Globalization versus Internationalizationᝲǽ୫Globalization versus Internationalization:
Task-Based English in the Japanese Classroom

Dan LEᛵǽ஖「グローバル」や「グローバリゼーション」という言葉は，今や「英語」の同義語となり，日本における英語の授業では，当たり前のように使われている。しかしながら，英語の母国話者の数は，非母語話者に比べて少な
く，授業がコミュニカティブにできるかどうかは，英語の母国話者がいるかどうかに依存してしまう (Kosaka 2014)。英語の授業では，実生活の課
題とはかけ離れた英語を母語話者が教える「グローバリゼーション」の代
わりに，生徒の英語コミュニケーション能力を効果的に高めるための「インターナショナリゼーション」的手法が用いられるべきである。インター
ナショナリゼーションとは，非母語話者が多いことを前提とした，タスクに基づく活動ができる英語の授業のことであり，そこでは，この活動を行うことがコミュニケーションの成功の鍵となる。また，生徒の主体性や自信の有無も，英語学習への意欲を高める重要な役割を担っており，インターナショナリゼーションの手法によって裏付けられる。本論文は，名古屋市の学校での実際に行われているタスクに基づく活動例を取り上げながら，そのアイデアや手法について，理論から実践につなげるための英語教
員への手引きを提供する。

キーワード : タスクに基づく活動，インターナショナリゼーション対グ
ローバリゼーション，名古屋市

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Abstract“Global” and “globalization” are words that have become
synonymous for “English” and have become the norm in Englishbased classroom settings around Japan. Although the number of
non-native speakers of English considerably dwarfs that of native
English speakers, much of the focus of communicative English
relies heavily on a native-English teacher presence in Japan (Kosaka
2014). Instead of “globalization”, which attempts to teach a nativebased English, disconnected from real-life tasks, an “internationalization” approach must be harnessed in the English classroom toeffectively increase student aptitude with regard to English
communication. Accordingly, task-based activities will therefore be
the key to communicative success for English language learners.
Student agency and confidence also play essential roles inenhancing English propensity and are supported by an internationalization approach. This paper serves as a guide for teachers ofEnglish to put theory into practice by providing real-world examplesof educators and students in Nagoya City who are practicing andmodeling this method in addition to offering ideas for task-based
activities that can be used in our own classrooms.
Keywords: task-based learning, globalization vs internationalization, Nagoya city, English as a lingua franca

English as a Lingua Franca
English, as a second language, foreign language, or lingua franca teaching could
be greatly improved in Japan based on its current levels of efficacy. Traditional, andantiquated teaching methods are the norm in the English language learning classroom
in Japan, “Newspaper headlines constantly speak of tweaks and reforms to English
education, yet school lessons remain teacher-centered and grammar-heavy, with muchof the instruction conducted in Japanese” (Kosaka 2014). While a focus on nativelike proficiency is not necessary in our current society with the number of non-native

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speakers (NNS) of English far outweighing the number of native speakers, English
learning is not done in a conducive environment for improving the communicative
abilities of the language learners, “… too often in our schools, a Japanese national isteaching English in Japanese, and English must be taught in English” (Kosaka 2014).
This is not to say that NNS of English do not make highly qualified and capable English
language teachers. NNS of the language maintain a level of empathy in the learning
process that native speakers may not possess. Further, NNS of any language possess
more explicit knowledge of how the language functions and why, while native speakers
maintain more implicit knowledge about the target language (Christen 2010). Native
speakers continue to hold prestige in language teaching too because they can add
valuable cultural information and more up-to-date language knowledge than a second
language learner (Christen 2010). In sum, both NNS and native speakers of English canbe qualified to teach in the English language learning classroom, but the language thatthe classroom is conducted in should be the target language, English. It has long been the
tradition of language learning classrooms to teach in the target language, especially inEnglish language learning classrooms.

Globalization to Internationalization
A switch from the focus on globalization to internationalization in the English
language learning classroom would greatly benefit its learners. The difference between
globalization and internationalization is subtle, but from a learner-centered perspective
it is the difference between being an observer in a connected world to playing an activerole in this inter-connectedness. Instead of learning about other cultures, as one doesin a globalization-centered classroom, students participate in other cultures, and gain
greater cultural competence and understanding of their world because of it. RoundSquare explains the important role internationalization plays in our lives today, “Itencompasses an appreciation for the increasing inter-connectedness of the world, ourgreater dependence on the global economy and interdependence as nations as a resultof massively increased commerce and cultural exchange” (Round Square 2019). By
focusing on internationalization in the language learning classroom, we are preparing
students to live and actively participate in the international community in the future.
Language learners’ perceptions of the target language and the role it plays in today’s

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No. 42world has a powerful effect on their motivation to master the language. Chang (2015)
completed a study of English Language Learners’ perceptions on learning English ina globalized world. The research was based on the fear that globalization would cause
negative views of the target language, and thus dissuade NNS of actively participatingin the language learning classroom. While this was true for some students, it was foundthat agentic students were eager to learn English, “Despite these EFL college students’
different and often conflicting perceptions of the globalized world and their roles in it,
the findings have also showed that they were reflective individuals willing to participate
in the world as a legitimate and competent members, if given enough guidance andopportunity” (Chang 95). In other words, students who focus on their own role ina globalized world instead of viewing the globalized world as an outsider, are more
motivated to achieve in the English language classroom. That is to say, focusing on
internationalization instead of globalization has positive effects on the English language
learner.

Application in the Language Learning Classroom
Several practical steps can be taken in the English language learning classroom topromote internationalization in lieu of globalization. A first step for language learners
and teachers alike would be to follow the practices of English as a Lingua Franca classes.
As Kosaka (2014) states, “If Japan could become aware of different communication
techniques, using English as a lingua franca for more functional purposes … makes a
lot of sense”. The goal of English as a Lingua Franca is to focus on the communicative
purposes of English, build pragmatic competence in the language, and negotiate meaning
amongst speakers (Kosaka 2014). This is also known as using English as an instrument,
powered by instrumental motivation. Instrumental motivation focuses on mastering theability to complete goal-based tasks in the target language, unlike intrinsic motivation or
extrinsic motivation which is speaker-focused.
A 2012 study of English language learners found that instrumental uses oflanguage were key in motivating students, “Language learning experience, international
orientation, ideal L2 self and instrumentality all work interconnected to motivate ESL
learners” (Shabaz & Liu 115). A motivated language learner is one who is willing tocommunicate, despite mistakes in English, because their goal in speaking English is

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not perfection or a native-like achievement level, but to convey a meaning or complete
a task in the target language. The goal of communication over perfection in learning
English is key to motivating students towards greater communicative ability, “Trying
to communicate, trying to say what you think — not speaking perfect English — thatis important” (Kosaka 2014). While native-like proficiency has been the goal of many
English language classrooms since conception, a focus on internationalization overglobalization would focus on the instrumental use of English to communicate not onlywith native speakers, but also other second language learners of English.
Second language learner motivation (SLLM) has been explored further by Shabaz& Liu (2012). They found that overall motivation to learn a second language can beincreased by tangible steps taken by instructors, “Teachers can enhance SLLM bymaking learning process enjoyable; by using materials from different parts of the world
and providing information about the world; by developing possible or future images forstudents- ideal or ought-to self images; and by focusing on short term as well long termmaterial benefits of learning” (Shabaz & Liu 127). Helping language learners define
and achieve their own goals in learning a second language greatly increases SLLM.
It is important that learners have the ability to imagine themselves successfully using
the target language in the future to maintain high levels of motivation in the classroom(Dornyei & Ushioda 2009). According to Shabaz & Liu (2012) certain steps taken by
the language teacher can help build and maintain SLLM. These include: focusing
on increasing foreign language enjoyment, using authentic materials, acknowledging
different student identities, and helping students to create goals. For example, an effective
activity to help students participate in goal creation and achievement would be for all
students to set individual SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, andTime-based) goals at the beginning of each semester and self-monitor their progress inweekly SMART goal check-ins. In these brief weekly check-ins, students would list thesteps they took during the week, in class and at home, to achieve their semester goals andmake a plan of tangible steps they will take in the coming week to keep working toward
their goals. At the end of the semester, students can participate in a self-reflection activity
that includes a list creation of most effective practices for each individual student.
Participating in a weekly goal-oriented activity such as this helps maintain and protect
language learner motivation over time by engaging students in learning strategies that
promote self-regulation (Dörnyei 2003). Motivated language learners perform better in

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No. 42the English language classroom and continue learning the language longer than theircounterparts (Csizer & Dörnyei 2005).

Building Student Agency
Motivated students are often the most agentic students in the classroom. Williams,
Mercer, & Ryan (2016) assert that agency, in the foreign language classroom, emerges
in the individual when three important constructs are correctly aligned: self-confidence,
positive language learning beliefs, and motivation (p. 121). Agentic students see theimportant role English has to play in our society today and see themselves as participatingin this English speaking world. It is this focus on internationalization as an insider, andnot globalization as an outsider, that promotes language learning success. Instructors ofEnglish can help build student agency by promoting this view of internationalization.
One way to promote agency and a view of the language learner as an insider throughinternationalization is task-based language learning. The focus of task-based language
learning is completing different tasks in the target language, not specifically focusing on
language form and perfection of the use of the target language. Students must negotiate
meaning with other language learners in order to successfully communicate through thetask in the target language.
A real-life example of this is currently being practiced and modeled at the high schoollevel at two Nagoya City Public Schools. For the past three years at Meito and Kikuzato
High School, students have been stepping outside of the classroom to offer free Englishbased guidance to tourists. With the support of their teacher, Ms. Arata Zushi, students
wait patiently in front of Nagoya Castle for a chance to hook in tourists from all parts of
the world. Once they’ve baited in and “caught” (a word used by Ms. Zushi) the travelers,
students employ their language skills by not only teaching about Nagoya Castle, but also
by fielding questions in these real-time, real-life, task-based communication scenarios(Zushi). The high school-aged tour guides answer questions that range from date ofinitiation/construction of a particular building to practical questions like, “what can I eat
in Nagoya?” or “what is there to do for fun around here?”. Through these interactions
with non-Japanese speakers of English, the students have guided guests from over 25
countries including Singapore, France, The United States, China and more, revealing atrue example of internationalization and task-based communication.

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A simple in-class example of this would be an information gap activity in which
students must coordinate schedules to meet for coffee or lunch. They would both need to
exchange information in the target language about their schedules in order to find a timein which they are both available to meet, and then coordinate their availability with thatof a café’s hours of operation. The goal in a task such as this is to use the target language
in a meaningful way that goes beyond the traditional role play. Once again, the focus hereis that of classrooms of English as a Lingua Franca in which the goal is communicating amessage and not native-like proficiency or perfection. By integrating and using real-lifetasks in the classroom, students will be immersed in other cultures instead of learning
about them as an outsider.

Building Student Confidence
As mentioned earlier, the main goal of Japanese speakers of English today needs
to be improved communicative abilities in and out of the language learning classroom.
Kosaka (2014) explains what may be one of the main reasons communicative abilities
of English in Japan are so low, “… many Japanese lack confidence when it comes to
speaking English despite spending years learning the language” (Kosaka 2014). To thiseffect, it can be assumed that Foreign Language Anxiety while learning and speaking
English in Japan needs to be addressed. It is due to Foreign Language Anxiety thatJapanese learners of English may not feel confident speaking even if this is described asa “lack of confidence”. Speakers may suffer from general communication apprehension
in the second language, or a fear of negative evaluation by others (native and nonnative speakers alike) when speaking English (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope 1986). Foreign
Language Anxiety has extremely negative effects on the second language learner’s
experience and has been found to be one of the highest predictors of language learner
success (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991). In the current Second
Language Acquisition literature, there are two methods considered effective to reducing
Foreign Language Anxiety: increasing Foreign Language Enjoyment and building
student agency. Both of these interventions would also encourage students to continue
their language learning journey and aid in their knowledge of internationalization.
The script on Foreign Language Anxiety was switched by the study completed
by Dewaele & MacIntyre (2014) that brought positive emotions to the forefront of

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language learning research. It is suggested by the researchers that Foreign Language
Enjoyment and its positive emotions and experiences could combat the negative emotions
and experiences in Foreign Language Anxiety. Foreign Language Enjoyment includes
aspects of “dealing with Foreign Language (FL) mistakes made in public, identity,
improvement in using the FL, pride in one’s own performance, group membership,
the social environment and cohesiveness, attitudes towards the learning of the FL, thepresence of laughter, and judgments about peers and teachers” (Dewaele & MacIntyre
243). Thus, positive experiences alone and in a classroom promote Foreign Language
Enjoyment. It is suggested by the authors that teachers play an active role in the classroom
promoting Foreign Language Enjoyment to increase the effectiveness of the language
learning experience, “Participants’ views on episodes of enjoyment in the FL classrevealed the importance of teachers’ professional and emotional skills and of a supportive
peer group” (Dewaele & MacIntyre 237). If teachers and students work together, thelanguage learning classroom can be a fun and informative environment.

English: An International Standard
In today’s ever-shrinking world, we each seek to be part of the in-group despite fears
of globalization. One of the easiest ways to do this is to learn English instrumentallyand focus on internationalization. Through agency building, promoting instrumental
motivation, rejecting the standard of the native speaker, and focusing on Foreign
Language Enjoyment, the English language learning classroom can be greatly improved
upon in Japan. English will continue to grow to become the communicative standard
throughout the world in the years to come. It is key that all countries have a plan in place
to improve communicative abilities with other native and, especially, non-native speakers
of English.
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