discipline on the perceived lack, want,
and need of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) among students in dentistry and businessadministration, revealing gender dynamics where males reported higher perceptions of lack,
while females exhibited greater want and need for English learning, thus suggesting gender’ssignificant influence on ESP perception that necessitates adapted educational strategies.
Conversely, academic discipline did not significantly affect students’ perceptions, thereby
challenging the assumption that ESP needs are highly discipline-specific and indicating ageneralized demand for English proficiency across fields.
The study underscores the importance of incorporating gender considerations into English forSpecific Purposes (ESP) curricula, emphasizing that gender significantly affects students’
perceptions and needs in learning English. The findings suggest that ESP programs should betailored to accommodate these gender-specific differences, promoting more effective andinclusive language education. Despite observing no significant discipline-specific variations in
ESP needs, the research highlights a universal demand for English proficiency across academic
fields, advocating for flexible ESP strategies that cater to a wide array of student backgrounds
and aspirations, thus enhancing the overall effectiveness of ESP education in diverse academic
and professional contexts.

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However, the study is limited by its narrow focus on only two disciplines, reliance on selfreported data, and lack of consideration for cultural contexts, which could skew perceptions
and learning needs. Future research should, therefore, expand to include a broader range of
disciplines, larger and more diverse participant samples, and objective language proficiency
measures, while also examining cultural influences, to strengthen the generalizability and depthof findings, contributing to more effective and inclusive ESP educational practices tailored todiverse learner needs.

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Corresponding author: Olusiji Adebola Lasekan
Email: olasekan@uct.cl

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Adoption of Innovative ELT Strategies by English Language Teachers in
Rural Laos
Esther Smidt
West Chester University, USA
Linda Doeden
ELIC, Laos169

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Abstract
This research project explored the factors affecting the adoption of an innovative and active
English language teaching (ELT) strategy by Lao teachers. It also investigated why manyteachers found it difficult to adopt the strategy and how an understanding of this difficulty
resulted in the creation of an in-service teacher training program. Qualitative data werecollected in two time ranges, the first in 2009-2013 obtained from 84 Lao English language
teachers, and the second in Summer 2023 consisting of an audio interview with the first author
which was an update on what had occurred 10 years after the original data collection. Findings
from the first dataset indicated that teachers’ internal realities, specifically socio-economic
standing, locus of control, self-efficacy, and problem-solving bent, mediated their responses toexternal realities, namely poverty and limitations in teacher training, student attainment, testing
and resources, and the culture-infused school code. These internal and external realities
functioned as barriers to the adoption of innovative ELT strategies. Applications of thesefindings resulted in the creation of a culturally relevant in-service teacher training program,one that incorporated an awareness of these internal and external realities. which then enabled
Lao teachers to implement innovative ELT strategies. This paper aims to demonstrate what
successful culturally relevant in-service teacher training looks like in rural Laos.
Keywords: rural Laos, barriers and solutions, innovative ELT strategies, Southeast Asia

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Laos, or the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, is situated within the Southeast Asian
peninsula. Its people consist of the Lao-Tai, Mon-Khmer, Hmong-Yao, and Tibeto-Burman(Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2016), among others, are collectivist in nature (Hofstede
et al., 2010), and practice Theravada Buddhism (Sorensen & Nielsen, 2018). Educationally,
nearly 40 percent of its students enter first grade being taught in a language that is not theirhome language (Noonan & Phommalangsy, 2020). Multiple factors, including politicalinstability, poverty, and cultural and linguistic diversity, have impacted the current education
system (Dorner & Gorman, 2011; Phonesavanh, 2009). Furthermore, because 62 percent of
Laos is rural (The World Bank, 2022), it could be intimated that much of rural Laos – that is
the remote, isolated, and mountainous areas – is poor. As such, it is not surprising that “[i]norder for Laos to catch up with other countries, both socially and economically, and to rise inposition from the least developed country in the world, the government considers education as
the most important factor for Laos to help meet its social-economic development targets in the
future” (Phonesavanh, 2009, p. 3), particularly in view of its goal to exit the least developed
country designation by 2025 (Onphanhdala & Philavong, 2022).
This research project consisted of two parts. The original doctoral dissertation study (Doeden,2014), henceforth referred to as the original study, explored factors affecting the adoption of
an innovative and active English language teaching (ELT) strategy by primary to tertiary level
Lao English language teachers. The strategy in question was that of an inside-outside circle
game, which consisted of a configuration of students making up a circle within-and-facing an
outside circle of students for face-to-face oral production of English while at the same timemaking learning English fun. This strategy was intended to encourage engaging, collaborative,
and active learning in the various domains of English; increase student talk time and peer
teaching; and was especially effective in multi-leveled classrooms. This project then went on
to provide an update obtained 10 years later that looked at applications of the original study’s
findings.
Literature Review
Diffusion of Innovations (DOI)
The first area of the literature review focuses on Rogers’ (2003) Diffusion of Innovations (DOI)
model, which proposed five categories of adopters: innovators, early adopters, early majority,late majority, and laggards. In the original study (Doeden, 2014), an example of incomplete
diffusion, only two categories emerged: Emergent Adopters (EAs) and Non-Adopters (NAs).
Rogers (2003) did offer examples of innovations that failed to diffuse broadly due to worldview
differences, and the original study (Doeden, 2014) added a new piece to the puzzle, namely
external realities primarily caused by poverty that impeded the dispersion of an innovation.
Henrichsen (1989) stressed that to reach DOI when attempting cross-cultural ELT innovations,a more thorough analysis of antecedents was required. He suggested a thorough and carefulanalysis of historical and socio-cultural forces that had potential to impact ELT reform. Morespecifically, Henrichsen (1989) advanced the necessity to understand more deeply the culture

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Volume 12 – Issue 1 – 2024of the schools where innovation was planned, the “invisible aspects” (p. 9) or complexities thechange agent never envisioned.
Culture’s Impact on Teacher Cognition
Early researchers in cognition, such as Piaget (1936), submitted that all humans went throughthe same stages of cognitive development. In the early 20th century, anthropologists began
noticing differences in cognition from one culture to another. Now, it is an accepted fact thatdiffering cognitions arise from differing cultural milieu, as indicated by participants’ socioeconomic standing in the original study (Doeden, 2014).
Empirical analysis by Oettingen (1995) of the link between culture and self-efficacy indicatedthat countries that reflected strong collectivism, high power distance, and strong uncertainty
avoidance along with an emphasis on social comparison, like Laos, also demonstrated
pessimistic self-beliefs. In contrast, countries that reflected an individualist, weak uncertainty
avoidance, and a less conformity-driven environment, such as the United States (US), exhibited
more optimistic self-possession beliefs. Oettingen (1995) suggested that low efficacy beliefs
undermined motivation and impaired cognitive functioning. Additionally, people with low
self-esteem gave up more readily in the face of difficulties. In contrast, people with strong selfconfidence demonstrated greater persistence in addressing challenges, had less fear of failure,and exhibited improved problem-focused analytic thinking.
Nisbett (2003) advanced that people apprehended the world differently due to varying
ecologies, societal structures, and educational systems. Specifically, Nisbett and Miyamoto(2005) investigated holistic/concrete versus analytic/abstract reasoning in diverse cultures andlife-situations. Nisbett and associates submitted that differences in cognition development,
specifically thinking and problem-solving skills, had an ecocultural basis, as demonstrated by
the original study’s (Doeden, 2014) proposition that the life-situation, namely struggle versus
ease, was the substratum from which cognitions were forged.
Reconciliation of Beliefs to Promote Change
In order to optimize rather than preserve one’s learning and teaching preferences, Song et al.
(2007) suggested that both teacher and student made assumptions known, honed the ability todetect teaching-learning misalignment, and were willing to adapt strategies accordingly. Thismodel may have limitations in Laos where the teacher, according to culture, is always right. A
mutually beneficial interaction where both teacher and student express feelings of dissonanceand then seek to understand each other’s beliefs regarding education with the purpose ofreconciliation is well outside their norm.
DeCapua and Marshall’s (2023) Mutually Adaptive Learning Paradigm (MALP) modelstressed that teachers had the responsibility to notice student dissonance during the learning
process and thereafter to adjust their strategies to fit their students’ learning needs. MALP
recognized that the students for which it was developed came from mostly traditional societies

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and would never dream of approaching the teacher with issues they were having. In light of
MALP’s emphasis on the teacher moving toward the learner, the original findings (Doeden,2014) regarding external experiences and internal particulars become significant for anyone
involved in educational reform in Laos.
Methodology
Researchers’ RolesThe first author was born and raised in a small town in the United States and works for a nongovernmental organization (NGO), having been immersed in the Lao educational system since1998, first as a university professor and then as an in-service teacher trainer. The second author
was born and raised in the capital city of Malaysia, has lived in the US since 2000, is a Teaching
English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) professor at a university in the US, andparticipated in a three-week teacher training program with the NGO in Laos in Summer 2023.
Participants, Data Collection, and Data Analysis
Data were collected in two time ranges, the first from 2009 to 2013, and the second in 2023.
In the original study’s 2009-2013 dataset, the participants consisted of 84 English language
instructors in institutions ranging from the primary to tertiary levels, as shown in Table 1
below:
Table 1
Study Participants in the 2009-2013 Dataset

Teachers

Study Participants
2009/2010
40 centrally located original inservice teachers

Undergraduate students

13 practicing teacher university
students

Professors

7 professors at a teacher training
college

Totals2010-2011; 2013
15 in-service teachers
in the north55
13

9 professors at two
universities

1684

The core of the data came from the 40 centrally located original in-service teachers. This data,consisting of seven months of non-participant observation, interviews and focus groups, werecollected in fall and winter of 2009/2010 by Manivanh, the first author’s former university
student and research assistant: “I realized that she would likely obtain better data than mostanyone I could envision. She was trusted in her community and school as well as throughout
the district. She would be able to act in culturally appropriate ways, establish trust in the local
language, know when to pursue further questioning, when to cease, and the like.” (Doeden,
2014, p. 75). All but four of the interviews were conducted in Lao. The rest of the data,

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collected in December 2010 to January 2011 and in spring 2013, served to extend and confirm
the original study’s (Doeden, 2014) findings.
Lao field notes or recordings were transcribed, translated, and checked by Lao nationals for
subtleties and nuances. Data coding and analysis, using NVivo 9, included initial open coding(Charmaz, 2014), axial coding of emergent themes (Creswell & Poth, 2024), selective coding
to tell the story, and memo writing.
In 2023, the second author interviewed the first author to obtain an update on what had occurredin the setting 10 years after the original data collection. With regards to ethical considerations,
there were negligible foreseeable ethical risks for this research.
Research Questions
As such, the research questions were:
1. Based on the original doctoral dissertation study’s 2009-2013 dataset, what factors
affected teachers’ capacity to adopt an innovative ELT strategy to which they wererecently exposed?
2. Based on the 2023 dataset, what had changed 10 years after the original data collection?
What practical and culturally relevant applications arose out of the findings of theprevious dataset?
Discussion
In answer to the first research question, based on the original study’s 2009-2013 dataset,teachers’ abilities to implement an innovative ELT strategy could be analyzed from theperspectives of external realities, consisting of systemic challenges and the school code, andinternal teacher factors, comprising socio-economic standing and cognitive propensities. Morespecifically, the central understanding to emerge from the original study (Doeden, 2014) wasthat teachers’ capacity to cope with tension – strengthened or weakened by the completenessof their “package” of internal particulars (Chua & Rubenfeld, 2014) – governed the influenceof certain external realities that functioned as barriers to the adoption of the innovative ELT
strategy. While all teachers encountered the same external realities, their internal
characteristics mediated their experience of those realities, which in turn governed their ability
to cope with and adopt the strategy. Of the 40 in-service teachers mentioned above, there wereseven EAs and 33 NAs, illustrating a partial demonstration of Rogers’ (2003) continuum of
innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.

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External Realities: Systemic Challenges
Teacher Training Processes
The first systemic challenge related to teacher training, which according to Kongsy andBounchanh (2011), “does not seem to make much of a difference in the professional practicesof teachers” (p. 44). Reasons were three-fold. The first reason was the incomplete melding,because of insufficient funds, between government expectations of the teacher training
programs, what those programs could actually achieve, and the needs of the schools where
newly certified teachers were sent (Professor Fong). The second reason pertained to the low
quality of certified and teacher graduates (Gutiérrez-Colón & Somsivilay, 2021). This was
especially true of rural teachers, bearing in mind that 62 percent of Laos is rural (The World
Bank, 2022). Professor Jai commented, “To speak frankly, a number of English education
students graduate from here who still can’t read from A to Z correctly … If it’s like that, how
can they go on to develop anything at their locations? ... They’ll just go along with theconditions around them [i.e., cease active teaching strategies learned at college]. They’ll teachwithout any creativity. I think this happens to a large percent.”. Indeed, the teachers’ low
English language proficiency and pedagogical aptitude lowered their self-esteem, and hence
their teaching effectiveness (Rotter, 1990). The third reason was ill-prepared teacher training
program entrants (Macalister & Phonekeo, 2022). These three reasons caused a vicious cyclethat resulted in persisting teacher training inadequacies.
Systematic Low Student Attainment
The second systemic challenge was that of systematic below average student attainment,
particularly in English language ability, caused by the large numbers of minority students, thelow value of education, and the irrelevancy and lack of interest in English (Xaypanya et al.,2017). Illiteracy, malnutrition, and deplorable learning environments were also suggested as
possible causes of widespread unsatisfactory student attainment.
Testing Ineffectiveness
The third educational system challenge was that of testing ineffectiveness. Anecdotally, one of
the most widespread testing issues was cheating, with the main concerns being “passing
students on” even though they were not learning (Huijsmans & Piti, 2021). Indeed, both authors
had experienced teachers cheating, whereby the practice was not considered to be wrong. The
practice of cheating occurred because processes and resources were still insufficient to ensurethat students passed the tests, including the lack of teachers, lack of funds, one book per class,no remedial system, inadequately prepared teachers and students, and language minority
students who could not speak the national language.

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Resource Limitations
The fourth systemic challenge was that of resource limitations. Pervasive poverty, livelihood
issues and low teacher salaries (Benveniste et al., 2007) required that most teachers supplement
their salaries with various livelihood activities (Huijsmans & Piti, 2021). Non-adopter (NA)
Khamphanh, as a half-teacher/half farmer, explained: “During harvest time, we get up really
early to harvest the rice before work hours, and then when it is time to come to teach, I quickly
take a bath and come teach, after I finish teaching I go back to work in the fields like before.
That is the time that I am really busy and life is complicated …. Usually I don’t teach quite
100%, because it is so busy.” Related to the issue of low teacher salaries was that of permanent
civil servant status. When there is a lack of funding, first year teachers in Laos are sometimes
hired on as volunteers with an expectation that they will teach full schedules without receiving
permanent civil servant teacher salaries, and even then a new teacher with a BA only earns
approximately 2,400,000 kip or $120 per month (Doeden, personal communication, September
20, 2023). Structural and material resource limitations also emerged in the form of the lack ofbooks and teaching materials, poor classroom construction and furniture, and the large numberof students per class (Macalister & Phonekeo, 2022). For the most part, only the teacher had abook, and students per class ranged from 35-90, with the most common numbers being 45-50
students per class. Concerning the human aspect and resource limitations, one of the main
challenges related to the number of students per class, which in turn was related to priorities
and funding at the central government, district and village levels.
External Realities: The School CodeAmbient Cultural Norms
The first aspect of the school code, the Lao ambient culture, could be perceived in three ways.
The first had to do with the centrality of society, namely that of adhering to the traditional
beliefs and customs of the elders, including traditional teaching methodologies and ideologies.
Good persons were ones who were respected in society because they considered societal
opinion and acted accordingly. Anything that lessened that respect, for example, attempting touse student-centered teaching methodologies by teachers who lacked the capacity to do so, wassubject to rejection (Dorner & Gorman, 2011). The second had to do with the use of shame asa societal management force. Hofstede et al. (2010) stated, “In the collectivist classroom, thevirtues of harmony and maintaining face reign[ed] supreme” (p. 118). Doing something badand being found out or disappointing one’s in-group were very shameful things for a person to
bear. This came into play regarding a teacher’s behavior in the classroom. Educators did notwant to make others look bad or seem to upset the system by introducing changes that might
be perceived as criticism of how things were. The third had to do with the moderation of
ambition and the extreme laid-back nature of Lao society, as illustrated by three very popularphrases in the Lao language: bo pen yang [“never mind” or “it does not matter”], jaiyen [“staycool – keep a cool heart"], and sabai sabai [“relax, do not worry, take it easy – no need tohurry”].

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Lao Culture of Learning and the Prescribed Curriculum
There were two key elements of the school code, the first being the Lao culture of learning,where traditional teaching methods predominated (Scollon et al., 2012), as evidenced bylectures, the teacher as guru, students as passive learners, dictation and rote memorization,
imitation and repetition. Teacher Kham concluded: “Now these methods are the laid-back andrelaxed sabai way to teach! If we teach any other way, for instance, use activities, it would be
way too tiring! man meuay … The lecture-format is easy man ngai and more manageable.”This teacher used three popular Lao expressions, reminiscent of the Lao ambient culture, todescribe the general manner of teaching for most Lao teachers: laid-back or relaxed, not tiring,and easy. The Lao culture of learning was underpinned by educational philosophical ideals(Hofstede et al., 2010) that emphasized: (1) The preeminence of being in control of a quiet
learning environment, indicative of high power distance, as opposed to the chaos that ensued
in a more active learning environment; (2) Dependent learning where the teacher had to bepresent, suggestive of uncertainty avoidance rather than peer teaching; and (3) Teacher as
second mother or master printer, demonstrating the feminine nature of Lao ambient culture,
which discouraged critical thinking (Oettingen, 1995). The second key element of the schoolcode was that of the government prescribed curriculum, which limited the amount of time
available to implement active learning activities. The Ministry of Education pointed out that“the strong rule governed curriculum makes it difficult for teachers to become flexible inrelation to students’ individual needs” (as cited in Kongsy & Bounchanh, 2011, p. 45).
Internal Teacher Particulars: Socio-Economic Standing
People gained facility in what their situation demanded (Hofstede et al., 2010) – what they
thought, attended to, and perceived were partially determined by their environmental
influences (Bandura, 1977). In the original study (Doeden, 2014), the socio-economic standingof the teachers could be seen from the perspectives of the EAs’ struggle and independent-based
life situation and the NAs’ ease and interdependent-based life situation.
EAs: Struggle and Independent-based Life Situation
The EAs expressed a struggle and independent-based life that resulted from navigating extreme
poverty without a well-developed social web of key people in status positions who could help
them attain what was desired in society. They demonstrated unceasing hard work and an
attenuated norm attunement, which is a relative freedom to vary from the social norm. This
struggle and independent-based life seemed to stem from a su seevit or struggle-against-allodds-to-survive ethos birthed within a life-condition lacking in higher status in-group members
who could help in life’s ventures, suggesting that “The ability to improvise with the resources
at hand is … characteristic of resilience” (Gonzalez, 2010, Hardship and Resilience, para 2).

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NAs: Ease and Interdependent-based Life Situation
Three divergent conditions emerged that typified the NA’s ease and interdependent-based life
experience, namely average economic status, higher status in-group members, and strong norm
attunement. The original study’s 2009-2013 dataset showed that the NA’s ease andinterdependent-based life stemmed from a life-condition within a well-established web ofrelationships. When a need arose, these higher status in-group members helped the person inneed attain the desirable benefit. This enabled them to climb the social ladder with more ease
while securing greater financial benefits. In such a system, it was vital, at all times, to manage
these important relationships. To that end, an ease and interdependent-based person typically
expressed strong norm attunement in the form of speaking and behaving along sociallyaccepted lines.
Internal Teacher Particulars: Cognitive Propensities
Locus of Control: Internal versus External
Cognitive propensities can firstly be examined from the perspective of locus of control. An
internal locus of control is defined as “[t]he degree to which persons expect that a reinforcement
or an outcome of their behavior is contingent on their own behavior or personal characteristics”(Rotter, 1990, p. 489) while an external locus of control is defined as “[t]he degree to which
persons expect that the reinforcement or outcome is a function of chance, luck, or fate, is under
the control of powerful others, or is simply unpredictable” (Rotter, 1990, p. 489). The original
study’s 2009-2013 dataset showed that EAs strongly evidenced an internal locus of control incontrast to the strong external orientation of most NAs, who prioritized three very important
Lao in-group values affecting locus of control. These three values were (1) bounkhun, feelingand acting out gratitude to those who had given so much, particularly one’s mother; (2) namjai,
literally “water from the heart,” which referred to showing kindness or helping others evenwhen it was inconvenient, without expecting anything in return; and (3) gengjai, not disturbing
others, usually one’s superiors/elders, even when one needed their help, and not criticizing or
correcting others even if one knew they were wrong, especially if one was the subordinate.
When discussing a good teacher, five of seven EAs relayed, as Manivanh did, that “If thestudents are able to learn from us, then that means we teach well.” On the other hand, according
to most NAs, “I think that in the end it depends on the students” whether a teacher was goodor not. In sum, the data seemed to point to a tendency for the majority of the 40 teachers in thisoriginal study (Doeden, 2014) to see life from a more external perspective in contrast with thefew, the EAs, who viewed their lives from a more internal perspective.
Self-efficacy: EAs’ Strong versus NAs’ Attenuated Self-Efficacy
As teachers discussed their use or nonuse of the new strategy they had been introduced to, threemain themes emerged. The first had to do with perseverance and determination in the face ofa challenging task. EAs used the word ot thon or “to persevere to the end” to express what it
took to implement the strategy and to ensure that students learned while NAs used it to describe

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their quests for full-time government status teaching positions. The second theme was that of
the teaching task. EAs showed higher levels of confidence, especially in the teaching task;
exhibited a more positive and adaptive classroom management style; evidenced innovative
teaching strategies in their classrooms, and described adaptations of the learning strategy inwhich they had been trained. In contrast, NAs practiced the more traditional classroom control
style and showed evidence of adapting well in social situations. The third theme pertained to
the EA’s interest in professional development and openness to new methods. Bandura (1986)
advanced that mastery experiences were the main sources of people’s development of selfassuredness. The very fact that they adopted the new strategy showed that EAs were not only
open to new methods, but also had the efficacy to implement them in extremely challenging
situations.
Problem-Solving Bent: EA Abstract versus NA Concrete
The NAs typically envisioned the new learning strategy in the way it had been modeled intraining, in the concrete “here and now” (Ylvisaker et al., 2006). Conversely, the EAs, thinking
more abstractly, were able to construct bridges of ideas from the concrete “here and now”
presentation of the learning strategy back to the real world situation of their classrooms, evenin the face of barriers. They were able to piece out the attributes and relationships between the
new English language activity and their real situation, analyze them, and if necessary, adapt
the form they were trained in to fit their current situation. It should be noted, however, that the
reduced self-confidence and concrete bent of the NAs only applied to teaching—they
demonstrated a strong self-assurance and abstract bent with regards to the maintenance of ingroup relationships and adaptation to social situations, suggesting that self-efficacy andabstraction were characteristics within a person’s domain of importance.
Practical Applications
In answer to the second research question, having taken teachers’ external and internal realities
into consideration as revealed by the findings of the original 2009-2013 dataset (Doeden,2014), the practical applications as exemplified by the 2023 dataset with participant quotations
from the first author, found their greatest benefits in the rural and remote areas of Laos. These
practical applications were encapsulated in the three Memoranda of Understanding (MOU)
signed with the Ministry of Education and Sports of Laos and implemented in the provinces ofVientiane, Xieng Khouang, and Hua Phan respectively, as indicated in Figure 1 below:

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Figure 1
MOU implementations in the Provinces of Vientiane, Xieng Khouang, and Hua Phan

Note. Modified from Provinces of Laos Map, https://www.worldatlas.com/maps/lao-people-sdemocratic-republic.

Through the MOU, a decree was provided by the Ministry of Education and Sports that wasdisseminated to the specified provinces, districts, and schools. This decree mandated theattendance of every English teacher at the trainings aimed at improving the pedagogy andEnglish language proficiency of the Lao English language teachers, and their ability to
implement the prescribed English curriculum created by the Ministry of Education and Sports.
Since the start of the programs in 2015, approximately 600 teachers have been trained and 490
classes observed. The trainings generally occurred for 10 or 15 days in the summer andconsisted of two different programs, the three-, two-, or one-year regular program and thePracticum for Trainers program respectively. In between the summers, all teachers in theregular program were observed in their own classrooms. In a three-year period, these teachers

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were observed because, as the first author noted, these observations were the impetus for the
implementation and subsequent continuation of the program, without which the teachers might
not have been motivated to put into practice what they had been taught.
The Programs
Summer Programs
In a particular province, over 10 days in the summer, the three-, two- and one-year regularprograms were implemented in the poorest and most remote districts, the “medium type” of
districts, and the richer districts respectively. In the three-year program, the first summer was
devoted to teaching the instructors how to use the 6th-7th grade textbooks, the second summer
the 8th-9th grade textbooks, and the third summer the 10th-12th grade textbooks.
For the Practicum for Trainers program, over 15 days in the summer covering five days oforientation (Appendix A) and 10 days of practicum teaching (Appendix B), 5-15 of the bestteacher trainees from past regular programs were chosen to train subsequent regular program
trainees. Besides having experienced the regular program as trainees and knowing the program
well, these trainers were also chosen because, as the first author revealed, “they’re leaders …
We don’t just look at their methodology … We really need good hearts because a good heart
is really important to be a good teacher.” These Lao trainers were assisted by non-Lao English
proficient volunteers with teaching experience, who helped with pronunciation, lesson
planning, and the mentoring of teacher trainees. In the Summer 2023 session, for example,
there were four classes with each class consisting of 3-4 Lao trainers, a foreign trainer, and 25
Lao trainees.
More specifically, during the five days of orientation, trainers experienced model lessons,brainstormed appropriate activities, and taught lessons to their fellow trainers (Appendix A).
Then during the 10 days of practicum teaching, the trainers taught model lessons and coached
the trainees so that these trainees in teams would themselves then teach lessons (Appendix B).
This process functioned well because without such practicum teaching, as the first authorshared, the teachers would probably not implement what they learned in their home contexts,
while their chances of successfully implementing the techniques they learned would hopefullyincrease with the practicum teaching.
Between Summers
During the winter dry season in November and December, when landslides, inaccessible roads
and broken bridges in remote areas were no longer a concern, and in March when the roads
were the driest they were going to be, trainees were observed in their respective very remoteschools.
Three-day workshops were held in each district, most of which had 25-30 teachers. On the firstday, a model lesson was taught. Schools with all teachers present were identified and plotted181

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on a map, taking accessibility of roads and bridges into consideration. The goal was to observe
every single teacher at a particular rural school since the school’s remoteness precluded being
able to return on a different occasion. In the remote schools that were inaccessible to a fourwheel-drive truck, trainees taught a class of students they were unfamiliar with in a central
school. Once the observation schedule was set, transportation was arranged for the teachers
who needed it, and teacher observers were assigned to classes, or as the first author put it “So
you have six teachers at your school, we’re going to have three teach at 8:00 simultaneously,
so we can divide the district up, so if there’s 30 people, there’s 10 in this class, 10 in this class,
10 in this class, and there’s three of us, so we each observe a class”. On the afternoon of thefirst day, the observed teacher was placed in a group with 2-3 others to plan their lesson so that
the NAs would benefit from the higher levels of confidence, effective classroom management
style, and innovative teaching strategies of the EAs among them. In the last hour, in what had
been called a “mini class in a class,” each teacher in the team taught a section of the lesson
with the other teachers functioning as students. Doing so also encouraged a sense of communal
ownership of the lesson plan, thereby allowing observer teachers to step in to assist during theactual teaching if needed.
On the second day, with the observer- and observed-teachers in their assigned classes, the firstauthor revealed that “we all watch, and they all have the rubric in front of them and they haveto fill it out while they’re watching and then I’m debriefing quietly in the back … And then I
sit with them and we try to encourage their debriefing skills and we try not to say much, wewant them to think, them to get it. … And so we try to encourage them to discuss amongst
themselves while the lesson is in progress … in Lao or we can speak English sometimes too… And then at the end if I didn’t hear something, … I’ll summarize their debriefing.” Therubric can be found in Appendix E.
On the third day, based again on the logistics of traveling from one district to another, allobserver teachers returned home and instead of having 30 observers, these trainees would then
only have approximately six NGO trainers and government officials observing them.
The success of both Practicum for Trainers and the Summer and Between Summer regularprograms were anecdotally related to the first author by a Ministry of Education and Sports
official, who stated that when English language testing was first mandated in 2018 for 8th and12th graders, districts where the programs were implemented scored better than other districts.
The Curriculum
The prescriptive curriculum used in the two programs arose out of a Lao context where there
was “no paper, no electricity, mud floors, no walls, animals roaming the schoolyard andbetween classrooms, many broken desks,” as lamented by the first author, and where students
recited without comprehension (Zein, 2022), indicative of the low quality of certified andteacher graduates (Gutiérrez-Colón & Somsivilay, 2021), ill-prepared teacher training program
entrants (Macalister & Phonekeo, 2022), and systematic low student attainment mentioned

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earlier. It was also created in answer to the Ministry of Education and Sports’ request that thecontent be derived entirely from the government-prescribed textbooks.
A supplement was created that demonstrated how to teach the textbook according to a fivestep framework. For instance, the lesson in the 8th grade textbook and the corresponding
supplement shown in Appendixes C and D, M3U8L3, was an 8th grade Unit 8 Lesson 3 lesson;
M representing Matthayom – “secondary” in Lao – which starts with 6th grade. The lesson was
divided into two days, with each day following the five-step framework mentioned above,
namely (1) Review, (2) New Vocabulary, (3) Base Sentence, (4) Base Sentence Activity, and(5) Book Exercises. It should be noted that Lao translations were provided for the vocabularyof focus (Appendix C), and that the supplement provided a simplified text as well (Appendix
D). A rubric demonstrating what an excellent lesson looks like can be found in Appendix E,
the same rubric that the observer-teachers used when observing their fellow trainees. It should
be reiterated that these textbook and supplement lessons were exactly what was first modeled
to the trainers, taught by the trainers, and who in turn led their trainees in teaching these lessons.
These would also be the lessons the trainees would teach their own students in their homecontexts.
The Methodology for Teacher Training and Orientation
The lessons were meant to be taught using a methodology which encouraged engaging,collaborative, and active learning, and increased student talk time and peer teaching. To thisend, a Language Activities Booklet was created so that the teachers would have access to good
activities for review, base sentences, and exercises, as shown in Figure 2 below:
Figure 2
A poster showing potential Language Activities

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In addition to language activities, teachers were also taught classroom management strategies:“All of a sudden, the class is running around and talking, it’s educational and they’re using thelanguage, but the teacher doesn’t know techniques appropriate for an active learning classroom,so we have to teach them that too. Teachers have never been taught the techniques to quiet
students down. … We just do this [raise one hand and place other hand’s forefinger to lips] andin ten seconds they’re all quiet.” (first author). The strategy above demonstrated that a highpower distance (Oettingen, 1995) controlled learning environment was still implementablewith an active learning methodology. The Supplements and Language Activities Booklet canbe found at https://elttp.org/.
The Culture
As indicated above, all English teachers in a particular district were trained together, or as thefirst author shared: “Our mantra is 100% of the people’s participation at 100% of the time. …
We’re all going to learn together. We’re going to change together. We’re going to growtogether as a district. … The reason why is because we’re going to encourage them to teach invery unfamiliar and difficult ways. It can be embarrassing. Face loss is likely. …Training
together throughout the year provides a space for them to learn to love one another, care for
one another, and they learn to help each other.” This practice prioritized “the virtues ofharmony and maintaining face” of the collectivist classroom (Hofstede et al., 2010, p. 118).
In addition, with all teachers being trained together, there was the opportunity for English
proficiency improvement, especially in the face of their low level of English proficiency (Zein2022) since teachers would be required to teach at the lowest level – out of the 6th-7th grade
textbook – in the first summer, not just through the increase in actual English practice, but also
through the implementation of good methodology, “you can be really weak in English and still
if you use good methods, you can teach at the level of your textbook. Even if you can only
speak 6th grade language … you’re a good teacher because you just have to teach at the 6th
grade level … You just teach what’s in the book with excellent methods!” (first author). Having
just a rudimentary knowledge of English and incorporating interactive rather than traditional
methods which took into consideration their resource limitations like paper, electricity, orbooks, the Lao English language teachers were able to improve their own language proficiency
as they taught their students English.
Another application of culture in the program was the fact that both trainers and trainees would,
as the first author revealed, “jump in and change the lesson … because they love each other somuch, they want to protect that person from losing face.” Also, as suggested by NAs’ concrete
problem-solving bent, this “jumping in” would allow the NAs to connect in that moment the
problem faced, and the solution afforded by their peers.

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Conclusion
The original study (Doeden, 2014) indicated that teachers’ internal particulars (Chua &Rubenfeld, 2014) mediated the influence of external realities that functioned as barriers to theadoption of the innovative ELT strategy. While all teachers experienced the same external
realities, namely (1) the systemic challenges of teacher training processes, systematic low
student attainment, testing ineffectiveness, and resource limitations, and (2) the school code in
the forms of the ambient cultural norms, and the Lao culture of learning and prescribedcurriculum, the teachers’ internal factors determined whether they successfully adopted theinnovative ELT strategy. The Emergent Adopters’ (EAs) internal factors included a struggle
and independent-based life situation, an internal locus of control, a strong self-belief, and an
abstract problem-solving bent. The Non-Adopters (NAs), on the other hand, demonstrated anease and interdependent-based life situation, an external locus of control, a diminished selfefficacy, and a concrete problem-solving bent.
From the 2023 dataset, it can be seen that the applications of the findings of the original study(Doeden, 2014) took Laos’ collectivist and large power distance culture (Oettingen, 1995) into
consideration, for example, by training all teachers in a district aimed at improving theirpedagogy and English language proficiency and ability to implement the prescribed English
curriculum; incorporating a train-the-trainers program; modelling the innovation in teachers’
real and concrete contexts, and requiring a practicum for all teachers, using their own students
if possible, and a debriefing thereafter; providing teachers with opportunity to, as a collective,
devise strategies that worked for them in their contexts on their terms, thereby ensuring thatface was maintained throughout (Hofstede et al., 2010); incorporating training in classroom
management strategies; and including administrators and government officials to ensureteachers were supported.
Besides the principles espoused in the Summer and Between-Summer programs, concretematerials were also produced in the form of a five-step framework Supplement and Rubric.
Additionally, a Language Activities Booklet that provided ideas to enhance teachers’
professional development, resources, and language proficiency was made available.
Indeed, these applications would be relevant not just to the Laos rural context but to both ruraland urban contexts in countries that reflect strong collectivism, high power distance, strong
uncertainty avoidance along with an emphasis on social comparison (Oettingen, 1995), as is
the case with many Asian countries for whom English is an additional language (Cuong, 2021).
While it is certainly beneficial to be able to observe the applications of the findings of theoriginal study (Doeden, 2014), there are still limitations to the current research project. For
example, practical applications data were obtained from the first author alone, in the form of
an interview. For this reason, there are still avenues for future research, for instance, by
obtaining the perceptions of the teachers in the in-service teacher training program and thelearning outcomes of their students; collecting observation data of the in-service teachers
teaching in their home contexts; and expanding the concepts of the training into pre-service

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teacher training, especially those that include “collaboration with foreign parties such as the
British Council, Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Language
Center (SEAMEO RELC), Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional
Open Learning Center (SEAMO LEC), the US State Department Teaching Fellow andAssociation of Southeast Asian Teacher Education Network (ASTEN)” (Zein, 2022, p. 48)
since these are the contexts within which attention to successful culturally relevant training isparticularly necessary.

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Ylvisaker, M., Hibbard, M., & Feeney, T. (2006). The Brain Injury Association of New YorkState. http://www.projectlearnet.org/tutorials/sense_of_self_personal_identity.html
Zein, S. (2022) Country profile: English as a subject in basic education (ESBE) in Laos. In
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Corresponding author: Esther Smidt
Email: csmidt@wcupa.edu

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Appendix A
Five days of orientation for the Practicum for Trainers program190

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Appendix B
10 days of practicum teaching for the Practicum for Trainers program191

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Appendix C
A lesson in the 8th grade textbook

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Appendix D
Supplement for the 8th grade lesson

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Appendix E
Rubric for an excellent lesson

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Examining Students’ Perspectives on Pedagogical Translanguaging in theMultilingual Classroom Context
Soniya Antony
Alagappa University, India
R. Ramnath
Alagappa University, India
Adil Ellikkal
Alagappa University, India

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Abstract
This research study provided a basic understanding of pedagogical translanguaging and its
importance in a multilingual classroom environment from the perspective of foreign language
class students. The qualitative study, employing interpretive phenomenological analysis,
investigated students’ viewpoints on pedagogical translanguaging in a multilingual classroom
setting, specifically within Pondicherry Central University’s French certificate program inIndia. Through semi-structured interviews, 8 main themes and 35 subthemes were identified.
Comparing these findings with the functions of translanguaging, similarities and differences intranslanguaging application in language learning contexts emerged. Additionally, the study
aimed to enhance instructional strategies tailored to meet the linguistic needs of diverse
learners in multilingual classrooms.
Keywords: translanguaging, pedagogical translanguaging, multilingual context, functions oftranslanguaging

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Pedagogical translanguaging, characterized by the intentional integration of students’multilingual resources into language and content area classes, has emerged as a significant
pedagogical approach in diverse educational settings (Cenoz, 2017; Ganuza & Hedman, 2017).
This approach acknowledges the linguistic diversity of students and leverages their existinglanguage skills to enhance learning outcomes (Cenoz & Gorter, 2020a, 2020b). In multilingual
contexts, such as those found in Indian higher education institutions, where English serves as
the medium of instruction amidst a rich linguistic tapestry, pedagogical translanguaging plays
a crucial role in addressing linguistic disparities and promoting inclusive learning
environments (Eberhard, Simons, & Fennig, 2021; Mukherjee, 2018). Research studies
described in the literature highlight the importance of recognizing students’ linguistic andmultisemiotic repertoires as valuable resources for language learning (Cenoz, 2017). In the
Indian context, where language diversity is a hallmark of society, incorporating pedagogicaltranslanguaging practices becomes imperative for catering to the diverse linguistic needs ofstudents (Agnihotri, 2014). Despite policy support for multilingual pedagogy (NCERT, 2005),
challenges such as negative attitudes towards translanguaging practices and pressure to teachexclusively in English persist (Anderson & Lightfoot, 2021). Additionally, translanguaging
practices extend beyond individual skills to encompass the interconnectedness of languages
within a speaker’s repertoire, offering rich resources for cross-linguistic comparison andmetalinguistic reflection (De Angelis, 2007).
However, there remains a knowledge gap in understanding how translanguaging is used andperceived in higher education target language classes where English is the medium of
instruction. Moreover, the transmission of translanguaging practices among peers and its
implications for promoting a deeper understanding of the target language and improving
weaker language skills remain underexplored (Yuzlu & Dikilitas, 2022). Addressing thesedisparities is crucial for informing language instruction practices and promoting inclusive
learning environments that cater to the diverse linguistic needs of students.
Addressing the complexities of pedagogical translanguaging in multilingual classroom
contexts, this study aims to explore the following research questions:
1. How is translanguaging utilized in a university target language multilingual class where
English is the medium of instruction from students’ perspective?
2. What are the perceptions of students regarding the use of pedagogical translanguaging
in their language learning experience?
3. How are translanguaging practices shared among peers, and how do they contribute tobetter understanding the target language and improving weaker language skills?"
Investigating these research questions, the study explored how translanguaging procedures
support effective communication and language acquisition skills for multilingual learners inhigher educational settings. The study focused on highlighting the diverse functions oftranslanguaging and its relevance in culturally diverse environments like India, emphasizing
practical implications for educators and higher education authorities for designing instructional
strategies for language classes, especially foreign language. Comprehensively examining

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existing gaps, the study provides valuable insights for enhancing language pedagogy andpromoting inclusive education strategies.
Literature Review
Translanguaging
Translanguaging, which originated from Welsh educational contexts and was introduced byeducator Cen Williams, represented a pioneering pedagogical approach emphasizing thefluidity and integration of bilingual language practices (García & Li Wei, 2014). Initially,translanguaging referred to a pedagogical practice wherein students alternated between
languages for receptive or productive purposes (García & Kano, 2014). Over time, scholars
like Canagarajah (2011) and Otheguy, García, and Reid (2015) have explored diverse
interpretations of translanguaging, culminating in a multifaceted understanding. It representsbilingual speakers’ strategic selection of linguistic features from their repertoire to constructlanguage practices suited to specific communicative situations (García & Kano, 2014).
In educational settings, translanguaging is often manifested as a pedagogical approach that
promotes bilingualism and biliteracy by facilitating the ideal integration of multiple languages
into instruction and learning activities (Cenoz & Gorter, 2017). This pedagogical practice
involves the intentional alternation or switching between languages for both input and output
within the same learning activity (Cenoz & Gorter, 2017; Curriculum for Wales). For instance,
learners may receive information in one language and then engage with that information inanother language, thereby deepening their understanding and proficiency in both languages(Curriculum for Wales).
Furthermore, translanguaging extends traditional language boundaries, enabling individuals tosurpass fixed language identities imposed by nation-states (García Wel, 2014). It facilitated theexchange of linguistic and cultural experiences among individuals with diverse linguistic
backgrounds, unearthing buried histories and understandings embedded within rigid language
identities (García & Wei, 2014). Through translanguaging, individuals forged new linguistic
connections and constructed hybrid identities that surpassed conventional linguistic confines,
fostering inclusivity and cultural richness in educational situations and beyond.
Multilingualism
The transition towards pedagogical translanguaging in multilingual education represented anotable departure from conventional language teaching methodologies (Cenoz & Gorter,2018). This innovative approach, centered on multilingualism, challenged the traditional
practice of language compartmentalization, acknowledging the varying language proficiencies
among learners within their linguistic repertoire (Cenoz & Gorter, 2014). Unlike previous
approaches, which measured language skills against native speakers, the focus shifted towards
recognizing language abilities as dynamic and shaped by diverse experiences.

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Moreover, multilingualism emphasized the intricate competencies of multilingual speakers,
termed “multicompetence,” encompassing a range of linguistic resources and interactional
strategies (Cook, 1992). Despite this, societal preferences still favored native speaker
instructors, often overlooking the communicative strengths of multilingual educators (Llurda& Chapelle, 2014). Furthermore, multilingualism extended beyond individual skills to embrace
the interconnectedness of languages within a speaker’s repertoire (De Angelis, 2007). This richlinguistic resource facilitated cross-linguistic comparison and metalinguistic reflection, yet theprevailing ideology of language separation hindered its optimal utilization (Canagarajah,2007). The social context also played a pivotal role, shaping multilingual practices andinfluencing language use based on situational demands and societal language hierarchies(Cenoz & Bereziartua, 2016). Hence, embracing multilingualism entailed recognizing andharnessing the dynamic interplay of languages within diverse social settings to support
effective communication and language learning.
Translanguaging Considered as Natural Practice Among Multilingual
Translanguaging, observed among multilingual individuals, stands out as a natural and innate
practice. Instead of being confined by language boundaries, speakers effortlessly transition
between linguistic codes in their daily interactions, influenced by personal experiences andsocial contexts. This phenomenon, termed idiolects, reflects the unique linguistic patterns
developed by individuals (Otheguy, García, & Reid, 2015). Beyond educational settings,
translanguaging permeates various social interactions, integrating diverse linguistic structuresand cognitive systems to facilitate effective communication (Wei, 2011). This inclusive
approach challenges traditional linguistic hierarchies, emphasizing the holistic nature oflanguage use. Individuals adeptly utilize their entire linguistic and sensory repertoire withoutcompromising their identities, promoting inclusivity in communication (García, 2011).
Communities worldwide, especially, those in Indian cities and students in Indian central
universities, embrace translanguaging as a natural and effective means of expression. In
everyday contexts, translanguaging fosters the synthesis of semiotic signs, contributing to theformation of new cultural identities (Wei, 2011; Mazzaferro, 2018). In a globalized world,
linguistic competence extends beyond mere language proficiency, encompassing the ability tointerpret diverse semiotic cues within one’s linguistic repertoire (García, 2009).
Pedagogical Perspective of Translanguaging
In pedagogy, translanguaging refers to the intentional incorporation of students’ multilingual
resources into both language and content subjects. This approach, known as pedagogicaltranslanguaging, has garnered significant attention in recent translanguaging research (Cenoz,
2017; Cenoz & Gorter, 2020a, 2020b; Ganuza & Hedman, 2017; Probyn, 2015, 2019),
especially within educational settings. While the use of multiple languages in teaching has
historical roots in language education (Cook, 2010), pedagogical translanguaging researchgained prominence alongside the multilingual shift in language learning and education
scholarship (Conteh & Meier, 2014; May, 2014, 2019; Ortega, 2019). This shift reflects theevolving multilingual landscapes worldwide, driven by technology-assisted globalization and203

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increased mobility (Blommaert, 2010). Pedagogical translanguaging research emphasizes theimportance of recognizing students’ existing knowledge, including their linguistic andmultisemiotic repertoires, as valuable resources. This approach often aligns with a social justiceagenda, aiming to address the educational needs of language-minorities students for equitableeducation and societal inclusion. Cummins (2019) identified numerous terms referring tosimilar activities, such as “cross linguistic pedagogy,” “multilingual teaching strategies,” and“bilingual teaching strategies.” Additionally, terms like “translanguaging instructional
practices,” “translanguaging approaches to teaching ‘and’ translanguaging pedagogies” havebeen used in the literature (Garcia & Kleyn, 2016). Furthermore, researchers have introduced
terms such as “dynamic plurilingual pedagogies” (Garcia & Flores, 2012), “translanguaging
for the classroom,” and “translanguaging as pedagogy” (Paulsrud et al., 2017). Additionally,terms like “bilingual instructional strategies” and “translanguaging practice” have been
employed (Creese & Blackledge, 2010), stressing the diverse conceptualizations andapplications of translanguaging in pedagogical contexts.
Pedagogical Translanguaging in Indian Higher Education Classes
In Indian higher education, where English serves as the medium of instruction, classrooms
embody a rich diversity of languages, reflecting the nation’s linguistic diversity (Eberhard,
Simons, & Fennig, 2021). This multicultural setting, characterized by fluid language practices,
stems from India’s historical tradition of multilingualism (Agnihotri, 2014), now recognized
as translanguaging. Despite English’s official designation as a second language, its usage varies
widely across different societal strata, from the burgeoning middle class’s adoption of‘Hinglish’ to the majority for whom English remains largely foreign (Mukherjee, 2018; Rao,2013). However, in higher education, there’s a discernible trend towards early adoption ofEnglish as the primary medium of instruction, although policies differ across institutions(Central Square Foundation, 2020a, 2020b).
In this context, the integration of language and content learning becomes paramount, asemphasized by the National Knowledge Commission (2006). Translanguaging emerges as apractical approach to address linguistic disparities among emergent bilinguals, leveraging
stronger language skills to support weaker ones (Weinreich, 1953). It fosters a more holistic
language acquisition process, contributing to enhanced academic literacy, particularly incontent and language-based instruction contexts (National Knowledge Commission, 2006).
Furthermore, recent research underscores the prevalence and benefits of multilingual practices
in English classrooms in Indian higher education. Despite policy support for multilingual
pedagogy (NCERT, 2005), negative attitudes persist, as evidenced by instances of “guilty
translanguaging” and pressure to teach exclusively in English (Anderson & Lightfoot, 2021).
Nevertheless, embracing pedagogical translanguaging offers a promising pathway to address
linguistic disparities and promote academic success. By incorporating translanguaging
strategies into teaching practices, educators can create inclusive learning environments that
support students’ language development and engagement with academic content (Anderson &Lightfoot, 2021; Durairajan, 2017).

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Functions of Translanguaging in Target Language Classes in Higher Education
In higher education target language classes, translanguaging, as defined by scholars like
Gutiérrez (2008) and Ryu (2019), involved the hybrid use of languages, where meaning was
negotiated and created through various interactional contexts (Gutiérrez, 2008; Ryu, 2019).
This approach facilitated collective meaning-making among multilingual communities, despite
challenges such as linguistic shame highlighted by García (2011). An analysis was conducted
to identify the functions of translanguaging employed by multilingual instructors and students
in the study, revealing its role in facilitating communication and learning processes among
diverse linguistic groups. In this study, researchers utilized Sapitri, Gede, and Myartawan’s(2018) framework, which identifies four functions of translanguaging: knowledge
construction, classroom management, interpersonal relations, and personal and affective
meanings (Sapitri, Gede, & Myartawan, 2018). Knowledge construction involves usingtranslanguaging to understand the subject matter, while classroom management entails the
instructor’s use of translanguaging to regulate students’ behavior during the learning process.
Interpersonal relationships refer to the use of translanguaging by the teacher to foster
connections with students, and personal and affective meanings encompass the teacher’s
expression of personal experiences, feelings, and sociocultural functions. These functions wereobserved in the study, informing the understanding of translanguaging practices in the researchcontext.
Additionally, Wang’s (2018) model, encompassing interpretative, managerial, and interactivefunctions, was employed to establish the definitive translanguaging functions for this research(Wang, 2018). These frameworks provided comprehensive insights into the diverse roles andapplications of translanguaging in the context of the study. The interpretative function involves
using translanguaging as a pedagogical tool to explain various linguistic aspects of the target
language, including pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and cultural concepts. This function
was observed in the study, as instructors often used translanguaging to scaffold grammar
concepts, introduce new vocabulary, and clarify cultural concepts. The managerial function
encompasses the use of translanguaging practices for providing instructions, feedback, praise,encouragement, and planning assignments or examinations. This function was evident in the
study, as instructors engaged in activities such as giving instructions and feedback during theirclasses. Finally, the interactive function pertains to translanguaging practices initiated by
students to enhance classroom teaching and learning interactions. This function was frequently
observed during peer-based activities in the classroom setting. Together, these translanguaging
functions shed light on the various ways translanguaging is utilized in the research context tofacilitate language learning and teaching.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework underpinning this paper revolves around the concept oftranslanguaging, which views language speakers’ diverse linguistic and semiotic practices as
integral components of their dynamic language repertoire (García & Kleifgen, 2020).
Translanguaging emphasizes the fluid use of multiple languages to create meaning, particularly

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in educational contexts, with the overarching goal of promoting social justice and amplifying
marginalized voices (García & Kleifgen, 2020). Rooted in Bakhtin’s notion of heteroglossia,
translanguaging theory highlights the coexistence of diverse socio-ideological voices within
language and the dynamic interaction between them (Bakhtin, 1981). Furthermore, theframework incorporates the concept of multimodality, expanding beyond traditional linguistic
boundaries to encompass various cognitive and semiotic systems (García & Kleifgen, 2020).
Multimodality acknowledges the holistic nature of human communication, incorporating
visual, textual, spatial, and other embodied forms of meaning-making (García & Kleifgen,2020). Lin’s exploration of multilingual and multimodal resources in second language scienceeducation exemplifies the benefits of leveraging diverse linguistic and cultural resources toenhance students’ understanding of complex concepts (Lin, 2006). Wu and Lin’s proposal of
the Multimodalities-Entextualization Cycle (MEC) further illustrates how integrating various
linguistic and semiotic resources can facilitate dynamic meaning-making in digital andmultimodal environments (Wu & Lin, 2019).
In practice, studies by Wu and Lin (2019) and Liu, Lo, and Lin (2020) demonstrate theapplication of translanguaging pedagogy in diverse educational settings, enhancing language
learning and promoting inclusivity. Additionally, research by Zhu and Gu (2022), Pacheco etal. (2022), Scott & Cohen (2023), Ou et al. (2022), and Schall-Leckrone (2023) highlights therole of multimodal communication in supporting translanguaging practices and fostering
meaningful engagement with language and culture. Moreover, translanguaging theory
intersects with social justice principles, advocating for equitable learning opportunities andchallenging dominant language ideologies (Vogel & García, 2017; North, 2006). Prioritizing
diverse language practices and promoting inclusivity, a social justice framework fortranslanguaging seeks to empower students to engage meaningfully with language and culture
in educational settings (García & Kleifgen, 2020). Despite the burgeoning interest intranslanguaging, differing interpretations of the concept emphasis the need for ongoing
exploration and critical engagement, particularly in diverse linguistic contexts such as Indian
secondary education (García & Lin, 2017; Canagarajah, 2013; Heugh, 2021).
Method and Methodology
Qualitative Method
The rationale for utilizing qualitative research methodology lies in its roots in anthropologicaland sociological fieldwork, aimed at understanding people’s lives (Hatch, 2002). Qualitative
research seeks to explore inquiries, gather artifacts, and analyze them to gain deeper insights
into the subject under investigation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Young &Babchuk (2019), qualitative research encompasses various approaches grounded in inductive
reasoning derived from participants’ perspectives collected in natural settings. This method
primarily relies on words rather than numerical data points (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Choosing a qualitative design for this study is appropriate due to its focus on positioning
participants as experts in their own experiences, perspectives, and knowledge by emphasizing
their viewpoints in natural settings, thus shifting authority from the investigator to theparticipant (Babchuk, 2019; Creswell and Poth, 2016).

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Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was incorporated into the research design as theresearch approach for analyzing the data. It was employed to examine the lived experiences ofparticipants, discovering the students’ perspectives on pedagogical translanguaging in themultilingual classroom context. This qualitative approach was well-suited to explore thesubjective meanings and interpretations of individuals in response to the language learning
experience, especially when translanguaging was used in support of that pursuit (Smith et al.,2021).
Semi-Structured Interview and Questions
The aim of the interview questions was to elicit rich, detailed accounts of personal experiencesin line with IPA principles (Smith et al., 2009 & 2021). In this study, semi-structured interviews
were employed to collect in-depth data from participants. Each interview lasted approximately
40 to 50 minutes, during which the investigator took notes and posed probing questions tofacilitate smooth conversation. The participants’ willingness to participate in the research wasconsidered as consent. The semi-structured interview questions were crafted with a focus on
specific lived experiences, utilizing open and exploratory language. Nine questions in total
were designed to gather rich and detailed accounts of personal experiences, aligning with an
inductive approach and drawing from seven foundational principles outlined by Smith et al.
(2009) and Smith & Larkin (2021). For instance, the question “What aspects of learning French
did you find most enjoyable?” was categorized under “Focusing on Specific LivedExperiences,” aimed at exploring the interviewee’s personal engagement with French language
acquisition. Similarly, the questions “How did you incorporate your knowledge of otherlanguages to aid in understanding or learning French? Can you provide examples?” focusing
on practical applications of multilingual skills. Questions like “Did you think it was important
for teachers to be familiar with their students’ other languages and cultural backgrounds? Whyor why not?” and “How would you describe your teacher’s attitude towards the use of yourother languages in French class?” were classified under “Capture Perceptions and SenseMaking”. Furthermore, questions such as “Did your teacher encourage you to utilize your otherlanguages while learning French? If so, in what ways?” pertained to “Contextualized Inquiry”.
Lastly, questions such as “Did your teacher assist you in using your repertoire of languages tolearn French? If yes, could you elaborate?” and “How do you think your teacher could havebetter utilized your languages in the French classroom?” were categorized under “Grounding
Inquiries in Specific Contexts,” probing practical support and possibilities for enhancing
language integration within French learning contexts. These categorizations reflected thedetailed and contextual nature of the interview questions, tailored to capture diverse
experiences and perspectives related to language learning in educational settings. To ensure
this in designing interview questions, researchers used open-ended questions that allowed
participants to freely express their experiences. Additionally, the questions took into accountcontextual factors that may have influenced participants’ interpretations.

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Researchers Positionality and Reflectivity
Reflexivity is crucial in qualitative research as it allows researchers to recognize and address
their biases, assumptions, and personal experiences that may influence how they interpret data
(Creswell & Poth, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This self-awareness also explains why
researchers choose particular topics, benefiting both themselves and their readers (Merriam &Tisdell, 2016). In this study, all authors have had direct experience with translanguaging inhigher education, having completed their education in English within multilingual
environments. The lead author has had firsthand exposure to pedagogical translanguaging
through master’s and doctoral studies. Given the diverse linguistic landscape of India’s higher
education, where students encounter multiple languages such as their mother tongue, English,
Hindi, and state native languages, where their higher education is pursued, this study aims to
explore the significance of translanguaging in multilingual educational settings.
Ethical Consideration
Ethical considerations for the study were paramount, particularly regarding informed consent,
confidentiality, privacy, and sensitivity to participants’ needs. Prior to commencing the
research, participants were fully informed about the research’s purpose, procedures, potential
risks, and benefits, and their right to refuse or withdraw participation was respected. Measures
were taken to ensure the confidentiality and privacy of participants’ personal information andresponses, with identifiers removed and data securely stored. Throughout the research process,researchers maintained sensitivity to participants’ values, beliefs, and cultural backgrounds,
treating them with dignity and respect. Attention was given to avoiding imposition ofresearchers’ biases or assumptions on participants, and efforts were made to communicate
effectively, especially with participants from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
Furthermore, researchers were mindful of power dynamics, striving to conduct the study in afair and respectful manner, free from pressure on participants to provide particular responses.
Lastly, in disseminating findings, researchers prioritized responsible and respectful use,
avoiding harm or stigmatization of participants or groups and transparently acknowledging any
limitations or generalizations drawn from the data.
Research Settings
The Center for Foreign Languages at Pondicherry Central University served as the primaryresearch setting for the study. Situated in Pondicherry, India, this center offered various
language programs, including the French certificate program. The focus of the research was
specifically on the classroom environment within the French certificate program.
About the Center for Foreign Languages
Established as an innovative initiative in June 2009, the Center for Foreign Languages at
Pondicherry Central University addresses the contemporary need for multilingual proficiency
in today’s rapidly evolving global landscape. Offering courses in French, Japanese, Korean,208

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German, and Arabic, the center caters to both university students and local residents ofPondicherry. With a maximum intake of 20 students per year, the center equips individuals
with valuable language skills, enhancing their job prospects and facilitating cultural exchange
in various fields, including business, literature, music, and film.
About the Target Language Course
The French language certificate course (course code: 434) at Pondicherry Central University
is designed to provide individuals with fundamental French language skills. To enroll,applicants must have passed the Higher Secondary Examination or its equivalent. The course
accepts a maximum of 20 students annually, with admission based on the marks obtained in
the qualifying degree. Priority is given to students already enrolled in university departments.
The course, named “Add On Courses – Evening Session,” spans six months and includes
classes held for two hours per day, four days a week, ideally scheduled from 5:30 PM to 7:30
PM.
Sampling Technique and ParticipantsThis study employed a purposive sampling technique to select participants for the study, aiming
to recruit nine student participants from a French language class. Despite the voluntary natureof participation, all students included in the study were observed to be multilingual, withEnglish identified as their dominant language and used as the medium of instruction for French(Target Language). This approach aligned with qualitative research methodologies thatprioritize depth of understanding over breadth, targeting specific individuals who could provide
pertinent and useful information related to the study’s objectives (Palinkas et al., 2015).
Purposive sampling strategies ensured that specific cases relevant to the research questions
were included in the final sample, reflecting the assumption that diverse perspectives held byparticular individuals were essential for capturing varied insights on the study’s themes(Robinson, 2014). The details of the participants are presented in Table 1, outlining their
linguistic backgrounds and key characteristics.

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Table 1
Participants Details
Students

Major
Subject

TargetLanguage(TL)

TL Level

Madhu

Education(M.Ed)

434-French

Beginner

MotherTongue or
NativeLanguage
Tamil

BeautyEducation(M.Ed)

434-French

Beginner

BengaliIshani

Education(M.Ed)

434-French

Beginner

Bengali

AkhilaEnglish(MA)

434-French

Beginner

Malayalam

SonaliInternational
business(MBA)

434-French

Beginner

Odia

History(MA)

434-French

Beginner

TeluguYasar

Sociology(integrated)

434-French

Beginner

Hindi

Prathush
Kumar

Mathematics(integrated)

434-French

Beginner

Odia

VijayaKumar

English(MA)

434-French

Beginner

KannadaRamadevi

210

Officiallylearnedlanguage(s)Informallylearnedlanguage(s)TamilEnglishHindi(beginner)
BengaliEnglishHindi (alllanguagefluent)BengaliEnglishHindi (alllanguagefluent)MalayalamEnglishHindi (alllanguagefluent)TeluguMalayalam(peerinfluence)Tamil(peer influenceand local use)

Odia
EnglishHindi (alllanguage
proficient)
Telugu (fluent)English(fluent)
Hindi(beginner)
Hindi
English(Fluent)
Odia
Hindi
English (alllanguagefluent)KannadaEnglish (bothfluent)Hindi(beginner)

Tamil(peer influenceand local use)
Tamil
Telugu(peer
influence,Movewatching)
Tamil(peer influenceand local use)
Tamil(peer influenceand local use)
Tamil(peer influenceand local use)
Tamil(peer influenceand local use)
Tamil(peer influenceand local use)

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Data Analysis
The present study utilized the IPA method to analyze data, yielding results for the main
research questions (Smith et al., 2021). The IPA analytical process began with systematic
reading and exploratory note-taking to immerse researchers in participants’ narratives (Smithet al., 2021). Descriptive, linguistic, and conceptual notes categorized aspects of the narrative,
fostering deep exploration and interpretation (Smith et al., 2009). Transitioning to formulating
experiential statements, researchers crafted concise summaries, balancing specificity withconceptual depth (Smith et al., 2021). These statements captured psychological processes andcontextual aspects of participants’ experiences (Smith et al., 2021). Subsequently, experiential
statements were clustered and refined to elucidate prominent features of participants’experiences (Smith et al., 2021). A table of personal experiential themes was compiled,followed by cross-case analysis and grouping experiential themes (Smith et al., 2021). This
iterative process captured the collective essence of participants’ perspectives on pedagogicaltranslanguaging in the multilingual classroom context (Smith et al., 2021).
Results
The results section examined the eight main themes that emerged and 35 subthemes (See Table
2: master table of group experiential themes) of student perspectives on pedagogicaltranslanguaging in a multilingual classroom context. Through qualitative analysis, insights
were gained into the various ways students engage with language learning and cultural
integration. The findings enlightened on the effectiveness of translanguaging practices inpromoting language independence, fostering multicultural enrichment, and enhancing overall
learning experiences. The theme of Dynamic Language Exploration encapsulates various
facets of engaging with the French language in an interactive manner. Participant Beauty,
expressed a perspective on French language learning, stating, “The most enjoyable aspect oflearning French is discovering new words and expressions that broaden my vocabulary,” while
another student (Akhila) reflected on their experience, remarking, “Interactive and hands-on
activities in French classes to be the most enjoyable, as they provide practical opportunities toapply and reinforce learning in a fun and engaging way.” This theme comprised subthemes
such as discovering new words and expressions, exploring French literature, art, and cuisine,
mastering pronunciation and intonation, feeling accomplishment with proficiency
development, sense of improvement with each lesson, excitement of mastering a new language
and culture, embracing the challenge of learning French, and communicating with native
speakers. Learners derived satisfaction from continuous improvement, gaining confidence, andembracing challenges as opportunities for growth. Moreover, they found joy in mastering not
only a new language but also a new culture, while also valuing the enriching interactions withnative speakers, which contributed to their overall language learning experience.
The theme of Language Learning Approaches encompassed students’ diverse strategies, suchas recognizing linguistic similarities, utilizing gestures, and immersing themselves in French
media. Students drew on their linguistic backgrounds to aid understanding. Madhu noted,“Similarities between Tamil and French words are noted.” Additionally, they employed211

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mnemonic devices and immersive techniques, like watching French movies. Conversely,
Culturally Responsive Teaching focused on educators fostering inclusivity and acknowledging
students’ backgrounds. Vijaya Kumar stated, “Teachers acknowledge diverse linguistic
backgrounds and encourage language sharing.” This accentuated the importance of educators
integrating cultural references and creating opportunities for language exchange, contributing
to a supportive learning environment.
In Cultivating Inclusive Learning Environments, students emphasized the importance ofteacher awareness, communication enhancement, and fostering a supportive atmosphere.
Sonali stressed, “It’s important for teachers to be familiar with students’ languages and cultural
backgrounds to create a supportive learning environment.” Additionally, students emphasized
the need for tailored teaching methods, as Prathush Kumar mentioned, “Understanding
linguistic backgrounds promotes inclusivity and helps tailor teaching methods to meet
individual needs.” Meanwhile, Fostering Linguistic Diversity and Positivity stress teachers’
positive attitudes towards linguistic differences and support for language diversity. Ramadevi
noted, “teachers are supportive of using languages in French class, creating opportunities forlanguage sharing.” This reflects the significance of recognizing and encouraging linguistic
diversity to promote a positive learning environment.
In Language Independence, students stressed the importance of utilizing native languages toaid in understanding French concepts and recognizing the value of linguistic diversity. Akhila
pointed out, “Teachers encourage to use native languages outside of class for self-learning
purposes,” heightening the role of familiar languages in comprehension. Additionally, students
advocated for incorporating native languages or majority languages spoken by students intoclassroom discussions, promoting inclusivity and facilitating better understanding. Beauty
mentioned, “The teacher conducts classes in English and French, allows to utilize mothertongue outside of class to reinforce student understanding of French,” demonstrating thebenefits of embracing linguistic diversity. The theme of Native Language Integration
elucidated how students use their mother tongue to enhance French language learning.
Subthemes included reading materials in French for proficiency, using the native language tounderstand course content, assisting peers with comprehension and assignments, and fostering
diverse language exchanges in the classroom. These aspects illustrated the diverse ways
students leverage their native language to support and enrich their French learning journey.
On the other hand, Multilingual Classroom Enrichment revealed the importance of integrating
diverse languages into learning activities. Students suggested that incorporating native
languages into assignments and discussions fostered a supportive environment and enhanced
comprehension. Ishani highlighted, “Although the class primarily revolves around English andFrench, students are permitted to use native language to aid in comprehension and completionof assignments,” indicating the positive impact of such practices on student engagement andlearning outcomes. The results suggested translanguaging fostered positive experiences bypromoting language exploration, diverse learning approaches, and inclusive classroom
environment. Students reported enjoying the process of discovering new languages and212

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cultures, utilizing their existing linguistic backgrounds, and appreciating teachers who
acknowledge their diverse backgrounds.
Table 2Master Table of Group Experiential Themes
No. Themes

No.

Subthemes

1

Dynamic
Language
Exploration

2

Language
Learning
Approaches

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2

Discovering new words and expressions
Exploring French literature, art, and cuisine
Mastering pronunciation and intonation
Feeling accomplishment with proficiency development
Sense of improvement with each lesson
Excitement of mastering a new language and culture
Embracing the challenge of learning French
Communicating with native speakers
Recognizing Linguistic Similarities with proficient languages
Relating to Other Languages
Identifying Grammar Patterns of French
Creating Language Connections with know (native) languages
Utilizing Gestures and Visualizations for better understanding
Mnemonics and Rhymes
Listening and Immersion of new words
Teacher’s Acknowledgment of Linguistic Background of each student
Encouragement to Use Native Languages for better understanding
Creation of Opportunities for Language Sharing in classroom
Integration of cultural references
Importance of teacher awareness
Enhancement of Communication and Understanding
Promotion of Inclusivity and Diversity
Fostering a Supportive Learning Environment
Enrichment of Learning Experience
Teacher’s positive attitude to linguistic difference
Support for language diversity
Openness to multilingualism
Encouragement of diverse language Use
Native languages as aid in understanding French concepts.
Recognize the value of students’ linguistic diversity and encourage toshare language skills
Incorporate students’ native languages or majority student’s fluent
languages into discussions
Read materials in French
Use of mother tongue to enhance understanding of the materials
Use of mother tongue to peers assist in comprehension and completionof assignments
Creation of opportunities for diverse language sharing
Deeper cultural understanding among students.
Resources and supplementary materials in English or mother tongue
Encouraging group discussions in English and know language (basedon preference of student)

3
4
5
3

Culturally
Responsive
Teaching

4

Cultivating
Inclusive
Learning
Environments

5

Fostering
Linguistic
Diversity andPositivity

6

Language
Independence

1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
1
2
3

7

8

NativeLanguage
Integration

1
2
3

Multilingual
Classroom
Enrichment

4
1
2
3

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Comparison of the Themes with the Functions of Translanguaging
When comparing the main themes with the functions of translanguaging identified by Wang(2018) and Sapitri, Gede, and Myartawan (2018), it became evident that there were bothsimilarities and differences in how translanguaging was applied in language learning contexts.
The presence of these functions in the study is based on the themes shown in Table 3 for
Wang’s three translanguaging functions and Table 4 for Sapitri, Gede, and Myartawan’s fourtranslanguaging functions, respectively.
Table 3Three Translanguaging Function by Wang (2018)
Translanguaging
FunctionInterpretative
FunctionManagerial
FunctionInteractive
Function

Description

Presence in the Theme

Translanguaging serves as a pedagogicaltool to elucidate linguistic aspects of thetarget language, including pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary, and culturalconcepts.
Involves the utilization of translanguaging
practices for providing instructions,feedback, praise, encouragement, andplanning assignments or examinations.
Translanguaging practices initiated by
students to enhance interactions andengagement in classroom teaching andlearning

Dynamic Language
Exploration(T1)Language Learning
Approaches(T2)
Culturally Responsive
Teaching(T3)
Cultivating Inclusive Learning
Environments(T4)Fostering Linguistic Diversity
and Positivity(T5)Language Independence (T6)
Native Language Integration(T7)
Multilingual Classroom
Enrichment(T8)When compared with translanguaging functions (Wang, 2018), the emerged themes wereobserved to play diverse and essential roles within the higher educational setting. The
Interpretative Function of translanguaging functioned as a pedagogical tool employed byinstructors to clarify linguistic aspects of the target language, encompassing pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary, and cultural concepts, as demonstrated in the themes of Dynamic
Language Exploration (T1) and Language Learning Approaches (T2). The Managerial
Function involved utilizing translanguaging for delivering instructions, feedback, praise,encouragement, and organizing assignments or assessments, as evident in Culturally
Responsive Teaching (T3) and Cultivating Inclusive Learning Environments (T4).
Furthermore, the Interactive Function of translanguaging was initiated by students to enhanceclassroom interactions and engagement, illustrated in themes such as Fostering Linguistic
Diversity and Positivity (T5), Language Independence (T6), Native Language Integration (T7),and Multilingual Classroom Enrichment (T8). These findings reflected a comprehensive andcohesive effort to integrate translanguaging into educational practices, promoting linguistic
inclusivity and effective communication within diverse multilingual learning environments.

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Table 4
Four Translanguaging Functions by Sapitri, Gede, and Myartawan (2018)
Translanguaging Description
Function
Knowledge
Utilizing translanguaging to facilitate
Construction
comprehension of the subject matter,
including providing pedagogicalscaffolding, reinforcing concepts, andreviewing topics.
Classroom
The instructor’s use ofManagementtranslanguaging to regulate student
behavior, including negotiating task
instructions, promoting engagement,
enforcing disciplinary measures, andproviding guidanceInterpersonal
Employing translanguaging toRelationsestablish connections with students,
foster a supportive classroom
environment, share humor, commend
students, and provide motivation.
Personal andInvolves the expression of personal
Affective
experiences, feelings, andMeanings
sociocultural factors throughtranslanguaging, contributing to amore inclusive and emotionallyengaging learning environment

Presence in the Theme
Dynamic Language Exploration (T1)
Language Learning Approaches (T2)
Language Independence(T6)
Native Language Integration (T7)
Cultivating Inclusive Learning
Environments(T4)Multilingual Classroom
Enrichment(T8)
Culturally Responsive Teaching (T3)
Fostering Linguistic Diversity andPositivity (T5)
Not related

The translanguaging functions identified by Sapitri, Gede, and Myartawan (2018)
demonstrated significant roles compared with emerging themes within higher educational
contexts. The Knowledge Construction function involved leveraging translanguaging toenhance comprehension of subject matter by providing pedagogical scaffolding, reinforcing
concepts, and facilitating discussions, as evident in the themes of Dynamic Language
Exploration (T1), Language Learning Approaches (T2), Language Independence (T6), andNative Language Integration (T7). Classroom Management utilized translanguaging for
regulating student behavior, including task instructions negotiation, promoting engagement,
enforcing discipline, and offering guidance, as observed in Cultivating Inclusive Learning
Environments (T4) and Multilingual Classroom Enrichment (T8). The Interpersonal Relations
function utilized translanguaging to establish connections with students, foster a supportiveclassroom environment, share humor, commend students, and provide motivation, as
highlighted in Culturally Responsive Teaching (T3) and Fostering Linguistic Diversity andPositivity (T5). These translanguaging functions collectively contributed to creating inclusive
and effective multilingual learning environments by supporting comprehension, managing
classroom dynamics, and nurturing positive teacher-student relationships.

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Discussion
In multilingual classroom contexts, the integration of pedagogical translanguaging represents
a pivotal shift in language education, challenging traditional methodologies and addressing thediverse linguistic needs of students. This study aimed to explore students’ perspectives on theefficacy and relevance of pedagogical translanguaging, examining its potential to enhance
language learning outcomes and promote inclusivity. By recognizing the dynamic nature oflanguage proficiency and the unique linguistic repertoires of learners, this study sought todiscover innovative approaches to language instruction that prioritized students’ existingknowledge and cultural backgrounds. Through an analysis of translanguaging practices inhigher education target language classes, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of
how pedagogical translanguaging could support effective communication and language
learning in diverse educational settings.
The findings of this study reveal the multifaceted nature of translanguaging functions in higher
education target language classes, as elucidated by Wang (2018) and Sapitri, Gede, andMyartawan (2018). Firstly, the interpretative function of translanguaging emerges as apedagogical tool for explaining various linguistic aspects of the target language, including
pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and cultural concepts. This function facilitatesknowledge construction by scaffolding grammar concepts, introducing new vocabulary, andclarifying cultural nuances, thus enhancing students’ understanding and proficiency in thetarget language. Secondly, the managerial function of translanguaging plays a crucial role inclassroom management, encompassing activities such as providing instructions, feedback,praise, encouragement, and planning assignments or examinations. Utilizing translanguaging
practices in these areas, instructors could effectively regulate students’ behavior, foster apositive learning environment, and support students’ language development.
Lastly, the interactive function of translanguaging facilitates peer-based interactions andcollaborative learning experiences. Students initiated translanguaging practices to enhanceclassroom teaching and learning interactions, promoting active engagement and participation.
Through peer-based activities, students leveraged their multilingual resources to support eachother’s language learning journey, fostering a sense of community and inclusivity in theclassroom.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
Limitations inherent in this study pertain primarily to the potential biases associated withparticipant selection and the methodological approach employed. The selection of participants,
while purposeful, may not have fully encapsulated the diversity of perspectives within the
population of interest, potentially skewing the findings. Furthermore, the reliance on selfreported data gathered through semi-structured interviews introduces the possibility ofsubjectivity and social desirability bias (Van de Mortel, 2008), thereby compromising theobjectivity and validity of the study’s conclusions. Additionally, the study’s exclusive focus
on a specific cultural and educational context in India may restrict the applicability and216

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generalizability of the findings to broader contexts. To mitigate these limitations and enhance
the robustness of future research endeavors, it is imperative to adopt more inclusive samplingstrategies that encompass a broader range of demographic characteristics and educationalsettings. Moreover, employing mixed-methods approaches that integrate qualitative data frominterviews with quantitative data from observational studies could yield a more comprehensive
understanding of the phenomena under investigation. This interdisciplinary approach would
allow for triangulation of findings, thereby strengthening the validity and reliability of theresearch outcomes. Furthermore, conducting comparative studies across diverse culturalcontexts would facilitate the identification of universal principles as well as context-specificfactors influencing students’ experiences with pedagogical translanguaging. Additionally,
future research endeavors could make a detailed study into the perspectives of educators andadministrators regarding the implementation of translanguaging strategies, elucidating thechallenges and facilitators encountered in multilingual classroom environments.
Conclusion
Based on the results of the study, it becomes evident that pedagogical translanguaging holds
substantial significance in fostering effective communication and facilitating language
acquisition within multilingual classroom environments. The study identified eight key themes
and thirty five subthemes within a French language class. The main findings highlight theimportance of promoting linguistic diversity and creating inclusive learning environments. And
also demonstrated how translanguaging practices are integrated into language learning andclassroom interactions. Incorporating translanguaging practices into language instruction,
educators have the potential to stablish inclusive learning environments that adeptly address
the diverse linguistic needs of students. Nevertheless, it is imperative to recognize and address
the limitations inherent in translanguaging, as well as to explore potential challenges andbarriers to its successful implementation. These may include issues related to pedagogicalstrategies, cultural considerations, and institutional support. Critically examining these aspects,
educators and policymakers can work towards optimizing the integration of translanguaging
into pedagogical practices, thereby maximizing its benefits while mitigating potential
drawbacks. Moving forward continued research and professional development initiatives are
warranted to further refine understanding of translanguaging and its role in enhancing language
learning outcomes in diverse educational settings. Ultimately, by embracing the complexitiesof translanguaging and proactively addressing associated challenges, educators can cultivate
inclusive and culturally responsive learning environments that empower all students to succeed
academically and linguistically. Practical applications of the study’s insights include
integrating translanguaging into language instruction to support diverse student linguistic
needs. This involves developing inclusive pedagogical approaches that celebrate linguistic
diversity and enhance communication. Furthermore, providing professional development for
educators on translanguaging strategies is essential. Collaboration with higher education
authorities to establish supportive institutional frameworks for effective translanguaging in
education is also recommended. These actions collectively aim to create inclusive learning
environments that optimize language learning outcomes for all students.

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Acknowledgement
The research work was supported by the UGC-MANF doctoral fellowship. All of the authors
acknowledge the support provided by this fellowship.

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Corresponding Author: Soniya Antony
Email: soniyaantoy4@gmail.com

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Using Screencast Video Feedback in the 21st Century EFL Writing Class
Nato Pachuashvili
International Black Sea University, Georgia

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Abstract
Giving feedback has always been the backbone of the English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
writing class. Written corrective feedback focuses on responding to students’ written work byextensively correcting their errors or offering constructive suggestions for improvements. The
process of digitalization of education offered an alternative to teachers’ written feedback andopened up new opportunities to give video feedback to students. The latter has the potential of
improving feedback provision through video capture tools, such as screencasts. The purposeof the research project was to investigate the effectiveness of using screencast video feedback
on EFL writing and explore students’ perceptions of receiving video feedback for their written
assignments. The mixed-method research was carried out with a group of 40 English language
students in their academic writing class at a private university in Georgia. To investigate
students’ perceptions, an online questionnaire was applied that focused on the benefits
perceived by the students and technical issues faced during the process of video feedback. The
qualitative data was obtained from semi-structured interviews in which the participants talked
about the impact of the technology and their overall experience of using it. The findings of thestudy revealed that video feedback appeared to have been very interactive and supportive inthe learning-to-write in a foreign language process. The participants also regarded video
feedback as supportive, engaging, multimodal and easily comprehensible.
Keywords: screencast video feedback, written corrective feedback, EFL writing, 21st-century
feedback.

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Providing feedback on students’ work has always been an inseparable component of the
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing class. Quality feedback enhances EFL students’
active participation and academic performance in their writing processes. It promotes aconstructive learning environment and enables the development of teacher-student rapport(Solhı̇ & Eğı̇ Nlı̇ , 2020). Without feedback, students’ written assignments lose purpose andbecome vain. Critique and subsequent advice not only improve EFL students’ learning process,but together they also enrich teachers’ performance, emphasizing the key areas of further
improvement in the teaching and learning process. Effective feedback provision serves as amotivator and is an essential component for writing skill development (Armağan et al., 2016).
The traditional method of feedback provision centers on giving students written commentarythat mainly accentuates the identification of linguistic errors in a given assignment (Yu et al.,2020). This approach is known as written corrective feedback (WCF) and refers to providing
explicit corrections for students’ work. Two categories of WCF have been identified, direct
and indirect. Direct written corrective feedback entails giving suggestions, praises or criticism
through a written annotation. EFL teachers use given margins to provide error corrections,whereas indirect feedback serves to give students written comments on their errors, but does
not provide error correction (Gasmi, 2017). Although, there is a clear distinction between direct
and indirect ways of giving feedback, both types of feedback focus on the identification of
students’ linguistic errors and providing or suggesting corrections (Farjadnasab &Khodashenas, 2017).
There are several studies that explore the benefits of WCF arguing that this type of assessment
provides a valuable contribution to writing skill development and the augmentation of students’lexical range (Arrad et al, 2014). Scholars believe that WCF enables learners to realize andcorrect their errors, thus, continuing to be a crucial pedagogical practice that is oriented towards
the improvement of EFL students’ writing skills (Bitchener, 2012; Hylan & Hyland, 2006).
Since WCF is still widely used in EFL writing classes, teachers still rely on its potential for
improvement in writing accuracy. Furthermore, WCF is thought to increase students’vocabulary as well as grammatical accuracy (Kang & Han, 2016).
Notwithstanding the numerous benefits of WCF, this type of instructive provision has attracted
much criticism. One of the reasons for the debate is that WCF does not correspond to thecurrent changes in the field of feedback delivery. This type of corrective reaction is believedto lack the purpose of providing precise feedback to students and appears to be time-consuming(Armağan et al., 2016). Moreover, WCF is said to often fail to lead EFL students to successfulerror correction and the improvement of their writing skills (Simard et al., 2015). Some
researchers even advocate for the abolishment of WCF on the grounds that error correction
does not lead to the enhancement of writing skills and accuracy (Mao & Crosthwaite, 2019;
Shintani & Ellis, 2013). Additionally, it is argued that WCF can be harmful, requiringconsiderable energy and time.
The emergence of technology transformed the educational system and brought the urgency toreconsider feedback practices. Screencast technology enabled EFL teachers to experiment with227

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giving oral feedback that focused on recording screens while commenting on students’assignments (Xie et al., 2022). Corrective commentary given through technology served toprovide a multimodal alternative to WCF and created an interactive atmosphere for English
language learning. Technology-enhanced feedback, which can be listened to, watched or
replayed multiple times, appears to create an opportunity to go beyond the boundaries of space
and time (Özkul & Ortaçtepe, 2017).
Due to an elevated interest in modern technology, video feedback has gained substantial
attention in the field of EFL writing. One of the ways of using video feedback is throughscreencasting that is “the process of recording a digital display with voiceover” (Cunningham,
2019, p. 224). In other words, screencast technology allows educators to capture their computer
screens while providing oral feedback to students (Elola & Oskoz, 2016). This study aimed toexperiment with implementing technology in feedback provision practice. In particular, itsought to investigate EFL students’ perception of using screencast video feedback as analternative to WCF and explore challenges faced by students in the process. The paper draws
on students’ surveys and their interview results as well as reviews of scholarly articles on thearea of the imposition of screencast video feedback. To investigate students’ perception ofusing screencast video feedback, the following research questions were formulated:
RQ1: What are EFL students’ perceptions of using screencast video feedback?
RQ2: What are the benefits of screencast video feedback?
RQ3: What challenges do EFL students face with regard to receiving screencast video
feedback?
Literature Review
The advancement in digital tools enabled EFL teachers to better address the deficiencies thatwere created by written corrective feedback. They vastly contributed to the modification of
feedback practices that emphasized their multimodal nature and ease of responding to students’electronic assignment submissions (Cunningham, 2019). Such multimodal feedback is referred
to as screencast video feedback since it is recorded using screencast technology andaccompanied by the instructor’s narration (Cranny, 2016; Séror, 2013). The purpose of
screencast video feedback is to provide verbal commentary on students’ work and assist them
towards self-correction. Unlike WCF, the instructor does not provide direct or indirect error
correction on students’ assignments, rather locates their errors, specifies the areas of
improvement and invites students to address their mistakes (Whitehurst, 2021). In other words,
EFL students are exposed to listening to their instructor giving feedback by commenting on
areas of improvement.
Screencast video feedback is relatively new and is conducted by recording a computer’s onscreen activities (Séror, 2013). The video is accompanied by the narration in which the
instructor highlights students’ errors and provides suggestions. In other words, the teacher
records his/her spoken comments while highlighting students’ errors. Screencast technology isdifferent from webcams through which teacher talk is recorded without displaying students’228

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written work. With screencast technology, on the other hand, students can view their written
assignments and listen to the instructors’ oral comments (Bush, 2021). Besides, such video
feedback resembles a conversation between the instructor and the student; it can bepersonalized and “contributes to students’ multimedia learning experiences by emotionallyconnecting to students and increasing their interests” (Cheng & Li, 2020, p. 2). For this reason,
video feedback has been welcomed as a new alternative and a preferred way of feedback
provision for many EFL practitioners (Bush, 2021; Cheng & Li, 2020; Cunningham & Link,
2021).
Benefits of Using Screencast Video Feedback
There are multiple studies that outline the benefits of using screencast video feedback in EFL
writing classes. Scholars claim that screencast video feedback positively boosts EFL students’
engagement by listening to educator commentary and revising their written words (Ali, 2016;
Cranny 2016). High levels of student interaction can also be attributed to a new and innovativemode of feedback through the use of video technology. The study conducted by Bush (2020)
showed that screencast video feedback was beneficial for boosting students’ involvement since
the participants appeared to be very focused on video in their feedback-receiving process. An
increased level of participation was also reported in Ali’s (2016) and Cranny’s (2016) studies.
Scholars argue that students’ active interaction in this process can be attributed to theinnovative and novel nature of the instructional approach. Besides, the participants’ comments
indicated the importance of feedback being multimodal which also contributed to theirinvolvement. Screencast video feedback enables the instructor to easily highlight or underline
students’ written errors and provide clear strategies for improvement. Such practices are
conducive to increased participation and promote a sort of dialogue between the teacher andfeedback receivers. This subsequently promotes enhancing comprehension and boosting theconnection concerning teaching and learning (Cranny, 2016).
Screencast video feedback is believed to be personal and conversational which contributes tothe establishment of teacher-student rapport. The instructor’s conversational manner andfriendly tone are perceived to be encouraging and supportive in the EFL writing process (Ali,2016; Anson et al., 2016). Elola and Oskoz (2016) also emphasize that the conversational
nature of video evaluation is highly conducive to building interpersonal relationships that canraise awareness of using a different type of assessment. Scholars argue that this type of
feedback is unlike written corrective critique in a number of ways and can lead to successfulattainment of the language. Another study carried out by Cunningham (2017) explored thedifferences between written corrective feedback and screencast video feedback. The latter wasperceived as helpful in creating an autonomous environment, whereas the participants
perceived written corrective feedback as authoritative. An autonomous environment, in return,contributes to the teacher-student interpersonal relationship that is thought to be crucial for theenhancement of foreign language learning.
Furthermore, screencast video feedback promotes more flexibility than written corrective
feedback. Students can access their video feedback at any time and view the recording as many

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times as they wish (Cranny, 2016; Lee, 2017). Flexibility in the feedback provision process has
been reported as being extremely important since EFL students may not comprehend feedback
easily. By viewing a video recording, students can pause and rewind if need be, they can also
make some notes and process feedback at their own pace. Video feedback is thought to be morepractical and effective in improving the quality of communication as well as being accessible
from most devices.
Drawbacks of Using Screencast Video Feedback
Despite a number of benefits, screencast video feedback has some disadvantages. According
to Voelkel and Mello (2014), one of the challenges can be attributed to students’ lack ofemotional readiness to accept the instructor’s comments on their written work. They may feeldemotivated and frustrated while listening to their instructor directly addressing them.
Moreover, students may experience nervousness and anxiety about being unfamiliar with a
new technology. It is also believed that if feedback is not provided constructively by the
instructor, it may cause annoyance among students. However, some scholars argue that the
feeling of uneasiness is normal until students are more familiar with the format of video
feedback (Bush, 2020). As soon as students become accustomed to the corrective process via
video, they will be more receptive to the corrections. A teacher’s positive demeanour can also
be conducive to processing feedback as constructive and supportive rather than critical.
Another challenge is related to screencast video feedback being a novel approach that manyeducators find difficult to handle. Allocating appropriate time might pose another challenge forteachers. In a classroom where there are many students, recording screencast feedback mightseem time-consuming (Ali, 2016). A technical issue has also emerged since recording feedback
requires advanced technical skills that many teachers may not possess. Furthermore, video
format is not always compatible with other devices which can pose further problems forstudents in terms of viewing or downloading a video. The quality of a video may also
undermine the value of screencast video feedback and demotivate students to listen to it (Lee,2017). Scholars also argue that considering various types of learning styles, screencast video
feedback cannot be accessible for all learners. Moreover, students who experience visual orlearning impairment may find video feedback difficult to access (Chalmers, MacCallum,
Mowat & Fulton, 2014; Johnson & Cooke, 2015).
The Implication of Using Screencast Video Feedback in EFL Writing Class
There is a prolific number of studies that explored the repercussion of using screencast video
feedback on EFL students’ writing assignments. Elola and Oskoz (2016) in their researchargued that the main focus of video feedback is on the content, structure and organization oflearners’ written work rather than providing suggestions for grammatical errors. They claimed
that this type of feedback is particularly beneficial for improving higher-order thinking skills(Ali, 2016; Ducate & Arnold, 2012). Moreover, due to its nature to be specific and engaging,screencast video feedback encourages revision. While listening to the instructor’s oral
comments, students are shown ways to revise their assignments and correct their errors, thus230

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leading to writing skill improvement (Ali, 2016). It is also argued that students are more likely
to achieve success in revision through video feedback than through written feedback eventhough the latter is more precise (Elola & Oskoz, 2016). Correspondingly, video feedback has
been proven effective for correcting and addressing linguistic errors in written assignments.
As mentioned above, screencast video feedback is personalized and conversational, whichenables learners to feel more comfortable than being in face-to-face situations. Vincelette andBostic (2013) stated that facing an instructor while giving feedback may create pressure, while
video feedback can eliminate such constraints on students and make feedback more accurate.
Additionally, the interaction without the physical presence of the teacher makes feedback more
responsive and initiates a follow-up discussion with the teacher. The scholars also claimed thatscreencast video feedback allows teachers to provide an alternative assessment enabling thedevelopment of EFL students’ writing skills.
Some scholars researched EFL students’ perceptions of using screencast video feedback intheir writing class (Elola & Oskoz, 2016; Vincelette, 2013; Ice et al, 2010). As reported by theparticipants in Elola’s and Oskoz’s study, screencast video feedback was perceived positively
due to its multi-sensory nature. The students viewed video feedback as multi-functional andspecific. It was claimed that screencast video feedback could provide more explanations andsuggestions that are necessary to address the issues in writing assignments (Vincelette, 2013).
Methodology and Methods
The study took a mixed-method approach through which quantitative and qualitative data weregathered for analysis. Creswell and Clark (2017) characterize the mixed-method approach as amethodology that offers a more thorough understanding and enhances the validity of thefindings. Quantitative data were collected through surveys that were administered at the end of
the research period. The survey was generated by the researcher using Google Forms. The aimof using the survey was to investigate the impact of receiving screencast video feedback on
Georgian EFL writing students’ assignments and their perception of using it. It consisted ofthree parts: Part 1 of the survey focused on EFL students’ reflections on receiving video
feedback whereas the second part dealt with the technical issues experienced while listening.
The last part of the survey investigated the participants’ overall experience of using screencast
video feedback. The survey questions were designed by the researcher. The
questionnaires/interview questions were then examined and analysed by two independent
experts who provided invaluable feedback on the improvement of the content of thequestionnaire. The questionnaire was also launched and piloted with 10 students prior to theimplementation of the research. The pilot participants filled in the questionnaire in a 5-minuteinterval. They responded to all the questions and commented that the items were clear and easy
to understand.
Quantitative methodology was applied to gain more insight into the benefits of using video
feedback. The researcher opted for this methodology to delve deeper into quantitative results
and supplement the data. This approach provided additional insight into the mixed-methods

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methodology and yielded a more robust research framework (Ivankova, Creswell & Stick,2006). The semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 participants using the Zoom
platform. The participants were asked 5 questions that were designed by the researcher. By
applying qualitative methodology, the researcher was able to enrich the results of the study.
Data gleaned from the survey were statistically analysed using Statistical Package for theSocial Sciences (SPSS 24). SPSS is an ideal package for quantitative data analysis since it isuser-friendly and powerful software for all sorts of analytical data (Rahman & Muktadir, 2021).
On the other hand, NVivo was utilized for interview transcript analysis since it aided qualitative
data analysis (Welsh, 2002).
Participants
The research sample consisted of 40 undergraduate students studying English Writing as partof their English Philology programme. The majority of the participants (90%) were females,
whereas males constituted 10% of the research sample. Most of the participants (97%) were
freshmen students of English Philology.
The study was conducted at one of the private universities in Georgia. All participants werefirst verbally informed about the nature of the research and asked to volunteer to take part in
the study. The participants were given a consent form before the start of the study period toconfirm their willingness to participate in the study. The form outlined the framework of thestudy and their right to withdraw their participation at any stage of the research. As regards
confidentiality and anonymity, the participants were informed that the survey completion wasanonymous. In semi-structured interviews, the participants were again reminded of theirvoluntary participation and the right to withdraw at any stage of the research with no further
consequences. The information provided was strictly used within the scope of this research
only and has not been disclosed to any other third party.
Procedure
The survey was administered using Google Forms at the end of the semester. The duration of
the research was three months. In the first part of the survey, the participants were asked toreflect on the video feedback they had received on their written assignments and select theappropriate option for each statement. In particular, they were asked to respond to the questions
on the clarity of feedback received, ability to revise their work, suggestions for improvement
and personalization of feedback. The second part of the questionnaire evaluated the challenges
of using screencast video feedback in the EFL writing process. The last part of thequestionnaire investigated the overall experience of using video feedback. The statements wereorganized on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally agree), 2 (agree), 3 (neutral), 4(disagree), and 5 (totally disagree). The Likert scale enabled the participants to indicate theirlevel of agreement with each statement on a metric scale. On the Likert scale, each statement
unveils a distinct dimension of attitude toward the issue, thereby inherently interconnected with
one another (Joshi et al., 2015).

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The data collected were entered in SPSS 24 for statistical analysis. Semi-structured interviews
were administered through the Zoom platform. The participants were invited to share theirexperiences of using screencast video feedback and identify the benefits and challenges they
faced while using the technology. The semi-structured interviews were conducted by the
researcher. The informants were asked the following questions: 1. How did you perceive
screencast video feedback? 2. What aspect of screencast video feedback have you found themost beneficial? 3. What challenges have you encountered while listening to video feedback?
4. What is your overall experience of using screencast video feedback? The interviews weretranscribed and coded in NVivo. The researcher adapted an open coding system to generate thethemes quickly. The transcript analysis revealed 6 major themes.
Findings
The first phase of the data collection was conducted through a survey. The first part of thesurvey focused on the affordances of screencast video feedback. In the second part of thesurvey, the participants responded to the statements that dealt with the challenges of using
screencast video feedback. The third part of the questionnaire investigated the participants’
overall experience of using screencast video feedback.
Table 1
Benefits of Using Screencast Video Feedback
The video feedback:Provided a clear understandingof my assignment’s content.
Enabled me to rethink andreevaluate my assignment.
Proved beneficial as it allowed
me to revisit my assignment
for revisions.
Permitted me to gain a better
understanding of my mistakes.
Was comprehensive,highlighting the main strengths
and weaknesses of myassignments.
The instructor commented on
my accomplishments.
Included the instructor’s
recommendations on areas for
improvement.
Provided individualized
feedback tailored to mypersonal needs.

1
TA

2
A

3
N

77.5%

12.5%

31.5%

5
TD

Mean

St.
Dev

Sig. 2-

7.5%

2.5%

1.4

0.84

.000

20%

2.5%

5%

1.4

0.77

.000

70%

20%

5%

5%

1.50

0.98

.000

70%

20%

7.5%

5%

1.55

1.01

.000

72.5%

17.5%

7.5%

2.5%

1.43

0.84

.000

72.5%

15%

10%

2.5%

1.43

0.87

.000

80%

10%

7.5%

2.5%

1.35

0.83

.000

80%

7.5%

10%

2.5%

1.38

0.86

.000

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As can be seen in Table 1, a significant majority of the participants (77.5%, n=31) perceived
video feedback as providing a clear understanding of their assignment content. A similar
percentage, 70% (n= 28) regarded video feedback as beneficial in terms of understanding their
mistakes and revising their assignments. However, 5% of the participants (n=2) totallydisagreed with this statement. Almost 90% of the participants totally agreed or agreed that
feedback in the video was individualized and tailored to students’ personal needs (n=35). The
same percentage of the participants (90%, n=36) also responded positively to video feedback
being helpful in providing recommendations and suggesting areas for improvement. Generally,
the participants’ responses were consistent and positive which was confirmed by the meanscores ranging between 1.38 and 1.50. As regards standard deviation, they varied between 0.77
and 1.01 indicating that the responses provided were not dramatically different.
Table 2
Challenges of Using Screencast Video Feedback.
Video feedback:Was time-consuming.
The audio quality was
unclear.
Accessibility wasstraightforward.
Accessibility waschallenging for me.
The instructor’s tone was
supportive and friendly.

1
TA

2
A

3
N

4
D

5
TD

17.5%

17.5%

25%

22.5%

17.5%

5%

2.5%

10%

45%

37.5%

62.5%

17.5%

12.5%

2.5%

5%

72.5%

10%

12.5%

2.5%

2.5%

80%

10%

7.5%

2.5%

Mean

St.
Dev

Sig. 2tailed

3.02

1.32

.000

4.05

1.01

.000

1.70

1.11

.000

1.52

0.98

.000

1.35

0.83

.000

As Table 2 statistics indicate, one of the major challenges that emerged from the survey wasconcern about video feedback being time-consuming. Thirty-five per cent of the participants(n= 14) strongly agreed and agreed with the statement, whereas 10% (n=10) remained neutral.
The participants also commented on the quality of the video and a small minority of them (7%n=3) indicated it was unclear. However, for the majority of the participants (82.5%, n=32), thequality of the video was not an issue with 10% (n=4) remaining neutral. The highest meanscore (m=4.04) that was observed could be attributed to the fact the statement result could beunderstood as reversed, since, a negative response, in this case, might be taken as a positive
result for the research. As regards the accessibility of video feedback, the participants werepositive with 80% totally agreeing or agreeing with the statement, whereas 7.5% (n=3)
disagreed or totally disagreed.

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Table 3Overall Experience of Using Screencast Video Feedback
1
TA
80%

2
A
10%

72.5%

20%

Deepens my understanding of thesubject.

65%

22.5

Motivates me to participate in mywriting process actively.

80%

Is advantageous for improving myEnglish writing skills.

70%

Video feedback
Enhances my writing process,making it more interesting.
is very interactive and engaging

3
N
7.5
%
5%

4
D

5
TD
2.5%

Mea
n
1.35

St.
Dev
0.8

Sig. 2
tailed
.000

2.5%

1.40

0.8

.000

10
%

2.5%

1.55

0.9

.000

5%

12.
5%

2.5%

1.40

0.9

.000

20%

5%

2.5%

1.47

0.9

.000

2.5%

As it can be observed from Table 3, the participants’ overall experience of using screencast
video was very positive, with 90% of the participants (n=36) totally agreeing or agreeing thatvideo feedback made their writing process interesting and enhanced it. Slightly more than 90%of the participants (n=37) also commented on video feedback being very interactive andengaging. Moreover, 85% (n=34) of the participants identified video feedback as motivatingin their writing process, whereas a small minority of the participants (n=2.5) responded to thisstatement negatively. Furthermore, a significant majority of the participants (90%, n= 36)
perceived video feedback as advantageous in their writing process.
The second phase of the research concerned analyzing the interview transcript. As it was
mentioned in the description of the data collection methodology, the researcher utilized NVivo,
went through the coding process, and created the following 6 codes: clear to understand,conversational, motivational, self-reflection, instructor’s friendly tone, writing skill
improvement. Table 4 summarises the semi-structured interview findings:
Table 4Semi-structured Interview Results
Main theme
Self-reflection

Number Quotes
8“I liked that the lecturer pointed out my mistakes so I could
understand better where I had made mistakes so I can take those inaccount in the future.”“I like it so much. It is easier to understand my mistakes andvisualize my mistakes. Everything was real nice”“I love everything about video feedback because it has a lot of
benefits. It makes clear in which part I made a mistake and helps me
to understand every detail better”.
“It was an interesting addition, easy to improve those mistakes thatwere highlighted in the video.”235

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“It helps me to understand what I have done wrongly, and I like it.”
“The video feedback was very engaging. It was interesting to listen
to my teacher talking to me about my mistakes. I tried to listen andimprove.”“Always looking forward to the instructor’s feedback, I liked theway she praised me and commented on my errors.”“I try to always correct my mistakes and follow the teacher’sadvice.”“I like how my lecturer gives me a smiling face every time despite
the minor mistakes.”“I personally loved it when I got video feedback. It motivated me to
do my assignments perfectly and get that smiley face again.”

Motivational

6

Instructor’sfriendly tone

6

Conversational

5

Clear tounderstand

4“The most pleasant thing is that through the video I hear praise forevery paragraph and what I wrote is praised, mentioned andappreciated.”“There is a zest in this format of feedback, it is more live and I getmuch more pleasure receiving it now than in past in written form.”“Hearing the teacher’s encouraging words, praising me and mywork made me feel really appreciated and respected.”“I like the lecturer’s attitude; she evaluates us very positively andobjectively.”“I liked the supportive tone of the lecturer.”“Hearing teachers’ encouraging words, praising me and my work
made me feel really appreciated and respected.”“As always lecturer had a friendly tone and that is the thing which I
love so much. Please keep going with video feedback. Thank you
for helping and supporting us every time.”“The thing, which I liked the most, was the friendly language andtone.”“The lecturer was very friendly and supportive, which made thelearning process enjoyable.”“It feels like I have a conversation with my lecturer which is
absolutely fantastic.”“I have never had such an experience before.”“I absolutely loved that the lecturer was assessing my assignment
and in meantime, she was talking as if I was there.”“I liked the fact that it felt like the lecturer was directly talking tome.”“The video feedback was very engaging. It was interesting to listen
to my teacher talking to me about my mistakes. I tried to listen andimprove.”“Feedback was clear to understand.”“I loved how the teacher thoroughly explained and discussed every
single aspect of my writing, making comments andrecommendations for future work as well.”“I liked the way the lecturer described every detail clearly.”

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“I liked the way the lecturer explained everything. Video feedback
was super time-consuming and understandable.”“I love how everything is described in the video. Either good or bad
things in my writing so I can think about it and know what I should
improve.”“Video feedback is very beneficial, and I hope the intructor willcontinue to do it in the future.”
I find video feedback really helpful and useful to use inassessment.”

Table 4 indicated that the first theme that emerged from the interview was self-reflection.
According to the comments that are also included in the table above, the participants viewed
video feedback as very helpful to understand and revise their errors. It was also mentioned thatscreencast video feedback enabled the participants to visualize their errors and correct them.
The second major theme was labelled as screencast video feedback being motivational.
Thirdly, the participants highlighted the instructor’s friendly tone that made them feelappreciated and valued: “Hearing teacher’s encouraging words, praising me and my work
made me feel really appreciated and respected.” They also indicated that the instructor’sfriendly tone was supportive and enjoyable. The participants also felt that screencast video
feedback was conversational since they felt the instructor directly addressing them: “Video
feedback was very engaging. It was interesting to listen to my teacher talking to me about mymistakes. I tried to listen and improve.”
Discussion
The findings reveal that screencast video feedback had a positive impact on Georgian EFL
students’ writing. Screencast video feedback was seen as beneficial and clear inproviding guidance and error corrections for their writing assignments. The participants’
responses showed that screencast video feedback enables them to revisit their assignments
and revise them.
Screencast video feedback is perceived as personalized and individualized. The participantsalso highlighted the conversational nature of screencast video feedback that made them feelvalued and appreciated. As regards the challenges, screencast video feedback appeared tobe time-consuming for 35% of the participants. For the minority of the participants, video
feedback was seen as unclear (7.5%).
The findings of this study align with the results of the research conducted by Ali (2016) who
investigated the effectiveness of screencast video feedback in EFL students’ writing classes.
The mixed-method research conducted with undergraduate students revealed that screencast
video feedback was perceived as engaging, supportive, clear and personal. Moreover, thescholar argues that screencast video response helps students reshape their ideas and get moreorganized in writing essays. Similarly, the study conducted by Cunningham (2019) explored
EFL students’ perception of using screencast video feedback as an alternative to writtencorrective feedback. The research findings revealed that the participants preferred screencast
video feedback due to it being individualized as opposed to written corrective criticism which
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they perceived as very specific. The scholar claims that to yield the best results, a combinationof both modes of feedback can be applied.
More recent research carried out by Xie et al. (2022) investigated the impact of screencast
video feedback on students’ writing performance. The experiment conducted by the researchers
involved one group of students who were exposed to screencast recording feedback, whereas
the second group received traditional written corrective feedback. The findings of the research
revealed that the experimental group students performed better than the control group. As withthe current study, the participants’ responses were similarly positive towards receiving
screencast video feedback since it was perceived as supportive in strengthening teacher-student
interaction.
Recommendations
Since most of the respondents regarded screencast video feedback as individualized andinteractive, one of the recommendations of the present paper is to enable EFL instructors to
use screencast video feedback in their teaching practices. The participants of the study saw thevideo commentary as stimulating and encouraging. Additionally, they found it readily
accessible and highly beneficial for self-editing and revising. The findings also showed positive
attitudes towards screencast video feedback, emphasizing its clarity, and capacity for revision.
For this reason, EFL teachers are recommended to experiment using screencast video feedbackin writing provision. Moreover, the benefits of screencast video feedback that emerged fromthe research highlight its significance and potential value in future EFL curricula. Curriculum
designers are advised to redesign their existing curriculum by incorporating video feedback inteaching and assessment. As regards the challenges, the screencast video feedback emerged tobe time-consuming for the majority of the participants. For further consideration, EFL students
should receive enough technical support with the accessibility of video feedback.
Conclusion
This paper explored the effectiveness of providing screencast video feedback in English as a
Foreign Language (EFL) writing classes, highlighting its strong usefulness in students’ writing
skill development. It investigated the concept of written corrective feedback and its main
empathy in providing error corrections. The paper also reviewed screencast video feedback as
a new alternative to EFL writing classes. The latter offers several benefits, including increased
student engagement, personalized feedback and flexibility in writing assessments. However,there are some challenges associated with this approach, such as students’ emotional readinessto accept video feedback and technical issues.
The present study employed a mixed-method approach to investigate 40 EFL students’
perceptions of screencast video feedback. Quantitative data were collected through surveys,
while qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interviews. The results gleaned
from quantitative data suggested that screencast video feedback has a number of benefits. The
majority of the participants perceived screencast video feedback as personalized and238

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conversational providing support for assignment revision. Screencast video feedback was also
viewed as engaging and motivational. Moreover, the participants’ responses demonstrated thatscreencast video feedback was easy to access. It was believed to have hugely contributed toself-correction and revising. The results also indicated positive perceptions of screencast video
feedback, with participants highlighting benefits such as clarity, revision ability, andpersonalized feedback. Challenges included technical issues and emotional readiness to accept
feedback.
The analysis of semi-structured interview data revealed six main themes. The participantsemphasized the benefits of video feedback for self-reflection, noting its clarity in understanding
mistakes and its role in facilitating revision. Additionally, they highlighted the motivational
aspect of video feedback, appreciating the instructor’s friendly tone and feeling valued andrespected. Moreover, participants found video feedback conversational and engaging,
contributing to an enjoyable learning experience. Overall, participants expressed satisfaction
with the clarity, supportiveness, and effectiveness of video feedback in developing their writing
skills.
Research Limitations
The present study has identified a number of limitations. One of the concerns is the sample
size. The research sample comprised 40 undergraduate students from a specific English
philology program at a private university in Georgia. A small sample size and homogeneity ofthe participants limit the generalizability of the findings to broader populations of EFL
students. Moreover, having conducted the study in one specific institutional context may
restrict the applicability of the findings to other educational settings. Another limitation is theduration of the study. The present paper presented a small-scale study that lasted for threemonths. Longitudinal research tracking EFL students’ progress over an extended period of time
would offer comprehensive insight into the benefits and challenges of screencast video
feedback.

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Corresponding Author: Nato Pachuashvili
Email: npachuashvili@ibsu.edu.ge

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Connecting Student Interest and Motivation in English to the Sustainable
Development Goals
Kira Adams
Yamaguchi University, Japan
Sachiko Nakano
Yamaguchi University, Japan243

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Abstract
English education in Japan has traditionally focused on grammar over communication, and thecountry has struggled to compete internationally in terms of English proficiency scores. As thecountry works toward the internationalization of higher education, improving English
education is an important issue. One potential solution is the use of topics that elicit students’interest and make them feel like part of the international community. This paper explored theuse of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a topic due to their global importanceand position, along with English, as a key to furthering the global citizenship of Japan’s youth.
Because of the substantial number of SDGs, not all goals can be realistically addressed in asingle course. Therefore, to find topics tailored to students’ interests in sustainability, this study
examined the relationship between student interest in sustainability, International Posture (IP),and personal connection to SDGs. A survey was given to 266 first-year university students ingeneral education English classes. A separate multiple regression analysis was conducted forthe target variable, “Topic Interest” within English class for each goal, to determine how theeffects and significance of variables differed for each SDG. Results showed that the IP subscale,“Intergroup Approach Tendency,” was significant for 14 and “Personal Value” was significant
for 16 of the goals. For internationally minded students engaged in the study of English as aforeign language, the SDGs could be a useful motivational tool.
Keywords: English Language Teaching (ELT), higher education, interest, International Posture(IP), motivation, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

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English education is a highly scrutinized topic in Japan. Despite international success in math,science, and reading scores, Japan has continued to struggle in English results. Even after
spending at least 6 years studying English, many students enter the university lacking
confidence in the subject. This is not to say that the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science, and Technology (MEXT) lacks the intention to improve English education. On thecontrary, programs like the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) program and widespread useof Assistant Language Teachers have been implemented to bring an international perspective
to the learning environment, and curriculum guidelines phased in from 2013 have encouraged
teachers to employ more communication-based teaching methods (Bartlett, 2017). Despite
these continued efforts, the grammar translation method and audio-lingual method remain thedominant teaching styles in EFL classrooms, continuing to be prioritized over communicationbased methods (Clayton & Yamada, 2022). This has long been attributed to the necessity of
preparing students for the university entrance exams (K. Kikuchi, 2006). Yet, despite
recognition of issues, systematic changes have been slow and faced difficulties in
implementation (Butler et al., 2022).
However, once students have completed the entrance exams, the opportunities for English
education suddenly broaden. Although they may no longer have the native teachers to provide
them with a connection to the global community, students are no longer bound by the pressuresof entrance exams. Despite the negative attitudes toward English that persist until the university,
evidence shows that students at the college level can easily be guided to view English as a
Lingua Franca, and through this change in perspective see the communicative purpose ofEnglish, without focusing too much on grammatical perfection (Ishikawa, 2017). This makes
higher education courses an excellent time to enable students to start viewing and studying
English as a tool for international communication. The relative freedom that university courses
have in curriculum development has the potential to enable this change, and carefully chosen
subject matter could help students to recognize themselves as part of an international
community with which they can interact.
Of the many issues that are relevant in the world today, the SDGs represent content rich themesthat may lead to greater motivation for language development. As the government calls for theincorporation of SDGs into curricula, it is a natural consequence that they would also join the
program of study for English courses. This integration could link students to an imagined global
community of English speakers. However, with seventeen goals, it is difficult to incorporate
all goals into a single class. Therefore, this paper sought to gain a better understanding of which
SDGs could best be incorporated into the English classroom to connect to students’ sense of
global community. Specifically, it examined how interest in studying each SDG is affected byInternational Posture, a construct of motivation in language learning that measures students’sense of connection to the global community.

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Literature Review
English Education and Global Citizenship in JapanThe Japanese government has continued to make efforts to improve English education.
Following the national curriculum, most students began studying English in junior high school
until it was introduced into elementary schools as comprehensive learning in 2002. While thisclass did include some English lessons, the primary focus was on “international awareness”
and not specifically focus on language skills. English was formally adopted as a once-a-weeksubject in 2011 from the fifth grade. Most recently, in 2020, the curriculum was adjusted again
to start in the third year of elementary school. Simultaneously, the number of classes per weekin junior high school was increased from one to two.
The 4th Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education, provided by MEXT lists five fundamental
principles for the future of education in the country (Cabinet of Japan, 2023). The first among
these is equipping humans with the necessary skills to be capable resources while continuing
to study with the goal of contributing to the sustainable development of global society. The
specific goals include increased inbound and outbound study abroad, internationalization, andimproved foreign language education. The indicators for progress, however, specificallyreference achieving certain levels of English by graduation. This push for internationalization
is occurring throughout Japanese education, but a Central Council for Education (2018) plan
cites higher education as a particularly important section for globalization.
Struggles with Japanese English Education
Despite this emphasis on English and globalization, Japan continues to struggle with overall
English attainment levels. In 2023, it ranked at only 87th according to the EF English
Proficiency Index, below fellow Asian countries of China and Korea (Education First, 2023).
The majority of students spend their early years of education focusing on English study
primarily for the purpose of passing tests and succeeding in the university entrance exam
(Yamada, 2018). The grammar translation method has also dominated education methods, due
to its comparative ease as a method for the teacher (Jones, 2019). Despite attempts to introduce
native speakers to support classroom activities and create a natural and authentic outlet for
English use through the employment of Assistant Language Teachers, many students continue
to struggle to build confidence and comfort in English (Hashimoto & Glasgow, 2021).
At the university level, English students are less bound by the necessities of entrance
examinations. While some students may continue to focus on language proficiency tests likethe Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), university students also havethe option to study English abroad or more in depth because it connects to their major. The
Japanese government has also taken the initiative to attempt to increase the number of Englishmedium instruction courses in universities through the Top Global University Project, an
improvement on previous attempts at internationalizing higher education (Rose & McKinley,2018). In individual courses, syllabi have less need to focus on teaching to the test and can246

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more freely implement a variety of topics and teaching styles. Designing curricula that provide
English learners with a sense of imagined community, interesting topics in which they can
engage, and practical uses of language that encourage communication has the potential to spark
student interest and motivation in English language learning.
The Sustainable Development Goals
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted in 2015 by the United Nations.
Their goal is to achieve sustainable development throughout the world and achieve peace andprosperity for all. Many universities in Japan work to incorporate SDGs into their courses,
cultivate research opportunities around global issues, and rank internationally in theircontributions toward the goals (Ashida, 2023). As universities work to integrate SDG education
throughout their curricula, their potential importance in the English classroom becomesapparent. Not only are they a current and relevant international topic, but their inclusion as aclassroom topic could also be motivational for students as they recognize themselves as part ofthe international community that is trying to achieve the goals.
There are 17 goals, and they cover a wide variety of topics (Table 1). The topics range fromgeneral areas of environment to human rights, and economic development. Considering thelimited length of courses, it would be difficult to incorporate all of the goals into a single course.
Careful consideration should be taken in choosing which goals best mesh with thecommunicative goals of an English class and the sense of international community that courses
aim to foster. Student interest is an important motivating factor in education. Classes tailored
to student interest have the potential to improve learning outcomes, such as improving reading
comprehension (Asgari et al., 2019), and increasing vocabulary learning and recall (Cancino,2023). It is important to select the goals that are most suited to student interests, specificallywithin the second language (L2) classroom.

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Table 1
List of the 17 SDGs
Goal 1. No poverty
Goal 2. Zero hunger
Goal 3. Good health and well-being
Goal 4. Quality education
Goal 5. Gender equality
Goal 6. Clean water and sanitation
Goal 7. Affordable and clean energy
Goal 8. Decent work and economic growth
Goal 9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure
Goal 10. Reduced inequalities
Goal 11. Sustainable cities and communities
Goal 12. Responsible consumption and production
Goal 13. Climate action
Goal 14. Life below water
Goal 15. Life on land
Goal 16. Peace, justice, and strong institutions
Goal 17. Partnership for the goals

Japan’s International PostureDespite this, Japan has often been criticized for a failure to take interest in and respond tointernational society. Before the pandemic, Kuroda et al. (2018) found that despite domestic
statistics showing some increase in outbound study abroad, according to the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Japan’s number of outboundexchange students had been falling. This was attributed to the difference in the more lenient
domestic definition of what was considered study abroad. Many questioned whether thisdownward trend could be attributed to the insular mindset or inward-looking nature of Japaneseyouth, and indeed some studies found evidence that inward-looking natures could lead toincreased concerns towards issues of study abroad (Kojima et al., 2014) or have a polarizing
effect on students in combination with frequently seen low achievement goals (Kikuchi et al.,2015).
While research has examined Japanese students’ inward-looking nature from several angles,
from the perspective of language learning, this study chose to examine international posture(IP). It has relatively widespread and continued use and has clear connections to English
education (Botes et al., 2020), making it of particular relevance to topics in the English
classroom. A motivational factor in the study of English as a foreign language, International
posture can be traced back to “integrativeness” which is a factor by which students of a foreign
language are motivated by a desire to integrate into the native community of the language
which they are learning (Gardner, 1985). However, as English has developed increasingly as a
lingua franca, the established concept of integrativeness has become harder to apply. There is
no longer a singular community of native speakers, and the speakers of English as a second

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language now greatly outnumber native speakers. Thus, without a goal community in which tointegrate, learners of English as a second language are now asked to imagine the international
community in which they hope to be a participant (Yashima, 2002).
The measurement of IP has developed since it was first proposed. The original scale wascomposed of four indicators a) intercultural friendship orientation, b) interest in foreign affairsc) intercultural-approach-avoidance tendency, and d) interest in international occupation or
activities (Yashima, 2002). The scale for intercultural friendship orientation was removed instreamlining the survey and removing overlaps (Yashima et al., 2004). In subsequent research,
the scale was further modified resulting in the current version composed of the two attitudinalbehavioral propensities: a) intercultural approach tendency, b) interest in international
occupation or activities, and the two knowledge orientations: a) interest in international news
and b) having things to communicate to the world (Yashima, 2009). Although the “having
things to communicate” subscale has been questioned (Toyama & Yamazaki, 2020), the general
construct has been used frequently, and in a systematic literature review, was found to a be avalid hypothesis with a verified effect on learning motivation (Botes et al., 2020). Some
research has also suggested that it may be malleable, through experiences such as study abroad(Geoghegan, 2018), which offers possibilities for increasing language motivation. While
integrativeness continues to be used in research and is perceived to be a relevant factor in
English learning motivation, there is also research showing that between integrativeness andinternational posture, the latter is a more significant source of motivation for university students
engaged in learning English as a foreign language (Radosavljević Krsmanović, 2021).
Motivation and Interest in Language Learning
Motivation is an important aspect of learning. It plays a part in student engagement in
activities and influences how much students will gain from those pursuits (Filgona et al.,2020). In the specific context of second-language learning, motivation has been shown toincrease both willingness to communicate and communication frequency in the target
language (Lao, 2020). When teachers employ motivational strategies successfully, both inclass and out-of-class behaviors are significantly influenced resulting in increased
efforts to use self-learning materials, to decrease language errors, and to make use of new
knowledge (Lee et al., 2020). As a complex concept, motivation has a wide range of effects
on various aspects of learning, but it can be viewed overall as a boon to the learning process.
International posture has been shown as a factor that strengthens learning motivation andwillingness to communicate, as well as improving communication in English (Yashima,2019). A strong relation was found between IP and the ideal L2 self, another significant aspectof L2 motivation (Véliz-Campos et al., 2020). It has also been found to positively influence
the L2 experience and negatively affect the ought-to L2 self, which represents obligational
motivation that negatively affected the language learning experience (Zhao et al., 2022). As it
continues to be used in countries throughout the world, understanding about its positiveeffects continues to develop.

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Interest, another factor studied in relation to motivation, is considered an antecedent tomotivation, and the deepened engagement that this motivation leads to can then both strengthen
and extend interest (Sang & Hiver, 2021). It is commonly conceptualized as having two
different parts. First, there is situational interest, which is a more immediate reaction to
structural features, such as humor, or learning conditions, and second there is individual interest,
which is more developed and enduring (Renninger & Hidi, 2017). In compulsory English
courses in Japan, individual interest has been shown to positively affect both self-efficacy andcompetence (Fryer & Ainley, 2019). In a more specific example, Asgari et al. (2019) showedthat employing reading materials tailored to match student interests resulted in significant
improvements in reading comprehension across skill levels, with interested learners tending to
be more diligent and hardworking. In a broader sense, Sang and Hiver (2021) point out
similarities between the effects of interest and that of integrativeness, noting that they both canrelate to attitudes toward the foreign community that allows use of English. However,considering the expansion of the discourse regarding English language learning, thiscomparison should not stop at integrativeness, but the similarities to International Posture
should also be considered.
While the study of IP has focused on its role in motivating English language learners, its
resemblances to other motivating factors like interest suggest that it should be explored more
widely. How might it affect students’ global citizenship practices, or interest in specificinternational topics? Because research has been inclined to focus on a more narrow range ofareas directly related to language education, this study chose to examine the effect that IP could
have on the relevant topic interest in SDGs.
Given the importance of interest, motivation, and creating a curriculum that moves beyond
solely grammar-based teaching, this study sought to identify which SDGs could be best adopted
as topics within an English classroom. Specifically, it asked:
1. How do demographic factors influence interest in learning about different SDGs as
topics in English class?
2. Does International Posture impact students’ level of interest in studying about SDGs in
English class?
3. Which goals are more highly affected by International Posture, and thus more likely tomotivate students to learn English?
Methods
Surveys were conducted at a national comprehensive university in Western Japan. Students
were first-year undergraduate students who were attending English language classes as a partof their general or core education classes. Because English is compulsory in the first year, thischoice of population provided a broader understanding of the general student population, andnot only students who already showed significant interest in taking English as an elective. The
purpose of the study and its voluntary nature was made clear to students. Students were assured
that their participation, or lack thereof, would have no effect on their grades in the course. Both250

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the survey and the informed consent forms provided to the students were approved by theuniversity’s research ethics committee.
Surveys were completed through the university’s online system. Surveys consisted of acollection of questions in Japanese to determine the IP of students as well as their interest in
studying each of the individual SDGs in English classes, and basic demographic information.
For international posture, Yashima’s three well confirmed subscales were used: “Intergroup
Approach Tendency (IAT)” (7 items), “Interest in International Vocation or Activities (IIV)” (6items), and “Interest in International News (IIN)” (4 items) (Toyama & Yamazaki, 2020;
Yashima, 2009). A pilot survey with different students in the first semester did not validate the“Having things to communicate” subscale, and so, it was not included, to reduce burden on thesurvey takers. Answers were on a 6-point Likert-type scale following the example of recent
researchers who used this type of scale (Toyama & Yamazaki, 2020).
In addition, six questions were asked for each of the goals. Three questions were used to
discover interest regarding using the SDG as a topic within English class, “Topic Interest.”Three questions were used to determine the perceived value of the goal in students’ career andlife, “Personal Value.” Questions for Topic Interest were adapted from the Academic Interest
Scale’s emotional interest subscale, addressing the emotional component of interest (Luo et al.,2019). Questions for Personal Value were adapted from the same Academic Interest Scale’svalue subscale, which measures the perceived significance that a topic will have in the students’
lives, addressing the value-related component of interest (Luo et al., 2019). Answers for theinterest and personal value questions used the original scale’s 5-point Likert scale. Results wereanalyzed with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software Version 28.0 (IBM,Armonk, New York, USA). Finally, students who indicated why they were interested instudying an SDG in English class were asked to select the main reason for their interest froma list of options. They were also able to input their own reason if they felt that the listed reasons
were not applicable.
Results and Analysis
Using the survey data, students’ IP and their Topic Interest and Personal Value for each goal
were analyzed. The analysis also examined differences in gender and the department in which
students were enrolled.
Demographics
Two hundred sixty-six first year university students responded to parts of the survey. Of thestudents studied, the gender distribution was approximately even (141 male, 125 female).
When Japanese students enter university, they enter not into the university as a whole, but rather
join a specific school, or department, which later allows them to choose from a variety ofdifferent majors. The respondents were enrolled in seven different departments, withengineering and humanities being the most common, at 21.1% and 18.8% respectively. Twoclasses each were science, economics, and medicine department students, and one class each251

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was agriculture and education. The departments of veterinary medicine and global and sciencestudies were not surveyed due to their lack of participation in the standard general education
English courses.
Factor Analysis
Exploratory factor analysis with Promax rotation was conducted for the questions pertaining
to International Posture. Individual questions were coded by their subscale name, Intergroup
Approach Tendency (IAT), Interest in International Vocation or Activities (IIV), and Interest inInternational News (IIN) followed by an item number. Analysis of the scree plot suggested
three factors in the final analysis, which was further confirmed using a guideline of eigenvalues> 1. With over 200 responses, items with a factor loading of less than .40, were considered to
be not significant and discarded (Field, 2017). In addition, factors with less than two items
were considered ill-defined and removed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). The first analysis
yielded four factors, and IIV1 was removed due to its low loading, this left factor 4 with only
two items, so IAT6, and IIV5 were also removed. When analysis was repeated, it yielded the
expected three factors (Table 2). The IIV subscale consisted of 4 items (α = .87), the IAT
subscale consisted of 6 items (α = .75), and the IIN subscale consisted of 4 items (α = .76).
Factor scores for each subscale were then calculated using the regression predictor to accountfor the differing weights (Schreiber, 2021).
Table 2
Factor Analysis

Item (no.)
IIV (2)IIV (4)
IIV (6)*
IIV (3)
IAT (7)
IAT (3)
IAT (5)
IAT (1)
IAT (2)*
IAT (4)
IIN (1)IIN (4)*
IIN (3)
IIN (2)

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

IIV
.93
.88
.69
.47

IAT

IIN

.76
.70
.52
.50
.46
.44
.88
.70
.50
.47

Note: * indicates reverse scored (negatively worded) items

T-tests showed that while there was not a significant difference in IIV or IIN between genders,
there was a significant difference for IAT, with the average score for females (M = 0.15, SD =252

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0.9) being higher than that of males (M = -0.13, SD = 0.9), t = -2.48, p =.014. There were alsosignificant differences in IAT based on students’ area of study. A one-way ANOVA showed that
there were also differences in each IP subscale score based on department for IIV (F(6, 258) =3.82, p = .001.), IAT (F(6, 258) = 3.56, p = .002), and IIN (F(6, 258) = 2.19, p = .04).
Specifically, for IIV, Tukey’s post-hoc showed that students in the department of medicine (M= 0.6, SD = 0.9) had a significantly higher score than students in the departments of engineering(M = -0.2, SD = 0.9), humanities (M = -0.2, SD = 1), and agriculture (M = -0.3, SD = 0.6). For
IAT, students in the department of medicine (M = 0.5, SD = 1) had a significantly higher scorethan students in the departments of engineering (M = -0.3, SD = 0.8), and humanities (M = 0.2, SD = 0.9). Tukey’s post-hoc did not show significant pairwise results for IIN.
Exploratory Factor Analysis was also conducted for the questions regarding Topic Interest andPersonal Value. For all goals, the same two factors were found. Topic Interest and Personal
Value. Factors for all goals showed acceptable reliability with Cronbach's alpha values of over
α = .70, with the majority showing good reliability of α = .80. Loading factors for individualquestions varied somewhat from goal to goal but were all above the 0.40 cut-off for significance.
Factor scores were calculated using the regression predictor to ensure that the differing items
weights were accounted for (Schreiber, 2021).
For the first research question, which was the effects of demographics, T-tests showed that
there were significant differences between genders for Topic Interest for some goals. Goals 1,
2, 3, 5, 6 and 16 showed significant differences, and for each of them, the interest was higher
for female students. The biggest difference was seen for goal 5: Gender Equality. However, aone-way ANOVA did not show significant differences in interest for any of the goals acrossdepartments. Personal Value showed significant differences for goals 5, 7, 9, 10, 14 and 15.
Female students scored higher for goal 5, 10, and male students for goals 7, 9, 14, and 15.
For research question 2, whether International Posture impacts students’ level of interest in
studying about SDGs in English class, multiple regression analysis was repeated with Topic
Interest for each goal as the dependent variable and IIV, IAT, IIN, and Personal Value as
independent variables. Table 3 shows the results of the regression analysis for IAT and Personal
Value for each goal. Neither IIV nor IIN were significant for any of the goals. Non-significant
variables were not included in the table for brevity. IAT had a significant and positive effect for
14 of the goals, and Personal Value had a significant and positive effect for all goals except forgoal 12. This showed that not all subscales of International Posture played a role in determining
students’ topic interest, but the subscale IAT affected topic interest in most of the goals.

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Table 3Significant Regression Analysis Coefficients for Each Goal
SDG

R2

VariableβTpGoal 1:.24

IAT
Personal Value

0.33
0.32

3.41
5.21

<.001
<.001

Goal 2:

.18

IAT

0.36

3.61

<.001

Personal Value

0.25

3.84

<.001

IAT

0.34

3.47

<.001

Personal Value

0.26

4.04

<.001

IAT

0.31

3.09

.002

Personal Value

0.28

4.38

<.001

Goal 3:
Goal 4:.20.17

Goal 5:.20

IAT
Personal Value

0.29
0.30

2.88
4.60

.004
<.001

Goal 6:.11

IAT
Personal Value

0.30
0.18

2.85
2.59

.01
.01

Goal 7:

.16

IAT

0.36

3.57

<.001

Personal Value

0.23

3.46

<.001

Goal 8:.15

Personal Value

0.23

3.52

<.001

Goal 9:.11

IAT
Personal Value

0.31
0.21

3.02
3.08

.003
.002

Goal 10:

.14

IAT

0.31

2.96

.003

Personal Value

0.21

3.01

.003

IAT

0.34

3.25

.001

Personal Value

0.18

2.66

.01

Goal 11:.15

Goal 13:.10

Personal Value

0.19

2.76

.01

Goal 14:.14

IAT
Personal Value

0.27
0.25

2.66
3.74

.01
<.001

Goal 15:

.14

IAT

0.24

2.33

.02

Personal Value

0.26

3.80

<.001

IAT

0.22

2.18

.03

Personal Value

0.27

4.10

<.001

IAT

0.24

2.45

.02

Personal Value

0.36

5.75

<.001

Goal 16:
Goal 17:.18.22

For question 3, regarding which goals were more highly affected by International Posture, both
the R2 value and the β value were examined. The R2 value showed that the independent
variables explained the highest percent of variance in Topic Interest for goals 1, 17, 3 and 5,
whereas for goals 13, 6 and 9, up to 50% less of the variance was explained. The β values werealso examined to compare the effects of IAT and Personal Value for each goal. When IAT was
significant, the standardized beta ranged from 0.22 to 0.36, and when Personal Value was254

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significant, it ranged from 0.18 to 0.36. For many goals, the standardized beta was similar forboth IAT and Personal Value, although there were some goals where the β value for IAT wasnotably higher (Goals 6, 7, 11), and one case where Personal was notably higher (Goal 17).
Students who indicated that they desired to study a goal in English class were asked to select areason for their feelings. There were six reasons provided: 1) usefulness in future work, 2)
desire to research the topic in English, 3) wanting to study global topics in English class, 4)
wanting to converse fluently about international topics, 5) personal interest in the goal, and 6)
awareness that it must be achieved internationally (global nature). Students also had the option
to select “other” and give further explanation. The valid percent for each answer is shown in
Table 4.
Table 4
Reasons for Desire to Study Each Goal within English ClassWork

SelfStudy

Int.
Study
Topic

Conversation

Personal
Interest

GlobalNature

Other

Total

Goal 1
Goal 2
Goal 3

%
4.5
2.8
16.7

%
3.8
9.2
3.9

%
39.1
35.8
26.5

%
36.1
34.9
33.3

%
9.0
7.3
15.7

%
6.0
9.2
2.9

%
1.5
0.9
1

%
100
100
100

Goal 4

10.3

2.6

23.3

22.4

35.3

5.2

0.9

100

Goal 5
Goal 6

4.9
6.9

6.6
8.9

18.9
24.8

26.2
32.7

36.9
8.9

2.5
16.8

4.1
1

100
100

Goal 7
Goal 8

5.4
9.5

10.7
7.4

21.4
10.5

33
33.7

23.2
34.7

3.6
4.2

2.7
0

100
100

Goal 9Goal 10

16.8
5.2

6.3
5.2

15.8
27.4

31.6
32.6

20
20.7

7.4
8.1

2.1
0.7

100
100

Goal 11

8.2

9.6

16.4

27.4

28.8

8.2

1.4

100

Goal 12Goal 13
Goal 14

8.4
2.8
2.1

15.7
5.6
7.4

19.3
27.8
17.9

20.5
35.2
38.9

31.3
24.1
30.5

4.8
4.6
3.2

0
0
0

100
100
100

Goal 15
Goal 16

3.5
7.6

11.6
5.9

25.6
17.8

30.2
36.4

25.6
25.4

3.5
5.1

0
1.7

100
100

Goal 17

7.4

8.5

26.6

26.6

24.5

6.4

0

100

*The most selected answer for each goal is shown in bold

Of students who indicated why they wanted to study a goal, few selected the reasons: relation
to job, desire to be able to research about it on their own, or the need for the goal to be achieved
internationally. Instead, many students who had a desire to study each goal indicated that theywanted to use internationally related topics for English class, that they wanted to be able to talkfluently about international topics, or that they were personally interested in the topic. On

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average, across all the goals, a desire to be able to talk about the subject, was the mostcommonly selected reason (31%), followed by wanting to use international topics in English
class (23%) and personal interest (23%). Two of the top responses supported the significanceof the IAT subscale in determining interest, considering the connections between the overall IP
scale and increased communication, and the specific reference of the IAT subscale in evaluating
students’ desire to interact with different groups of people. Students who chose to provide theirown answer frequently combined aspects of two of the available answers, such as “It is aninternational problem, and I think that there are a lot of materials available in English,” so there
did not appear to be a lack of choices.
Discussion and Recommendations
From these results, it was clear that demographics can affect aspects of IP. Although there was
not a significant difference between genders for IIV or IIN, there was a significant difference
for IAT. This supported the IP scale’s, or at least the IAT subscale’s similarity to integrativeness,considering that Mori and Gobel (2006), in a notably comprehensive study of motivating
factors for Japanese EFL students, found that integrativeness was the only statisticallysignificant difference in language motivation between genders.
For the first research question, demographics had some but limited influence on interest in
learning about SDGs. Similar to the results for IP, though not all goals had significant
differences for gender, when there was a significant difference between goals, female students
consistently showed higher interest. The goals showing a significant difference were related topeople’s well-being, such as zero hunger, gender equality, and peace, suggesting a greater
importance of human connection. However, students’ majors or areas of study did not
significantly affect interest in the goals, suggesting that they c be used to motivate regardlessof students’ area of study.
For the second research question, IAT was found to have an effect on Topic Interest for amajority of the goals. However, goals 8 (decent work and economic growth), 12 (responsible
consumption and production), and 13 (climate action), were not significantly affected. The lackof any significant effect on goal 8, likely stemmed from the focus on work, considering that
IIV was not a significant factor for any of the goals, and few students gave future career as areason for their desire to study a goal in English. Goal 12 is generally enacted on a personallevel, and thus likely did not have the same international image as the other goals. Of all thegoals, it had the highest percentage of students whose desire to study it stemmed from the wish
to research it on their own, which similarly suggested that it was a more personal goal. Finally
Goal 13 was not affected, in contrast to the similarly environment-themed goals 14 (life below
water) and 15 (life on land). This may be attributed to its comparatively broad framing, which
could make it more difficult to discuss.
For the third research question, there was a moderate degree of variation among thestandardized beta values and the percent of variance explained by each model. Consideringboth factors, primarily the people related goals should be strongly considered as topics for256

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English classes, such as goals 1, 2, 3 and 5, with goal 1 as a particularly good candidate. In
addition to the connection to IP, these SDGs are also topics that are in many ways easier toaddress with the language abilities that are available in an EFL classroom. On the other hand,because the differences between most of the goals were moderate, it is easier to suggest thegoals that are less appropriate, namely goals 14 and 15, and the goals that were found to be
insignificantly affected by IAT above for research question 2. Finally, considering that IP has amoderate effect for most of the goals, adapting the class to meet potential student interests
related to work, or department and field of study should also be contemplated.
Considering the educational system of Japan, it is recommended that SDGs be implemented as
topics for English classes in university programs where there is more freedom of curriculum.
Primary and secondary education curricula remain limited by state approved textbooks and thedriving need to prepare students for college entrance exams, although incorporation of SDGs
into the English class at those levels is still suggested when possible.
It is also suggested that teachers do not shy away from including SDGs as a topic out of concernof lack of knowledge or still-undeveloped interest. Even with Japan’s limited curriculum, forexample, Imanishi (2020) found that while the terms SDGs may not be explicitly stated, that
not only does “environment” appear as a topic in most junior high school textbooks in a ruralprefecture of Japan, the use of environment as a topic increased student engagement in writing
activities. Furthermore, a survey of Japanese university students showed at least 73.7% were
aware of the term, and the most common reason for their knowledge was learning in class(Ando et al., 2019). If a majority of students are first learning about the existence of SDGs inclasses, a portion of the students who already show interest in learning about the them, werelikely first introduced to them in their school classes. Therefore, use as a topic in English class
may be the first step in the cycle of exposure and potential for interest development. It should
also be noted that students’ reported knowledge and awareness does not necessarily equate toactual knowledge and awareness levels. In fact, it was shown by Oltra-Badenes et al. (2023)
that students’ actual knowledge surrounding SDGs was higher than they reported, likely due inpart to previously learning about the themes of goals without explicit reference to theterminology. Therefore, it is suggested that incorporating SDGs as a topic may serve as aneffective precursor to knowledge and interest.
Finally, the use of SDGs as a topic for improving motivation in English language education
should also be considered outside of Japan. They are a global topic, and international researchshows that at the university level, there is interest in, if not knowledge of, the goals in a varietyof countries throughout (Bekteshi & Xhaferi, 2020; Novieastari et al., 2022; Smaniotto et al.,2020; The national treasury and planning state department for planning, 2019). Moreover,recent surveys indicate that knowledge of the SDGs is increasing and is particularly highamongst the under-30 population (GlobeScan, 2023). This again suggests that young people
are taking a greater interest in the SDGs and could serve as a motivating factor for language
learners internationally. It is proposed to utilize the topic of SDGs not only at the university
level, but also in the education leading up to it.

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Conclusion
Interest plays an important role in second language learning. This study investigated student
interest in SDGs at a Japanese university in order to answer the following questions: Do genderand department affect interest in studying SDGs? How and to what degree does IP affectinterest in learning SDGs? Findings showed that gender influenced students’ IP and interest,and IP that had an effect on interest in most of the goals.
International Posture is a recognized factor in increasing motivation for English learning, andbased on this study’s findings, is also a factor in increasing interest in learning about many of
the SDGs in an English-speaking environment. Considering its contribution to both of thesefactors, attempting to incorporate SDGs into English curricula can not only lead to selection of
topics that cater to motivated English learners, but it also coincides with one of Japan’s major
goals for educating globally minded students. Therefore, it should be considered as a multipronged approach to further Japan’s goals for the internationalization of higher education.
However, it is important to be aware of the potential differences between students, particularly
based on gender. In the spirit of goals 4 and 5, Quality Education, and Gender Equality, teachers
should also be aware of the needs of male students and consider options to increase their
engagement and sense of international community gained from the subject matter.
There are several limitations to this study. First, while the focus on students in first year general
education courses allowed a broader view into multiple departments, it did not address theperspectives of more advanced or specialized students. Although many first-year students are
not yet sure of what their future holds, students who continue to develop more specialized
majors may wish to focus more directly on an English language community that they are more
likely to encounter in their own future. Second, although the theoretical connection between IP
and interest was confirmed, practical applications in the classroom still need to be addressed,
such as finding appropriate ways to integrate the complex topics raised by SDGs in a levelappropriate manner. Third, students completed the survey without a detailed explanation of theindividual goals. Although student responses to a pilot survey indicated that the large majorityof students consider themselves moderately knowledgeable about SDGs, it is possible that
responses for the less commonly discussed goals were affected by lack of knowledge. Finally,
although the integration of SDGs could be effective for motivating classes that have higher IP,
it may be less effective in classes that have low IP in the first place. If, however, IP is malleable,
then efforts to improve the IP of a class could have particularly positive effects in both interest
and motivation. Considering this fact, future studies could examine the potential for change in
IP and whether classroom-based internationally oriented experiences such as SDG study cancontribute to its change.

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Corresponding author: Kira Adams
Email: kadams@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp262

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Reviewers: Volume 12 – Issue 1
The editorial team would like to thank the following reviewers for their contributions to thepeer review for this issue of the journal. Their dedication and assistance are greatly appreciated.
Senior Reviewers
Dr Shiao-Wei Chu, National Pingtung University, Taiwan
Dr Saadia Elamin, University of Khartoum, Sudan
Dr John Michael Villar Faller, FPT University, Vietnam
Dr Mikel Garant, Beijing Institute of Technology, China
Dr Hjalmar Punla Hernandez, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines
Dr Andrew Leichsenring, Tamagawa University, JapanDr Eleni Meletiadou, London Metropolitan University, UK
Dr Elena Mishieva, Moscow State University, Russia
Dr Leonardo Munalim, The Philippine Women's University, Philippines
Dr Claudia Sánchez, Texas Woman's University, USA
Dr Akihiro Saito, Tokyo University of Science, JapanDr Bethe Schoenfeld, Western Galilee College, Israel
Dr Meliha Simsek, University of Health Sciences, Turkey

Reviewers
Dr Liping Gao, Leaping Education Ltd, UK
Ms Yue Gao, University of Pittsburgh, USA
Dr Suhair Safwat Hashim, University of Sulaimani, Iraq
Dr Yuemin He, Northern Virginia Community College in Annandale, USA
Dr May Olaug Horverak, Birkenes Learning Centre, Norway
Dr Nourreddine Menyani, Tofail University, Morocco
Dr Serpil Meri-Yilan, Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey
Dr Reena Mittal, D.A.K.P.G. College, India
Dr Maryam Niami, Islamic Azad University, Iran
Dr Linh D Nguyen, Roi Et Rajabhat University, Thailand
Dr Urarat Parnrod, Songkhla Rajabhat University, Thailand
Dr Tono Suwartono, Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto, Indonesia
Dr Miguel Varela, Academic Bridge Program, Qatar
Dr Tingjia Wang, Hiroshima University, JapanDr Michinobu Watanabe, Komazawa University, Tokyo

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ISSN: 2187-0594