iafor

journal of education

language learning in education
Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022
Editor: Melinda Cowart
Editor-in-Chief: Joseph Haldane

ISSN: 2187-0594

iafor
IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

IAFOR Publications

The International Academic ForumIAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
EditorMelinda Cowart
Texas Woman’s University (TWU), USA

Editor-in-Chief
Joseph Haldane
The International Academic Forum, Japan

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan
IAFOR Publications, Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor: Yvonne Masters
IAFOR Journals Administrator: Ruth Mund
Publications Manager: Nick Potts

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022
Published May 27, 2022

IAFOR Publications © Copyright 2022
ISSN: 2187-0594
ije.iafor.org

Cover Image: Jerry Wang, Unsplash. https://unsplash.com/@jerry_318

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022
Edited by Melinda Cowart
Texas Woman’s University (TWU), USA
Associate Editors
Hasan Al-Wadi
University of Bahrain, Bahrain
Murielle El Hajj Nahas
Lusail University, Qatar

Foreword
Dear Readers,
Welcome to this issue of the Language Learning in Education edition of The IAFOR Journalof Education.
In Dr Cowart’s editor’s introduction to this issue, she references the importance of language
and language learning as a tool of unity in a world afflicted by division. As teachers, and as
students of language ourselves we are reminded of the importance of language as a tool and as
a mediator, and as a source of great power, that can both empower, and humble. One of thegreat pleasures in reading these papers from so many different nations is the way in which theirsubjects give so many new and instructive comparative and contrastive perspectives.
While so much in the local context might be particular, what comes through in so many of thepapers is the sense to which, as teachers, we share the same challenges. With insights from
Morocco, Thailand, UK, Ukraine, Japan, Malta, Norway, Malaysia, and Turkey, this edition istruly international, and the stronger for it.
I would like to thank and congratulate the editor, Dr Melinda, and her team of readers for theirwork bringing this to publication, as well as the published authors. I would also like to thank
The IAFOR Journal of Education Executive Editor, Dr Yvonne Masters, and the Publications
team of Mr Nick Potts and Ms Ruth Mund for their work behind the scenes.
Happy Reading!
Joseph Haldane
Editor-in-Chief
IAFOR Journal of Education

Editorial Advice
Preparing a submission to the IAFOR Journal of Education is more than writing about yourresearch study: it involves paying careful attention to our submission requirements. Different
journals have different requirements in terms of format, structure and referencing style, among
other things. There are also some common expectations between all journals such as the use ofgood academic language and lack of plagiarism. To assist you in reaching the review stage forthis or any other peer-reviewed journal, we provide the following advice which you should
check carefully and ensure that you adhere to.
1. Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a practice that is not acceptable in any journal. Avoiding plagiarism is the cardinalrule of academic integrity because plagiarism, whether intentional or unintentional, ispresenting someone else’s work as your own. The IAFOR Journal of Education immediately
rejects any submission with evidence of plagiarism.
There are three common forms of plagiarism, none of which are acceptable:
1. Plagiarism with no referencing. This is copying the words from another source (article,
book, website, etc.) without any form of referencing.
2. Plagiarism with incorrect referencing. This involves using the words from anothersource and only putting the name of the author and/or date as a reference. Whilst not as
grave as the plagiarism just mentioned, it is still not acceptable academic practice.
Direct quoting requires quotation marks and a page number in the reference. This isbest avoided by paraphrasing rather than copying.
3. Self-plagiarism. It is not acceptable academic practice to use material that you havealready had published (which includes in conference proceedings) in a new submission.
You should not use your previously published words and you should not submit about
the same data unless it is used in a completely new way.
2. Meeting the Journal Aims and Scope
Different journals have different aims and scope, and papers submitted should fit the specificjournal. A “scattergun” approach (where you submit anywhere in the hope of being published)
is not sound practice. Like in darts, your article needs to hit the journal’s “bullseye”, it needs
to fit within the journal’s interest area. For example, a submission that is about building bridges,
will not be acceptable in a journal dedicated to education. Ensure that your paper is clearly
about education.
3. Follow the Author Guidelines
Most journals will supply a template to be followed for formatting your paper. Often, there will
also be a list of style requirements on the website (font, word length, title length, page layout,
and referencing style, among other things). There may also be suggestions about the preferred
structure of the paper. For the IAFOR Journal of Education these can all be found here:
https://iafor.org/journal/iafor-journal-of-education/author-guidelines/

4. Use Academic Language
The IAFOR Journal of Education only accepts papers written in correct and fluent English ata high academic standard. Any use of another language (whether in the paper or the referencelist) requires the inclusion of an English translation.
The style of expression must serve to articulate the complex ideas and concepts being presented,
conveying explicit, coherent, unambiguous meaning to scholarly readers. Moreover,manuscripts must have a formal tone and quality, employing third-person rather than firstperson standpoint (when feasible), placing emphasis on the research and not on unsubstantiatedsubjective impressions.
Contributors whose command of English is not at the level outlined above are responsible forhaving their manuscript corrected by a native-level, English-speaking academic prior to
submitting their paper for publication.
5. Literature Reviews
Any paper should have reference to the corpus of scholarly literature on the topic. A review ofthe literature should:
•
•
•
•
•

Predominantly be about contemporary literature (the last 5 years) unless you are
discussing a seminal piece of work.
Make explicit international connections for relevant ideas.
Analyse published papers in the related field rather than describe them.
Outline the gaps in the literature.
Highlight your contribution to the field.

Referencing
Referencing is the main way to avoid allegations of plagiarism. The IAFOR Journal of
Education uses the APA referencing style for both in-text citations and the reference list. If
you are unsure of the correct use of APA please use the Purdue Online Writing Lab (Purdue
OWL), – https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ – which has excellent examples
of all forms of APA referencing. Please note APA is used for referencing not for the generalformat of the paper. Your reference list should be alphabetical by author surname and include
DOIs whenever possible.
This short guide to getting published should assist you to move beyond the first editorial review.
Failure to follow the guidelines will result in your paper being immediately rejected.
Good luck in your publishing endeavours,
Dr Yvonne Masters
Executive Editor, IAFOR Journal of Education

Table of Contents
From the Editor
Melinda Cowart

1

Notes on Contributors

5

The Effect of Proficiency on “Non-Native” EFL Teachers’ Feelings andSelf-Reported Behaviours
Jean-Marc Dewaele
Pearl P. Y. Leung

11

Systematic Work with Speaking Skills and Motivation in Second
Language Classes
May Olaug Horverak
Gerd Martina Langeland
Agnete Løvik
Sigrunn Askland
Paweł Scheffler
Aleksandra Wach

33

A Corpus-Based Comparison of Inclusiveness in L2 Reading Materials
for Refugee Children
Meliha R. Simsek

53

Sociocultural Issues Experienced by Adults Learning Maltese as a
Second Language
Jacqueline Żammit

73

The GoldList Notebook Method: A Study on L2 Vocabulary Learning
John Duplice

91

Facebook as a Flexible Ubiquitous Learning Space for Developing
Speaking Skills
Svitlana Mykytiuk
Olena Lysytska
Tetiana Melnikova
Serhii Mykytiuk

109

The Utilisation of Peer-Assisted Learning/Mentoring and Translanguaging
in Higher Education
Eleni Meletiadou

135

Factors Obstructing English Teaching Effectiveness: Teacher Voices fromThailand’s Deep South
Muhammadafeefee Assalihee
Yusop Boonsuk

155

Mobile Learning for Malay Language among Foreign Workers:
A Preliminary Study
Nur Izzah binti Osman
Siti Nazleen binti Abdul Rabu

173

Online Assessment in the Digital Era: Moroccan EFL University Students’
Experiences, Perceptions and Challenges
Nourreddine Menyani
Ahlame Boumehdi
Oumaima El Jaadi

193

Reviewers

211

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

From the Editor
Greetings readers! Welcome to the IAFOR Journal of Education: Volume 10 – Issue 1 –Language Learning in Education.
Since the last issue of the IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education,much continues to change for most of the world. As the COVID-19 worldwide pandemic
diminishes its onslaught in some areas, it becomes more prevalent in other countries.
Individuals from every country have witnessed the damage and loss inflicted by the sameworldwide crisis. The return to a more normal way of life that was hoped for by so manyremains beyond their grasp. Employment has been difficult at times, causing people to moveto an area where jobs were more readily available. The nature of work persists in evolving as
many remain at home to accomplish work tasks. The educational world has attempted to copewith flexibility when learning must return to an online format because of sudden and dramatic
outbreaks of the virus or one of the new variants. What has not changed is the need for learninga second language, often in a new country and frequently with unfamiliar cultural practices.
With the onset of the virus, many nations experienced upheaval and political unrest. Suchturmoil has led to the movement of millions of people to safer places in order to survive. The
United Nations Secretary General recently noted that extreme weather disasters and armed
conflict are colliding, compelling people to escape more than once to find security, shelter, safe
haven, and food. Inherent in the move is the need to successfully learn a new target language.
Despite what drives people apart or into isolation or to be separate, what brings the authors ofthese articles together is the desire to improve the second language teaching and language
development of their students. From so many diverse countries in the world, these authors who
may have never spoken with one another have conducted research studies all with the intent of
improving the education of second language learners. It is as though the language of linguistics,
second language acquisition, and of improved pedagogy to teach language becomes thecommon language of those who are engaged in that pursuit.
Multilingualism, second language acquisition, and second language learning continue to takecenter stage in every nation. The movement of peoples from country to country has increased.
The number of second language learners throughout the world increases continuously,
reminding educators, scholars, and researchers that investigating the multifaceted processes ofsecond language acquisition and language learning in addition to researching promising new
methods, materials and trends is essential to the improvement of second language teaching andlearning. Motivation, appropriate teacher feedback, low affective filters, best procedures fordeveloping speaking and listening skills, the development of vocabulary and equal access tolearning are central to the second language acquisition dialogue. The persistent question
concerns how to improve second language instruction to enhance and appropriately facilitate
second language acquisition. Furthermore, discovering what indicates best practice among
those who teach language learners of any age requires educators to look ahead for innovative
initiatives while simultaneously continuing to use strategies and methods that are research
proven. These precise topics are addressed in the variety of articles provided by the diverse
group of authors who contribute their research and scholarship to this issue of the IAFOR
Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education. The reader will gain knowledge ofseveral issues affecting language learning in a wide assortment of nations and will find thatsimilar discussions emerge in schools and second language classrooms transnationally.

1

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Article 1
In the first article, Jean-Marc Dewaele and Pearl P. Y. Leung, in their article, “The Effect ofProficiency on “Non-Native” EFL Teachers’ Feelings and Self-Reported Behaviours”,
investigate whether the level of proficiency of teachers who teach a non-native language suchas English influences their attitudes, motivation, well-being or choice of classroom practices.
The quantitative study involved 376 English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers from aroundthe world who had learned English as a foreign language. The researchers sought to explore
the relationship of their English language proficiency and their sense of self-efficacy. The
findings showed many correlations between language proficiency and confident teaching in
the EFL classroom. This study establishes important considerations regarding the necessary
proficiency of language teachers and their ongoing language development in support of thatcompetence.
Article 2
May Olaug Hoverak, Gerd Martina Langeland, Agnete Løvik, Sigrunn Askland, Paweł
Scheffler, and Aleksandra Wach, authors of “Systematic Work with Speaking Skills andMotivation in Second language Classes”, explore strategies that may be useful in limiting thedamaging effects of foreign language anxiety through the reclaiming of agency in improving
one’s own educational setting and achievement. Their participants were teenagers and adult
immigrants, and the research study was conducted in a variety of language learning situations
that included English classes in Norway and Poland and Spanish classes in Norway. Uponcompletion of their intervention, the results were promising. As the foreign language anxiety
lessened during the study, motivation typically increased. The participants reported that theysensed a more supportive learning environment.
Article 3
In “A Corpus-Based Comparison of Inclusiveness in L2 Reading Materials for RefugeeChildren”, Meliha R. Simsek explores how newly arrived refugee children in Turkey may findthemselves represented in school reading materials. A multimethod study was conducted forthe purpose of determining the degree of inclusiveness of L2 reading materials used for refugee
education in Turkey and New Zealand. The study looked specifically at diversity issues suchas different proficiency levels, gender identities and cultural backgrounds. A significant aspectof the study was a comparison of English as a second language (ESL) and Turkish as a second
language (TSL) materials. The results of the study should lead to essential improvements andpolicies in refugee education.
Article 4
Jacqueline Żammit, author of, “Sociocultural Issues Experienced by Adults Learning Maltese
as a Second Language”, looks at sociocultural problems encountered by Maltese as a second
language (ML2) students and to what degree the sociocultural issues significantly impact ML2
learners. The study included 35 adult ML2 learners from a variety of language backgrounds,
including Semitic, Romance, Germanic, Slovanic, Indo-European, Indo-Aryan, and IndoIranian. Each participant had experienced at least one of the following sociocultural challenges:
culture shock, frustrating experiences trying to communicate in the new second language,
memories that were not as sharp as they had been in younger years, and unfamiliar teaching
methods. Among other important considerations, the findings highlight a significant aspect of
second language acquisition for older persons – that of diminishing memories. The outcomesof the research offer insights that may inform the revision of diverse programs with similar
issues.

2

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Article 5
John Duplice, author of, “The GoldList Notebook Method: A Study on L2 Vocabulary
Learning”, underscores the certain importance of intentional and effective vocabularydevelopment among second language learners. His study looked at collected data from 74
university students in Japan studying English vocabulary with the GoldList Notebook Method,which incorporates spaced learning and retrieval practice. The study was conducted over anine-week period and consisted of both quantitative and qualitative research. The findings
showed efficacy in using the method and highlighted particular merit to spaced learning over
two-week intervals. The method is found to be especially useful with adult learners.
Article 6
In “Facebook as a Flexible Ubiquitous Learning Space for Developing Speaking Skills”,
Svitlana Mykytiuk, Olena Lysytska, Tetiana Melnikova, and Serhii Mykytiuk, also investigate
how to improve second language learners’ speaking skills. Their quasi-experimental study
examined the effectiveness of the integration of Facebook as a flexible pervasive learning space
into the educational process for speaking skills development of undergraduate students learning
English as a second language. The results revealed higher achievement scores of theexperimental group in comparison to the control group in terms of expanding vocabulary,increasing English grammar literacy, developing interactive skills, discourse management, andpronunciation.
Article 7
Eleni Meletiadou, author of “The Utilisation of Peer-Assisted Learning/Mentoring andTranslanguaging in Higher Education” implemented a study that researched the impact of peer
assisted learning/mentoring or PALM activities and translanguaging on the oral fluency of 80
multilingual students who were required to prepare oral presentations in the new target
language. The results point to the probability that the innovative activities created a
psychologically safe place in which students could achieve academic improvement. The
findings accentuate the connection between emotion and cognition, underscoring the role of a
low affective filter in increasing classroom involvement.
Article 8
In, “Factors Obstructing English Teaching Effectiveness: Teacher Voices from Thailand’s
Deep South”, Muhammadafeefee Assalihee and Yusop Boonsuk investigated factors leading
to the ineffectiveness of English language teaching (ELT) in the rural settings of the threesouthern border provinces in Thailand where both teachers and learners have experienced
ongoing political unrest, eruptions of violence, fears, and insecurity. The researchers hoped to
introduce a new lens of contextualized English instructions for learners in schools located inSouthernmost Thailand, where learners live amid linguistic and cultural diversity. The results
revealed that five primary factors were leading to the deterioration of English language learning
efficiency.
Article 9
Nur Izzah binti Osman and Siti Nazleen binti Abdul Rabu, authors of “Mobile Learning for
Malay Language among Foreign Workers: A Preliminary Study” conducted a study tounderstand the learning process and language acquisition of Communicative Malay Language(CML) among foreign workers in Malaysia. The researchers also wanted to explore potential
utilizations of mobile applications in assisting CML learning among foreign workers. The
analysis of the collected data for this qualitative study revealed that most of the respondents

3

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

were not adequately supplied with general knowledge about the country. However, andreported that they considered the mobile application to be an effective tool in learning L2 anddeveloping listening skills in the new target language.
Article 10
In “Online Assessment in the Digital Era: Moroccan EFL University Students’ Experiences,
Perceptions and Challenges” Nourreddine Menyani, Ahlame Boumehdi, and Oumaima El
Jaadi sought to explore students’ experience with online emergency learning as well as online
evaluation. The findings of this research revealed that the students experienced technical issues
while submitting their exams. They expressed their disappointment with the lack of feedback
provided by their professors. The participants commented that they experienced frequent worry
about academic honesty. This has caused them to lose interest in their studies and to possess
doubts about reliving the online assessment experience.
Happy reading!
Melinda Cowart
Texas Woman’s University, USA
Editor, IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Email: editor.joll@iafor.org

4

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Notes on Contributors
Article 1:
The Effect of Proficiency on “Non-Native” EFL Teachers’ Feelings and Self-Reported
Behaviours
Dr Jean-Marc Dewaele is Professor of Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism at Birkbeck,
University of London. He has authored and edited 9 books, published over 320 papers andchapters on individual differences in psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatic,
psychological and emotional variables in Second Language Acquisition and Multilingualism.
He is former president of the International Association of Multilingualism and the European
Second Language Association, and he is General Editor of the Journal of Multilingual andMulticultural Development. He won the Equality and Diversity Research Award from the
British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2013), the Robert Gardner Award for
Excellence in Second Language and Bilingualism Research from the International
Association of Language and Social Psychology (2016) and the Distinguished Scholar Award
from the European Second Language Association (2022).
Email: ublf020@mail.bbk.ac.uk
Pearl Pui Yin Leung obtained her MA in Applied Linguistics at University College London
and she is currently finishing her PhD in Applied Linguistics at Birkbeck, University of
London. Her dissertation is entitled “Inner speech development during acculturation: Alongitudinal explanatory sequential methods study on Chinese university students in the UK”.
She co-authored a paper with Jean-Marc Dewaele on the Complementarity Principle in innerspeech that appeared in the International Journal of Multilingualism in 2021.
Article 2:
Systematic Work with Speaking Skills and Motivation in Second Language Classes
Dr May Olaug Horverak has a PhD in English linguistics and didactics and works as aheadmaster at Birkenes Learning Centre. She is also leader of the project SAMM in adultlearning and primary and lower secondary school. Her research interests are applied
linguistics, motivation and health promotion.
Email: may.olaug.horverak@birkenes.kommune.no
Agnete Løvik has an MA in English linguistics and works as a teacher at Kvadraturen upper
secondary school. Her research interests are English linguistics and didactics.
Dr Sigrunn Askland has a PhD in linguistics and didactics and works as a teacher at Arendal
upper secondary school. Her research interests are applied linguistics in L1, L2 and L3.
Paweł Scheffler is a lecturer and researcher in the Faculty of English at Adam Mickiewicz
University, Poznań. His research interests are second language acquisition, classroom foreign
language instruction, and modern English grammar.
Aleksandra Wach is university professor at the Faculty of English, Adam Mickiewicz
University, Poznań. Her main research interests include teaching L2 grammar, the role of thenative language in L2 learning and teaching, and computer-assisted language learning.

5

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Article 3:
A Corpus-Based Comparison of Inclusiveness in L2 Reading Materials for RefugeeChildren
Dr Meliha R. Simsek is currently an associate professor of TEFL at the University of Health
Sciences (Istanbul, Turkey). She has been teaching English to a multinational group of medical
students at the preparatory division since 2017. She got her BA (2004), MA (2006) and PhD(2009) in ELT from Dokuz Eylul University (Izmir). She has since served as an English
instructor at the School of Foreign Languages (Dokuz Eylul University), and as a teacher
educator at the Faculty of Education in Middle East Technical University (Ankara), andtherefore been working with both EFL learners and teacher candidates for the last eighteen
years. Her research interests include teacher education, applied linguistics, ELT methodology,
and materials evaluation and development.
Email: malliday@gmail.com
Article 4:
Sociocultural Issues Experienced by Adults Learning Maltese as a Second Language
Dr Jacqueline Żammit is a lecturer in the Pedagogy of Maltese, with a specialization in theteaching of Maltese as a Foreign Language within the Department of Languages andHumanities, Faculty of Education at the University of Malta. She holds a First-Class BEd(Hons) Degree in Maltese and Early and Middle Years, a MA Degree with Distinction in
Maltese Linguistics, and a PhD from the University of Malta. Her areas of interest comprise
adult education, multiculturalism, interculturalism, computer-assisted language learning,
second language acquisition, cross-cultural communication, plurilingualism, applied
linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, artificial intelligence, and, in particular, theteaching and learning of Maltese as a second language. Jacqueline has over twenty years of
pedagogic insights experience working with Primary, Secondary and Tertiary schools to teachMaltese as a first and foreign language and Spanish as a foreign language.
Email: jacqueline.zammit@um.edu.mt
Article 5:
The GoldList Notebook Method: A Study on L2 Vocabulary Learning
John Duplice has been teaching English to English language learners for more than twenty
years in both university and corporate settings in Japan and the United States. He is currently
a lecturer of English in the Center for Language Education & Research at Sophia University inTokyo, Japan. He holds an MEd in curriculum & instruction from the University of Nebraska
and an MA in teaching writing from Johns Hopkins University. At present, John is a PhD
candidate in Applied Linguistics at the University of Birmingham studying the efficacy ofdesirable difficulties on second language learners.
E-Mail: j-duplice-0p0@sophia.ac.jp

6

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Article 6:
Facebook as a Flexible Ubiquitous Learning Space for Developing Speaking Skills
Dr Svitlana Mykytiuk has a PhD in Philology and is Associate Professor at the Department
of Foreign Languages №1, Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University, Kharkiv, Ukraine. Her
research interests are innovative methods of teaching foreign languages, technology
assisted learning and comparative study of literature.
E-Mail: s.s.mykytyuk@nlu.edu.ua
Dr Olena Lysytska has a PhD in Philology and is Associate Professor at the Department of
Foreign Languages №1, Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University, Kharkiv, Ukraine. Her
research interests are Slavic languages, English, World Literature, interculturalcommunication, innovative methodology of teaching foreign languages, English for special
purposes.
Dr Tetiana Melnikova has a PhD in Philology and is Associate Professor at the Department
of Foreign Languages №1, Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University, Kharkiv, Ukraine.
Tetiana Melnikova’s research interests are methods of teaching foreign languages,
technology-enhanced language learning, and literature studies.
Dr Serhii Mykytiuk is a Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, PhD in Psychology, at the
Department of Psychology and Pedagogical Anthropology, H. S. Skovoroda Kharkiv National
Pedagogical University, Ukraine. Serhii Mykytiuk’s research interests are educational
psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and interactive teaching methods.
Article 7:
The Utilisation of Peer-Assisted Learning/Mentoring and Translanguaging in Higher
Education
Dr Eleni Meletiadou is a Senior Lecturer (Associate Professor) in Equality, Diversity, andInclusion in Higher Education at London Metropolitan University Guildhall School ofBusiness and Law. She is an enthusiastic peer learning, writing, and assessment scholar andan award-winning researcher and adviser with over 20 years of international experience. She
is the Chair of the European Association for Educational Assessment (AEA-Europe) Inclusive
Assessment SIG and an Expert Member of the European Association for Language Testingand Assessment (EALTA). She is the Conference Track Chair of the British Academy ofManagement Knowledge & Learning SIG and the European Academy of Management(EURAM) Doctoral Accelerator Mentor.
E-Mail: elenim@outlook.com

7

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Article 8:
Factors Obstructing English Teaching Effectiveness: Teacher Voices from Thailand’s
Deep SouthDr Muhammadafeefee Assalihee is a lecturer at the Department of Islamic Studies of Princeof Songkla University at Pattani Campus, Pattani, Thailand.
Dr Yusop Boonsuk is affiliated with the English Section of Prince of Songkla University at
Pattani Campus, Pattani, Thailand. He obtained a PhD in Applied Linguistics (English
Language Teaching) from Southampton University, UK. His current research interests include
Global Englishes (GEs), World Englishes (WEs), English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), English
as an International Language (EIL), Intercultural and Transcultural Communication,
Intercultural Awareness, English Language Teaching (ELT), English Medium Instruction(EMI), and English Language Beliefs, Attitudes, and Identity.
Email: yusop.b@psu.ac.th
Article 9:
Mobile Learning for Malay Language among Foreign Workers: A Preliminary StudyDr Siti Nazleen Abdul Rabu is currently a senior lecturer at the Centre for Instructional
Technology and Multimedia (CITM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia.
Her research interests include instructional strategies in online learning, specifically looking
into online learning discourse analysis, online scaffolding, computer-supported collaborative
learning (CSCL), including the application of data mining and learning analytics in online
learning. She also loves exploring the potential of new approaches to teaching and learning inthe 21st century, such as flipping learning, game-based learning, gamification, utilization of
QR codes in education and Google infused classrooms.
Email: izzahisstudying@gmail.com
Nur Izzah Osman is currently a PhD candidate at the Centre for Instructional Technology andMultimedia (CITM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia. She is also a Malay
Language as a Foreign Language educator based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. She has beenteaching Malay Language as a second or foreign language to students from all over world andall ages for over a decade and loves exploring ever-evolving approaches to language teaching
and learning. Her research interests include instructional technology, especially the integrationof technology in language learning, mobile-assisted language learning, computer-assisted
language learning and online learning.
Article 10:
Online Assessment in the Digital Era: Moroccan EFL University Students’ Experiences,
Perceptions and Challenges
Dr Nourreddine Menyani is an assistant professor at the Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS),
Moulay Ismail University, Meknés, Morocco. He earned a PhD in Applied Linguistics andEnglish Language Teaching from the Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Ibn Tofail University in
Kénitra, Morocco. He is also a member in several Research groups, namely “Sciences ofLanguage, Art, Literature, Education and Culture” at the ENS, “Applied Linguistics and the8

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Teaching of Languages” Moulay Ismail University, and “Language and Society”, Ibn Tofail
University. He authored and co-authored several research papers. His research interests include
Applied Linguistics, Intercultural Communicative Competence, Information Communication
Technology, Pedagogy, Foreign Language Teaching and Learning and Assessment.
Email: menyani.nourreddine@uit.ac.ma
Ahlame Boumehdi, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Meknes, Moulay Ismail University, Morocco.
Oumaima El Jaadi, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Meknes, Moulay Ismail University, Morocco.

9

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

10

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The Effect of Proficiency on “Non-Native” EFL Teachers’ Feelings andSelf-Reported Behaviours
Jean-Marc Dewaele
Birkbeck, University of London, United Kingdom
Pearl P. Y. Leung
Birkbeck, University of London, United Kingdom

11

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
The current study addresses the question whether the level of proficiency of teachers who teacha “non-native” language, English, affects their attitudes, motivation, well-being and selfreported classroom practices. This quantitative study is based on a cross-sectional research
design in order to investigate the relationship between actual English proficiency of 376
English Foreign Language teachers from around the world who had English as a Foreign
Language and feelings and self-reported behaviours. Statistical analyses showed that more
proficient teachers scored higher on the dimensions “Classroom practice” and “Attitudes
toward students and institution”. They were also more motivated and happier. Intermediate(B1-B2) teachers scored significantly lower on these measures than EFL educators with
Advanced proficiency (C1-C2). No significant differences emerged between teachers at Lower
advanced (C1) and Upper advanced levels (C2). An argument is made that all dependent andindependent variables are connected, highly dynamic and interacting directly and indirectly,
which means that causality is multi-directional. The implication is that educational authorities
should organise regular in-service training to maintain and boost teachers’ proficiency because
investing in teachers’ linguistic skills represents a long-term investment in their emotional
well-being and will ultimately benefit their students.
Keywords: attitudes, classroom practices, EFL teaching, foreign language users, motivation,
proficiency, well-being

Erratum: Due to a production error, this manuscript was reuploaded on June 8, 2022, with a correction
made to the article title and the second sentence of Abstract.

12

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Elaine Horwitz, a pioneer of teacher training and foreign language anxiety research, listed thefollowing characteristics of good “non-native” language teachers: “good humour, creativity,
understanding of young people, love of the language and culture, high language proficiency, asolid background in methodology and a flexible teaching style” (1996, p. 371). The paper may
be 26 years old but the notion of what makes a good “non-native” teacher has not changed. She
notes that too many “non-native” teachers think that only fluency matters. She admits that it
would be great for “non-native” teachers to speak the foreign language (FL) flawlessly but
acknowledges that this is rather rare. Teachers who feel unable to reach this level of idealized
proficiency may suffer from debilitating anxiety, even if they did actually achieve very highlevels of proficiency in the FL. Horwitz adds that “non-native” teachers should be proud of
their achievement. She concludes that at an institutional level, it is crucial to organise training
for pre-service and in-service “non-native” teachers to help them maintain and improve theirproficiency in the FL.
One aspect that has changed since 1996 is the use of the term “non-native” which isincreasingly seen as being toxic. Swan, Aboshiha and Holliday (2015) talked about the“tyranny of native-speakerism” in the worldwide English language teaching profession.
Dewaele, Bak and Ortega (2021) argued that the idea that FL learners should attain somemythical unattainable “native” norm is unrealistic and discriminatory. In order to avoid theused of these loaded terms, Dewaele (2018a) introduced the terms “L1 user” and “LX user”.
“LX” refers to any language acquired after the age of three. Contrary to ‘native’ and “nonnative” speaker, the labels “L1/LX” do not imply any level of proficiency. LX users may havevarying levels of proficiency in their LX, from minimal to maximal but crucially they are seen
as legitimate users of the LX. The new L1/LX dichotomy allows researchers to avoid the deficit
view that is inherent in the term “non-native” speaker.
What Horwitz (1996) did not mention was exactly how proficient LX teachers should be toqualify as “good” teachers. Proficiency requirements differ depending on the country, the typeof institution, the age and level of the students. Requirements can also be vague, namely adegree in the FL without any specific mention of proficiency level. In the United Kingdom,
graduate students and student teachers who wish to teach a language that is not their L1 arerequired to have at least C1 level for entry at the Institute of Education, University College
London1, a world-leading provider of teacher training for Early Years, Primary and Secondary
education. The C1 level in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) (Councilof Europe 2020) refers to advanced, proficient users. This same level (C1-C2) is required inother institutions that offer training courses for teachers for whom English is a FL, such as
Trinity College London. The present paper will investigate whether English Foreign language(EFL) teachers who have only a B1 or B2 level in English differ from their more advanced (C1and C2) colleagues in terms of self-reported practices, emotions, attitudes and motivation. In
other words, is the C1 level really the proficiency threshold for being a “good” teacher?

1

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/prospective-students/graduate/applying-international-student

13

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Research Questions
The present study aims to address the following research questions:
1. Is the English LX proficiency of EFL teachers linked to their attitudes toward theirstudents and institution, and their self-reported classroom practices?
2. Is the English LX proficiency of EFL teachers linked to their motivation?
3. Is the English LX proficiency of EFL teachers linked to their well-being?
Literature Review
Non-Native Speakers
Llurda (2009) pointed out that at the start of the new millennium researchers started to agree
that “non-native” speakers may be just as good teachers as “native speaker” teachers but that
did not seem to dent the perceived superiority of the “native speaker teacher” in the EFL
profession.
A few years earlier, Mahboob (2004) had already argued that the discrimination against “nonnative” teachers was linked to programme administrators who mistakenly believed thatstudents did not want them and thus avoided hiring them. Holliday (2005) described “nativespeakerism” in the EFL profession as the mistaken belief that that Western “native speakers”
are the best models and teachers of English. He attributed the deep and sustained prejudiceagainst “non-native” teachers as the result of racism and cultural prejudice (Holliday &Aboshiha, 2009). In later work, Holliday (2015) described “native-speakerism” as a “widespread cultural disbelief (…) in the cultural contribution of teachers who have been labelled‘non-native speakers’” (p. 11). Kumaravadivelu (2016) claimed that the inequity against “nonnative” teachers in EFL teaching is continuing and these people are victims of a hegemonic
power structure.
An indication that teachers themselves do no longer share the view that “native speaker”
teachers are superior emerged from Dewaele, Mercer, Talbot and von Blanckenburg (2020).
The researchers developed a research design to measure implicit bias against “non-native” EFL
teachers in judgements of teaching competence. Three hundred Austrian and German preservice EFL teachers watched an identical short video of a teacher in front of an EFL classroom
and used Likert scales to rate her performance on four dimensions (language, teaching,assessment, communication) as well as in item on their willingness to have this person as theirEnglish teacher. Half of the participants were told that the teacher was a “native speaker”
teacher, the other half that she was a “non-native speaker” teacher. The differences between
both conditions were found to be non-significant. The strongest predictor of willingness to havethat teacher was her teaching skill. In other words, there was no bias against “non- native
speaker” EFL teachers. Of course, parents, students and school management may still hold abias against “non-native” teachers.
The Relationship between Teachers’ Proficiency and Teaching Ability
Shin (2008) pointed out that “Having an excellent command of the target language is indeed
one of the most important characteristics of outstanding foreign language teachers” (p. 59). FL
teachers’ proficiency has direct consequences on what takes places in the classroom as teacherswith limited proficiency in the target language might struggle to access language resources,

14

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

including authentic material, and are more likely to stick to the textbook (Farrell & J. C.
Richards, 2007). They also risk providing incorrect responses to students and they may struggle
to notice learner language errors. Their linguistic insecurity may be particularly acute in oralinteractions which may push them to tighten their grip over the class. Researchers have also
used self-reports and test results compiled by institutions using their own instruments (Digap,2016). Other measurements of proficiency rely on observers’ judgments of direct classroom
observation.
Expressing their surprise at the scarcity of research in this area, Moussu and Llurda (2008)
issued the following call: “language proficiency has never been used as an independent variable
in order to observe and describe differences among NNS teachers. Such an analysis might
greatly contribute to a greater understanding of the role of the teacher’s language proficiency
in language teaching” (p. 339). More researchers have focused on this topic since then but theirepistemological and methodological choices have made generalizations difficult. A positive
development is that researchers have started arguing for a more nuanced view of language
teachers’ proficiency and have combatted the deficit view surrounding LX teachers. KamhiStein (2009) argued that language proficiency is only part of the teacher professional profile,and teacher training programmes should focus on issues surrounding language proficiency
regardless of whether the teachers were L1 users or LX teachers. Richards, Conway, Roskvist
and Harvey (2013), for example, pointed out that linguistic proficiency is only one part ofsubject knowledge, among other subsets of skills that for foreign language teachers need tomaster. Other skills include knowledge of the curriculum, of the syllabus, of pedagogicalprinciples, of the target language culture and of the theory of second language acquisition. The
authors carried out a case study of seven New Zealand teachers of foreign languages and foundthat teachers with low level of target language proficiency were able carry out some aspects ofeffective language teaching but they struggled when having to provide meaningful
explanations, rich language input and an ability to improvise. A such, they were more suitedfor beginners’ classes.
Faez and Karas (2017) reviewed the research on the link between teacher proficiency andteaching ability. The authors found a relatively weak positive correlation between teacher’language proficiency and their confidence in their classroom abilities in 10 out of 11 studies.
However, only one study used an actual language proficiency test, all others used self-reported
proficiency measures in the four skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing). Following
the same avenue, Faez, Karas and Uchihara (2021) carried out a meta-analysis of 19 studies toinvestigate the relationship between language proficiency and teaching ability of English LX
teachers. The authors found a moderate positive relationship between language proficiency andteaching self-efficacy.
The Concept of Proficiency
Proficiency is not a static concept, it is merely a snapshot at one moment in time of a process
started many years earlier when the teacher was still a student, and it likely to develop further
in life. Some of these differences are learner-internal (micro-level), others are learner-external
at a meso-level (classroom, school, education system) or even at a macro-level) (historical,
political, ideological context). Variables at these different levels interact, which means that theeffect of any single variable can be different because of the many interactions. High proficiency
is more likely to emerge when micro-, meso- and macro-levels are aligned, namely if a learnerhas all the right personal attributes to learn a target language, with good teaching and plenty ofrich input, in an environment that values the target language. Imperfect alignment of the various

15

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

levels is not necessarily an obstacle if the learner is willing to make an effort and if alternative
paths are available to improve mastery of the target language. These various levels continue toplay a role when LX learners become LX teachers. There will inevitably be variation in theextent to which new teachers will be willing and able to maintain and develop their proficiency.
It is likely that if they feel respected and valued in their institution, they may decide to further
improve their proficiency.
The concept of proficiency is the bedrock of the Common European Framework of Reference(CEFR) developed by the Council of Europe. Six levels of language proficiency are
distinguished: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2, which can be regrouped into three broad levels: BasicUser, Independent User and Proficient User. Measurement happens through “can-do”
descriptors for listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production and writing(https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/leveldescriptions).
Foreign Language Education policy is very much influenced by the CEFR which serves as abenchmark for language education around the world and influences educational policies (seefor example, Rehner, Popovitch & Lasan, 2021). It allows transparency in comparing expected
progress and outcomes of FL learning and it allows officials to set thresholds for both learners
and teachers. For example, Thai secondary school English teachers are expected to havereached B2 level, yet a CEFR-referenced online placement test organised by the ministry ofeducation in 2015 revealed that 94% had failed to reach this level and that A2 level (basic user)
was much more common than expected (Franz & Teo, 2018).
Freeman, Katz, Gomez and Burns (2015) have called for a reconceptualization of teacher
language proficiency, taking a language-for-specific-purposes approach, arguing that teacher
language proficiency should not be seen as general language proficiency such as probed by the
CEFR but rather specific command of classroom English. This debate lies beyond the scope of
the present paper.
The Relationship between EFL Teachers’ Classroom Behavior and their Emotional,
Motivational and Attitudinal Dimensions
The field has witnessed a rapid growth of interest in the topic of teacher psychology (de Dios
Martinez Agudo, 2018; Gkonou, Dewaele & King, 2020; Mercer & Gregersen, 2020; Mercer& Kostoulas, 2018). Dewaele and Mercer (2018) developed an online questionnaire to collectself-reports from of 513 EFL teachers from around the world who had English as an L1 or as
an LX. Four studies have been published on parts of the dataset and the present study is thefifth, focusing on a subgroup of participants in the database, namely the English LX users. The
first study was Dewaele and Mercer (2018) that looked at individual differences in selfreported attitudes toward their students. Participants with higher Trait Emotional Intelligence,
more experience and higher proficiency were found to have significantly more positive
attitudes toward their students. The second study on the same database showed that participants
with high levels of Trait Emotional Intelligence scored significantly higher on pedagogicalskills, creativity and classroom management. Teachers who had been in the profession for
longer also reported significantly better classroom management and pedagogical skills andmore creativity in their classrooms (Dewaele, Gkonou & Mercer, 2018). The third study(Dewaele, 2018b) zoomed in on the effect of Global Trait Emotional Intelligence as well as
the specific effect of the four factors that constitute this personality trait (sociability, wellbeing, self-control and emotionality). Sociability and well-being turned out to be most strongly

16

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

positively correlated with classroom management and pedagogical skills. A difference was also
uncovered between L1 and LX users of English, with Global Trait EI and emotionality being
significantly positively linked to the English proficiency of the latter but not to that of theformer. The fourth study (Dewaele, 2020) looked for links between dimensions of teacher
motivation, dimensions of Trait Emotional Intelligence, teaching experience, status of English,
English proficiency, age and gender. Motivation was found to be positively linked with all four
factors of Trait Emotional Intelligence. High proficiency in English was linked to stronger
motivation. Female teachers were also found to be more highly motivated.
This literature review shows that researchers have found links between teachers’ proficiency
and various aspects of their teaching ability, confidence and motivation, which are in turnlinked to psychological and sociobiographical variables. Considering the Thai ministry’s
requirement that its secondary English teachers reach a B2 level (Franz & Teo, 2018) andUniversity College London’s insistence on C1 as threshold for their graduate students andEnglish LX teachers, the study will investigate whether a difference exists in the self-reportedclassroom behavior, attitudes toward students and institution, motivation, and well-being of
EFL teachers who had English as an LX who scored above or below C1.
Methodology
A combination of convenience and purposive sampling was used to reach potential participants
who had to be EFL teachers (Ness Evans & Rooney, 2013). Calls for participation with a linkto the anonymous questionnaire were sent out widely through direct communication andthrough posts on social media including forums of EFL teacher associations in 2016.
Participants were invited to forward the call to their EFL colleagues. A total of 513 participantsfrom across the world filled out the questionnaire in English2. The present study focusses on a
sub-group, namely 376 EFL teachers for whom English was an LX. Participants varied in age,country of residence and language background which strengthens the ecological validity of thedata, as local effects are averaged out. Participants completed a short sociobiographicalquestionnaire before doing a lexical decision task to determine their English proficiency. They
then answered the closed questions about their attitudes, motivation and classroom behavior.
The research design received ethical approval from the authors’ institution.
Participants
A total of 376 participants (295 females, 77 males, 4 preferred not to say) filled out thequestionnaire. The largest group were Ukrainians (n = 37), Greek (n = 30), Azerbaijani (n =25), Argentinian (n = 14), Chinese (n = 14), and smaller numbers of participants with othernationalities. Most participants were teaching English at university (n = 197), others taught insecondary schools (n = 120) and primary schools (n = 59). Further demographic informationof the participants in presented in table 1.

2

We assumed that a B1 level of English was sufficient to understand the questionnaire.

17

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 1
Demographic Information of Participants

AgeYears as a teacher
Number of languages known

Minimum
19
0.1
2

Maximum
76
50
6

Mean
38.8
14.2
3.5

Std. Deviation
10.2
10.1
1.1

Independent Variable
The independent variable was general English proficiency3, based on the 60-item testdeveloped by Lemhöfer and Broersma (2012), which takes 5 minutes to complete. The
LexTALE test requires participants to distinguish real English words from English-looking
words that do not exist in English, using a YES/NO format. Its scores correlate highly withTOEIC test results, an established test of English proficiency that takes approximately 2½hours to complete. Thus, even though LexTALE was not designed to capture general English
proficiency fully, scholars recognize it as a good indicator for intermediate to (very) highproficiency LX users. Although there has been some debate about the sampling rate of
LEXTALE (Masrai, 2022), the test, which has been translated in different languages, isconsidered to be a sound and effective instrument for measuring vocabulary size, as a proxyfor general L2 proficiency (Zhou & Li, 2021). The mean score for LEXTALE among the study
participants was 83.5%, with a standard deviation of 12.9%.
Lemhöfer and Broersma (2012) equate scores below 59% on LexTALE as corresponding to
the lower independent users and the lower level descriptors of the CEFR (B1 and lower).
LexTALE scores between 60% and 80% correspond to Upper independent users (B2), scores
between 80% and 90% correspond to Lower advanced (C1) and scores above 90% correspondto Upper advanced (C2). In the present study 140 participants had a score between 60% and80%. The researchers consequently created a single category of “Independent users” (B1-B2).
One hundred and four participants had a score between 80.1% and 90% and were labeled“Lower advanced users” (C1). The 132 participants with scores above 90.1% were labelled“Upper advanced users” (C2), 18 of which scored the maximum 100% (see Figure 1 for the
distribution of proficiency level).

3

Given the fact that the authors are not aware of valid and reliable tests that measure the command of classroom
English in no more than five minutes, it was necessary to use a test that measures general proficiency instead. We
feel that “teacher language proficiency” (cf. Freeman et al., 2015) is not radically different from “general language
proficiency” and hence that measuring the latter provides a sufficient reflection of the former. Entering in thisdebate lies beyond the scope of this paper.

18

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 1
Distribution of Participants According to Proficiency Level

35%

37%

B1/B2
C1
C2

28%

Dependent Variables
The first cluster of dependent variables include the Likert scale responses to 7 items out of alist of 11 items published in Dewaele (2018b). It contains statements accompanied by 5-point
Likert scales ranging from “absolutely not” to “absolutely yes”. The first group of statements
reflect teacher emotions, attitudes, classroom practice and skills.
1. I love the English language [Passion for English]
2. I have a positive attitude toward the institution in which I teach [Attitude toward theinstitution]
3. I have a positive attitude toward my students [Attitude toward students]
4. I enjoy having lively students [Enjoy lively students]
5. I use English frequently in class [Frequency of use]
6. I see myself as a creative teacher [Creative teacher]
7. I frequently allow my students to work independently [Independent students]
8. My classes are predictable (i.e. I often stick to a similar class routine). [Class routine]
9. I can influence the selection of teaching content and language skills [Influence onteaching content]
10. I am a good English teacher in terms of classroom management skills [Classroom
management skills]
11. I am a good English teacher in terms of pedagogic or didactic skills [Pedagogic anddidactic skills]
Table 2 presents the range, mean scores and standard deviations for these 11 items.

19

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 2Range, Means and Standard Deviations for the First Cluster of Dependent Variables
VariableLove English
Attitude toward institution
Attitude toward students
Enjoy lively students
Frequency use of English
Creative teacher
Allow independent work
Predictable
Influence over content and skills
Classroom management
Pedagogical skills

Minimum
3
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
2

Maximum
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

Mean
4.7
3.9
4.4
4.3
4.6
3.8
3.7
3.0
3.7
3.8
3.9

SD
0.5
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.7

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was employed to identify latent dimensions in the elevenitems. Items with a communality below 0.2 suggest were eliminated from the analysis becauseof their low common variance (Child, 2006). As a result, five items including passion forEnglish, frequency of use, independent students, class routine, and influence on teachingcontent were removed from the analysis due to low communality. The communality of theremaining six variables is shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Communalities
Item
Attitude toward the institution
Attitude toward students
Creative teacher
Enjoy lively students
Classroom management skills
Pedagogic and didactic skills

Initial
.209
.276
.295
.168
.379
.394

Extraction
.312
.640
.389
.215
.544
.604

The determinant score of this EFA model is .308, showing an absence of multicollinearity(Yong & Pearce, 2013). The Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy is .694,
indicating the sample size is just sufficient (Field, 2018). The Bartlett’s test for sphericity issignificant (p < .001), indicating factorability in the data (Yong & Pearce, 2013). Two factors
were extracted in the remaining six items using Principal Axis Factoring (Table 4). Analysisof the scree plot shows two factors above the eigenvalue of 1, suggesting two factors in the
exploratory factor analysis. The first factor, “Attitude toward students and the institution” hasa Cronbach’s alpha of .610, which indicates sufficient internal reliability (Dörnyei & Dewaele,2022). The second factor, ‘Classroom practice’, has a Cronbach’s alpha of .711, whichindicates an acceptable internal reliability.

20

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 4
Factor Loadings on Attitude toward Students and the Institution, and Classroom Practice
FactorItem

Cronbach’s
alpha

Attitude toward the institution
Attitude toward students

Factorloading
1
2
.556
.800

Attitude toward
students and theinstitution
Classroom practice

Creative teacher
Enjoy lively students
Classroom management skills
Pedagogic and didactic skills

.587
.418
.733
.770

.711

.372
.313

.610

Extraction method: principal axis factoring; Rotation: Promax with Kaiser normalisation, 2 factors extracted.

Because the variables Attitude toward student and the institution, and classroom practice are
not normally distributed (KS = .19 and .12, p < .001 respectively), non-parametric statistics
were used, namely Kruskal Wallis analyses.
The second cluster of dependent variables are the scores on teacher motivation dimensions thatemerged from the Work Tasks Motivation Scale for Teachers which deals with motivation fortask completion (Fernet et al., 2008). It assesses “the constructs of intrinsic motivation,
identified, introjected, and external regulations, and amotivation toward six work tasks (i.e.,class preparation, teaching, evaluation of students, class management, administrative tasks, andcomplementary tasks)” (p. 274). The items were reformulated in order to focus specifically on
the motivation to teach English. This includes 3 items per dimension with 5-point Likert scales.
Possible answers ranged from “not especially” (1), “so-so” (2), “quite a lot” (3), “a lot” (4), to“very much” (5).
The first dimension is “intrinsically motivated behaviors” that teachers “are engaged in for thepleasure or the satisfaction derived from performing them” (Fernet et al., 2008, p. 258). One
item was: Because teaching English is pleasant. The distribution was not normal (KS = .173,
p < .0001). The second dimension is identified regulation, defined as “behavior that individuals
choose to perform because it is congruent with their own values and goals” (p. 258). One item
was: Because it is important for me to teach English. Because the Cronbach alpha value falls
below the minimal threshold for internal consistency (Dörnyei, 2010), this dimension was
excluded from further analyses. The third dimension is introjected regulation, which“corresponds to the process whereby an external demand becomes an internal representation”(Fernet et al., 2008, p. 258). One item was: Because if I don’t teach, I will feel bad. The
distribution was not normal (KS = .085, p < .0001). The fourth dimension is external
regulation, which “occurs when behaviors are regulated to obtain a reward or to avoid aconstraint” (Fernet et al., 2008, p. 258). One item was: I teach English because I’m paid to doit. Mean score was 3.46 (SD = .75). The distribution was not normal (KS = .153, p < .0001).
Because the Cronbach alpha value was extremely low, this dimension was excluded fromfurther analyses. The fifth and final dimension is amotivation, which “refers to being neither
intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated” (Fernet et al., 2008, p. 258). One item was: I don’tknow why because I don’t always see the relevance of teaching English. The distribution was
not normal (KS = .180, p < .001).

21

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The final dependent variable was Wellbeing, one of the four main factors of Trait Emotional
Intelligence (Petrides & Furnham, 2001). It reflects “a general sense of well-being, extending
from past achievements to future expectations, overall, individuals with high scores feelpositive, happy and fulfilled” (Petrides, 2009: 61). It was measured through 6 items such as I
generally believe that things will work out fine in my life. Table 5 presents an overview of thesecond cluster of dependent variables.
Table 5.
Range, Means and Standard Deviations for the Second Cluster of Dependent Variables
Variable
Intrinsic Motivation
Identified Regulation
Introjected Regulation
External Regulation
Amotivation
Wellbeing

Minimum
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.20

Maximum
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
7.00

Mean
4.34
4.21
2.87
3.46
1.73
5.62

SD
0.68
0.67
0.95
0.75
0.74
1.05

Cronbach
alpha
0.84
0.58
0.82
0.02
0.82
0.83

A Spearman rank correlation analysis was run to check for intercorrelation between thedependent variables (see Table 6). It shows that all variables are positively linked, with the
exception of amotivation. Three correlation coefficients have a small effect size (Rho between.25 and .399) or no significant effect (Plonsky & Oswald, 2014). The dependent variables canthus be considered to be independent dimensions with limited overlap.
Table 6
Intercorrelation between the Dependent Variables

Attitude toward
students andinstitution
Classroom practiceIntrinsic motivation
Introjected
regulation
Amotivation

Attitudetowardstudents andinstitution-

Classroom Intrinsic Introjected
practice
motiva- regulation
tion

Amotiva-tion

Wellbeing.286**.295**.150**-.291**.272**-.328**-.186**.365**--.246**-.291**-.016.249**.270**.057-.270****Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).

Results
A series of Kruskal Wallis analyses revealed that English proficiency level had a significant
positive link with EFL teachers’ attitudes toward their students and the institution where theytaught: Chi2(2) = 14.6, p < .001 (Figure 2), as well as with their classroom practices: Chi2(2) =7.1, p < .029 (Figure 3). The effect sizes are small (Field, 2018).

22

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 2
Mean Plot of Attitude toward Students and the Institution and Levels of Language Proficiency

Figure 3
Mean Plot of Classroom Practice and Levels of Language Proficiency

A series of pairwise Kruskal Wallis comparisons showed that the B1-B2 group scoredsignificantly lower than the C1 group (adjusted p < .001) and the C2 group (adjusted p < .025)
in their positive attitude toward their students and the institution. The difference between theC1 and C2 groups was not significant (see Table 7).

23

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 7
Pairwise Comparison of Attitude toward Students and the Institution and Language
Proficiency
B1, 2 – C1
B1, 2 – C2
C2 – C1

Test statistic
-50.0
-33.7
16.3

Std. Error
13.6
12.8
13.8

p
.001
.008
.237

Adj. p*
.001
.025
.712

*Significance values adjusted with Bonferroni correction

A series of pairwise Kruskal Wallis comparisons revealed a similar significant pattern for theeffect of proficiency on classroom practices, i.e. higher proficiency is linked to better selfperceived classroom management, pedagogic and didactic skills, being more creative in class,and more likely to enjoy lively students. The B1-B2 group scored significantly lower onclassroom practice than the C2 group (adjusted p = .024). The difference between the B1-B2
group and the C1 group, and between the two advanced groups was not significant (see Table
8).
Table 8Pairwise Comparison of Classroom Practice and Language Proficiency
B1, 2 – C1
B1, 2 – C2
C2 – C1

Test statistic
-20.1
34.5
-14.4

Std. Error
13.9
13.0
14.1

p
.148
.008
.307

Adj. p*
.444
.024
.920

*Significance values adjusted with Bonferroni correction

Proficiency was found to have a significant link with intrinsic motivation (Chi2(2) = 9.6, p <.008) (Figure 4) and amotivation (Chi2(2) = 18.1, p < .001) (Figure 5). A series of pairwise
Kruskal Wallis comparisons revealed that lower levels of proficiency corresponded withsignificantly lower levels of intrinsic motivation. The B1-B2 group had significantly lower
levels of intrinsic motivation than the C1 group (adjusted p < .006). The other comparisonswere not significant (see Table 9).

24

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 4
Mean Plot of Intrinsic Motivation and Levels of Language Proficiency

Figure 5
Mean Plot of Amotivation and Levels of Language Proficiency

25

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 9Kruskal Wallis Pairwise Comparison of Intrinsic Motivation and Language Proficiency
B1, 2 – C1
B1, 2 – C2
C2 – C1

Test statistic
-42.1
-15.0
27.1

Std. Error
13.6
12.7
13.8

p
.002
.238
.049

Adj. p*
.006
.714
.148

*Significance values adjusted with Bonferroni correction

A series of pairwise Kruskal Wallis comparisons revealed that lower levels of proficiency
corresponded with higher levels of amotivation. The B1-B2 group had significantly higher
levels of amotivation than the C1 group (adjusted p < .0001) and the C2 group (adjusted p <.003) (see Table 10).
Table 10
Kruskal Wallis Pairwise Comparison of Amotivation and Language Proficiency
Test statistic
Std. Errorp
B1, 2 – C1
53.2
13.6
.001
B1, 2 – C2
42.4
12.8
.001
C2 – C1
-10.7
13.8
.437
*Significance values adjusted with Bonferroni correction

Adj. p*
.001
.003
1.000

A final series of pairwise Kruskal Wallis comparisons revealed that lower levels of proficiency
were linked with lower levels of well-being, Chi2(2) = 8.6, p < .013 (Figure 6). The B1-B2
group had significantly lower levels of well-being than the C1 group (adjusted p < .011). No
other comparisons were significant (see Table 11).
Figure 6
Mean Plot of Well-Being and Levels of Language Proficiency

26

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 11
Kruskal Wallis Pairwise Comparison of Well-Being and Language Proficiency
Test statistic
Std. Error
B1, 2 – C1
-40.9
14.0
B1, 2 – C2
-21.3
13.1
C2 – C1
19.6
14.2*Significance values adjusted with Bonferroni correction

p
.004
.015
.168

Adj. p*
.011
.315
.503

Discussion
The first research question focused on the relationship between the actual English LX
proficiency of EFL teachers and their attitudes toward their students and the institution where
they taught, and their self-reported classroom practices. The second research question
considered the link between proficiency and three dimensions of teacher motivation: intrinsic
motivation, introjected motivation and amotivation. The third research question looked at thelink between proficiency and well-being. Table 12 offers an overview of the findings, withindependent variables sorted according to effect size (r). The effect sizes are below .250, andthus are all classified as small (Plonsky & Oswald, 2014). It is striking that proficiency had alinear effect for classroom practices only but that the effect was curvilinear for the attitude
variable, the two motivation and the well-being dimensions.
Table 12
Summary of Results with Variables Ordered According to Effect Size
Dependent variable

Kruskal-Wallis
test

PairwiseAdj.
comparison p

r

.001
.003

Std. test Squarestatistics root of
N
3.8
19.3
3.3
19.3

Amotivation

Chi2(2) = 18.1
p < .001

B1, 2 – C1
B1, 2 – C2

Attitudes toward
students andinstitution

Chi2(2) = 14.6
p < .001

B1, 2 – C1
B1, 2 – C2

.001
.025

-3.6
-2.6

19.3
19.3

-.189
-.136

Intrinsic motivation

Chi2(2) = 9.6
p = .008

B1, 2 – C1

.006

-3.1

19.3

-.160

Well-Being

Chi2(2) = 8.6
p = .013

B1, 2 – C1

.011

-2.9

19.3

-.150

Classroom practice

Chi2(2) = 7.0
p = .029

B1, 2 – C2

.024

-2.6

19.3

-.137

Introjected
regulation

Chi2(2) = 5.9
p = ns.201.171

The findings confirm and expand previous research (Dewaele, 2018c, 2020; Dewaele et al.,2018; Digap, 2016; Farrell & Richards, 2007; Shin, 2008). It shows that English LX
proficiency of EFL teachers is linked to their emotions, attitudes, motivation and even their

27

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

well-being. It concurs with the findings that a positive relationship exists between teacher’language proficiency, their self-confidence, efficacy and professional identity (Diagap, 2016;
Faez & Karas, 2017). It also fits with the pattern reported in Faez, Karas and Uchihara’s metaanalysis (2021) on the relationship between language proficiency and teaching ability ofEnglish LX teachers. An original finding is that LX teacher proficiency is not linked toteachers’ attitudes (Dewaele & Mercer, 2018) but to their motivation and even their well-being.
Higher proficiency LX teachers suffered less from amotivation, had stronger intrinsic
motivation, had higher well-being and had more positive attitudes toward their students andtheir institution.
Moreover, proficiency was found to exert a particularly strong effect on self-reportedclassroom practices which included pedagogic and didactic skills and creativity. The finding
fits nicely with H. M. Richards et al.’s (2013) observation that lower proficiency limits
teachers’ ability to improvise, to provide meaningful explanations and to give students richlanguage input.
The findings offer support to the idea that a proficiency threshold may exist for English LX
teachers. Where significant proficiency effects were found, the differences were always bigger
between the independent users (B1-B2) and the advanced users, than within the advanced
group (C1 and C2) where the differences were never significant. It suggests that teachers who
were assessed to be independent users (B1-B2 level) scored significantly lower for classroom
practices, intrinsic motivation, attitudes toward students, well-being and scored significantly
higher for amotivation than advanced users. Interpreting these results is challenging because
causality could be bi-directional. While there is no doubt that being more proficient has positive
consequences on attitudes, motivation well-being and classroom practices, one could argue thatcausality also runs in the opposite direction. All the dependent variables are interconnected (cf.
Table 6) which means they could change together and could be linked to other variables. Allvariables, including unidentified ones, could have exerted a collective pull on proficiency,
creating a feedback loop, where increased positivity in attitudes, emotion, well-being andmotivation could have led to increased effort by the teacher to become more proficient. In otherwords, the causal pathways in the statistical analyses could be bi- or even multi-directional.
Indeed, it is perfectly reasonable to assume that LX teachers who feel highly motivated by theirjob, who love their students, who feel creative in class, and who have a high sense of wellbeing, will do things in English both inside and outside the classroom that were not measured(cracking jokes with students, having them sing along, as well as extra-curricular activities likereading, watching films or material on the internet, going to a museum, finding Englishspeaking partners or friends) which could, all combined, boost proficiency in English. It may
also be acknowledged that the sample, having been collected through a combination of
convenience and purposive sampling, is not representative of the whole field of EFL teachers.
However, given the large size of the sample and the diversity in background of the participants,
the study may provide a glimpse of more general statistical patterns that exist among EFL
teachers around the world. Finally, there was no information on participants’ teaching degrees,
which could also have explained some of the variation (Akbari & Moradkhani, 2012) but thepattern that university teachers scored higher on proficiency than secondary school colleagues
fits the pattern reported in Digap (2016).
The finding that teachers with C2 levels of English do not do significantly better than thosewith C1 levels shows that it is not necessary to be maximally proficient in order to be a goodteacher, confirming the argument in Horwitz (1996). However, the finding that teachers at B1B2 levels scored significantly lower than colleagues at C1-C2 levels on some crucial

28

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

dimensions has important pedagogical implications. It could be used as an argument for
educational authorities to assure that teachers have sufficient proficiency and organise regularin-service training to maintain and boost that proficiency. Investment in teachers’ linguistic
skills also represents a long-term investment in their emotional well-being. Crucially, having
proficient, motivated and happy teachers will ultimately benefit their students.
The study is not without limitations, which are linked to the nature of the research design.
Because the aim of the study was to identify broad statistical patterns about the effect of
proficiency, there were no participants’ voices which could have contributed to a more granular
understanding of the phenomena that were observed. Interviews could provide explanations on
why EFL teachers with a B1-B2 level lack confidence about their classroom practices, havelower intrinsic motivation, higher amotivation, less positive attitudes toward students, andlower well-being compared to their more proficient colleagues. Further qualitative research isneeded to investigate this in more detail.
Conclusion
The present study found that University College London’s C1 threshold for graduate students
and for English LX users wishing to enrol in teacher training courses is spot on. While a higher
proficiency is an extra strength for LX teachers, it ceases to matter much anymore once theyreach the threshold of advanced users (C1 or C2). Proficiency does however start to have astronger effect if English LX teachers are B1-B2 users or below because it limits their ability
to create an optimal environment with sufficient rich language interactions which learners will
enjoy and which is likely to quicken their progress as a result. Of course, the relationshipbetween teachers’ proficiency and teaching ability is complex and highly dynamic with several
interacting variables. Part of the complexity of the relationship is related to the nature of
proficiency itself which changes over time. The same is true for attitudes, emotion, motivation
and well-being. Any teacher can testify to the occasional disappointment when a class does not
go according to plan and, as a consequence, attitudes, emotion, motivation and well-being may
sag momentarily. Trying to pin down the exact influence and position of each variable, and therelative distance between them, is akin to trying to frame a whorl of colourful flower petals
gently swaying in the breeze in a black and white two-dimensional space.

29

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Akbari, R., & Moradkhani, S. (2012). Is a degree relevant? A comparison of pedagogicalthought units of teachers with and without ELT-related academic credentials.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(12).
https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2012v37n12.5
Child, D. (2006). The essentials of factor analysis. (3rd ed.). New York: Continuum.
Council of Europe (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages(CEFR). https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-referencelanguages/level-descriptions
de Dios Martínez Agudo, J. (Ed.) (2018). Emotions in second language teaching. Theory,
research and teacher education. Berlin: Springer.
Dewaele, J.-M. (2018a). Why the dichotomy ‘L1 Versus LX User’ is better than ‘native
versus non-native speaker’. Applied Linguistics, 39, 236–240.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amw055
Dewaele, J.-M. (2018b). The relationship between Trait emotional intelligence andexperienced ESL/EFL teachers´ love of English, attitudes toward their students andinstitution, self-reported classroom practices, enjoyment and creativity. Chinese
Journal of Applied Linguistics, 41(4), 468–487. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-20180034
Dewaele, J.-M. (2020). What psychological, linguistic and sociobiographical variables power
EFL/ESL teachers’ motivation? In C. Gkonou, C., J.-M. Dewaele, & J. King, (Eds.),
Language Teaching: An Emotional Rollercoaster (pp. 269–287). Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.
Dewaele, J.-M., Bak, T., & Ortega, L. (2021). Why the mythical “native speaker” has mud on
its face. In N. Slavkov, S. Melo Pfeifer & N. Kerschhofer (Eds.), Changing Face ofthe "Native Speaker": Perspectives from Multilingualism and Globalization (pp. 23–
43). Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter,
Dewaele, J.-M., Gkonou, C., & Mercer, S. (2018). Do ESL/EFL teachers´ emotional
intelligence, teaching experience, proficiency and gender, affect their classroom
practice? In J. de Dios Martínez Agudo (Ed.), Emotions in Second Language
Teaching. Theory, Research and Teacher Education (pp. 125–141). Berlin: Springer.
Dewaele, J.-M., & Mercer, S. (2018). Variation in ESL/EFL teachers´ attitudes toward theirstudents. In S. Mercer & A. Kostoulas (Eds.), Teacher psychology in SLA (pp. 178–
195). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Dewaele, J.-M., Mercer, S., Talbot, K.R., & von Blanckenburg, M. (2020). Are EFL preservice teachers’ judgment of teaching competence swayed by the belief that the EFL
teacher is a L1 or LX user of English? European Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(2),1–24. https://doi.org/10.1515/eujal-2019-0030
Digap, A.L.C. (2016). Self-efficacy, English proficiency and effectiveness of teachers ofEnglish in the secondary schools. SMCC Higher Education Research Journal, 2, 72–
89. https://doi.org/10.18868/sher2j.02.00416.07
Dörnyei, Z., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2022). Questionnaires in second language research:
Construction, administration, and processing (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.

30

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Faez, F. (2011). Are you a native speaker of English? Moving beyond a simplistic
dichotomy. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 8, 378–99.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2011.615708
Faez, F., & Karas, M. (2017). Connecting language proficiency to (self-reported) teachingability: A review and analysis of research. RELC Journal, 48, 135–151.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217694755
Faez, F., Karas, M., & Uchihara, T. (2021). Connecting language proficiency to teachingability: A meta-analysis. Language Teaching Research, 25(5), 754–777.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819868667
Farrell, T. S .C. & Richards, J. C. (2007). Teachers’ language proficiency. In T.S.C. Farrell(Ed.), Reflective Language Teaching: From Research to Practice (pp. 55–66).
London: Continuum.
Fernet, C., Senécal, C., Guay, F., & Austin, S. (2012). Predicting intraindividual changes inteacher burnout: The role of perceived school environment and motivational factors.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 28, 514–525.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.11.013
Franz, J., & Teo, A. (2018). ‘A2 is Normal’ – Thai secondary school English teachers’
encounters with the CEFR. RELC Journal, 49(3), 322–338.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217738816
Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). London: Sage
Publications.
Freeman, D., Katz, A., Gomez Garcia, P., & Burns, A. (2015). English for teaching:
Rethinking teacher proficiency in the classroom. ELT Journal, 69, 129–139.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217691073
Gkonou, C., Dewaele, J.-M., & King, J. (Eds.) (2020). The Emotional Rollercoaster ofLanguage Teaching. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Holliday, A. R. (2005). The struggle to teach English as an international language. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Holliday, A. R. (2015). Native-speakerism: Taking the concept forward and achieving
cultural belief. In A. Holliday, P. Aboshiha & A. Swan (Eds.), (En)Countering
Native-speakerism. Global Perspectives (pp. 11–25). Basingstoke: Palgrave
MacMillan.
Holliday, A. R. & P. Aboshiha (2009). The denial of ideology in perceptions of ‘Nonnative
Speaker’ teachers. TESOL Quarterly, 43, 669-689.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1545-7249.2009.tb00191.x
Horwitz, E .K. (1996). Even teachers get the blues: Recognizing and alleviating language
teachers' feelings of foreign language anxiety. Foreign Language Annals, 29(3), 365–372. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.1996.tb01248.x
Kamhi-Stein, L. D. (2009). Teacher preparation and nonnative English-speaking educators.
In A. Burns & J. C. Richards (Eds.), (pp. 91–101). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2016). The decolonial option in English teaching: Can the subaltern
act? TESOL Quarterly, 50, 66-85. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.202

31

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Lemhöfer, K., & Broersma, M. (2012). Introducing LexTALE: A quick and valid Lexical
Test for Advanced Learners of English. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 325–343.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0146-0
Llurda, E. (2009). The decline and fall of the native speaker. In Li Wei & V. J. Cook (Eds.),
Contemporary Applied Linguistics: Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 37–53).
Oxford: Continuum.
Masrai, A. (2022). The development and validation of a lemma-based Yes/No vocabulary
size test. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221074355
Mercer, S., & Gregersen, T. (2020). Teacher Wellbeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mercer, S., & Kostoulas, A. (Eds.) (2018). Teacher psychology in SLA. Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.
Mahboob, A. (2004). Demystifying the Native Speaker in TESOL. SPELT Journal, 19, 1–14.
Moussu, L., & Llurda, E. (2008). Non-native English-speaking English language teachers:
History and research. Language Teaching, 41(3), 315–348.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444808005028
Ness Evans, A., & Rooney, B.J. (2013). Methods in psychological research (3rd ed.). New
York: Sage Publications.
Petrides, K. V. (2009). Technical Manual for the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaires(TEIQue). London Psychometric Laboratory.
Petrides, K.V. & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometricinvestigation with reference to established trait taxonomies. European Journal of
Personality, 15, 425448. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.416
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F.L. (2014). How big is ‘big’?: Interpreting effect sizes in L2
research. Language Learning, 64, 878–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12079
Rehner, K., Popovich, A., & Lasan, I. (2021). How the CEFR is impacting French-as-aSecond-Language in Ontario, Canada: Teachers’ self-reported instructional practices
and students’ proficiency exam results. Languages, 6(1), 15.
https://doi.org/10.3390/languages6010015
Richards, H .M., Conway, C., Roskvist, A., & Harvey, S. (2013). Foreign language teachers’
language proficiency and their language teaching practice. The Language Learning
Journal, 41, 231–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2012.707676
Shin, S. J. (2008). Preparing non-native English speaking ESL teachers. Teacher
Development, 12, 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530701827749
Yong, A. G., & Pearce, S. (2013). A beginner’s guide to factor analysis: Focusing on
exploratory factor analysis. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 9(2),79–94. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.09.2.p079
Zhou, C., & Li, X. (2021). LextPT: A reliable and efficient vocabulary size test for L2
Portuguese proficiency. Behavior Research Methods.
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01731-1
Corresponding author: Jean-Marc Dewaele
Email: j.dewaele@bbk.ac.uk

32

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Systematic Work with Speaking Skills and Motivation in Second
Language Classes
May Olaug Horverak
Birkenes Learning Centre, Norway
Gerd Martina Langeland
Lillesand Upper Secondary School, Norway
Agnete Løvik
Kvadraturen Upper Secondary School, Norway
Sigrunn Askland
Arendal Upper Secondary School, Norway
Paweł Scheffler
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland
Aleksandra Wach
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland

33

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
Learning a foreign language is more difficult for some students than others, and particularly
speaking out loud in class may be a challenge. The aim of this study is to investigate thepotential of a systematic approach to facilitate mastery, motivation and a supportive language
learning environment, to limit foreign language anxiety. An intervention was carried out indifferent language learning contexts, including English classes in Norway and Poland andSpanish classes in Norway. The research material collected consists of student logs, student
evaluations and self-reported data from a validated questionnaire on foreign language anxiety.
The findings show that many students reported becoming more motivated and comfortable inclass and that the method helped them work with strategies to overcome problems. Selfreported questionnaire data suggest that in two of three contexts, the foreign language anxiety
level of the students decreased significantly during the intervention period. It may be difficult
to generalise based on the findings presented here as the sample from each context is limited,the data is self-reported, the intervention period was limited and there is no control group. To
strengthen the study’s findings, triangulation of multiple data sources was used. To conclude,
the five-step method presented in this study may be a useful strategy to facilitate developing
motivation and creating a supportive learning environment in the language classroom.
However, more longitudinal and extensive studies are needed to investigate the potential of theapproach presented here further.
Keywords: learning strategies, foreign language anxiety, mastery, motivation, second language
learning

34

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Speaking is an essential communicative skill and thus a crucial element of L2 education.
However, learners’ inhibitions and negative emotions associated with speaking in theclassroom, referred to as speaking anxiety (King & Smith, 2017), are a serious obstacle toeffective L2 learning. In Krashen’s language acquisition theory (1982), the role of the affective
filter is emphasized – if a language learner feels anxious, learning will not progress. A pilot
study from the project reported on here confirmed this anxiousness concerning speaking inclass also in a Norwegian context (Horverak, Aanensen, Olsbu, Päplow, & Langeland, 2020),
where one may assume that the level of proficiency is rather high (Education First, 2012).
Many students were concerned about not speaking fluently or sounding sufficiently “English”.
Recognizing this problem in the context of teaching second or foreign languages in different
contexts, a five-step method for learning languages was implemented, which included a seriesof discussion sessions aimed at creating a feeling of mastery and motivation.
The essence of the five-step method applied in this study is that the students identify what is
important to them and what hinders them from speaking in a foreign language, and the classdiscusses possible solutions to obstacles. In this way, the students learn to take responsibility
themselves for their own learning and development, and they also support each other toovercome the fear of speaking in a foreign language. Creating a pleasant and supportive
environment is described as a basic motivational condition in relation to language learning, as
well as promoting group cohesiveness through interaction and sharing, and developing apersonal relationship with students (Dörnyei, 2001). This is at the centre of the five-step
approach applied in the current study, which focuses on how students can develop strategies toovercome anxiety and improve their speaking skills in a foreign language.
The aim of this article is to investigate whether the five-step method applied may be a usefulstrategy to facilitate a) developing language learning strategies and motivation, b) creating a
supportive learning environment in the language classroom and c) decreasing language anxiety.
The method has been implemented in different language classes in upper secondary schools in
Norway and Poland. The study investigates how working with the five-step method in class,both through discussions and individual reflections, influence the students’ development interms of feeling motivated, comfortable and in control in the language learning classroom, as
well as possible changes in their language anxiety level. In the following, the language learning
contexts included in this study are described and literature on foreign language anxiety is
explored. Second, methodology and findings are described and discussed. The findings include
student reflections on possible obstacles and strategies to apply when learning to speak asecond language, as well as effects on foreign language anxiety. Finally, recommendations andconclusions are presented.
Language Learning Contexts
In both Norway and in Poland, English is taught from year 1 throughout the end of lower
secondary school. In Poland, English has the status of being a foreign language, whereas in
Norway, English has for some years had a special status as it is defined a second language inthe curriculum (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training, 2006). Still, it is not reallyan official language in Norway. Hence, it has a status somewhere in-between a second and aforeign language (Graddol, 1997; Rindal, 2012). In Norway, students choose to either attend
vocational studies or general studies in upper secondary school, and one year of learning
English is obligatory, after 10 years of English in primary and lower secondary school. Even
though these are different types of study programmes with different aims, the English subject
has the same curricula and exam in both contexts (Norwegian Directorate for Education and35

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Training, 2020). In Poland, the students also choose between vocational and general studies,and both learn English. There are higher requirements in general studies, and this context is
quite like English classes in Norwegian upper secondary schools (Scheffler, Horverak, &Dominska., 2018). Only general studies students from Poland are included in this study,
whereas both vocational and general studies students from Norway are included.
In addition to learning English, it is obligatory for students in Norway who want to complete
general studies to learn a second foreign language, normally Spanish, German or French. It is
voluntary to study a second foreign language in lower secondary school, but obligatory ingeneral studies in upper secondary school. Spanish is the most popular language choice with
37% of students electing to study Spanish, 24% choosing to study German, and, 13% opting tostudy French (The Foreign Language Centre, 2021), but many students give up before theyreach upper secondary school (Carrai, 2014). As all students attending general studies in upper
secondary school must learn a foreign language in addition to English, many end up attending
foreign language classes with low motivation, and they may not make the efforts necessary tolearn a foreign language.
Research on Foreign Language Anxiety
There is much research on anxiety in relation to second language acquisition. This is also an
important aspect in the current study. The notion of language anxiety includes both mental andphysical symptoms:
The feelings associated with language anxiety […] include tension, nervousness, worry,dread, upset, and similar terms. The physical dimension also is present – the heart races,
the body sweats, the hands tremble, and there is a sinking feeling in the stomach.
(MacIntyre and Gregersen, 2012, p. 195)
Anxiety is considered a major obstacle to overcome in learning to speak another language andbeing anxious may cause the student to avoid speaking and conveying difficult or personalmessages in the target language, even though they may be talkative otherwise (Horwitz et al.,1986). An established understanding of the concept is found in Horwitz et al.’s (1986) Foreign
Language Anxiety – scale (FLA-scale), which combines three various anxieties:
Communication Apprehension, Test Anxiety and Fear of Negative Evaluation.
Communication apprehension means a type of shyness or fear of talking to people. Test anxiety
means that there is a fear of failure. Fear of negative evaluation concerns having expectations
that others will give negative evaluations of one’s performance. Other studies have questioned
the construct proposed in the FLA-scale, as there is insufficient evidence to conclude that
language anxiety is a unitary construct (Horwitz, 2017). This was not really Horwitz’ concern
either when developing the scale. Rather, she was concerned with having teachers acknowledge
the importance of offering a less anxiety-inducing environment: “We don’t need to thoroughly
identify the components of Language Anxiety or understand the interactions among them
before we can help anxious learners” (2017, p. 38).
Foreign language anxiety (FLA) can be related to the different basic language skills: listening,speaking, reading and writing. Most often, FLA is tied with speaking, as this generally involves
public evaluation, and it is the primary communication form in a classroom (King & Smith,2017). Anxiety is also provoked in the case of learners at more advanced levels (Ewald, 2007;
Horwitz, 1996; Tóth, 2011), and some students even report that the feeling of anxiety increases
at the more advanced levels compared with earlier stages in their language learning. Feelings

36

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022of anxiety are related to perceptions of learning environments as challenging, perceived
pressure to do well, fear of not meeting high expectations, doubts about one’s own competence
and concern about classmates’ proficiency (Ewald, 2007; Tóth, 2011; Tóth, 2017). A study on
the role of L1-use in the language classroom comparing a Norwegian and a Polish context
shows results that confirm this tendency, that more proficient learners may be more anxious
than students in contexts where less proficiency is expected (Scheffler et al., 2016).
Surprisingly, Norwegian students, who are expected to be generally quite proficient in English(Education First, 2012), were more anxious about using the target language only in language
classes compared with Polish students. This could be related to the fact that English has a statuscloser to a second language in Norway (Graddol, 1997; Rindal, 2012). Having problems
mastering English proficiently could be quite embarrassing, adding stress to the language
learning context.
Research on foreign language anxiety has also focused on giving evidence for correlations
between language anxiety and test scores, and a negative correlation between anxiety and oral
performance has been documented (Cheng et al., 1999; Hewitt & Stephenson, 2011;
MacIntyre, 2017; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994; Phillips, 1992; Woodrow, 2006; Young, 1986).
To what extent language anxiety influences performance may be influenced by the degree ofanxiety. As pointed out by Şimşek and Dörnyei (2017), there are different types of foreign
language anxiety. They list three main categories, a) anxiety as a personality trait, b) anxiety
as a context-dependent construct, and c) anxiety as integrated in the life story. Depending on
what type of reason lies behind the foreign language anxiety, different treatments may beneeded. According to Oxford (2017), one solution to the problem of being an anxious language
learner is to reclaim agency, meaning that learners understand their feelings and use these to
guide their thinking and take action to control their own learning. Agency is a central concept
in the five-step method applied in the current study, as this method is about reclaiming agency
through identifying success factors and obstacles and taking steps to make a change in one’s
own situation (Langeland & Horverak, 2021).
MethodThis study utilized a mixed method approach (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009), combining
qualitative and quantitative data on the student level. The central research question of theinvestigation was:How can a systematic approach to working with mastery and motivation contribute tocreating a supportive language learning environment that limits foreign language
anxiety?
An intervention was carried out over a period of 4-6 weeks, and the students filled in theForeign Language Anxiety scale (Horwitz et al., 1986) before and after the intervention. An
evaluation form with open and closed questions was also used after the intervention period. In
addition, the students’ reflections from logbooks were included in the qualitative data. All thecollected data was anonymous.
Intervention
The intervention (see figure 1) included 3 to 4 sessions where students identified the following:
1) What is important to me when learning to speak English/Spanish?

37

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

2) What do I already master?
3) What hinders me from speaking English/Spanish?
4) What do I need to focus on?
5) What specifically will I do to keep this focus?
The intervention was carried out in L1 in Spanish classes, and in L2 in English classes, withtranslation to L1 when necessary.
In the first session, the students discussed questions 1-3, and then wrote anonymous individual
answers to questions in logbooks that the teacher collected at the end of each session. The
students chose a confidential code to identify their logbooks. At the start of the second session,
the teacher summed up the anonymous reflections in class. Following this, the students
discussed what they could do about possible obstacles to succeed at becoming better speakers
of English or Spanish and gave examples to each other about how they could work to improvetheir speaking skills. The session ended with the students writing individual answers in theirlogbooks and the teacher collecting their reflections. In the following sessions, the students
answered questions 4 and 5 repeatedly, and discussed further how they could improve theirstrategies.
Figure 1
The Five-Step Method (Horverak & Aanensen, 2019)

Data Collection and Analyses
The Foreign Language Anxiety scale (Horwitz et al., 1986) that was used in this study consistsof 33 items with 5-point Likert scales from 1 to 5 (strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree
nor disagree, agree, strongly agree). The scale includes three related performance anxieties;
communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. Examples of items
included in the scale are “I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in my foreign
language class”, “I don’t worry about making mistakes in language class”, I tremble when I
know that I’m going to be called on in language class” and “It frightens me when I don’t
understand what the teacher is saying in the foreign language”. In the analysis, tests ofstatistical significance were performed on the entire scale to determine whether there were any
significant differences between pre- and post-intervention scores in three language learning
contexts: Norwegian students learning English, Norwegian students learning Spanish andPolish students learning English.

38

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

In addition to filling in the FLA-scale, self-reported data on how the students perceived themethod was collected. They reported on whether the method helped them find out what wasessential in learning to speak English or Spanish, the extent to which the method motivatedthem, what they focused on, how closely they followed their plan, whether, and how, they
became better at working with what is difficult, whether they felt more comfortable in classand whether they liked using the method. The items included in the questionnaire and results
are presented in bar charts. The qualitative material in this study also comprised reflections
from the students’ logbooks, which had been thematically analysed inductively, meaning thatthe themes emerged from the material (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
SampleThe participants were students from vocational and general studies in Norway and general
studies in Poland. The Polish students were teenagers, and the Norwegian students were either
teenagers or adult immigrants who studied English or Spanish at the upper secondary level(table 1). There was a total of 156 participants in the study, and data was collected from threedifferent institutions.
The sample for each context was limited, and there was no control group, but qualitative researchdoes not always require a large group of participants (Creswell, 2013, p. 157; Cohen et al., 2011,
p. 162). The variety of the settings contributed to a complex, detailed understanding of the issue,
central in qualitative research (Creswell, 2013, p. 48), which supported the validity of the study.
Table 1
Participants
Studies

Language

Year

Age

Vocational (Health and Care)**Vocational (Restaurant and Food
Processing)*
Vocational (Paramedics)
Vocational (Children and youth)*
Vocational (Restaurant and Food
Processing)**
General studies
General studies*
General studies
General studies, Poland

EnglishEnglish1
1

EnglishEnglishEnglishEnglishSpanishSpanishEnglishTotal number of students

AdultsAdultsStudents
in class
15
11Participants
15
7

2
2
2

17-18
17-18
Adults

14
17
7

14
11
6

1
2
1
1

16-17
17-18
15-16
15-16

30
22
25
32

29
22
23
29

173

156

Note: * The classes did not complete evaluations and/or FLA scales due to corona restrictions ** Adult
immigrant classes, FLA-scale not filled in due to challenges with Norwegian.

As for English, there were five vocational studies classes, three of which were adult immigrantclasses from Health and Care studies, year 1 and Restaurant and Food Processing, year 1 and2. The Restaurant and Food Processing class was the same class over two years, and most of
the students were the same. The other vocational classes consisted of students who specialised

39

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

in children and youth or were studying to become paramedics (year 2). There were also two
first year general studies classes, one from Norway and one from Poland. The participants who
studied Spanish were first- and second-year general studies students in Norway.
Findings
A thematic analysis is presented revealing what factors students considered to be crucial whenlearning to speak a foreign language and what they perceived to be their success factors andobstacles. In addition, the analysis presents what the students chose to focus on and types ofstrategies applied. The data from the English-classes and the Spanish-classes are presented
separately. The students’ evaluations answered the questions on whether the students felt thatthey had become more motivated and better at finding strategies, and whether they felt more
comfortable in class. Finally, the results from the FLA-scale reveal how the intervention
influenced the students’ level of language anxiety.
Thematic Analysis of Students’ Reflections in English
There are various themes present in the material from the student reflections, and the themes
differ somewhat in the Norwegian (NO) and the Polish (PL) context (table 2). Similar items inthe material were identified and grouped as themes, and these were chosen as they represented
answers to questions concerning what students found important, what they considered they
already mastered that could help them to learn speaking the foreign language, and what
prevented them. In the Norwegian sample, many students mentioned that it is essential topractice or get the opportunity to speak in class (27), and this was only mentioned by three
from the Polish sample. Some students reported that pronunciation is of significance (NO: 16,
PL: 12), and fluency was also mentioned in the Polish data (6). Vocabulary was mentioned as
crucial in both samples (NO 13, PL: 22) to succeed with speaking English. Understanding or
listening to English was also mentioned by many Norwegian students (26), but only three
Polish students. Grammar (NO: 11, PL: 19) and reading (NO: 7) were also fundamental aspects
that were highlighted. Some Norwegian students also reflected on the importance of watchingfilms or series (9) to improve their skills. In the vocational groups, the fact that English is aworld language (9) was mentioned. In the Polish data, confidence was a prominent theme (18),and openness (9). Overcoming anxiety was also mentioned by four students.

40

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 2
Themes in Student Reflections on Priorities, Success Factors, and Obstacles in Speaking in L2
Theme

ImportantNO
PL
Speaking/Practice27
3Pronunciation
16
12
Fluency
6
Listening/understanding/communication 26
3
Vocabulary
13
22
Grammar11
19
Reading
7
Writing
Watching TV/films
9
Use social media/the internet
English as a world language
9
Ideas/content
1
Confidence
18
Anxiety (overcoming)
4
Openness
9
Mixing languages-

Success factors
NO
PL
27
3
3
4
9
26
2
7
18
7
17
20
9
30
6
13
5
3
8
1
1
-

Obstacles
NO
PL
9
8
3
3
2
2
7
9
18
9
1
2
3
6
13
37
21
3
-

Note: NO= Norwegian, n = 94; PL = Poland, n = 32.

When it comes to success factors, many Norwegian students reported that they are good atspeaking English (27), without specifying what they meant by this, and they understand what
others say (26). In the Polish sample, only three mentioned being good at speaking and twothat they understand English well. Many of the Norwegian students reported that the fact thatthey watch TV or films (30) is a success factor as it helps them become better in English. Six
Polish students reported the same and using the internet or social media was mentioned byseveral Norwegian students (13). Reading (20) was also mentioned several times by Norwegianstudents, and some also reported that they are good at writing English (9). Only a few
Norwegian students mentioned vocabulary (7) grammar (7) and pronunciation (3) as successfactors. In comparison, many Polish students listed vocabulary (18) and grammar (17) as
success factors. Pronunciation was mentioned by four Polish students, and nine mentioned
fluency in the English language as a success factor. Being confident was mentioned by only
three Norwegian students, but by eight Polish students. Finding ideas or content was mentioned
as a success factor by five Polish students.
Concerning obstacles, anxiety was clearly the dominant factor (NO: 37, PL: 21), and some alsomentioned a lack of confidence (NO: 6, PL: 13), which is related to having anxiety to speak.
Examples of the anxiety reported by some of the Norwegian students follow:
It is scary in front of the whole class, some laugh/tease, even though it is just for fun, it
makes me uncertain. Being afraid of pronouncing words in the wrong way, or using thewrong words.

41

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

I want to talk English, but I don’t dare because I have a Norwegian accent, many
grammar mistakes, and little vocabulary.
I often start to studder if I am to speak or read in English.
I am afraid to sound very Norwegian-English when pronouncing words.
Afraid to say something wrong. Afraid that people will laugh out at me.
Personally, it is knowing everyone hears my voice in the room, and my voice is the only
voice in the room. Everyone listens to me and me only. It makes me nervous.
Another, somewhat more serious reflection, also revealed low self-esteem in general:I have managed to pull myself down and my parents have been a great help with that,telling me every day I won’t succeed and I’m a failure, that there was a big chance that
I had to repeat 10th grade because I’m so bad at everything.
Another obstacle reported by many was grammar (NO: 18, PL: 9). Some Norwegian students
mentioned that they did not get enough speaking practice (9). Other students struggled withpronunciation (NO: 8, PL: 3), or had insufficient vocabulary (NO: 7, PL: 9). The obstacles
identified mainly referred to general difficulties, but also the challenge associated with having
to learn two Germanic languages (Norwegian and English) at the same time was mentioned bysome of the adult learners from the Norwegian context (3). In the Polish sample, some students
mentioned problems with finding ideas (3) and achieving fluency (3) as obstacles.
Table 3Students’ Action Plans
Theme
Speaking practice
Pronunciation
Speaking fluency
Listening
Vocabulary
GrammarReading
Writing
Watch TV/films
Use internet resources/apps
RecordingThinking in English
Doing exercises
Overcome anxiety

Focus
NO
14
4
6
22
9
10
10
4

PL
3
9
18
3
7

42

Planned action 1
NO
PL
40
15
7
4
5
10
13
12
2
18
4
11
4
12
19
13
3
10
7
3

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Confidence

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

10

7

8

5

Note: NO= Norwegian, n = 94; PL = Poland, n = 32.

The students emphasized their desire to focus on skills that are vital to speech development inEnglish. Many students reported that they wanted to focus on increasing their vocabulary (NO:22, PL: 18) and practice speaking was mentioned by several Norwegian students (14). Other
Norwegian students said that they would focus on writing (10), reading (9), watching films orseries (10), listen to English in general (6), and improving their pronunciation (4). The Polishstudents also reported that they wanted to focus on pronunciation (3) and fluency (9). Quite afew students planned to focus on strengthening their confidence (NO: 10, PL: 7) andovercoming their anxiety (NO: 4, PL: 7).
Many students had plans to practice speaking (NO: 40, PL: 15), for example through gaming,communication via social media, practicing tongue twisters, speaking in safe surroundings,
raising hands, and speaking in class. Others report that they will read (NO: 18, PL: 4), write(NO: 11, PL: 4), listen to English (NO: 10) and watch TV or films (NO: 12, PL: 19). Some
wanted to work with strategies to improve their vocabulary (NO: 13, PL: 12) and some wishedto practice how to pronounce words (NO: 7, PL: 4). Five Polish students mentioned practice
speaking fluency and three Norwegian students mentioned specifically that they planned torecord themselves speaking English to find out what they need to improve. Some of thestudents chose to try to be more confident (NO: 8, PL: 5), and one of the Norwegian studentssuggested “I can also speak English with people I trust, friends and family, then I can become
more confident”. In the Polish sample, 13 mentioned using internet resources or apps, ten
reported that they wanted to try to think in English, seven reported that they would do exercises
and three were going to work with overcoming anxiety.
After the second session, the students were to improve their action plans and make them more
explicit. A Norwegian student with the action plan “Finding more English words” from thefirst session improved the plan to “Learn at least 5 words every week. Making quizlet to the
new words every week”. Another Norwegian student wrote “Listen to podcasts in English” inthe first plan, and “Listen to an English podcast episode every week, if there are some difficult
words I don’t know from before, I write them down in a book I have at home, and what theymean”. A final example shows that a Norwegian student improved the plan from “Talking out
loud to myself […] recording myself when talking” to “Narrating what I am doing every day
after school [….] read some pages of a book out loud for myself every day and record it”. The
revised plans reflected both growth in language, through more advanced vocabulary andsentences, and in organization, as they specified how they would organize their work withimproving their speaking skills.
Thematic Analysis of Student Reflections in Spanish
In Spanish classes, the most important focus areas chosen to improve oral skills were to achieve
good grades (5), work more with the subject (7), pay attention in class (3), find motivation (3),focus on oral skills (6) and improve vocabulary (3). As for success factors, meaning personality
traits or skills that could potentially help the students improve their Spanish, the following are
mentioned:
I have a good pronunciation. (3)I have a high ability to cram vocabulary.

43

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

I have a good memory. (3)I am able to compare Spanish and English” (4)My vocabulary is good. (3)I have an extrovert personality. (3).
Concerning the obstacles encountered by the students when learning Spanish and which
prevented them from speaking the language, the students mentioned poor grammar skills (20),struggles to comprehend the target language (3), lack of vocabulary (14) and lack of motivation(3). Regarding grammar, the ability to conjugate verbs and having command of grammaticalrules were explicitly mentioned as needs. To improve their Spanish skills, the students wanted
to focus on learning grammatical rules (22), improve vocabulary (16), speak more Spanish (7),be more “active” in class (3), watch films and other visual media (3), and achieve good grades(3). The strategies the students chose were to complete more homework (11) watch films,
series, and other media (15), listen to music, podcasts and other audio media (7), work withgrammar (7), speak more Spanish (6), read more Spanish (4) and write more Spanish (3).
Evaluations of the Approach in English Classes
The evaluations from English classes in Norway showed that many of the students appreciatedthe approach, and felt it was useful and motivating to apply the five-step method (figure 2). Of
60 students, 44 reported that they agree or strongly agree that the method assisted them in
identifying significant aspects of English to be learned and 40 agree that the method has given
them motivation.
Figure 2
English in Norwegian Upper Secondary School Classes, n = 60
The method helps me find out what is
important to learn to speak English.
The method gives me motivation to work withwhat is important to learn to speak English
I have managed to follow my own plans
I have become better at working with what isdifficult when it comes to speaking English
The method makes me feel more comfortable
in English lectures.
I like using the fivestep method in the English
subject.
0Strongly disagree

Disagree

1020Neither agree nor disagree

30

40

Agree

50

60

70

Strongly agree

Twenty-five students reported having followed their own plans, and 26 have become better atworking with what is difficult. In terms of learning environment, 30 students report that themethod makes them more comfortable in English lectures, and 34 like using the five-step

44

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

method. Many students were uncertain concerning how they felt about the method, and only a
few disagreed that the method is useful and motivating. The students also report having
improved strategies to deal with language learning:“I have understood what my obstacles are and found the «solution» to this problem.
As I made a concrete plan on how to work with the language it is easier to actually do it.
I have increased my English vocabulary, which makes it easier to speak English.
The evaluation data from the Polish learners are also indicative of a positive attitude to themethod.
Figure 3
English in a Polish Upper Secondary School Class, n = 29
The method helps me find out what is
important to learn to speak English.
The method gives me motivation to work withwhat is important to learn to speak English
I have managed to follow my own plans
I have become better at working with what isdifficult when it comes to speaking English
The method makes me feel more comfortable
in English lectures.
I like using the fivestep method in the English
subject.
0Strongly disagree

Disagree

510Neither agree nor disagree

15

20

Agree

25

30

35

Strongly agree

The majority of the students either agreed or strongly agreed that the method is beneficial,which can perhaps be seen most clearly in the case of the last statement: 17 students agreed
and 9 students strongly agreed that they liked using the five-step method in their English
classes. Apart from this general statement, most specific issues were also seen as positively
affected by the method. In particular, the students appreciated the impact of the method on theirmotivation to work on what is crucial to speak English, something 25 students agreed on, and21 students agreed that the method helped them find out what is fundamental to thedevelopment of spoken English. Also, 16 students reported that they had been able toimplement their plans, which often involved working on English vocabulary and overcoming
the fear of speaking and making mistakes, as in the following comments:
I worked on my fear of making mistakes, and on feeling shame at not being able tospeak fluently.
I tried not to think too much about correctness, about grammar.

45

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

No students in the material, neither the Norwegian nor the Polish, reported specifically on how
they worked with their fear of speaking and making mistakes.
Evaluations of the Approach in Spanish Classes
The results of the evaluation showed that the Norwegian students learning Spanish did not findthe approach particularly valuable as a tool to improve their Spanish skills. Only four students
agreed that the method helped them figure out what is important to learn to be able to speak
Spanish, and only three students said that the method gave them motivation (figure 4).
Figure 4
Spanish in a Norwegian Upper Secondary School Class, n = 17-22.
The method helps me find out what is
important to learn to speak Spanish.
The method gives me motivation to work withwhat is important to learn to speak Spanish
I have managed to follow my own plans
I have become better at working with what isdifficult when it comes to speaking Spanish
The method makes me feel more comfortable
in Spanish lectures.
I like using the fivestep method in the Spanish
subject.
0Strongly disagree

Disagree

510Neither agree nor disagree

15
Agree

20

25

Strongly agree

Note: Year 2 students did not compete the evaluation due to COVID-19 restrictions.

On the other hand, the students openly admitted that they had not been able to follow their own
plans to a great extent. There was no information about why they did not manage this. Only
five students agreed that they had followed their plans. However, nine students agreed that they
had become better at working with what is difficult. One of the students ended the evaluation
with a positive reflection:
What motivates me is the joy that I feel. It gives me an extreme feeling ofaccomplishment. I would also very much like to use languages in my future studies.
Right now, learning languages is my biggest and most fun hobby. I want to learn
languages all my life, because when you know languages, you see things in new anddifferent ways.
Foreign Language Anxiety
The levels of foreign language anxiety as measured by the FLA questionnaire before and after
the intervention are presented in Figure 5 below. Not all students who attended the sessions
were present for both administrations of the questionnaire, and therefore, the plots are basedon the following samples: the Norwegian Spanish learners: 18; The Norwegian English

46

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

learners: 31; The Polish English learners: 28. The minimum possible total score is 33, and the
maximum is 165.
Figure 5Distribution of Total Scores in the FLA Questionnaire

A Wilcoxon signed-rank test was performed on the pre- and post-intervention scores in eachof the contexts to check for significant differences. The test revealed statistically significant
differences in the Polish-English (Z = 83.5, p = .011) and the Norwegian-Spanish context (Z =27.5, p = .02). No statistically significant difference was found for the Norwegian-English
group (Z = 277, p = .36).
Discussion
In general, the results show that many students in English classes appreciated the five-stepmethod applied in this study, and it helped them develop language learning strategies andmotivation, as well as a greater degree of comfort in class. The method appears to havefacilitated a supportive learning environment for several students. The FLA questionnaire
indicates a significant decrease in the level of language anxiety for two of the three examined
contexts. There was a significant change in the context of learning English in Poland andSpanish in Norway, but not in the context of learning English in Norway. Perhaps the differencein the two English learning contexts is related to the fact that English teaching and requirements
are somewhat different in Norway compared with Poland (Scheffler et al., 2018).
Previous research shows that lower levels of anxiety are associated with increased levels ofteacher support and enhanced student involvement in learning (Palacios, 1998, Horwitz, 2017).
Applying the five-step method as presented in this study involves teacher support and student
engagement, and this may be the reason why students report positively on the experience andeffect of the intervention. Learners with language anxiety often feel a lack of agency. Yet,taking control of their own language learning process and applying a range of learning
strategies may assist them in improving their feeling of agency, meaning their capacity to affectoutcomes (Oxford, 2017).

47

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

One may wonder why there is such anxiety about speaking a foreign language in class. One
hypothesis is that self and language are closely tied, and a threat to one of these is a threat tothe other (Cohen & Norst, 1989). The student reflections showed that quite a few students felt
anxious about speaking in class, which may be expressions of context-dependent anxiety(Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2017). Creating an open and safe atmosphere, as suggested by Dörnyei(2001), may be a solution to support these students in overcoming their fears about speaking
out loud in class, and this is what the five-step method is about.
The student reflections also revealed that there was language anxiety in all contexts where
English was taught. This was not a problem particularly for weaker students, all types ofstudents seemed to be nervous about speaking out loud, or “Not sounding like an Englishman”.
This confirms previous findings from research, that anxiety is also a problem for learners at
more advanced levels (Ewald, 2007; Horwitz, 1996; Tóth, 2011). The learners of Spanishclasses in Norway, a language learning context where less proficiency is expected comparedto that of English classes, are not as anxious as the learners in Norwegian English classes. This
substantiates the idea that anxiety increases at the more advanced levels (Ewald, 2007; Tóth,
2011). A person may also have different anxiety profiles in different languages (Dewaele,
2002). Even though a student is anxious about speaking English, the same anxiety is perhaps
not present in, for example, Spanish classes.
Recommendations
The five-step method presented in this study seems to have potential to create a supportive
learning atmosphere in language classes and to support students in learning a foreign language.
Some psychological aspects may appear, like high levels of anxiety. These should be delegatedto other professionals than to a teacher.
As this study has clear limitations, more extensive and longitudinal studies are needed to
explore the potential of the five-step method further. As much language anxiety research has
focused on defining the construct and finding correlations between anxiety and outcome(Horwitz, 2017), there is a need for more research focused on how to help anxious learners. To
quote Horwitz, there are some logical steps to reduce anxiety: “talk with our students, listen to
their stories, share our own difficulties, let them have more control over their learning and givethem opportunities for genuine communication in a safe environment” (2017, p. 44). These
steps are integrated in the five-step method presented in this study.
Conclusions
This study shows that applying the five-step method presented here may support some students
in developing language learning strategies and motivation, as well as contributing to a supportive
learning environment. Considering the results, visibility of collective challenges may lead toindividual and collective efforts, which again may contribute to general safety and relief ofanxiety. However, there are limitations with this study. To strengthen reliability, multiple data
sources were used in the analyses. Despite limitations, the analyses and reflections presented here
may elicit some aspects concerning working with speaking skills and motivation in language
classes that are interesting for stakeholders, such as teachers or teacher training educators.

48

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Acknowledgements
This project has been supported by the Norwegian Directorate of Health and the Agder county
through the programme Healthpromoting Kindergartens and Schools (HBS Agder).

49

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Researchin Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Carrai, D. (2014). Fremmedspråk på ungdomstrinnet: en analyse av motivasjon og andre
faktorer involvert i elevenes fagvalg og tilfredshet med faget [Foreign language
learning in lower secondary school: an analysis of motivation and other factors
involved in students’ choice of subject and satisfaction with the subject]. (Doctoral
dissertation, the University of Oslo).
Cheng, Y, Jorwitz, E. K. & Schallert, D. L. (1999). Language anxiety: Differentiating writing
and speaking components. Language Learning, 49, 417–446.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00095
Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education (7th ed.).
Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Cohen, Y. & Norst, M. J. (1989). Fear, dependence and loss of self-esteem: Affective barriers
in second language learning among adults. RELC Journal 20, 61–77.
https://doi.org/10.1177/003368828902000206
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five
approaches (3rd ed.). Sage.
Dewaele, J.-M. (2002). Psychological and sociodemographic correlates of communicative
anxiety in L2 and L3 production. International Journal of Bilingualism 6(1), 23–38.
https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069020060010201
Dörnyei, Z, (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667343
Education First. (2012). EF English Proficiency Index (EF EPI) (3rd ed.).
http://www.ef.no/epi/
Ewald, J. D. (2007). Foreign language learning anxiety in upper-level classes: Involving
students as researchers. Foreign Language Annals, 40(1), 122–142.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2007.tb02857.x
The Foreign Language Centre. (2021). Fagvalgstatistikk [Subject Choice Statistics].
https://www.hiof.no/fss/sprakvalg/fagvalgstatistikk/index.html#Valg%20av%20FS%2
0US
Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English. The British Council.
Hewitt, E. & Stephenson, J. (2011). Foreign language anxiety and oral exam performance: A
replication of Phillips’s MLJ study. The Modern Language Journal, 96(2), 170–189.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2011.01174.x
Horverak, M. O. & Aanensen, M. (2019). Decreased motivation and increased mental illness
among young people – a need for teaching life mastery skills in school. The 7th
European Conference on Education, Independence & Interdependence, official
conference proceedings, pp. 239–251. https://papers.iafor.org/submission52464/
Horverak, M. O., Aanensen, M., Olsbu, I., Päplow, T. M. & Langeland, G. M. (2020).
Systematic motivation work in the language classroom – an action research study
from southern Norway. Nordic Journal of Modern Language Methodology, 8(1), 55–
80. https://doi.org/10.46364/njmlm.v8i1.484

50

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Horwitz, E., Horwitz, M. & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The
Modern Language Journal 70(2), 125–132. https://doi.org/327317
Horwitz, E. K. (2017). On the misreading of Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) and the needto balance anxiety research and the experiences of anxious language learners. In C.
Gkonou, M. Daubney & J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights into language anxiety:
Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 31-50). Multilingual Matters.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783097722-004
Horwitz, E. K. (1996). Even teachers get the blues: Recognizing and alleviating non-native
teachers’ feelings of foreign language anxiety. Foreign Language Annals, 29, 365–372. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.1996.tb01248.x
King, J. & Smith, L. (2017). Social anxiety and silence in Japan’s tertiary foreign language
classrooms. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney & J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights into
language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 91–109).
Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783097722-007
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press.
Langeland, G. M. & Horverak, M. O. (2021). Hvordan legge til rette for mestring,
medvirkning og motivasjon [How to facilitate for mastery, participation andmotivation]. Cappelen Damm Akademisk.
MacIntyre, P. D. (2017). An overview of language anxiety research and trends in its
development. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney & J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights into
language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 11–30).
Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783097722-003
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. (1994). The subtle effects of language anxiety on
cognitive processing in the second language. Language Learning, 41, 85–117.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1994.tb01103.x
MacIntyre, P. D. & Gregersen, T. (2012). Emotions that facilitate language learning: The
positive broadening power of the imagination. Studies in Second Language Learning
and Teaching, 2(2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2012.2.2.4
Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. (2020). Læreplan i engelsk [English
subject curriculum] (ENG01‑04). https://www.udir.no/lk20/eng01-04?lang=nob
Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. (2006). Læreplanverket for
Kunnskapsløftet midlertidig utgave [The subject curriculum for the knowledge
promotion temporary edition].
http://www.udir.no/upload/larerplaner/Fastsatte_lareplaner_for_Kunnskapsloeftet/Ku
nnskapsloftet_midlertidig_utgave_2006_tekstdel.pdf
Oxford, R. L. (2017). Anxious language learners can change their minds: Ideas and strategies
from traditional psychology and positive psychology. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney &J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research andeducational implications (pp. 177–197). Multilingual Matters.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783097722-011
Palacios, L. M. (1998). Foreign language anxiety and classroom environment: A study ofSpanish university students. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas
at Austin).

51

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Phillips, E. M. (1992). The effects of language anxiety on students’ oral test performance andattitudes. The Modern Language Journal, 76, 14–26. https://doi.org/329894
Rindal, U. (2012). Meaning in English, L2 attitudes, choices and pronunciation in Norway.
(Doctoral dissertation, the University of Oslo).
Scheffler, P., Horverak, M.O. & Dominska, A. (2018). English Instruction in Polish andNorwegian Secondary Schools: Convergent Goals, Divergent Means. In M. Pawlak &A. Mystkowska-Wiertelak (Eds.), Challenges of Second and Foreign Language
Education in a Globalised World: Studies in Honor of Krystyna Droździał-Szelest(pp. 131–149). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66975-5_9
Scheffler, P., Horverak, M.O., Krzebietke, W. & Askland S. (2016). Language backgrounds
and learners’ attitudes to own-language use. ELT Journal Advance Access, 71(2),197–217. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccw058
Şimşek, E. & Dörnyei, Z. (2017). Anxiety and L2 Self-Images: The ‘anxious self’. In C.
Gkonou, M. Daubney & J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights into language anxiety:
Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 51-69). Multilingual Matters.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783097722-005
Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research: integrating
quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. SAGE.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483348858.n9
Tóth, Zs. (2017). Exploring the relationship between anxiety and advanced hungarian EFL
learners’ communication experiences in the target language: A study of high vs lowanxious learners. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney & J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights
into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 156–174).
Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783097722-010
Tóth, Zs. (2011). Foreign language anxiety and advanced EFL learners: An interview study.
Working Papers in Language Pedagogy, 5, 39–57.
Woodrow, L. (2006). Anxiety and speaking English as a second language. RELC 37(3), 308–
328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688206071315
Young, D. J. (1986). The relationship between anxiety and foreign language oral proficiency
ratings. Foreign Language Annals, 19, 439–445.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.1986.tb01032.x
Corresponding author: May Olaug Horverak
Email: may.olaug.horverak@birkenes.kommune.no52

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

A Corpus-Based Comparison of Inclusiveness in L2 Reading Materials
for Refugee Children
Meliha R. Simsek
University of Health Sciences, Turkey

53

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
Despite increased emphasis on the role of inclusive practices and materials in post-COVID-19
classrooms and warnings about implicit biases against disadvantaged groups, the textbook
problem has rarely been approached with equity measures in mind. This multimethod study
aimed to investigate to what extent L2 reading materials, locally produced and used for refugee
education in Turkey and New Zealand, include all children with different proficiency levels,
gender identities and cultural backgrounds using corpus-driven methods. All verbal andnonverbal texts from ten thematically similar third-grade storybooks were subjected toqualitative and quantitative analysis. Comparisons against measures of grammatical and lexical
complexity, and of gender and cultural equity revealed that despite both being far fromachieving the ideal composition for creating inclusive learning-friendly environments, TSL
materials were lagging further behind ESL counterparts. They depended on almost uniform
sets of easy-to-read narratives embodying simpler grammatical features and high-frequency
words, and thus needed extension with relatively elaborate ones to accommodate mixedabilities. Gender disparities were institutionalised through male overrepresentation in heromaking, negative stereotyping, familial and occupational identification, and engagement inmonetary and mobility activities, but occasionally ameliorated, in the ESL case, by reversing
conventionally-gendered domestic, technical and intellectual skills in texts and illustrations.
The widest gap was observed in cultural representations because TSL materials, written froma tourist’s perspective, focused on imposing superficial knowledge of target-culture elements,
and ESL materials on ensuring relevance through greater use of elements from diverse cultures.
Therefore, egalitarian representations in gendered and cultural contents are required for theirrehabilitation.
Keywords: equity, inclusive learning-friendly environments, refugee children

54

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

As the third anniversary of the COVID-19 pandemic approaches, one thing the world haslearned is that regardless of age, gender, class, colour, ethnicity, creed and geography, everyone
can become vulnerable to multiple losses (i.e. of their lives, loved ones, homes, jobs andschools) within a breath, and in the absence of welcoming communities, they may come out of
this global ordeal materially and emotionally needier than before. Therefore, one of theprincipal buzzwords of the new millennium in education, “inclusion”, has been gaining wider
acceptance with the help of the democratising virus, which already changed the learning
mediums dramatically, for instance, by moving classes online and increasing accessibility (orsometimes lack thereof) for all kinds of teachers and students around the world. Since theintroduction of the concept of inclusion by the UNESCO Salamanca Statement, what started
out as a deficit-based medical model of educating disabled children separately in special
schools, and later with non-disabled peers in mainstream classrooms has eventually evolved
into its interactional version, where individual learner differences are treated not as problem
sources but rather as opportunities for teachers to enrich mutual learning experiences(Ainscow, 2020; Smith, 2018; Stadler-Heer, 2019). This shift towards inclusive education cancertainly be defended from different angles: the necessity of educating all children together
leads to development of innovative teaching methods that create learning environments
responsive to their specific needs (educational), assists to ingrain the principles of justice andnon-discrimination in the future adults (social), economises on educational costs by notestablishing different types of special schools (economic) and derives from the basic humanright to get equitable access to quality education (legal) (Ainscow, 2020).
Whichever of these agendas are pursued in educational settings, it is essentially “equity” inprovision of what exactly every learner needs to thrive rather than “equality” of shares intreatment that gives a greater reason to fully embrace inclusive transformation in the language
classrooms as well (Smith, 2018). Compared to most teacher-led content-area classes, language
lessons can be claimed to provide a more conducive atmosphere to supportive learning for two
immediate reasons. Neurodiversity, language, culture and emotion-related learning difficulties
become more detectable during language use, and especially English language teachers’
familiarity with communicative methodologies and materials puts them at an advantage interms of the implementation of inclusive education (Smith, 2018). When it comes to tacklingdifferent learning challenges, they have been observed to capitalise on their long-standing
experience in differentiating and scaffolding the learning content and processes mainly throughthe use of access-self, multilevel and multimodal texts, participatory and multisensory
activities, explicit grammar and strategy instruction and also bilingual support (British Council,
2012; Glas et al., 2021; Smith, 2018; Stadler-Heer, 2019; Tomlinson, 2011).
According to this year’s report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR) (2021), the education of over 1.5 billion learners globally has been disrupted by the
COVID-19 pandemic, but 7.9 million refugee children, with already high out-of-school rates(48%), may possibly have been hardest hit by the school closures. In other words, more thanhalf of refugee students might also be estimated to have been struggling with learning in analien classroom, where the lesson is delivered in a different language from their own, andthrough learning materials that are written for children with different personal, language,
learning and cultural backgrounds. As a result, the second/additional (L2) language teacher’s
use of inclusive practices and materials has become more critical than ever in order to reduce
the language learner’s vulnerability and foster resilience in refugee children. Also, UNESCO(2015) strongly emphasises the role of teaching materials in ensuring inclusiveness in theclassroom, and warns about the hidden prejudice and discrimination against disadvantaged
groups. Yet, rarely has the textbook problem been approached with equity measures in mind.

55

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

For this reason, the current study focuses on assessing whether the reading materials used forteaching Turkish and English as a second language (TSL/ESL) reflect diversity in terms oflearner abilities, gender and culture, or, in other words, how level-appropriate, gender-fair andnon-discriminatory they are for arming refugee learners with the enabling knowledge oflanguages.
Literature Review
Detailed overviews of various literacy and language programs for displaced people in
Hanemann’s (2018) background paper for UNESCO’s 2019 Global Education Monitoring
Report have demonstrated that despite higher concentrations of refugees and migrants in the
Arab world, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, the educational needs of young and adult refugees
can be argued to have largely gone unnoticed on the basis of limited information on literacy
and language provision for them. On the other hand, those settling in high-income regions suchas North America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand are provided with better educational
facilities because the inclusion of refugees in the labour market is regarded as “a priority goal”,
and at least basic or secondary education and proficiency in the host language must be attained“to succeed in post-industrial economies” (Hanemann, 2018, p. 57). In their efforts to fostersocial integration through L2 proficiency, they also take a whole-of-government approach andimplement a variety of school-based interventions according to refugee learners’ individual
needs (Auckland UniServices, 2007; Hanemann, 2018). In the New Zealand context, thefollowing practices have thus been recommended (Auckland UniServices, 2007; Hanemann,2018):••••••

Initial, diagnostic and curriculum-based assessments of both L1 and L2 are carried out
to improve instructional planning and provide appropriate learning experiences.
Non-English-speaking-background (NESB) children are included in mainstream
classes to increase interaction and reduce stigmatisation by native-English-speaking
peers.
Pull-out ESL classes are developed for the ones with special needs (e.g. true beginners
or traumatised refugees) and made more relevant through connections with contentarea learning.
Peer-tutoring, pairing new arrivals with English-speaking peers, or preferably L1speaking former refugees (e.g. as cultural facilitators) is utilised for familiarising themwith the New Zealand school system.
The curriculum also draws on the home languages, cultures and experiences of refugee
children.
The responsibility of their L2 learning and acculturation belongs to not just ESL
teachers but all in the school environment.

As shall be seen in other examples of good practice, appreciation of the refugee student’s own
heritage, as well as reciprocity in efforts to learn about each other’s language and culture
alongside the majority’s actually lay at the heart of effective approaches to refugee education.
In initial attempts to humanise shared classrooms, Ghosn’s (2013) materials development
project is worthy of mention. Despite even minor differences in (Arabic) accent and culture,
Palestinian refugee children had still been withdrawn while attending United Nations Relief
and Works Agency (UNRWA) schools and experienced academic difficulties. This was due,in part, to on a national curriculum that was intent on English-medium content-area instruction,and high-level language textbooks were developed exclusively for Lebanese children withpotential interests in national festivals and foreign travel (Ghosn, 2013). Unsurprisingly,

56

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

together with their overworked teachers, the refugee students were later found to react
positively to the alternative lower primary materials that achieved relevance with gradually
increasing difficulty levels for both literacy and L2 instruction and familiar content from their
immediate environments such as readily identifiable characters with Arabic names, Palestiniancostumes, households and rituals (Ghosn, 2013).
In more recent models of inclusive practice, tolerance of L1 use, or more appropriately L1support and use of multimodal storytelling techniques have become the hallmarks ofplurilingual classrooms, where students from migrant or refugee backgrounds and majority
peers can act as co-informants of their native languages and cultures and be guided into
working towards a common goal by both their language and content-area teachers. In the
British Council’s project from the Lebanese context, Grappe and Ross (2019) involved refugeeparents, speaking Bedouin Arabic, Kurdish or Turkmen, in the co-construction of aparent/teacher training pack, consisting of 13 awakening-to-languages activities (e.g. What did
you do today? worksheets), Arabic translations and images for adults with limited or no L1
literacy. In this way, Syrian preschool children were enabled to compare the teacher-mediatedknowledge about different cultural aspects with the parent-mediated knowledge about theirhome situation and share with their teacher and classmates at school (Grappe & Ross, 2019).
Minuz et al. (2020) also explained that Italian teachers provided their child readers with
opportunities to explore multilingual books via the Mamma Lingua [Mother-tongue] project
website, got them to discuss, retell and translate the stories into Italian with help from theirteachers and peers and develop language awareness besides reading for pleasure. Similarly,
Heathfield and Goksu’s (2019) case study of YouTube storytelling performances by a class of
25 secondary pupils (14 migrants) in Hannover showed that telling and hearing stories fromtheir home and other foreign countries allowed them to use their native and additional
languages (English) in a non-threatening atmosphere and also promoted mutual understanding
and respect for their unique identities. In each case, alternation between the home and school
languages serves to create diverse third spaces, where the teacher and learners can jointly
construct new knowledge (L2 output) based on their native resources (L1 inputs) (Makalela,
2015; Minuz et al., 2020). The use of translanguaging strategies has thus come to be regarded
as a key indicator of educational equity in progressive language education (Li & Luo, 2017;
Minuz et al., 2020).
A closer look at recent research on refugee education in Turkey has nonetheless manifested
that participant views on major issues facing refugee learning partners were elicited almost
invariantly via semi-structured interviews with a wide range of stakeholders, including
elementary teachers ( Bulut et al., 2018), teachers of Turkish language and literature ( Alan &Alptekin, 2021), school counsellors (Bozan & Celik, 2021), headteachers from refugeepopulated areas (Eren, 2019), field-researchers (Bozan & Celik, 2021), refugee students( Bozan & Celik, 2021) and parents (Celik et al., 2021) alongside language assistants (e.g.
Morali, 2018; Taskin & Erdemli, 2018) and coordinators (Bozan & Celik, 2021; Eren, 2019)from temporary education centres (TECs) and the EU-funded project on promoting integrationof Syrian children into Turkish education system (PICTES). However, they could not go
beyond redocumenting persistent problems related to the national curriculum, instructional
materials, in-service teacher training, administrative procedures, school infrastructure andcommunication with refugee and other students or their parents (Celik, 2019; Celik et al., 2021;
Eren, 2019).

57

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

In these studies, their greatest challenge of communicating in the local/official language also
seemed to be primarily linked with psychosocial factors such as Syrian refugees’ concerns
about separation, exclusion and assimilation (Celik et al., 2021; Tunga et al., 2020). Yet, twoother issues, top-ranking next to their language deficit, namely lack of appropriate L2 materials
and qualified language teachers, might actually be the overlooked culprit that places theinsurmountable language barrier to refugee learners’ school success and integration.
Furthermore, Tunga et al. (2020) have pointed out in their recent review of 25 descriptive
studies that there was a considerable lapse of time between the beginning of Arabic-medium
education at the now-closed TECs and enrolment of refugee children in Turkish-medium publicschools. Consequently, another contributing factor could also be the much-delayed decision toteach Turkish to Syrian children because of a miscalculation that displaced Syrians would
return home ten years on from the war (Tunga et al., 2020).
As an interim solution to increase access to education for an ever-growing number of refugee
children, over-age students have eventually been admitted to first grade and monolinguallytaught the national curriculum elusive for many by mostly untrained teachers (Celik, 2019;
Morali, 2018; Taskin & Erdemli, 2018). Due to absence of age-appropriate contents for theirliteracy and grade levels, they have been exposed to materials which were originally designed
for teaching Turkish to adult international students (Bulut et al., 2018; Eren, 2019; Nimer,2019). This in turn has caused an outcry among the teachers for removing refugee students
from mainstream classes until they develop L2 proficiency (Bulut et al., 2018; Celik, 2019;
Celik et al., 2021; Taskin & Erdemli, 2018). Since 2019-2020 academic year, refugee students
who scored less than 60% on the Turkish proficiency exam have thus been receiving 24 hours
of remedial language education besides six-hour arts and sports courses (DG NEAR, 2020).
An initial evaluation of adaptation classes has still indicated that refugee learners’ major
problems with instructional materials and teacher competences remain unresolved (Bozan &Celik, 2021). To make matters worse, separation from their native-speaking peers have not
only reduced the opportunities to use the target language for authentic communication anddevelop social relationships, but also increased the prevalence of disruptive behaviour inrefugee-only classes and negative labelling at school (Bozan & Celik, 2021; DG NEAR, 2020).
Examination of the very few existing studies of TSL coursebooks for refugee children has also
demonstrated how misconceived the adopted approach to L2 materials development could get.
Irrespective of whether Yunus Emre Institute’s four-book basic set for eleven-to-fifteen-yearolds (entitled, Turkce ogreniyorum [I am learning Turkish]), or PICTES’ three-book equivalent
for six-to-twelve-year-olds (entitled, Hayat boyu Turkce [Lifelong Turkish]) underwent
teacher-evaluation still only superficially, both materials were met with disapproval due to theincompatibility of their irrelevant and outdated content with the refugee students’ age and gradelevels (Alan & Alptekin, 2021; Bicer & Kilic, 2017). Perhaps more interestingly, greater
incorporation and positive representation of L2 (Turkish) culture were also recommended totheir authors by experts on mother-tongue instruction, who clearly viewed second and foreign
language learning as identical (e.g. Alan & Alptekin, 2021; Bicer & Kilic, 2017).
In essence, the education literature suggests that segregated schooling along with linguisticallyand culturally-inappropriate (if not actually assimilationist) materials should be more readily
held responsible for refugee students’ failure to learn the target language. However, teacher
self-reports alone may not provide objective evidence for evaluating the efficiency of a given
set of L2 materials in creating an inclusive and learning-friendly environment (ILFE) for
refugee learners. For this reason, this study aimed to investigate whether and to what extent
TSL and ESL reading materials, locally produced and used for refugee education in Turkey

58

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

and New Zealand, include all children with different levels of language proficiency, gender
identities and cultural backgrounds by using corpus-driven methods. The following researchquestions were addressed:•••

How do TSL reading materials for refugee learners compare with their ESL
counterparts in terms of grammatical and lexical complexity?
How do TSL reading materials for refugee learners compare with their ESL
counterparts in terms of gender equity?
How do TSL reading materials for refugee learners compare with their ESL
counterparts in terms of cultural equity?
MethodIn this multimethod study, where the text data was transformed into frequency and percentage
distributions, comparative corpus-based analyses of grammatical and lexical complexity wereconducted solely on outliers, and content analyses of verbal and nonverbal inputs from TSL
and ESL reading materials were also performed for the purpose of assessing their degree ofinclusivity (Morse, 2003).
Data Collection
For comparison purposes, five narratives (CEFR-A1) (entitled, Acil [A&E], Kayıp bavul [Lostluggage], Saklambac [Hide-and-seek], Bisiklet [The bike], and Her zamanki kafede [At theusual café]) with an average of 762.2 words were selected among TSL reading materials
prepared by PICTES (2021) project team for third-grade adaptation classes. As it corresponded
to year 4/level 2 in the New Zealand curriculum, five thematically similar texts at gold level(entitled, A gift for Aunty Nga, Breakdown, Always great, never late!, No big deal, and The
Green Team) with an average of 790.2 words were chosen from the Ministry of Education’s
Ready-to-Read and Junior Journal series (MoE, 2009). The qualitative data for gender andculture-based comparisons was therefore derived from a total of ten texts, whereas two sets ofshort and long-outlying texts (i.e. Acil [A&E] and Her zamanki kafede [At the usual café] vs.
A gift for Aunty Nga and The Green Team) were purposively selected from TSL and ESL
reading materials to comprise the corpus for grammatical and lexical complexity analyses dueto the illuminative power of extreme case sampling (Patton, 2002).
Data Analysis
During grammatical complexity analysis, the two sets of short and long-outlying texts werefirst divided into T-units (i.e. one main clause with any number of subordinate clauses),
subordinate clauses (i.e. adjectival, adverbial, nominal and non-finite types) and sentences
marked by full stops. Then, three complexity ratios were calculated by dividing: total numberof words by total number of T-units (W/T), total number of clauses by total number of T-units(C/T) and total number of T-units by total number of sentences (T/S) to compare TSL and ESL
reading materials in terms of T-unit length, subordination and coordination use respectively(Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998). During lexical complexity analysis, four lists of verb items in
total were compiled for TSL and ESL outliers. After the identification of infrequent verbs that
do not appear on two different frequency lists of first 50 verbs and 2500 most common words
in Turkish and English, two (type/token) lexical complexity ratios were calculated by dividing:total number of verb types by total number of verbs (VT/V) and total number of sophisticated59

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

verb types by total number of verbs (SVT/V) to compare TSL and ESL reading materials interms of verb variation and verb sophistication (Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998).
In addition to comparisons against grammatical and lexical complexity measures, all verbal
and nonverbal texts were subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis to determine how
gender and culturally-responsive these ten storybooks were. Following established criteria
from the literature (e.g. Bag & Bayyurt, 2015; Goyal & Rose, 2020; Lee, 2014b; Lee & Chin,2021), frequency counts were carried out for the number of: male and female characters intexts, male and female protagonists, unnamed and anonymous characters, male and female
proper names, familial roles associated with men and women, occupational roles associatedwith men and women, male and female appearances in illustrations, and male and femaledominated images (i.e. with only men or women, and with more men or women) during theanalysis of gender representations. For the comparison of their cultural contents, Cortazzi and
Jin’s (1999) patterns of cultural representation were employed. After the textual and visualelements referring to the learners’ source cultures and their target-language culture (i.e. Turkish
and English) were counted, frequencies and percentages of occurrence were tabulated
appropriately. The overall percentage agreement was calculated as 93% for clause-verb
identification and 94% for gender-culture identification within Miles and Huberman’s (1994)
acceptable range.
Results and Discussion
For the purpose of determining how closely the current materials matched TSL and ESL
learners’ proficiency levels, the shortest and longest texts from each corpus were subjected togrammatical and lexical analyses. Comparisons between T-unit lengths and ratios of T-unit
complexity and sentence coordination revealed in Table 1 that despite having an almost equal
number of words, ESL texts not only employed fewer and longer T-units (W/T=6.49-7.41) but
they also made greater use of clause complexing (C/T=0.20-0.22) and coordinated sentences(T/S=1.17-1.42) to achieve cohesion in eight to nine-year-olds’ readings. TSL texts, on theother hand, proved easier than their ESL counterparts because their T-unit lengths (W/T=3.844.28) as well as subordination (C/T=0.03) and coordination (T/S=1.06-1.11) ratios fell outside
the specified range of all three measures of grammatical complexity; that is, being below theaverage of 6.0 words and 1.07 clauses per T-unit for the lowest levels and 1.2 T-units per
sentence at all levels (Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998). Within groups, both outliers also varied
only slightly in terms of T-unit complexity and sentence coordination, thereby ensuring
uniformity in grammatical complexity.
Another determinant of complexity related to the range and utility of verbs, besides repertoire
size, inputted by TSL and ESL texts. Table 1 also presented the findings from comparative
lexical analyses against two different type/token ratios. The initial comparison by the total
number of verb items might have suggested the superiority of TSL narratives over ESL ones.
However, the higher proportion of verb types to overall verbs indicated that ESL texts
generated more verb types (VT/V=0.32-0.46) in either case, and were capable of exposing L2
learners to more varied lexical input. A further comparison by their selection of high-frequency
verbs demonstrated that the materials writers paid almost equal attention to providing thirdgraders with the most useful vocabulary. TSL outliers covered 52-66% of first 50 verbs in the
Turkish National Corpus (TNC) and 11-15% of 455 verbs listed among the most frequent 2500
words in Turkish, whereas ESL outliers covered 48-66% of first 50 verbs in the New General
Service List (new-GSL) and 9.5-11% of 558 verbs listed among the most frequent 2500 words
in English (Aksan et al., 2017; Brezina & Gablasova, 2015; TNC, 2022). Therefore, both60

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

corpora displayed a similar tendency to fluctuate only mildly between 0.03-0.04 (based on afrequency list of 2500 most common words in Turkish and English) and 0.16-0.18 (based on afrequency list of 50 most common verbs in Turkish and English) sophisticated verb types perverb, while the short ESL outlier turned out to have both more verb types (VT/V=0.46) andmore sophisticated verbs than the others (SVT/T=0.07-0.28). Since larger ratios on verb
variation and sophistication measures are identified as indicators of greater lexical proficiency,
the short ESL outlier, despite also being the most concise of all, can be claimed to embody thegreatest lexical complexity (Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998).
Table 1Comparisons Between TSL and ESL Texts on Grammatical and Lexical Complexity Measures
Outlying texts

TSL

ESL

Measures

Shortest

LongestShortest

LongestWords (W)

682

869

660

870

Clauses (C)

5

7

18

30

T-units (T)

159

226

89

134

Sentences (S)

149

202

76

94

W/T

4.28

3.84

7.41

6.49

C/T

0.03

0.03

0.20

0.22

T/S

1.06

1.11

1.17

1.42

Verb types (VT)

56

78

63

69

Sophisticated VT (SVTa)

6 (30)

11 (45)

10 (39)10 (36)

Verbs (V)

164

248

135

214

VT/V

0.34

0.31

0.46

0.32

SVT/V

0.03 (0.18) 0.04 (0.18) 0.07 (0.28) 0.04 (0.16)

aUnbracketed figures show infrequent verbs that are not listed among the most frequent 2500 words in the
TNC/new-GSL. Bracketed figures show infrequent verbs that are not listed among the first 50 verbs in the
TNC/new-GSL.

Previous research on the influence of different complexity measures over text difficulty has
also shown that lexical complexity was a more definitive factor than syntactic complexity inestimating the comprehensibility of simplified and authentic materials for especially beginninglearners, and materials providers were recommended to select appropriate readings on the basisof word frequency lists, or in other words, tune difficulty level according to their use of less ormore sophisticated words rather than of shorter or longer sentences (Arya et al., 2011; Barrot,
2013; Mehrpour & Riazi, 2004; Nouri & Zerhouni, 2018). For this reason, one can conclude
that both collections would benefit from extension with further readings embodying greater
lexical diversity, if they were to cater for relatively more proficient readers among refugee
third-graders, whose mother tongue literacy can also vary widely given adequate, limited or no61

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

prior schooling. There is, however, another aspect of ESL materials that might result in more
inclusion. Unlike text-only TSL materials, their free online texts are accompanied by audio
versions, so that students with different learning styles and/or (dis)abilities can equally enjoy
the stories through different mediums.
In addition to the grammar and lexicon, all verbal and nonverbal texts were examined in termsof gendered representations to ascertain whether the materials really catered to the needs ofgirls and boys equally. As shown in Table 2, male characters (57-58%) outnumbered female
characters (42-43%) in both learning situations, and the difference was even greater when it
came to hero-making, especially in TSL texts (m=76%; f=25%). A closer look at TSL texts
provided that male characters with prestigious jobs (e.g. managers, doctors) engaged in
occupational (e.g. having company meetings, delegating tasks), purchasing (e.g. gifting,ordering food and drinks, sponsoring family trips) and mobility (e.g. cycling, driving, flying)activities, whereas female characters were stereotyped as housebound housewives cooking,cleaning, sewing and tending, or objects of pity (e.g. six-year-old girl with a broken leg whining
for mum), desire (e.g. Romanian beauty captivating her future husband at the lost property
office) and ridicule (e.g. clumsy stewardess spilling cherry juice all over male senior shirt
manufacturer) due to physical and psychological features potentially common to both sexes.
Conversely, ESL texts tried promoting equity between fictional characters and occasionally
depicted role models as humans equally skilled at domestic tasks (e.g. the boy sometimes
getting her breakfast and checking up on his mother) and equipped with intellectual and moral
virtues (e.g. Mr. Marlow frowning at misplaced crayons in the classroom while Gemma
knowing from her brother’s experience, noticing Cody’s problem and helping them both withcolour-blindness).
Despite equality in anonymity (m=60%; f=40%), ESL texts (m=56%; f=44%) also differedfrom TSL ones (m=48%; f=52%) in using more masculine than feminine names. At firstglance, it might appear that TSL texts had a more even distribution of familial roles probably
due to the curricular emphasis placed on the teaching of Turkish kinship terms. But all in all,women in both materials (58-83%) were more often designated as mother or wife and theprimary caregiver. In line with this archaic gender role, women in TSL texts were
underrepresented as people in employment (m=52%; f=48%) and assigned low-paying and/or
female-stereotyped service jobs (e.g. hairdressing, seamstressing, teaching, clerking). ESL
texts, on the other hand, linked female characters to a greater number (m=43%; f=57%) andvariety of occupational roles (e.g. courier, model, garden centre owner). They also insinuatedthe increasing presence of single working mothers, who, besides breadwinning, could copewith multitasking (e.g. shopping, driving kids around, handling car issues and physical work)and get identified with extraordinariness by their male only-children. As evidenced in Table 2
by the higher concentration of female character appearances and female-dominated images(56-58%), women in ESL materials can be concluded to have better visibility than those in
TSL materials (33-37%). In addition to illustrating more women than men, ESL materials cared
more about equal sharing of the visual realm. Two same and mixed-gender pairs (e.g. Ara-her
mother, Lucca-his grandfather, Nico-his gran, Shai-her father) were once picturised cooking
together to win the culinary competition between schools. TSL materials still managed to
downplay women’s agency in the storyline by either removing from display, or depicting themnegatively as the weaker sex, fanning oneself faintly, leaning on husband’s shoulder, or pulling
father’s shirt even in female-dominated images.

62

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 2Comparisons Between TSL and ESL Texts on Gender Equity Measures
Modea

TSL

ESL

VerbalIndicatorsam

VisualfmVerbalfmVisualf

Characters

1511(58%) (42%)16
12(57%) (43%)

Protagonists

93(76%) (25%)97(56%) (44%)

Unnamed characters

64(60%) (40%)(60%) (40%)

Proper names

1213(48%) (52%)108(56%) (44%)

Familial roles

5981(42%) (58%)1677(17%) (83%)

Occupational roles

1110(52%) (48%)68(43%) (57%)

6

m

f

4

Total character
appearances

33
19(63%) (37%)56
76(42%) (58%)

Gender-dominant
images126(67%) (33%)12
15(44%) (56%)

m: male; f: female

The comparisons against gender equity measures have therefore shown that the desired balance
between the genders could be achieved in neither case. Although ESL materials overall seemedto adopt a more progressive worldview more visually than verbally, they cooperated with TSL
counterparts in the imposition of male supremacy mainly through use of male overpopulation,negative stereotypes and character designation by domestic and professional roles. Regardlessof the culture they were produced for and by, whether western, non-western, or westernised, aplethora of learning materials for different subject areas and grade levels was similarly foundto embody imbalances in linguistic and nonlinguistic inputs and criticised for reinforcing andlegitimising gender inequality in the 21st century classroom, which should instead be working
towards the goal of education for all (Barton & Sakwa, 2012; Brugeilles & Cromer, 2009;
Goyal & Rose, 2020; Lee, 2014a). In three other studies, which investigated the genderednessof textual and visual content presented by primary English coursebooks locally produced in
China and Turkey, disparities in female-to-male appearances, men’s occupational choices andwomen’s engagement in housework likewise continued to plague different editions, andnotwithstanding small improvements in familial roles and imagery, latent sexism could still berecognised (Bag & Bayyurt, 2015; Lee, 2014b; Lee & Chin, 2021). As a result, it is not too farfetched to predict that the gender gap will worsen, let alone close, particularly for refugee girls

63

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022with increased vulnerability to school dropout, forced marriage and gender-based violence.
Consequently, modifications made to materials design and actual use should go beyond thecosmetic level. Active engagement in gender awareness raising should also be maintained
across the curriculum by all stakeholders, parents, teachers, teacher educators and educational
authorities.
Table 3Comparisons Between TSL and ESL Texts on Cultural Equity Measures
Mode

TSL
Verbala

ESL
VisualVerbalVisualIndicatorsa

C2

C1

C2

C1

C2

C1

C2

C1

Cultural elements

51
(69%)

23
(31%)

12
(71%)

5
(29%)

40
(48%)

44
(52%)

18
(29%)

45
(71%)

C2: target culture; C1: source cultures.

Ultimately, the cultural contents of TSL and ESL materials underwent comparative analysis so
as to discover to what extent they included children with diverse cultural backgrounds.
According to Table 3, ESL texts can be claimed to have a more pluralistic composition bothverbally and visually due to the larger proportion of elements referring to the learners’ own
cultures (C1=52-71%). As to whose culture(s) received more focus in the multiculturalclassrooms of New Zealand, Maori culture, of the largest minority, predominated, andparticularly, Rarotongan life was foregrounded in the narrative, A gift for Aunty Nga. ESL texts
were also distinguished by the fact that they provided information not only on a wider range ofcultural products; that is, local geography (e.g. Cook Islands, white-sand beaches), animals(e.g. hermit-crabs, shells), food (e.g. coconuts, pineapples), clothes and accessories (e.g. floral
shirts, flower garlands), along with musical instruments (e.g. ukuleles), but also on cultural
practices and the more implicit perspectives, such as saying karakia, prayers before meals,
tivaevae, quilt-making in women’s groups, and gift-giving as a show of love, honour andrespect. No reference was actually made to the home (Arab) culture of Syrian refugees, butother immigrant groups were amply represented especially in the Green Team, where Greek,
Indian, Italian, Kurdish and Samoan schoolmates presented their own traditional dishes (e.g.
bhaji, palusami, spanakopita) prepared with the New Zealandian silverbeet from school garden.
In an apparent effort to promote social cohesion, ESL materials also used images of ethnically
mixed communities and classrooms, while they tended to represent the target-language cultureelements (C2=29-48%) in the verbal mode; that is, through proverbs (e.g. place for everything,and everything in its place), riddles (e.g. When is a door not a door? When it’s ajar), idioms(e.g. oldie but goodie), place names (e.g. Auckland) and sports (e.g. cricket).
For TSL materials, the reverse was true. The target-language culture elements (C2=69-71%),
consisting of a full list of Istanbul’s top attractions (e.g. Grand Bazaar, Hagia Sophia), popularholiday destinations (e.g. Bodrum, Marmaris), local specialties (e.g. Turkish breakfast) and thecustom of tea and coffee drinking, outweighed those of the learners’ source cultures (C1=2931%). More precisely, there were cursory mentions of different nonnative groups, that is, theirnationalities (e.g. Japanese), countries (e.g. Germany), place names (e.g. Ottawa). But Syrian
refugees’ home (Arab) culture was most stereotypically personified with the male protagonist’s(e.g. Sharif Zakaria from Cairo) physicality; that is, his complexion, facial features and hair64

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

type, standing in sharp contrast to his female counterpart (e.g. Monica from Bucharest) at
Istanbul airport. This was possibly because adopting a tourist’s perspective and representing
culture solely in terms of more tangible and less sensitive topics such as food and travel could
seem easier or even safer to materials writers and producers, and more appealing to younger
readers, despite concerns about materials-induced prejudice and superficial learning (Simsek,
2018; Yuen, 2011). Independent of the type of learning context (TSL/ESL), coursebook origin(local/global), educational level (primary/tertiary) and goal-orientation (for general/specificpurposes), many different L2 materials had also been reported to simply concentrate ontransmitting surface knowledge of target-language culture elements and blamed for robbing
increasingly diverse classrooms of opportunities to encounter new language in culturallyrelevant contexts (Basal et al., 2014; Huang, 2019; Pashmforoosh & Babaii, 2015; Rai & Deng,
2016; Shin et al., 2011; Tum et al., 2012).
There is now a growing consensus that due to the centrality of cultural content to language
comprehension and meaningful output production, materials should be made to contain not justthe local culture, including the students’ own experience, their school, family and community
to relate to, reflect on and explain to others but also cultural features outside their world, fromvarious countries in order for the learners to eventually “maintain an equal, mutually-respectful
relationship” with the global community (Forman, 2014; Matsuda, 2012, p. 177; McGrath,
2002; Toledo-Sandoval, 2020). In the case of refugee learners, already struggling with multiple
hardships, such as discrimination, insecurity, and poverty, integration of their native language
and culture into the L2 classroom has indeed become of prime importance in lowering theaffective filter and scaffolding their L2 learning. As a result, the cultural content of TSL
materials needed serious expansion in terms of both depth and breadth so as to engage rather
than alienate Syrian refugee students, whereas the culturally more diverse ESL materials had
still room for improvement for minority representation.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Corpus-based comparative analyses of grammatical and lexical complexity as well as genderand cultural equity revealed that despite both being far from achieving the ideal composition
for creating an ILFE, TSL reading materials for refugee children were lagging further behind
their ESL counterparts in all three respects. Both kinds of materials depended on almost
uniform sets of easy-to-read narratives predominantly embodying simpler grammaticalfeatures and high-frequency words, and thus needed extension with relatively elaborate ones
inputting more sophisticated verbs to accommodate mixed-ability classes. Gender disparities
were institutionalised typically through male overrepresentation in hero-making, negative
stereotyping, familial and occupational identification, and engagement in monetary andmobility activities, but occasionally ameliorated, in the ESL case, by reversing conventionallygendered domestic, technical and intellectual skills in texts and images. The widest gap
between TSL and ESL materials was still observed in cultural representations because theformer, written from a tourist’s perspective, focused on imposing superficial knowledge oftarget-culture elements, and conversely, the latter on ensuring relevance through greater use ofelements from the students’ diverse cultures.
The proposed modifications to the composition of the current materials may simply require
more egalitarian choices of lexicogrammatical, gendered and cultured contents, but their merits
are twofold. Increasing variety and thus ensuring relevance for all may cost L2 practitioners
less effort than maintaining discipline in diverse classrooms. The longstanding strategy ofdifferentiation can support all other students, but will probably mean the world to refugee

65

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

children, who desperately need something to hold onto amidst a sea of unknowns. In the longrun, the joint effort to break language barriers can also be paid back with academic andworkplace success on the part of refugees, and with social harmony and peace on the part ofhost countries. Cowart, Lanford, and Beatty (2011), too, pointed out that educators do know
how to teach all students successfully, and in providing newcomers with appropriate
instruction, they can influence a quality of life both refugee families and the American society
will enjoy. In terms of such transformative power, not many learning mediums can be argued
to exist comparable to the L2 teacher and textbook.
However, this study concentrated on corpus-based comparative analysis of two sets of locally
produced extensive reading materials for third-grade refugee learners. Since storytelling was
assumed to promote gender and cultural-awareness raising, non-fiction texts were not includedin the corpus. The size of the corpus (ten narratives), language level (basic) and focus on
extreme cases (short and long-outlying texts) during analyses of lexical and grammaticalcomplexity could be listed among its other limitations. Given dire predictions about climateforced displacement, environmental migrants may contribute to the new majority in futureclassrooms. Consequently, L2 practitioners as agents of change should be empowered to build
community resilience through increased social cohesion between added varieties. Future
researchers are finally recommended to focus on devising a guiding framework for bothdesigning and evaluating inclusive materials, developing teachers’ gender and culturalawareness, and expanding their repertoire of materials adaptation strategies and plurilingual
activities.

66

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Ainscow, M. (2020). Promoting inclusion and equity in education: Lessons frominternational experiences. Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy, 6(1), 7–16.
Aksan, Y., Aksan, M., Mersinli, U., & Demirhan, U. U. (2017). A frequency dictionary of
Turkish: Core vocabulary for learners. NY: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315733302
Alan, Y. & Alptekin, Z. D. (2021). Yabanci ogrenciler icin hazirlanan Hayat Boyu Turkce 12-3 ogretim setinin ogretmen gorusleri dogrultusunda degerlendirilmesi [The evaluationof Lifelong Turkish 1-2-3 set for foreign students from the perspective of teachers]. Milli
Egitim Dergisi, 50(232), 267–285. https://doi.org/10.37669/milliegitim.747424
Auckland UniServices. (2007). Literature review: Interventions for refugee children in New
Zealand Schools – Models, methods and best practice. Wellington: MoE.
https://thehub.swa.govt.nz/assets/documents/41424_interventions_0.pdf
Arya, D. J., Hiebert, E. H., & Pearson, P. D. (2017). The effects of syntactic and lexical
complexity on the comprehension of elementary science texts. International Electronic
Journal of Elementary Education, 4(1), 107–125.
Bag, E., & Bayyurt, Y. (2015). Gender representations in EFL textbooks in Turkey. In S.
Mills, & A. S. Mustapha (Eds.), Gender representation in learning materials:
International perspectives (pp. 64-85). NY: Routledge.
Barrot, J. S. (2013). Revisiting the role of linguistic complexity in ESL reading
comprehension. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 19(1), 5–
18.
Barton, A., & Sakwa, L. N. (2012) The representation of gender in English textbooks in
Uganda. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 20(2), 173–190.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2012.669394
Basal, A., & Aytan, T. (2014). Investigation of cultural elements in coursebooks developed
for teaching Turkish as a foreign language. International Online Journal of Educational
Sciences, 6(2), 328–336. https://doi.org/10.15345/iojes.2014.02.007
Bicer, N., & Kilic, B. S. (2017). Suriyeli ogrencilere Turkce ogretmek icin kullanilan derskitaplarinin ogretmen gorusleri dogrultusunda degerlendirilmesi [The evaluation of
textbooks used for teaching Turkish to Syrian students from the perspective of teachers].
Ana Dili Egitimi Dergisi, 5(4), 649–663. https://doi.org/10.16916/aded.329809
Bozan, M. A., & Celik, S. (2021). An evaluation of integration classes for refugee children.
Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 36(2), 317–332.
Brezina V., & Gablasova, D. (2015). Is there a core general vocabulary? Introducing the newgeneral service list. Applied Linguistics, 36(1), 1–22.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amt018
British Council. (2012). Creating an inclusive learning experience for English language
learners with specific needs: Case studies from around the British Council’s global
network. London: British Council.
Brugeilles, C., & Cromer, S. (2009). Promoting gender equality through textbooks. Paris:
UNESCO.

67

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Bulut, S., Kanat-Soysal, O., Gulcicek, D. (2018). Suriyeli ogrencilerin Turkce ogretmeni
olmak: Suriyeli ogrencilerin egitiminde karsilasilan sorunlar [Being a Turkish teacher for
Syrian refugee students: Challenges in their education]. Uluslararasi Turkce Edebiyat
Kultur Egitim Dergisi, 7(2), 1210–1238. https://doi.org/10.7884/teke.4179
Celik, I. A. (2019). Sinif ogretmenleri gozunden Suriyeli multeci cocuklar [Syrian refugee
children in the eyes of elementary teachers]. Uluslararasi Sosyal Arastirmalar Dergisi,
12(66), 662–680.
Celik, S., Isler, N., & Saka, D. (2021). Refugee education in Turkey: Barriers and suggested
solutions. Pedagogy, Culture & Society.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2021.1947878
Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L. (1999) Cultural mirrors: Materials and methods in the EFL classroom.
In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Culture in second language teaching and learning (pp. 196-219).
Cambridge: CUP.
Cowart, M. T., Lanford, J. K., & Beatty, K. (2011). Second language learners: Listening totheir voice, attending to the challenges. In P. Dam, & M. T. Cowart (Eds.), Linguistic
and cultural considerations for English language learners (pp. 153-173). https://twuir.tdl.org/bitstream/handle/11274/259/2011Cowart153p173.pdf?sequence=7&isAllowed=y
DG NEAR. (2020). Strategic mid-term evaluation of the facility for refugees in Turkey(2016-2019/2020) (Volume II: Sector report on Education).
https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/strategic-mid-term-evaluation-facilityrefugees-turkey-2016-201920_en#files
Eren, Z. (2019). Yonetici ve ogretmen goruslerine gore gocmen cocuklarin egitim sorunları
ve cozum onerileri [Educational problems of migrant children and solutions from theperspective of administrators and teachers]. Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal Universitesi Egitim
Fakultesi Dergisi, 19(1), 213–234.
Forman, R. (2014). How local teachers respond to the culture and language of a global
English as a foreign language textbook. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 27(1), 72–
88. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2013.868473
Ghosn, I. K. (2013). Developing motivating materials for refugee children: From theory topractice. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (2nd ed.)(pp. 247–267). London: Bloomsbury.
Glas, K., Catalan, E., Donner, M., & Donoso, C. (2021). Designing and providing inclusive
ELT materials in times of the global pandemic: A Chilean experience. Innovation in
Language Learning and Teaching. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2021.1940187
Grappe, I., & Ross, C. (2019). Integrating Syrian refugee children and their parents into
Lebanese early education systems. In S. Douglas (Ed.), Creating an inclusive school
environment (pp. 47–62). London: British Council.
Goyal, R., & Rose, H. (2020). Stilettoed damsels in distress: The (un)changing depictions ofgender in a business English textbook. Linguistics and Education, 58, 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2020.100820
Hanemann, U. (2018). Language and literacy programmes for migrants and refugees:
Challenges and ways forward [Background paper for 2019 Global Education Monitoring
Report]. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000266077

68

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Heathfield, D., & Goksu, A. (2019). Storytelling for diverse voices. In S. Douglas (Ed.),
Creating an inclusive school environment (pp. 187–196). London: British Council.
Huang, P. (2019). Textbook interaction: A study of the language and culturalcontextualisation of English learning textbooks. Learning, Culture and Social
Interaction, 21, 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2019.02.006
Lee, J. F. K. (2014a). A hidden curriculum in Japanese EFL textbooks: Gender
representation. Linguistics and Education, 27, 39–53.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2014.07.002
Lee, J. F. K. (2014b). Gender representation in Hong Kong primary school ELT textbooks –a comparative study. Gender and Education, 26(4), 356–376.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2014.916400
Lee, J. F. K., & Chin, A. C. O. (2021). Constructing gender using visual imagery – A studyof early readers. Language and Communication, 78, 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2021.01.005
Li, S., & Luo, W. (2017). Creating a translanguaging space for high school emergent
bilinguals. The CATESOL Journal, 29(2), 139–162.
Makalela, L. (2015). Translanguaging as a vehicle for epistemic access: Cases for reading
comprehension and multilingual interactions. Per Linguam, 31(1), 15–29.
https://doi.org/10.5785/31-1-628
Matsuda, A. (2012). Teaching materials in EIL. In L. Alsagoff, S. L. McKay, G. Hu & W. A.
Renandya (Eds.), Principles and practices for teaching English as an international
language (pp. 168-185). NY: Routledge.
Mehrpour, S., & Riazi, A. (2004). The impact of text length on reading comprehension. AsianEFL Journal, 3(6), 1–14.
McGrath, I. (2002). Materials evaluation and design for language teaching. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press.
Miles, B. M., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. CA: SAGE.
Minuz, F., Haznedar, B., & Peyton, J. K., & Young-Scholten, M. (2020). Using materials inrefugee and immigrant adults’ heritage languages in instruction: Challenges andguidance for teachers and tutors. In G. Neokleous, A. Krulatz, & R. Farrelly (Eds.),
Handbook of research on cultivating literacy in diverse and multilingual classrooms (pp.
422–447). PA: IGI Global.
MoE. (2009). The New Zealand curriculum: Reading and writing standards for years 1–8.
https://nzcurriculum.tki.org.nz/content/download/3168/47258/file/Reading%20&%20Wr
iting.pdf
Morali, G. (2018). Suriyeli multeci cocuklara Turkcenin yabanci dil olarak ogretiminde
karsilasilan sorunlar [The problems faced in the teaching of Turkish as a foreign
language to Syrian refugee children]. OPUS Uluslararasi Toplum Arastirmalari Dergisi,
8(15), 1426–1449. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.443945
Morse, J. M. (2003). Principles of mixed methods and multimethod research design. In A.
Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioural
research (pp. 189-209). CA: SAGE.

69

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Nimer, M. (2019). Turkiyedeki Suriyeli multecilerin Turkce dil egitimi deneyimleri ve
kurumsal yapilar [Syrian refugees’ experiences of Turkish education and institutional
structures in Turkey]. Istanbul: IPM.
https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/72662
Nouri, N., & Zerhouni, B. (2018). Lexical frequency effect on reading comprehension andrecall. Arab World English Journal, 9(2), 234-250.
https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol9no2.16
Pashmforoosh, R., & Babaii, E. (2015). Whose culture and how far? Culture presentation incurrent business English textbook series. Journal of Teaching in International Business,
26(3), 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/08975930.2015.1083514
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). CA: SAGE.
PICTES. (2021). Ders kitaplari: Yabanci ogrenciler icin Turkce hikayeler [Coursebooks:
Turkish stories for foreign students]. https://piktes.gov.tr/Home/DersKitaplariRai, L., & Deng, C. (2016) Glocalisation and English language education in Chinese context.
Globalisation, Societies and Education, 14(1), 127–144.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2014.980226
Shin, J., Eslami, Z. E., & Chen, W. C. (2011). Presentation of local and international culture
in current international English-language teaching textbooks. Language, Culture andCurriculum, 24(3), 253–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2011.614694
Simsek, M. R. (2018). A comparison of cultural contents in English and Turkish coursebooks
for foreigners. Bilig, 84, 301–327.
Smith, A. M. (2018). Inclusive practices in English language teaching.
https://elt.oup.com/feature/global/expert/inclusive?cc=tr&selLanguage=en
Stadler-Heer, S. (2019). Inclusion. ELT Journal, 73(2), 219–222.
https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccz004
Taskin, P., & Erdemli, O. (2018). Education for Syrian refugees: Problems faced by teachersin Turkey. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 18(75), 155–178.
TNC [Turkish National Corpus]. (2022). Most frequent 50 verbs in TNC written texts [Dataset]. http://www.tudfrekans.org.tr/dosyalar/first_50_verbs_w.pdf
Toledo-Sandoval, F. (2020). Local culture and locally produced ELT textbooks: How doteachers bridge the gap? System, 95, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102362
Tomlinson, B. (2011). Access-self materials. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Materials development
in language teaching (pp. 414–432). Cambridge: CUP.
Tum, G., & Sarkmaz, O. (2012). The place of cultural items in the books teaching Turkish as
a foreign language. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 43, 448–459.
Tunga Y., Engin G., & Cagiltay, K. (2020). A literature review on the issues encountered in
educating Syrian children in Turkey. Inonu University Journal of the Faculty of
Education, 21(1), 317–333.
UNESCO. (2015). Embracing diversity: Toolkit for creating inclusive, learning-friendly
environments. Paris: UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000137522
UNHCR. (2021). Education Report 2021: ‘Staying the course’ - The challenges facing
refugee education. https://www.unhcr.org/publications/education/612f85d64/unhcreducation-report-2021-staying-course-challenges-facing-refugee-education.html

70

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Wolfe-Quintero, K., Inagaki, S., & Kim, H. (1998). Second language development in writing:
Measures of fluency, accuracy & complexity. Honolulu: NFLRC.
Yuen, K. (2011). The representation of foreign cultures in English textbooks. ELT Journal,
65(4), 458–466. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq089
Corresponding author: Meliha R. Simsek
Email: malliday@gmail.com

71

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

72

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Sociocultural Issues Experienced by Adults Learning
Maltese as a Second Language
Jacqueline Żammit
University of Malta, Malta73

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
The pedagogy of language has since time immemorial majored in the use of pens and otherprinted materials. However, there occurred a separation of the teaching culture into two major
categories; the “big C” and “little c”, meaning high and popular culture. Over the years,
advancements in various pedagogical techniques have made this boundary separating the two
cultures thinner and thinner. It is now blurred with the result that one may not tell whichteaching culture is applicable in various circumstances. The leading cause of these changes issociocultural issues. Present-day evaluations of the humanities have caused a shift towards a
broader view to accommodate anthropological and sociological approaches. This shift has also
had an influence on the techniques which are used in teaching within the classroom setting.
The current study focused on providing a comprehensive picture of various socioculturalproblems affecting Maltese as a second language (ML2) pedagogy and the depth to which thereported sociocultural issues are significant to ML2 and any second language teaching andlearning. This study investigated the challenges experienced by thirty-five ML2 adult learners.
Participant interviews constituted the sole data collection tool. The participants, who camefrom all walks of life and spoke a variety of first language linguistic systems, including Semitic,
Romance, Germanic, Slovanic, Indo-European, Indo-Aryan, and Indo-Iranian, experienced
challenges regarding their linguistic abilities, culture shock, personalities, memory, and theteaching method. The current study was required to investigate challenges encountered by adultlearners of ML2 and to make some recommendations for improving instruction for adultlearners.
Keywords: adult learners, Maltese as a second language, second language acquisition, social
constructivism, sociocultural theory, sociocultural issues

74

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Second language acquisition (SLA) is a complex process and is associated with different
theories attempting to explain the manner in which people acquire a second language (L2). It
is worth noting that historically there has been a change in the education paradigm from
cognitivism to constructivism and socioculturalism. Consequently, SLA is experiencing asignificant drift parallel to the sociocultural trend. The pedagogy approach is moving towards
a social experience, an active learner who is engaged in his learning, exploration, and reading
ahead of subject experience and knowledge. Therefore, there is a need to have a better
understanding of sociocultural issues which affect L2 learning and teaching (Tawfiq, 2020).
An L2 learner’s interlanguage is perceived to have other influential factors. It is observed that
SLA depends greatly on the communicative approach and the private environment. L2 learning
in a place where L2 is often spoken by the native speakers, or amid the language’s own culture
is viewed as a significant boost (Cook, 2016), such as was the case of the current study
participants. In some cases, learners may be highly motivated and determined to learn the L2.
It makes the teacher’s job easier since the student takes the time to study and understand more
about the L2 culture. Yet in every situation where learning an L2is required for survival insociety, school, and the workplace, there are students who are disinterested in knowing thelanguage and its culture. Such a situation may cause the teacher to use a combination of
pedagogical practices to ensure that SLA is efficient.
In the modern constructivist approach, teaching shifts its focus to task-based activities fromisolated practices (Waqas Khan, Rizvi, Iqbal and Asghar, 2020). Learners are exposed to more
opportunities to put into practice what they learn within the classroom environment in various
assigned tasks. Socio-constructivism and the communicative language teaching approach are
now taking the lead and overshadowing direct grammar instruction, which was dominant inprevious years (Idaresit Akpan et al., 2020; Żammit, 2021a). The socio-constructivist approachis based on the idea that SLA is a social practice through cultural and social interactions.
Problem and Purpose Statement
The inclusion of Malta in the European Union (EU) in 2004 raised the status of Maltese to oneof the EU’s official languages. Since 1934, Maltese has been the official language in Malta
together with English. Therefore, competence in the Maltese language, Malta’s national
language since Independence Day (September 21, 1964), is essential for expats planning toreside and integrate in Malta or participate in trading activities.
Many industries in Malta have a substantial proportion of foreign workers. They include theinternet gaming (iGaming) industry, the restaurant industry, financial services, healthcare andpharmaceuticals, the hospitality sector, and the construction and other manual sectors(Micallef, 2018). The unattractiveness of manual jobs to Maltese workers indicates that thedemand for foreign workers will persist, and their communication competence in the national
language will be crucial to effective communication (Micallef, 2018). The requirement that
foreigners speak Maltese is also crucial for the integration of new immigrants seeking job
opportunities in Malta.
About 97 per cent of Malta’s 460,000-strong population speaks Maltese, and 89 per cent, 56
per cent, and 11 per cent can hold a conversation in English, Italian, and French, respectively(Quinn, 2019). While the recognition of Maltese as an official language in the EU and in Malta
represents progress, it necessitates the learning of Maltese as a second language (ML2) by nonMaltese-speaking nationals residing in Malta. The Maltese government has taken appropriate

75

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

steps to address the challenge as it requires communication competence for EU nationals
working in Malta under its Directive 2005/36/EU, Article 53. The directive was necessary as
Malta’s accession to the EU opened up opportunities for EU nationals, third party nationals,
and Maltese to exploit with respect to economic development and prosperity. The government
had to adjust its policy framework to create conditions that encourage effective
communication.
A white paper in 2019 proposed mandatory Maltese in all schools that follow the national
curriculum, requiring students to be proficient in Maltese and to acquire ML2 (Ministry of
Education and Employment, 2012). The national policy paper established a framework fortesting and enhancing students’ Maltese proficiency from preschool to secondary education.
Moreover, the document argues for additional incentives to encourage migrant parents/adults
to learn Maltese. While one may criticise the Maltese approach as an act of nationalism,
communication competence in Maltese became necessary at the moment Malta became an EU
member. Delays in requiring communication competence in Maltese would affect the country’s
economic well-being especially for the sectors that rely on foreign workers. The government
anticipated demand for courses in ML2 as expats wishing to work, live and integrate in Malta
would need to be competent in using the country’s national language (Żammit, 2021b).
The growing demand for ML2 lessons resulted in the introduction of two programmes to theadult lifelong learning evening classes, namely the Malta Qualifications Framework (MQF)
Level 1: A1 and A2 in ML2 and the MQF Level 2: B1 and B2 in ML2. In 2019, the government
launched the ‘I Belong’ programme, which aims to improve integration for foreigners from
non-EU member countries through Maltese language and culture lessons (Cassar, 2019). Whilethe demand for Maltese has been increasing, linguistic research has not kept pace. There has
been no large-scale research investigating ML2 acquisition. Consequently, the present study
contributes to the knowledge base regarding ML2 acquisition of adult learners.
The Study Objectives
The study aims to explore specific difficulties that adult learners experience in learning ML2.
Through this research the researcher would like to determine the sociocultural factors that
could be challenging for L2 adult learners.
The present study contribution to knowledge is based on the following:
1. It confirms the applicability of sociocultural theory (SCT) to SLA.
2. It provides useful information for L2 course design, textbook production, syllabus planningand pedagogy, as it explores the difficulties that adult learners experience when learning ML2
which could be applied to any other L2.
This study will first review the literature on sociocultural theories. Subsequently, thetechniques used to conduct this study will be identified. Next the findings and discussion, andfinally the conclusion, which will include the study limitations and recommendations for future
research will be provided.
Research Question
This study addresses the following primary research question:76

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

What kind of difficulties are encountered by adult learners when acquiring Maltese as a second
language?
Literature Review
Second Language Acquisition as a Sociocultural Phenomenon
SLA is a complex process and is associated with different theories attempting to explain themanner in which people acquire an L2. Hummel (2020) acknowledges that SLA is achallenging process as a learner can feel alienated from L2 and its embedded culture. L2
learners experience the challenge of avoiding errors when using certain aspects of their first
language (L1) in L2 (Ibrahim, 2019). Instead, learners using their L1 to understand an L2 canmake language mistakes due to incompatibilities between L1 and L2 (Nor & Rashid, 2018).
The interference of L1 makes SLA a challenging endeavour for some learners. Alternatively,
L1 can be an enabler in the SLA process. The present study will explore whether learners
perceive their L1 as an inhibitor or enabler in the SLA process.
Frustrations associated with SLA are not limited to classroom settings as some L2 learners
struggle to communicate effectively with the native speakers of the L2 they are learning. The
societal expectations of the settings in which SLA occurs can frustrate a learner who lacks thecompetence to meet those expectations (Hummel, 2020). While tolerance for L2 learners by
the native speakers is a crucial source of motivation, a learner’s tendency to communicate
flawlessly in their L1 affects their attitudes towards an L2. These adult learners can growfrustrated with their struggle and inability to gain L2 competence similar to their L1 aptitude(Karousou & Nerantzaki, 2020).
Differences in teaching materials and strategies can contribute to the irritations L2 learners
experience. Hummel (2020) indicated that there are differences in teaching strategies andmaterials in L1 and L2 settings. An individual’s performance sometimes depends on the extent
to which the teaching methodology is in sync with a learner’s learning preferences (Fabriz,Mendzheritskaya & Stehle, 2021). Norris, Davis and Timpe-Laughlin (2017) have argued thata theory-based approach is associated with a better understanding of SLA. Therefore, L2
educators should appreciate the role of sociocultural theory (SCT) in the implementation ofeffective teaching and learning strategies (Feryok, 2017). The present study is based on SCT
as it is one of the concepts promoting comprehensive understanding of the SLA process(Fabriz, et al., 2021).
The notion that SLA is a phenomenon that occurs solely in the learner’s head has beenchallenged by cognitivists as they believe that a learner’s sociocultural setting plays a crucialrole in SLA. SCT indicates that language learning is a socially constructed process(Makhdoumi & Zoghi, 2017). Pathan, Memon, R.A., Memon, S., Khoso and Bux (2018)indicated that SCT focuses on the things that learners learn and their solutions to the challenges
they experience. The authors propose that it has made a significant contribution to the field oflearning and teaching languages.
The SCT concept regards participation in socially situated activities as crucial to SLA. The
theory’s influence is not limited to practice in education as it is also applicable to research on
SLA (Pathan et al., 2018). Research studies based on SCT have been conducted anddemonstrate the utility of the theory and identify opportunities for improvement (Ohta, 2017).
Researchers and practitioners in the SLA field have demonstrated the role of symbolic77

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

mediation in SLA and education. The current study seeks to understand the sociocultural needsof ML2 learners and inform the development of appropriate teaching and learning strategies.
Teaching strategies that attend to the needs of learners are crucial to SLA as SCT identifies theimportance of social and cultural interactions in SLA. Castrillón (2017) encouraged teachers
to familiarise themselves with the experiences of their learners to initiate the process ofdeveloping and implementing appropriate teaching approaches. Awareness of learners’
experiences can give teachers insight into learners’ zone of proximal development (ZPD).
Vygotsky’s notion of ZPD is that what a child can do today with the help of an adult, the samechild could complete later as an independent learner. Therefore, ZPD enables learners toassemble relevant learning materials (Castrillón, 2017). Teachers are recommended to search
for input that encourages learners to practise because behaviour is associated with better
learning outcomes. They should be creative to draw the best out of previously implemented
materials (Castrillón, 2017). Castrillón (2017) stated that high-quality materials can bemeaningless if they fail to contribute to the development of learners’ ZPD and encourageinteraction. Teachers are advised to use materials, artefacts, and activities which catalyse
higher mental processes for learners to understand concepts. Integration of peer work in thelearning process is crucial to development as learners share insight and strategies they use toachieve academic goals. It creates opportunities for learners to solve challenges theyexperience collaboratively (Castrillón, 2017). Akinyemi, Rembe, Shumba and Adewumi(2019) have argued that collaborative pair work creates conditions in which peers offer mutual
assistance. Their interactions are opportunities for learners to offer feedback that facilitates thedevelopment of specific aspects of language.
Teachers’ creative problem-solving is crucial to SLA learners, as teaching strategies andmaterials should address the learners’ needs. Albaiz (2016) indicated that teachers are urged to
fashion tools which boost the learning process and eliminate potential barriers. Teachers canuse various means to encourage learners to learn an L2. According to Castrillón (2017),
teachers can facilitate SLA through the administration of challenging assignments, whichlearners should attempt individually. Teachers are suggested to use the individual assignments
to assess learners’ progress and maintain high performance expectations (Castrillón, 2017). A
teacher should always strive to create opportunities for learners to practise language andgenerate appropriate feedback. Challenging tasks can facilitate learning as teachers can use
assessment results as the basis for offering targeted feedback and interventions to help learners
acquire relevant language skills and competences.
While the current study does not dwell on the learners’ culture, it provides crucial informationon learning ML2, which teachers can use to assist learners. Kapur (2015) argued that knowing
learners’ needs enables researchers and educators to design programmes which promote thecreation of learning environments that encourage the realization of the desired outcomes.
According to Kapur (2015), minimally structured problem-based learning rarely results indesirable outcomes. Challenging input has been demonstrated to have positive effects onlearners who exhibit high cognitive functions (Castrillón, 2017). Tasks which encouragelearners to use the available tools to mediate their performance are crucial to optimal
performance (Storch, 2017). While L1 is a tool that learners use to develop their L2, the extent
to which L1 serves the needs of L2 learners remains inconclusive (Storch, 2017). Hamidi andBagherzadeh (2018) acknowledged that the consideration of L1 and L2 as mediational
resources does not necessarily indicate the utility of L1 in SLA as it can lead to either positiveor negative outcomes. The argument indicates that L1 can be an enabler or a barrier to SLA.

78

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Therefore, educators must determine the instances in which they encourage the use of an L1 toaid SLA.
SCT emphasises the need for assistance that suits a learner’s potential abilities. Nava andPedrazzini (2018) have identified teachers’ feedback as crucial input in SLA. They insist thatan educator’s feedback should stimulate learning as learners progress in SLA. Theyemphasised the role of interaction in SLA and the need for teachers to offer feedback whenevernecessary. Corrective feedback, for example, is crucial to SLA as it attends to an individual
learner’s specific needs (Nava & Pedrazzini, 2018). On the basis of SCT, corrective feedback
should consider a learner’s current and potential level of performance (Storch, 2017). It should
be responsive to a learner’s indicators of SLA (Storch, 2017). However, Storch (2017)
cautioned against providing the same corrective feedback to all learners as this technique might
hinder SLA because not everyone learns in the same way and at the same rate.
Exposing learners to the native speakers’ L2 culture is an approach that has been associatedwith increased use of L2. In their study, Chen and Yang (2017) indicated that teaching L2
learners the culture of English native speakers was associated with active participation incommunication and enhanced the learners’ speaking skills. Educators are advised to identify
and use culturally relevant books in bilingual classrooms (Rodríguez, 2014). Books facilitate
learning about an L2culture for learners to identify with characters. While the present study
does not dwell on the influence of culturally sensitive materials in the teaching and learning ofMaltese, the participants come from different backgrounds. In this sense, culturally sensitive
books could influence their learning of ML2. Rodríguez (2014) has argued that culture-relevantbooks motivate learners to learn a new language as the learners can identify with the realities
portrayed. In this case, an emergent question the present study attempts to answer is whether
the teaching and learning materials influence learning or whether culture representativenessinfluences ML2 learning.
Cultural representativeness of teaching and learning materials is relevant as SCT views L2
learning as a socially and culturally situated process. SCT postulates that learning and cognitive
development are consequences of social interactions (Banković, 2015). A teacher is
encouraged to investigate the learners’ needs to design teaching strategies and gather relevantmaterials. Herrera (2016) encouraged L2 educators to invest time in learning the learners’
strengths and weaknesses to develop culturally appropriate teaching materials. Herrera (2016)referred to the approach as biography-driven teaching as a teacher takes time to learn about alearner before designing classroom materials to use in L2 teaching. It involves an explorationof learners’ sociocultural, linguistic, cognitive, and academic dimensions of culturally andlinguistically diverse learners’ biographies to gather knowledge on the manner in whichlearners use their L1 and L2, their way of acquiring knowledge, and their participation level in
activities where L2 is the language of communication (Herrera, 2016). Teachers have theresponsibility of gathering information on the learners’ experiences regarding their use of L1and L2. Such information allows teachers to develop culturally responsive teaching andlearning materials. Teachers are encouraged to create environments in which learners
appreciate that their culture-bound interpretations are valuable and respected in the classroom.
These arguments indicate that teaching must be learner-centred for learners and instructors toachieve their goals.
Collaborative dialogue is crucial in SLA. Ammar and Hassan (2018) indicated thatcollaborative dialogue involves reflection on and talking about languaging that facilitates
problem-solving and knowledge building. Collaborative dialogue is an opportunity for learners

79

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

to refine their knowledge or acquire deeper understanding of a phenomenon (Swain, Kinnear
and Steinman, 2015). It facilitates SLA as learners have opportunities to support each other insolving linguistic problems regardless of their L2 abilities (Swain et al., 2015). Collaborative
dialogue facilitates learning even when the interacting learners are novices. Novices become
experts in creating linguistic forms once they embrace the art of solving problems collectively(Swain et al., 2015). The experiences of the learners in the present study will be useful indetermining whether they use collaborative dialogue to promote their ML2 learning.
MethodThe current study’s goal was to determine the participants’ experiences in ML2 acquisition. A
review of the methodology and its elements is crucial for justifying its selection for this study
and for demonstrating its role in answering the research question effectively.
This research included 35 international participants ranging in age from 19 to 74 years old andcoming from various walks of life. They spoke diverse L1 language systems, including Semitic,
Romance, Germanic, Slovanic, Indo-European, Indo-Aryan, and Indo-Iranian. There were two
doctors, three nurses, two hairdressers, two salespersons, one chef, three receptionists, twoiGaming company managers, three builders, two plumbers, three electricians, two students,
five housewives, three teachers, and two nannies. They were learning Maltese for various
reasons, including finding employment, helping their children with their studies,
communicating with workmates, feeling a sense of belonging in Malta, understanding andcommunicating with domestic workers such as plumbers, electricians, and builders,
communicating with Maltese neighbours and friends, farmers, and salespeople, and showing
respect for the country that was hosting them. They were attending ML2 Level B1 eveningclasses after passing their ML2 speaking, reading, writing, and listening tests in levels A1 andA2.
First, the researcher acquired ethical authorization from the University of Malta’s Faculty
Research Ethics Committee. As she knew four teachers who taught the participants, with theirassistance, the researcher reached the participants via email, whereby the researcher explained
the study, in particular, that there were no expected risks or inconveniences and that they could
refuse to answer any questions and still remain in the study, or they could withdraw their
participation from the study without giving any reasons.Each participant understood the
purpose of the study and afterwards agreed to participate.
Researchers usually choose a qualitative approach in exploratory situations as they seek topromote an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon (Teddlie & Tashakorri, 2012). In thepresent study, a qualitative approach was employed to understand the participants’ experiencesin learning ML2. One-on-one interviews were conducted as the data collection tools.
Interviews were administered for a deeper understanding of the 35 ML2 learners’ attitudes,
perspectives, and learning difficulties while learning ML2. Each interview lasted roughly thirty
minutes. The thirty-five interviews were completed in six days (three hours each day).
Interviews were held online via Zoom. The interview guidelines consisted of the following fiveopen-ended questions exploring the study’s primary themes:
1. Do you learn languages just like other subjects?
2. Do you learn Maltese like other languages?
3. Do you prefer learning Maltese at the lifelong learning centre or on your own?

80

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

4. What is your main problem in learning Maltese?
5. What is your opinion about the best way to learn Maltese?
The interviews focused on the participants’ challenges when learning ML2 and the learners’
learning process. The researcher adopted open-ended questions to allow the participants toexpress themselves without the restrictions associated with closed-ended questions (Singer &Couper, 2017). The researcher used the NVivo software programme to analyse the interviews
and categorise the interviews into themes (Zamawe, 2015). This qualitative approach promoted
the data collection that would encourage an in-depth understanding of the researchphenomenon and answer the study’s research question: What kinds of difficulties areencountered by adult L2 learners when acquiring Maltese?
Findings and Discussion
The Challenges the Learners Experienced when Learning Maltese
In this study, the 35 participants experienced various challenges while learning ML2. The
challenges included lack of exposure to Maltese, as some learners spend their four-monthsummer vacation in their home countries, culture shock, loss of memory due to ageing, lack ofappropriate and timely feedback or correction from Maltese speakers, lack of motivation tolearn ML2, the teaching methodologies, and the learners’ different learning styles.
The Distinctiveness of Learning Languages
The thirty-five participants stated that learning Maltese was challenging and not similar to otherforms of learning. Unlike in the case of learning other skills, such as swimming or riding abicycle, the participants insisted that one could forget an L2. They attributed the experience tothe need for continuous exposure to the L2. The response of one participant reveals thedifference between learning other skills, such as braiding and language.
Take, for example, braiding our own hair. When I was young, my mum taught me how
to braid my own hair. Due to hair extensions, I stopped braiding my hair. Now, after morethan 15 years of not braiding my hair, I started to braid my daughter’s hair, and it’s as if
I have never stopped braiding. With languages, it is not the same. If I do not practise
Maltese, I know that I am going to forget it; just as I am forgetting the Itsekiri language,
because I am not practising it.
(Nigerian housewife)
The Nigerian housewife’s experiences with practical and language skills indicate that learning
an L2 is a demanding process that requires active engagement in activities and situations which
exposes the L2 to the group. The Nigerian housewife’s account demonstrates that practice isnecessary and crucial to SLA. This finding reinforces SCT’s perspective that collaborative
dialogue is crucial in SLA (Mahbube, Mansoor, Saeed, 2021). Therefore, ML2 learners need
opportunities to practise their language skills beyond the classroom assignments.
Going abroad for several months or being sick and not attending ML2 classes for more than
three months were the primary reasons that the participants identified as a barrier to the processof developing Maltese language competence. Such interruptions affect the learners’ exposure
to ML2. They deny them opportunities to communicate with L1 speakers to develop theircommunicative competence (Shona, 2019). A learner summarised her experience as follows:

81

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Due to my job, I have travelled to far-away countries during summer, and I was too busy.
I have talked a lot in Italian and English. I have to admit that I did not have any chanceto speak or read in Maltese, and I did not study at all.
(Czech doctor)
The Uniqueness of Learning Maltese
While all participants indicated that learning Maltese was not similar to learning otherlanguages, the Arabic L1 speakers did not find the process unique. The non-Arabic
participants’ expressions have pedagogical implications as they perceive that learning Maltese
is different from other languages due to the approach teachers take when teaching Maltese. A
participant’s response illustrates this argument clearly.
When I was learning Arabic, we learnt the present tense before the past tense, like how
we learn the other European languages. But when I am learning Maltese, I am taught thepast tense before the present tense because of the mamma (like Arabic, the basic verb in
Maltese is in the past tense instead of the infinitive). Why don’t they teach us the present
tense first in Maltese and then the past, like how Arabic teachers taught me Arabic?
(German teacher)
The learner’s experiences in the extract above reinforce the importance of a biography-driven
approach to teaching. Herrera (2016) indicated that a biography-driven approach is aframework for the development of culturally responsive pedagogy. Teachers are advised totake time to know and understand the needs of their learners holistically (Herrera, 2016). The
approach involves the exploration of a learner’s strengths, weakness, interests, use of L1 andL2, and the ways they learn (Herrera, 2016). In the case of the German teacher above, educators
did not pay attention to her experiences in L2 settings. They did not consider how her previous
L2 sessions were taught to develop teaching approaches and gather materials relevant to herneeds. SCT indicates that learners from different backgrounds cannot have a similar way ofacquiring knowledge. Learners’ experiences and exposures influence the manner in which theyacquire new knowledge. Teachers must attune their teaching strategies to L2 learners’ needs toreduce the inhibiting role of culture on SLA.
The German teacher’s experiences in learning Arabic, Maltese, and other European languages
reinforce the notion that L1 and L2 are important mediational resources as postulated by SCT.
In this regard, L1 can enable or hinder SLA due to similarities and differences in grammar.
Storch (2017) acknowledges that an L1 can be a crucial resource in languaging. Furthermore,
Bingjun (2013) indicates that L1 can exert beneficial as well as damaging effects on SLA.
Anticipating and planning for potential grammar-specific challenges is necessary as somelearners are bound to struggle in L2 settings due to their previous experiences of learning otherlanguages. However, teachers do not always control when a student uses L1 to assist in learning
L2.
Implicit versus Explicit Learning
The different learning styles expressed by learners in this study indicated that they experiencethe learning process differently. Learners who preferred to learn ML2 implicitly, that is bybeing unaware that they are learning (Tavakoli, 2018), found learning ML2 to be fun andexciting as they enjoyed reading Maltese books and newspapers, understood Maltese drama82

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

and news on TV, comprehended and sang Maltese songs, communicated with Maltese“beautiful and friendly people” (Venezuelan receptionist), and also learned from their peers(Akinyemi et al., 2019). Their preference for implicit learning reinforces the notion that social
context contributes to SLA (Tavakoli, 2018). The following participant expressed his
successful implicit learning even though sometimes he was disappointed with the Maltese
speakers’ lack of feedback or answering him in English or Italian:
Since I live in Ħaż-Żebbuġ village and own a large home overlooking the fields, I wasable to learn Maltese pretty effectively, especially when compared to my colleagues in
the Maltese class. Many Maltese people, including fishermen, tailors, farmers,
shoemakers, builders, plumbers, salesgirls, electricians, and gardeners, appreciate
speaking Maltese to me. I am disappointed that they do not correct any errors I may
make when speaking Maltese. I always express my dissatisfaction when they respondto me in English or Italian.
(Italian chef)
On the other hand, the learners who preferred explicit to implicit learning invested in buying
textbooks and private tuition and memorised Maltese words and grammar rules. They foundthe learning process boring and considered the ML2 learning process to be a commitment andduty. Therefore, those learning ML2 implicitly enjoyed the ML2 learning process more thanthe explicit learners.
Culture Shock
Culture shock was one of the major issues affecting some learners’ ability to acquire andunderstand Maltese. The difference between a learner’s culture and Maltese culture was a
crucial determinant of the learners’ experiences. For example, during his interview, a learner
revealed how culture shock affected his ML2 learning process.
When I first came to Malta five years ago, I really had a culture shock. The Maltese are
typical Mediterranean, very nice and friendly and quite relaxed and laid back. They reallylove food, and they eat large portions—and in fact many of them are overweight. Of
course, since they are driving to work, there are lots of cars, and you rarely see Maltese
people biking. As I am working here and my children are going to school here, I decided
to learn Maltese, even though I do not see myself living here for good and Maltese is avery hard language to learn. Although Malta is so small, it is quite cosmopolitan, and I
meet people from so many different places in the world. Many Swedes are coming here;
there is a Swedish community here and we meet quite often. I think that Malta attracts
many entrepreneurs because of the business-friendly environment, good weather,taxation, and low cost of living.
(Swedish iGaming manager)
The Swedish iGaming manager’s account of his experience in Malta reveals the cultural
challenges he encountered in Malta and potential reasons for learning Maltese. Concentratingon the culture shock issue, the Swedish iGaming manager’s experience shows that differencesin L1 and L2 cultures could be potential barriers to SLA. In this case, the Swedish iGaming
manager has to unlearn his perceptions of the Maltese people to have meaningful experiences
through interaction and engagement in sociocultural events. It calls for deliberate teachingstrategies that encourage learners to value the cultural differences of an L2 culture and their
way of life. Su (2012) has emphasised the importance of introducing learners to situations that83

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

challenge their learned perspectives to initiate their interest in the L2 culture. The Swedish
iGaming manager’s experiences indicate that cultural projects are crucial to encouraging
adaptation to the L2 culture. The experiences of the Swedish iGaming manager also indicatethat the perception that studying abroad offers the best opportunities for one to develop their
L2. This is in line with the findings of Yang and Kim (2011) in the sense that learners can facesituations that can alter their initial ambitions to learn an L2. The Swedish iGaming manager’s
claim that there is a large Swedish community in Malta and that they meet often can alter his
ambition to learn Maltese unless other motivations are superior.
Another undesirable experience of the ML2 learners is the issue of forgetting learned conceptsof their L2 and surprisingly, even of their L1. The phenomenon of losing L1 lexical competence
has been demonstrated to be common among adults learning an L2 (Chunpeng & Hee-Don,2017). Moreover, in this study, ML2 adult learners reported that they struggled to find the best
strategies to use in learning ML2 verb conjugations. Some learners attributed their struggles tolearning verb conjugations to ageing. Learners who attributed their struggles to declining
memories indicated that their memories were excellent in childhood and adolescence. Thisconfirms the maturation hypothesis theory, which generalises that certain actions andmechanisms, such as language learning, are innate but are not present when the necessaryorgans and neural networks have developed (Muñoz-Luna, 2013). While there are sociocultural
strategies that enhance the learners’ memories, some participants in the current study did not
realise desirable outcomes following their exposure to such approaches as rote learning. One
learner indicated that effective rote learning did not help them improve their Maltese as they
could not remember the learned concepts.
If I do a lot of drilling, let’s say, on verb conjugations, and I am really good at putting
verbs into the past tense, that doesn’t mean that I can apply what I’ve learnt in aconversation with a Maltese, or that I am going to use the past tense appropriately. I havememory problems, and my memory is getting worse as I grow older!
(Spanish nanny)
The Spanish nanny’s experiences in learning ML2 indicate that age is a crucial determinant of
the effectiveness of the teaching and learning strategies employed in SLA. The findings reveal
the limitations of strategies, educators use to enhance the motivation of L2 adult learners. The
strategies believed to enhance learners’ motivation in such studies as that of Muñoz-Luna(2013) might not be applicable in situations where a learner’s memory fails them in their L2
endeavours. Therefore, future research should consider age-specific motivations to contributeto the literature on the strategies that enhance an L2 learner’s motivation.
Limitations and Recommendations
The evidence presented in this study should be interpreted cautiously due to the limitations of
the methodology. While qualitative studies ensure in-depth understanding of a phenomenon,
they rely on narrated experiences. It is difficult to ascertain the credibility of the findings inthis study due to recall bias. The possibility of oversimplification of the phenomenon is anotherlimitation of the study.
Consequently, future research should consider a mixed-methods approach to advanceknowledge on the difficulties that adult learners experience in learning ML2. A mixed-method
approach can advance the contribution of the present study to the field of SCT in SLA as it will

84

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

promote the collection of qualitative and quantitative data to inform practice and further
research.
The learners’ experiences as expressed in this study indicate that teachers and learners
contribute to the SLA process. Future researchers should consider investigating the question inthis study from teachers’ perspectives. Such studies are crucial to enriching evidence on thesociocultural challenges that ML2 learners experience within and outside the classroom setting.
A study which uses teachers as respondents will be crucial to identifying their role in the
struggles of ML2 learners as well as solutions.
Conclusion
The study under consideration investigated the challenges that adult learners experience inlearning ML2 and included some recommendations for improving instruction for L2 adultlearners. While the study did not focus on the role of culture in the acquisition of Maltese, theresponses from participants indicate that exposure to the L2 culture is crucial to learning ML2.
The importance of exposure to the target country’s culture and social practices has been
demonstrated by learners who lacked opportunities for languaging. Therefore, educators in
SLA settings are encouraged to use culturally responsive teaching and learning strategies tofacilitate the learners’ transition from their cultures to the culture of the native speakers of L2.
The study also indicates that learners’ learning styles affect their experiences when learning
ML2. The implicit learners perceived the process as enjoyable as they learned throughparticipation in social activities. Their engagement with Maltese speakers created opportunities
for using the language and learning the manner in which certain phrases are used. On the other
hand, the explicit learners found learning ML2 boring. They had to invest their time andresources in studying from books, memorising Maltese words and grammar rules, and paying
for private tuition. The learning styles reveal variation in learners’ needs and indicate that
educators should not use the same approach to teaching ML2. They should appreciate thatlearners prefer teaching and learning materials/affordances which suit their needs.
The study shows that ML2 acquisition is a dynamic learning process that requires input whichchallenges learners to engage themselves in social activities. There were instances in whichsome learners despair as they struggled to communicate with Maltese speakers fluently. The
learners’ struggles in learning and using Maltese reinforce the importance of instruction that
addresses the learners’ needs. Teachers need to consider every learner’s experiences whendeveloping teaching strategies to use in the delivery of instruction. The activities included in
the learning process should complement the teachers’ and learners’ efforts in teaching andlearning Maltese respectively.

85

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Akinyemi, A.F., Rembe, S., Shumba, J. & Adewumi, T.M. (2019). Collaboration and mutual
support as processes established by communities of practice to improve continuing
professional teachers’ development in high schools, Cogent Education, 6(1), pp. 1–19.
https://doi:10.1080/2331 186X.2019.1685446
Albaiz, T. (2016). The pearl side of online portfolios: A descriptive study on the richexperience of using pearl trees by master students of teaching English as a foreign
Language. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 15(1), 136–
140.
Ammar, A., & Hassan, R. M. (2018). Talking it through: Collaborative dialogue and second
language learning. Language learning, 68(1), 46–82.
https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12254
Banković, I. (2015). Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition. Elta Newsletter,
January, 1–7.
Bingjun, M. A. (2013). What is the role of L1 in L2 acquisition? Studies in Literature andLanguage, 7(2), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.3968/j.sll.1923156320130702.X2732
Cassar, D. (2019). Maltese and English language lessons for non-EU Member citizens livingin Malta. In: https://www.tvm.com.mt/en/news/lezzjonijiet-fil-malti-maltese-andenglish-language-lessons-for-non-eu-member-citizens-living-in-maltau-fl-ingliz-ghalcittadini-ta-pajjizi-terzi-li-jghixu-malta/
Castrillón, L. J. V. (2017). The effects of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory on second
language acquisition and language Input. ESPIRAL: Revista De Docencia E
Investigación, 7(1), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.15332/erdi.v7i1.1780
Chen, D., & Yang, X. (2017). Improving active classroom participation of ESL students:
Applying culturally responsive teaching strategies. Theory and Practice in Language
Studies, 7(1), 79–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0701.10
Chunpeng, C. and Hee-Don, A. (2017). The influence of L2 on L1 lexical competence andgrammatical properties in written expressions. Chinese Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 40(2), 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2017-0011
Cook, A. C. (2016). The Cultural Revolution on Trial: Mao and the Gang of Four.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9780511980411
Fabriz, S., Mendzheritskaya, J. & Stehle, S. (2021). Impact of synchronous and asynchronous
settings of online teaching and learning in higher education on students’ learning
experience during COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.733554
Feryok, A. (2017). Sociocultural theory and task-based language teaching: The role of praxis.
TESOL Quarterly, 51(3), 716–727. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.390
Hamidi, E & Bagherzadeh, R. (2018). The logical problem of scaffolding in second language
acquisition. Asian. J. Second. Foreign. Lang. Educ. 3(19), 1–14.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-018-0059-x
Herrera, S. G. (2016). Biography-driven culturally responsive teaching. New York, USA.:
Teachers College Press.

86

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Hummel, K. M. (2020). Introducing second language acquisition: Perspectives andpractices. New York, United States: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Husbye, N. & Dorner, L.M. (2017). Teaching strategies to develop inquiry and literacy skills:
Languaging in foreign language immersion education. L2 Journal, 9(1), 36-48.
https://doi.org/10.5070/L29128532
Ibrahim, A. I. (2019). Investigating the needs and drawbacks of L1 in L2 education:
Students’ perception. Journal of Studies in Education, 9(1), 17–31.
https://doi.org/10.5296/jse.v9i1.14088
Idaresit Akpan, V., Igwe, U. A., Ijeoma Mpamah, I. B. & Okoro, C.O. (2020). Social
constructivism: Implications on teaching and learning. British Journal of Education,
8(8), 49–56.
Kapur, M. (2015). Learning from productive failure. Learning: Research and practice, 1(1),51–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-521-1_12
Karousou, A. & Nerantzaki, T. (2020). Phonological memory training and its effect on
second language vocabulary development. Second Language Research 38(1), 31–54.
https://doi.org.10.1177/0267658319898514
Mahbube, T., Mansoor, T. & Saeed, K. (2021). The impact of linguistic background on thenature of classroom dyadic interactions: evidence from L2 and L3 learners of English
as a foreign language. International Multilingual Research Journal. In:https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19313152.2021.1951941,
http://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2021.1929761.
Makhdoumi, M., & Zoghi, M. (2017). Complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) approach in
SLA. Modern Language Studies Journal, 4(1), 1–10.
https://mls.europeansp.org/browse.php?a_id=153&slc_lang=fa&sid=19&printcase=1&hbnr=1&hmb=1
Micallef, M. (2018). More than 42,300 foreign workers in Malta in Current Affairs. In:https://www.tvm.com.mt/en/news/more-than-42300-foreign-workers-in-malta/
Ministry of Education and Employment. (2012). A National Curriculum Framework for All.
Malta: Salesian Press.
Muñoz-Luna, R. (2013). Enhancing language learners’ Motivation: The use of routine
breakers with undergraduates learning English linguistics. Journal of Teaching &Learning Language & Literature, 7(1), 33–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5565/rev/jtl3.513
Nava, A. & Pedrazzini, L. (2018). Second language acquisition in action: Principles frompractice. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Nor, N. M. & Rashid, R.A. (2018). A review of theoretical perspectives on language learningand acquisition. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 39(1), 161–167.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2017.12.012
Norris, J. M., Davis, J. M., & Timpe-Laughlin, V. (2017). Second language educational
experiences for adult learners. New York: Routledge: Taylor & Francis.
Ohta, A. S. (2017). Sociocultural theory and second/foreign language education. In: Van
Deusen-Scholl N., May S. (eds) Second and Foreign Language Education.
Encyclopedia of Language and Education (3rd ed.). Springer, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02246-8_6

87IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Pathan, H., Memon, R. A., Memon, S., Khoso, A. R., & Bux, I. (2018). A critical review of
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory in second language acquisition. International
Journal of English Linguistics, 8(4), 232–236. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n4p232
Quinn, C. (2019). Malta pushes for Maltese proficiency. The Pie News. News and businessanalysis for Professionals in International Education. In:https://thepienews.com/news/malta-educator-teach-maltese/
Rodríguez, A. D. (2014). Culturally relevant books: Culturally responsive teaching inbilingual classrooms. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 5(1), 173–196.
https://doi.org/10.1080/26390043.2014.12067778
Shona, W. (2019). Revisiting communicative competence in the teaching and assessmentof language for specific purposes. Language Education & Assessment, 2(1), 1–19.
https://dx.doi.org/10.29140/lea.v2n1.33
Singer, E. & Couper M. P. (2017). Some methodological uses of responses to open questions
and other verbatim comments in quantitative surveys. Methods, data, analyses (mda),
11(2), 115–134. https://doi.org/10.12758/mda.2017.01
Storch, N. (2017). Sociocultural theory in the L2 classroom. The Routledge handbook of
instructed second language acquisition, 69–83. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315676968-5
Swain, M., Kinnear, P., & Steinman, L. (2015). Sociocultural theory in second language
education: An introduction through narratives, 11. Bristol, U.K.: Multilingual
Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783093182
Su, I-Ru. (2012). Bi-directional transfer in Chinese EFL learners’ apologizing behavior.
Concentric: Studies in Linguistics, 38, 237–266.
Tavakoli, P. (2018). L2 development in an intensive Study Abroad EAP context. System, 72,
62–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.10.009
Tawfiq, H. (2020). Investigating the sociocultural factors that affect learning a second
language (on the example of English). International Journal of Linguistics 12(4),81– 102. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v12i4.17280
Teddlie, C. & A. Tashakorri. (2012). Common “core” characteristics of mixed methods
research: A review of critical issues and call for greater convergence. American
Behavioral Scientist, 56(6): 774–788 https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002764211433795
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Waqas Khan, N., Rizvi, Z., Iqbal, H. & Asghar, Z. (2020). A comparative study of task
based approach and traditional approach in English language teaching. Hamdard
Islamicus, 43(1), 895–911.
Yang, J. S., & Kim, T. Y. (2011). Sociocultural analysis of second language learner beliefs:
A qualitative case study of two study-abroad ESL learners. System, 39(3), 325–334.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.07.005
Zamawe, F. C. (2015). The implication of using NVivo software in qualitative data
analysis: Evidence-Based reflections. Malawi Medical Journal, 27(1): 13–15.
https://doi.org/10.4314/mmj.v27i1.4

88

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022Żammit, J. (2021a). Maltese as a second language learning challenges and suggested teachingstrategies. Malta Review of Educational Research (MRER), 15(2), 197–220.
Żammit, J. (2021b). Maltese as a second language: learning challenges and suggested
teaching strategies. Malta Review of Educational Research, 15(2), 197–220.
Zhong, Q. M. (2014). Understanding changes in Chinese immigrant language learners’
beliefs in New Zealand. TESL-EJ, 17(4) 1–20.
Corresponding author: Dr. Jacqueline Zammit
Email: Jacqueline.zammit@um.edu.mt

89

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

90

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The GoldList Notebook Method: A Study on L2 Vocabulary Learning
John Duplice
Sophia University, Japan91

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
Vocabulary knowledge is of paramount importance when learning a second language. It
requires effective and practical classroom vocabulary learning methods for long-term
acquisition. Specific learning aspects helping the learner remember vocabulary such as spaced
repetition and retrieval practice have shown efficacy but are often disconnected from practicalin-class methods that can be used repeatedly. This study looked at data from 74 university
students in Japan studying English vocabulary with the GoldList Notebook Method, which
incorporates spaced learning and retrieval practice. The study was conducted over a nine-weekperiod and consisted of a pre-test of target L2 idioms, a lesson teaching the idioms, theimplementation of the GoldList Notebook Method, and a post-test on the target idioms. The
data collected were analyzed through fixed effects with a generalized linear model in R version
4.0.3 and R Studio 1.2.5. In addition to quantitative data collected through the pre- and posttests, qualitative observational data was compiled on the use of the GoldList Notebook Methodin the classroom. The findings showed efficacy in using the method and found particular meritto spaced learning over two-week intervals. The study further addresses problems teachers may
face implementing the method in the classroom and possible ways to alleviate the issues.
Keywords: desirable difficulties, L2 vocabulary, retrieval, spacing

92

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The learning of a foreign language requires acquisition of many vocabulary words in the target
language whether the learner is a beginner learning commonly used words or more advanced
and learning specialized terms. With the advent of mobile applications such as Duolingo andAnki, vocabulary learning using pen-to-paper and notebooks has become less common. These
applications can automatically provide spaced repetition based upon the user`s correct orincorrect responses identifying target vocabulary in a second language, henceforth referred toas L2. While they are commonly used for test-prep in memorizing of vocabulary, they often
lack the context of target terms or the tactile connection in activities from pen-to-paper use.
Furthermore, for learners who go beyond the dabbling stage of language learning, there is aneed for a process requiring sufficient exposure and review of target L2 vocabulary (Nation,
2008; Schmitt & Schmitt, 2020). Additionally, the form and timing the L2 vocabulary exposure
comes in is important. In Japan, students from middle school through university often study
with the external primary purpose of passing tests such as school entrance exams. This often
produces less than effective study habits for long-term retention and future use of L2
vocabulary in new learning, known as knowledge transfer. This focus on test-performanceleads to use of methods that are less effective in long-term retention of L2 vocabulary.
The focus on test performance is described by Soderstrom and Bjork (2015) where
performance is defined as “the temporary fluctuations in behavior or knowledge that can beobserved and measured during or immediately after the acquisition process.” (p.1) In
comparison with performance, learning is the relatively permanent changes in knowledge
where the knowledge acquired can be transferred to new learning (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015).
The aim of L2 vocabulary acquisition in the classroom should be the promotion of learning
expressed as long-term retention over short-term performance. Desirable difficulties have beenshown to help in learning over performance (e.g., Bjork, 1994; Bjork & Bjork, 2011; Brown,
Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Persellin & Daniels, 2018). Desirable difficulties are activities
or situations which increase the difficulty of a task initially. This difficulty slows the learning
process down, requires increased focus, and often leads to less effective short-term
performance results. Conversely, Ekuni, Vaz and Bueno (2011) explain that the increased
difficulty can lead to better long-term recall and transfer ability, hence becoming desirable
because the studying done was at a deeper processing level. It is important the difficulty be“desirable” and not so challenging the learner is unable to process the material or lose
motivation to study. Two desirable difficulties commonly used in paper flashcards and mobile
applications are spaced repetition and retrieval practice. Both of which are core aspects of an
L2 vocabulary learning method known as The GoldList Notebook Method. Spaced repetition– repetition that has pre-set spaced time intervals where content, such as L2 vocabulary, is notreviewed until the next spaced interval – has been shown to increase long-term recall (Didau,
2015). Retrieval practice is an activity requiring the learner to retrieve material from memory.
Spaced repetition and retrieval practice play upon one another as will be explained in moredetail in the literature review section.
The fundamental concern of this paper is to explore a method of studying L2 vocabulary known
as the GoldList Notebook Method among Japanese English language learners (ELLs) atuniversity and its effect on the long-term retention of L2 vocabulary. The method incorporates
spaced vocabulary recall practice through pen and paper rather than computer-based
applications. Specifics on the rationale behind the GoldList Method are provided in themethodology section. The article reports on a study with the aim of identifying aspects ofspacing out learning and retrieval practice in how they may enhance the long-term retention of
L2 vocabulary among ELLs. While the focal point of the study is on university L2 learners inJapan, the GoldList Notebook Method itself may be incorporated into other classroom settings

93

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022with modifications. The modifications needed for all settings is beyond the scope of this article.
Therefore, the article and study is limited to the EFL university classroom in Japan.
The GoldList Notebook Method incorporates retrieval and spacing desirable difficulties in the
distillation process, where the learner attempts to recall the meaning of the vocabulary frommemory. The study looks to answer whether the implementation of the GoldList Method as asupplement to a vocabulary lesson shows efficacy in increasing recall of vocabulary versus the
vocabulary lesson alone. The study collected data from 74 first-year university students
learning English at the Common European Framework (CEFR) B1 to B2 level. It looked at themerits of using the GoldList Notebook Method in learning L2 vocabulary in the form of idioms
in a classroom and a variety of different spaced time-periods to glean insights to report to theteaching community. The paper first reviews the literature related to spacing and retrieval
desirable difficulties in L2 learning and the pedagogical aspects of the GoldList Notebook
Method. It then describes the methodology of the study, followed by a presentation of thefindings and discussion before drawing conclusions and implications for teachers and learnersof L2 vocabulary.
Literature Review
The role of desirable difficulties in L2 vocabulary acquisition has an established track recordin effectively improving retention (Bjork & Kroll, 2015; Brown, Roediger & McDaniel, 2014;
Didau, 2015). At the heart of the difference between performance and longer-term learning, isthe difference between blocked practice and spacing out studying. Ebbinghaus (1885) as
described in Didau (2015) illustrated there is a precipitous decline in what we remember soonafter studying in the absence of time between review sessions. This lack of time is referred as
blocked practice and is commonly used when cramming before a test and studying in a single
block of time. In blocked practice, short-term performance is improved, hence the use ofcramming. In spaced studying, short-term performance may be negatively affected, but longerterm learning is enhanced (Bjork, 1994; Glenberg, 1977; Kornell & Bjork, 2008; Randal, 2007;
Rohrer, 2009). Bjork and Bjork (2011) explain the reason for the spacing effect as being theresult of forgetting between study sessions and the need to subsequently review or relearnmaterial leading to stronger connections to the target material. The active struggle of recallingmaterial after forgetting it, is where the retrieval role comes in and is argued by Bjork (1975)
that this process of forgetting and relearning through retrieval enables the learner to recall
information more reliably in the future. The GoldList Notebook Method incorporates spacing
to ensure against blocked practice by the learner. It also includes retrieval tasks following thespaced time away from the target vocabulary.
While there is much support for extrinsic activities such as retrieval in learning L2 vocabulary,
there is another view that argues input through listening and reading alone are more effective.
Krashen (1989) argues that study time should be focused on input in the form of reading andlistening that is comprehensible. Krashen further states that language should be learned
incidentally and subconsciously through natural acquisition. This stems from Krashen`s
Monitor Model theory that argues there are two systems, an acquisition system and a learning
system. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the more important of the two for L2
acquisition. The learning system plays the role of editor or correcting mechanism and is only
useful after language has been acquired (Krashen, 1989). Krashen argues that direct teachingof vocabulary and grammar should be avoided as the time is better spent receiving
comprehensible input (Krashen, 1989; 1993). These arguments follow the idea that withenough exposure at the right level, vocabulary and grammar will be acquired naturally.

94

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

While Krashen argues to avoid explicit vocabulary instruction in the Second Language
Acquisition (SLA) classroom, spacing and retrieval practice have been shown to provide
support for learning target L2 vocabulary (Bird, 2011; Nakata, 2015; Nation, 2008; Sobel,
Cepeda & Kepler, 2011). Schmitt (2010) argues the need for deeper connection or learning isof particular benefit in vocabulary retention as lexical knowledge is more apt to be forgotten
through attrition than other linguistic aspects. The use of spaced repetition and retrieval arecore aspects of mobile learning applications that focus on vocabulary acquisition. Teske (2017)
argues an area that these applications may lack in efficacy, is that of teaching vocabulary incontext. In L2 vocabulary learning, context is a core aspect of learning and may be the mostimportant vocabulary learning strategy (Nation, 2008; Nation & Webb, 2011). With the
GoldList Notebook, vocabulary can and should be introduced in context first through a lesson
that could include reading, listening, writing, and speaking activities. The vocabulary would
come from the lesson and be chosen by the instructor or the learner. Since the vocabulary
comes from a specific lesson or activity, a connection between the target terms and the context
they came from should be established before implementing the GoldList Method`s steps.
A major aspect of L2 vocabulary learning in the classroom and for research, is testing of
knowledge. According to Nation and Webb (2011) and Schmitt (2010), vocabulary acquiredin the short-term should not be considered learned. Post testing of at least three weeks should
be used to evaluate whether the target material has been stored in long-term memory and toshow with confidence whether target word acquisition is durable. For research purposes, it isalso important to limit the exposure of the target vocabulary as to not influence the factors ofretention (Nation & Webb, 2011; Schmitt, 2010). The GoldList Method allows for this amountof time, or more if needed, to ensure durability of vocabulary recall.
While the underlining activities such as spacing and retrieval practice have been shown to beeffective in L2 vocabulary learning (Bjork & Kroll, 2015), the role of the GoldList Notebook
Method in the L2 classroom has not been well researched. This method includes the same typeof desirable difficulties as that of mobile applications, but also includes the tactile pen-to-paper
aspect requiring the learning to write the target word increasing the amount of time and lexical
attention. According to Schmitt (2010), this lexical attention and increased time interactingwith the word help facilitate learning. Before implementing the GoldList Notebook Method aspart of the L2 learning curriculum, empirical research needs to be done. Therefore, this action
research study focuses on the GoldList Notebook Method`s efficacy in L2 vocabulary learning.
Since this method can follow initial contextual learning and practice of the target vocabulary,spacing and retrieval aspects, and tactile pen-to-paper use, I hypothesize the method will show
efficacy in the SLA university classroom. The present study attempts to answer the following
questions:
1. Is the GoldList Notebook Method effective in moving L2 vocabulary from first
exposure to long-term retention?
2. Is there a difference in efficacy among differing spaced time retrieval review periodsof more than a week?
3. What takeaways are there for L2 language teachers to implement the GoldList
Notebook Method into the classroom?

95

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Methodology
Context and Rationale for the Study
An issue among students in Japan is the focus on performance over long-term learning. This isevident in the numerous entrance exams students take for each level of education. English is acore component of entrance exams and within the English part of the tests, vocabulary
recognition is paramount for a high score. Students in Japan often focus their effort towards
performance on these high-stake tests, over long-term learning and use of the language. This
leads to blocked studying, known as cramming, where forced repetition through flashcard
applications or rote memorization are often methods of choice. After passing the exam andentering university, students are left without an effective method of learning L2 vocabulary forthe purpose of long-term recall and transfer. The GoldList Notebook Method is a method withsome similarities to flash cards but with a few key differences. It requires the learner to firstcreate a headlist of target vocabulary from the context of a lesson plan or other activity such as
reading an article. It then has the learner space their exposure to the target vocabulary so thereis time to forget before trying to retrieve the meaning or terms from memory. The process offorgetting and the subsequent struggle to recall have shown efficacy in longer-term retention(Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015). This takes place by increasing and strengthening neural pathway
connections (Bjork, 1994; Bjork & Bjork, 2011), which is done in this study throughdistillations in the GoldList Notebook. What is not well established is the optimal time period
to wait before a retrieval session. This study investigates different periods of time between
distillations to see if there is a significant difference in long-term recall. The study also looks
into the effectiveness of the GoldList Notebook Method as a whole post initial vocabulary
lesson compared to the lesson alone. As this is an in-class action research study, observations
beyond testing data are noted by the study`s facilitator that may be of importance to futurestudies or teachers looking to implement the GoldList Method.
Participants
In order to successfully answer the aforementioned questions, this study looked at data from
74 first-year ELLs attending a university in Tokyo, Japan. The participants were all Japanese
L1 speakers, and the average age was 18. The participants were B1 to B2 CEFR English levelas assessed by the Computerized Assessment System for English Communication (CASEC),
which was conducted at the beginning of the school year by the university as an English level
placement test. While the students were generally homogeneous in terms of background, theirexperience with English varied as some had lived abroad in high school. None of the students
were English majors, so their primary English exposure came from the class this project studied.
There were four classes with each constituting a group and forthwith will be referred to asGroup. At the start of the study, the group sizes ranged from 17 to 24. Data from six participants
was dropped from the study due to missing a quiz or the initial lesson. Therefore, data includedin the results came from 74 participants with 21 males and 53 females. The four groups fromwhich data was collected ranged from 16 to 22 participants per group (Group A = 16; GroupB = 22; Group C = 19; Group D = 17). The groups were part of compulsory English coursesthat met for 100 minutes twice a week for fourteen weeks in the autumn semester from
September 2021 to January 2022. The classes started online, being taught synchronously live
via Zoom for the first five weeks before moving to face-to-face campus classes for theremaining nine weeks. English was the only language used by the instructor during the classsessions. Participants completed a consent form and were not provided compensation.
Additionally, while the content in the study was part of the class, it was not considered in the96

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

final grading and participants were informed at the beginning and throughout the study the preand post-tests would not be considered as part of their grade. The university where the study
was conducted provided authorization, and participants were given the opportunity to havetheir data excluded at any time until the conclusion of the study. Risks such as possible data
loss, were shared in the informed consent form and discussed prior to the start of the study.
The GoldList Notebook Method
The GoldList Notebook Method starts with a standard A4 sized paper notebook. This notebook
replaces flashcards or mobile flashcard applications where target vocabulary is reviewed at
pre-set intervals. The process of retrieving terms in the notebook is where the method plays arole in learning of vocabulary. It is not a lesson to introduce new vocabulary, but a tool forreview and to strengthen recall. If the review sessions and spacing between the sessions areadhered to, the method provides the learner additional exposure to the target terms after the
initial learning activity where the vocabulary was first introduced. This post-initial exposure isargued by Schmitt and Schmitt (2020) to be critical for consolidation. Furthermore, the method
provides the desirable difficulties of spacing and retrieval practice which have been shown toincrease retention of L2 vocabulary (Bjork & Kroll, 2015; Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel,
2014).
The process starts by laying the notebook flat with both the left and right page open. On eachpage a line is drawn down the middle vertically and a number is written on the left-hand column
for each target vocabulary. A maximum of 20 words per session is recommended, but for moredifficult terms or phrases fewer words may be more optimal. Ideally, the vocabulary usedshould come from an activity such as a reading task, lecture notes, or other lesson material
where the terms are used in context and not chosen at random. The target word in L2 is written
next to the number left of the line and the definition in L1, L2, or both is written on the rightside of the line to the corresponding term. This initial list of vocabulary is known as the“headlist”. Above the headlist, the date it was created and any contextual reference, including
a title of where the terms originated from, is written. Once this is completed, the notebook isclosed, and the terms are not looked at again until the first retrieval review, which is known as
a distillation. At its core, a distillation is a self-quizzing activity to find out whether the learnerrecalls the meaning of the term. The amount of time between distillations is up to the learner,
but 2 weeks is commonly used. During the first distillation, the learner covers the definitions
and tries to recall the meaning of the target L2 term. If the term is unable to be recalled, a small
checkmark is placed next to the word. The learner will then switch to the definition side of theheadlist, cover the target vocabulary, and try to recall the word from the definitions. Here again,
if it is not recalled, a check is placed next to the definition. At this point, any terms / definitions
not recalled are written on the next page using the same format as the headlist but mixing up
the order of the vocabulary. The order is mixed up to ensure the learner does not recall theword due to remembering the order. There are three of these distillations which follow aclockwise order with distillation 2 being written below distillation 1, and distillation 3 being
written under the original headlist. Figure 1 below illustrates the process. Any words still notlearned in distillation 3, can be put into a new headlist, moved to a separate notebook, or simply
discarded if deemed unneeded by the learner.

97

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 1
GoldList Notebook Stages (Originated from Language Mentoring, n.d.)Figure 2
GoldList Notebook Set from Headlist through Distillation 3. (Originated from Language
Mentoring, n.d.)

Data Collection and Analysis
This study used quantitative data (Mayring, 2002) pertaining to recall of L2 vocabulary, butsome observational qualitative data (Ivankova & Wingo, 2018) was used when assessing
functionality and practical issues around the GoldList Notebooks use in the classroom setting.

98

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The pre- and post-tests used to collect scores were conducted via Moodle learner management
system quiz function. Condition and treatment were coded according to the initial fixed effects
model. Baseline treatment was used as the baseline for comparison to scores from the othertreatments. The lesson plan and tests were identical among all treatments with the only
difference being the period between distillations. Dependent variables were determined bycorrect answers to both pre- and post-tests compiled as a mean score for each treatment. The
GoldList Notebook activities were not conducted in the Baseline treatment in order to show
efficacy of the other treatments versus the initial lesson without GoldList Notebook usage. The
study used R version 4.0.3 and R Studio 1.2.5 to run the models. Additionally, packages
included lme4 (Bates, Mächler, Bolker, & Walker, 2015) and pairwise (Heine, 2021).
Lesson Materials
The materials used for this study originated from ESL Library`s idiom lesson series titled“Detective Series 2: A Recipe for Disaster” (ESL Library, 2021). The first four lessons in theseries were used and provided to the participants via pdf during class. Each lesson had between
9-11 idioms which were used as the target L2 vocabulary. The lessons also contained definition
matching exercises, dialogue reading with target L2 idioms in context, synonym matching, andsentence generation activities. Idioms were used in place of single word vocabulary to better
ensure participants did not have prior knowledge of the target L2 vocabulary. This way thebaseline scores were more standardized and lower to better illustrate if the data were to show
efficacy in the different treatments. During the setting up of the study, the tests were to be
standard in the number of idioms tested of 10, but due to an error in coding the test in Moodle
quiz function, the pre- and post-tests had a mean possible score of 9.75.
Procedure of the Study
The study consisted of four unique treatments: Frontloaded, Baseline, Mixed, and Standard as
explained in the treatment descriptions and in Table 1. All groups were administered a pre-test
for the target L2 idioms before being introduced in the lesson. The target idiom pre-test was in
the form of a quiz with matching idioms to definitions in an answer bank. Time was limited to
five minutes and participants were not allowed to use any type of reference material such as
dictionaries or internet search engines during the tests. Following the pre-test, participants were
provided the lesson and list of target idioms and given an hour to complete the lesson andreview in groups of three to five participants. Each group had nine weeks between the initial
pre-test, headlist, and lesson before taking the post-test, which was the same as the original
pre-test. With the exception for the baseline treatment, each group had two weeks between thethird distillation and the post-test, so there were no differences in length of time between final
exposure to the target L2 idioms and the post-test except for the baseline treatment. Each group
was exposed to the following treatments.
Treatments:••

Frontloaded treatment started with the headlist of idioms and focused on seeing if there
was a benefit of retrieval session during the distillation task in weeks two, three, orseven during the use of the GoldList Notebook. Here the treatment focused on more
exposure to the idioms early.
Baseline treatment did not use the GoldList Notebook Method and simply had
participants take the pre-test, complete the L2 target idiom lesson, and take the post-99

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education••

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

test nine weeks later. The participants did not get any extra exposure to the target L2
idioms following the initial lesson.
Mixed treatment had the participants do the first distillation in week two before waiting
until week four for the second and week six for the third distillation.
Standard treatment spaced all distillations exactly two weeks apart throughout the study
taking place in weeks three, five, and seven. This differed from the other treatmentsthat varied the time between distillations. Intervals of two weeks are the common lengthof time among polyglots utilizing the GoldList Notebook Method (Language
Mentoring, n.d.).
Findings

Table 1 below is an example of the treatments and schedule. This example is of Group A. Other
groups followed the same schedule, but the treatments alternated between groups so that eachgroup was exposed to all the treatments once. This example is presented here to illustrate the
distribution of treatments. Groups B, C, and D are similar, but the treatment to the sets varied.
Table 1
Example Schedule of Treatments from Group A
Task Date

Set 1 (Frontloaded)

Set 2 (Baseline)

9/27
10/4
10/11
10/18
10/25
11/1
11/8
11/15
11/22
11/29
12/6
12/13

Headlist
Distillation 1
Distillation 2

Baseline

Set 3 (Mixed)

Set 4 (Standard)

Headlist
Distillation 1

Headlist

Distillation 2

Distillation 1

Distillation 3
Distillation 2
Distillation 3
Post Test

Distillation 3
Post Test
Post Test

12/20

Post Test

Results of Pre- and Post-tests by Treatment
The results below in Table 2 show the pre- and post-test scores. Correct answers are shown asmean scores with standard deviation by treatment. Baseline treatment is used as the baselinecompared with other treatment results for all participants.

100

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 2
Descriptive Aggregate Results of Pre and Post Tests for Each Treatment in Mean (Standard
Deviation)
Treatment

Pre-test

Post-testtBaseline

4.921(1.958)5.632(2.006)

6.579(2.424)7.763(2.052)2.316(1.092)5.303(2.239)5.053(2.091)7.526(2.138)7.776(2.004)1.244(1.304)0.429(2.457)

Front loaded
MixedStandard

Figure 3 provides a visual representation by test type and treatment. The mean for number ofidioms tested among all four treatments is 9.75, but the figure shows only the actual meanscores from the tests.
Figure 3
Test Type and Treatment Effect Plot: Blue Line – Pre-Test Mean Scores: Pink Line - PostTest Mean Scores.

An initial model included fixed effects of mean scores and treatment so that the pre-test was
the baseline score, and the “Baseline” treatment was the baseline condition. The dependent
variable was based on whether idioms were matched correctly with the definition in the preand post-tests. Therefore, a generalized linear model was used for fixed effects. As would be
expected, the lack of review sessions in the Baseline treatment is reflected in it being the least
effective. Comparing other treatments to the Baseline, the model showed significant interactionof the Standard treatment (t = 2.457, p = .0143).
Figure 3 above suggests an improvement to the model from all treatments when compared tothe baseline, but only the Standard treatment showed significant improvement. The standard
treatment included two weeks between each distillation, while the other treatments varied
between one and three weeks throughout the study. The lmer package with difflsmeans
function were used to conduct a pairwise comparison of treatments (exclusive of the fixed101

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

comparison with the Baseline previously described), which confirmed the Standard treatment
increased benefit over other treatments. In a nutshell, two weeks between review sessions
throughout the study showed the greatest benefit with nearly twice the improvement of notusing the GoldList Notebook Method. The other treatments also showed efficacy, but not tothe same extent as the Standard two-week spacing between distillations. This provides
evidence that spacing time between study sessions leads to better long-term recall of L2
vocabulary. In the following, more specifics will be provided directly relating to each of thethree core questions asked at the beginning of the study.
Question 1: Is the GoldList Notebook Method effective in moving L2 vocabulary from first
exposure to long-term retention?
This study looked at the use of the GoldList Method in learning L2 vocabulary specifically in
the Japanese university classroom. The quantitative results showed increased learning of L2
idioms compared to not using the method. Therefore, the method shows efficacy over thelesson plan alone, referred to as the Baseline treatment in this study. This is described visuallyin Figure 3 where all the treatments show larger differences between pre-, and post-tests
compared to the baseline. Specifically, the difference from baseline was most pronounced in
the Standard treatment. The efficacy with that of the other treatments, was not as pronounced,
but still showed improvement which is further discussed in Question 2.
Question 2: Is there a difference in efficacy among differing spaced time retrieval review
periods of more than a week?
There was a difference in results between the three non-baseline treatments. The Standard
treatment with two-week intervals between retrieval activities showed the most benefit. Thiswas somewhat surprising as Ebbinghaus originally showed that spacing between study sessions
when gradually expanded, is most effective (Didau, 2015). The benefit shown over the othertreatments may be due to the consistency between study periods. Another possible reason isthe extra week from initial idiom exposure in the lesson to the first distillation. Both thefrontloaded and mixed treatments had only one week before the first distillation. This may
indicate a need for more spacing of time after initial exposure to the target vocabulary. The
two-week treatment may be optimal for class use as distillations can be scheduled regularly.
Benefit of treatments is shown here from most beneficial to least: 1) Standard 2) Mixed 3)
Front loaded 4) Baseline.
Question 3: What takeaways are there for L2 language teachers to implement the GoldList
Notebook Method into the classroom?
Teachers of L2 who implement this method in their classroom should be aware students may
forget their notebook at times. While not an option for most university classrooms, junior andhigh school settings where the same classroom is used daily, may allow for the notebooks to
be kept in the classroom. This would alleviate the issue of students forgetting their notebook.
This then allows for regular use from the headlist through the three distillations as long as
students attend class on the days of the notebook is used. Notebooks could be given to students
when complete if deemed necessary for future autonomous student use. It is also important forteachers to check notebooks regularly to ensure the activities are being done properly andregularly. In this study, the distillations were used as a class warm-up activity. This task
allowed students the chance to retrieve L2 vocabulary and help clear external ruminations fromsmartphone use carried over from before the start of class. Educators have noted that102

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

smartphone use is most distracting at the beginning of class, so an activity where smartphones
are clearly not allowed helped in turning the students` attention towards the classroom content.
Finally, early in the implementation of the study, many participants found the steps in the study
unclear, so providing the students with a mentored example could be useful. In this study thefacilitator worked on his own GoldList Notebook learning L2 Italian in front of the groups andprovided example pictures in Italian on a projector screen of each step in the process.
Discussion
The present study revealed how effective the GoldList Notebook Method is when implemented
in an L2 university classroom and whether some adjustments to the spaced time periods
between distillations would show further benefit. The role of spacing and retrieval in the
GoldList Notebook showed there is efficacy across all treatments and further benefit to longer
spacing periods early in the review process as the initial two-week time was twice that of theother treatments. These findings confirm other findings in the literature on spacing (Bird, 2011;
Nakata, 2015; Rohrer, 2009; Sobel, Cepeda, & Kapler, 2011) and retrieval practice (Bjork,
1975; Bjork & Kroll, 2015; Schmitt & Schmitt, 2020; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015) as they relate
to L2 vocabulary learning. During the lesson when the vocabulary items were introduced,
participants received the most exposure through multiple tasks. These tasks included reading,matching, and generation activities through speaking, all of which were in context. The lesson
was by far the most extensive exposure to the vocabulary the participants received, so theirrecall would likely be stronger soon after the lesson. This may have played a role in theincreased initial struggle of the Standard two-week spaced gap versus the one-week of the othertreatments. As described by Soderstrom & Bjork (2015) and Bjork (1994), this extra difficulty
likely caused more difficulty in recalling terms and therefore making stronger connections,which developed into better recall later in the Week Nine post-test. Additionally, theconsistency of how much time between distillations of the Standard treatment may have played
a role in the increased efficacy. This made it easier for participants to schedule their distillations
and less likely to mistake it with another distillation from a different lesson.
Finally, the qualitative observations made throughout the study provide insights into possible
pitfalls to implementing the method in the classroom. Teachers should be aware that students
in university courses, and therefore likely in pre-university classes as well, have issues with
forgetting to bring the notebook to class. Additionally, they frequently omitted the date at the
top of each distillation. One possible solution to this issue is keeping the notebooks in theclassroom where the teacher has more control to ensure the notebooks are available. However,this may not be feasible for all settings such as the university setting this study was set in. By
not allowing the students access to the notebooks between distillations, extra exposure to theterms is further limited thus leading to more struggle to recall during distillations and therefore
more durable neural connections. An option when keeping the notebooks in class is notpossible, is assigning students to take a picture and upload it to a learner management systemon the day the distillation is due. This will not limit the possibility of extra exposure by eager
students, but it can help in confirming students are completing the distillations as scheduled.
Finally, use of size A4 notebook is recommended for a couple of reasons. First, smaller
notebooks do not allow enough space for distillation 3 if the original headlist is 20 words. Thereneeds to be enough space under the headlist in case there are more than a couple terms still not
known at this stage. Likewise, skipping lines between headlist terms also limits space for thethird distillation. The A4 size enables students to include more than just translated definitions.
If there is enough room, example sentences, drawings, or L2 synonyms can also be included in
the headlist further adding possibilities for contextual recall.

103

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Limitations and Suggestions for Future ResearchThis study investigated a vocabulary learning method with little published research in generaland particularly in the classroom. The study began virtually, making oversight of adherence byparticipants more difficult. The study was also limited in scope to the specific three questionsin the discussion section. While the implementation of a L2 vocabulary learning application
may be just as or more effective as the GoldList Notebook findings, this study did not directlycompare the two. The number of idioms used in the study may have been too lengthy or notlong enough for some participants. Due to the Covid 19 situation at the end of the semester,
the study was not able to implement a participant questionnaire for feedback which may haveprovided more insight into the student perspectives and specifics such as number of items usedin each set.
Another limitation arose from participants forgetting to bring the GoldList Notebook to class.
As the class started online, this issue was not initially apparent. It is not clear if the participants
were actually writing in the notebook or on a separate sheet of paper and later putting theinformation into the notebook, which could affect the data results. This action would provide
the participants an extra exposure and eliminate the specified spaced time between distillations
for each treatment. In an attempt to solve this issue, participants were required to present the
GoldList Notebook in class for the instructor to check. If numerous distillations were missed
or a notebook was lost, the participant data was omitted from the study, hence 6 participants
were dropped from the results.
Another issue that arose was the lack of writing dates in the notebook for the headlists anddistillations. Since distillations were conducted live in class and facilitated by the instructor,
this did not affect the data. For more autonomous use of the GoldList Notebook Method, thelack of dates could become an issue. Additionally, while participants were instructed to notwrite the missed target L2 idioms when performing distillations in the same order as a previous
distillation or headlist, many participants did not comply.
Conclusion
This study tested the GoldList Notebook Method and the impact of spacing and retrieval
integrated into the activities on the long-term recall of L2 vocabulary among university
students in Japan. The findings contribute to teachers looking for a low-stakes and inexpensive
way to regularly expose students to target vocabulary without having to use daily quizzes which
may cause anxiety among the learners. It is significant to state that the GoldList Notebook
Method is promising for teens and adults but may be inappropriate for use with very young
ELLs or ELLs who are newcomers arriving from harsh places.
The research conducted in this study shows that there is benefit through making small additions
or adjustments to the curriculum. Much can be achieved in as little as a few minutes at the
beginning of class as was the case here. Spacing and retrieval are strategies that can be
implemented into many different parts of the L2 curriculum. Having a simple method teachersand students can use with confidence, is very practical. The teacher-researcher knows best what
can be easily implemented into the curriculum and whether the GoldList Notebook Method
might work in his/her class. In future research, investigation into the difference between mobile
applications and the GoldList Notebook Method is warranted. If similar benefit can be achieved
with mobile applications, facilitation of L2 vocabulary review among students may be more

104

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

easily conducted by the teacher. The GoldList Notebook Method is just one tool for teachers
to consider, implement, experiment with, and adjust to their learners` needs.

105

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models
using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48.
https://doi.org 10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Bird, S. (2011). Effects of distributed practice on the acquisition of second language English
syntax—erratum. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32(2), 435–452.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716410000172
Bjork, R. A. (1975). Retrieval as a memory modifier: An interpretation of negative recency
and related phenomena.
Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way:
Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. Psychology and the Real World:
Essays Illustrating Fundamental Contributions to Society, 2(59–68).
Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of humanbeings. Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing, 185(7.2).
Bjork, R. A., & Kroll, J. F. (2015). Desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning. The
American Journal of Psychology, 128(2), 241–252.
https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.2.0241
Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of
successful learning. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674419377
Didau, D. (2015). What if everything you knew about education was wrong? Crown House
Publishing.
Ekuni, R., Vaz, L. J., & Bueno, O. F. A. (2011). Levels of processing: The evolution of aframework. Psychology & Neuroscience, 4(3), 333–339.
https://doi.org/10.3922/j.psns.2011.3.006
ESL Library. (2021) Detective series 2: A recipe for disaster. ESLlibrary.com
Glenberg, A. M. (1977). Influences of retrieval processes on the spacing effect in free recall.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3(3), 282.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.3.3.282
Heine, J. (2021). Pairwise: Rasch model parameters by pairwise algorithm. R package
version 0.5.0-2. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=pairwise.
Ivankova, N., & Wingo, N. (2018). Applying mixed methods in action research:
Methodological potentials and advantages. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(7), 978–997. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218772673.
Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning concepts and categories: Is spacing the “enemy
of induction”? Psychological Science, 19(6), 585–592.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02127.x
Krashen, S. D. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence
for the input hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 73(4): 440–464.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1989.tb05325.
Krashen, S. D. (1993). The effect of formal grammar teaching: Still peripheral. Tesol
Quarterly, 27(4), 722–725. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587405

106

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Language Mentoring. (n.d.). The Goldlist Method: Learning vocabulary has never beeneasier! https://www.languagementoring.com/goldlist-method-how-to-learn-vocabulary/
Mayring, P. (2001, February). Combination and integration of qualitative and quantitative
analysis. In Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research,
2(1), https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-2.1.967
Nakata, T. (2015). Effects of expanding and equal spacing on second language vocabulary
learning: Does gradually increasing spacing increase vocabulary learning? Studies inSecond Language Acquisition, 37(4), 677–711
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263114000825
Nation, I. S. (2008). Teaching ESL/EFL reading and writing. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203891643
Nation, I. S., & Webb, S. A. (2011). Researching and analyzing vocabulary. Heinle, Cengage
Learning.
Persellin, D. C., & Daniels, M. B. (2018). A concise guide to teaching with desirable
difficulties. Stylus Publishing, LLC.
Randall, M. (2007). Memory, psychology and second language learning (Vol. 19). John
Benjamins Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.19
Rohrer, D. (2009). Research commentary: The effects of spacing and mixing practiceproblems. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 40(1), 4–17.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-007-9015
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary: A vocabulary research manual. Springer.
Schmitt, N., & Schmitt, D. (2020). Vocabulary in language teaching. Cambridge University
Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108569057
Sobel, H. S., Cepeda, N. J., & Kapler, I. V. (2011). Spacing effects in real‐world classroom
vocabulary learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 763–767.
https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1747
Soderstrom N. C., Bjork, R. A. (2015) Learning versus performance: An integrative review.
Perspectives on Psychological Science,10(2):176-199.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615569000
Teske, K. (2017). Duolingo. Calico Journal, 34(3), 393–401. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.32509
Corresponding author: John Duplice
Email: duplice@outlook.com

107

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

108

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Facebook as a Flexible Ubiquitous Learning Space for Developing
Speaking Skills
Svitlana Mykytiuk
Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University
UkraineOlena Lysytska
Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University
UkraineTetiana Melnikova
Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University
UkraineSerhii Mykytiuk
Skovoroda Kharkiv National Pedagogical University
Ukraine109

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
The research studied the effectiveness of the integration of Facebook as a flexible ubiquitous
learning space into the educational process for speaking skills development of undergraduate
students learning English as a second language. For this purpose teaching was organised via a
specially created and moderated Facebook group where various media resources, uploaded
materials, links to different applications and other social networking opportunities wereaccumulated. It was designed to achieve the educational programme objectives and address the
specifics of digital age learning. A set of specially designed materials posted on the Facebook
platform for language input, structured output, and communicative output activities wasapplied in experimental teaching to develop talk as transition, talk as interaction and mediation,and talk as performance. The results of the quasi-experiment (students’ speaking performance)
were assessed in the form of the post-test with the data being analysed and interpreted basedon descriptive and inferential statistics (independent samples t-test) by means of SPSS. The
results revealed higher achievement scores of the experimental group in comparison to thecontrol group in terms of expanding vocabulary, increasing English grammar literacy,developing interactive skills, discourse management, and pronunciation. The survey
administered to find out the learners’ impressions of the successfulness of the FB-assisted
activities revealed their overall positive attitude to the new methodology and usefulness for thedevelopment of all speaking qualifications checked.
Keywords: Facebook, interactive communication, speaking skills development, ubiquitous
learning

110

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic that societies and members of the educational community haveexperienced blurred the lines between formal and informal education making educationalists
find productive ways of combining virtual and physical learning environments (Ng, 2021),
providing educational content that should be easily accessible for learners (Bygstad, Øvrelid,,
Ludvigsen, & Dæhlen, 2022), boosting students’ motivation and engagement and improving
their performance in the altered reality (Oberländer & Bipp, 2021; Wang, Cao, Gong, Wang,
Li, & Ai, 2022). Modern digital learners surrounded by digital communication technology thatthey use for social and entertainment purposes have developed new learning styles. They
actively use various devices to study and prefer engaging, interactive, on-demand learningmaterials accessible anytime and anywhere (Gallardo-Echenique, 2015). The fact that learningin the new digital age is conditioned socially and digitally by various technologies has
stimulated the researchers to consider students’ customary ways of life and information
perception. Special attention has been paid to popular social media providing numerous ways
to communicate, convey, share, and generate content. Their potentials to support collaborative
learning (Zheng, Niiya, & Warschauer 2015), provide learner-centred environments (Liburd
and Christensen, 2013), facilitate student engagement, boost students’ attention to content,
access outside resources, expose students to practice (Gruzd, Haythornthwaite, Paulin, Gilbert,& Del Valle, 2018) have also been studied. In addition, social media’s ability to make users
connected and how the ubiquitous nature of this type of media makes them valuable tools foreducation have been considered. In this context, the use of social networks in e-learning or
blended learning considering all the difficulties that arise nowadays in the learning
environment can help adapt to the changed conditions and devise innovative methodology.
The educational potential of social networking sites, namely Facebook, for foreign language
acquisition, has been analysed in numerous research studies (Lampe, Wohn, Vitak, Ellison &Wash, 2011; Kabilan & Zahar, 2016; Hamidah, 2017; Slisko, 2021). In this study, theresearchers investigated the effectiveness of the incorporation of the Facebook environment
into the educational process for speaking skills development. The researchers utilised Facebook
as a flexible ubiquitous learning space. First, Facebook was seen as a learning environment
employed for teaching and learning. Second, in alignment with the traditional understandingof ubiquitous learning, learning via the Facebook group was organised with the support ofmobile or embedded computers and wireless networks (Ogata, Matsuka, El-Bishouty & Yano,2009) to provide content and interaction anytime and anywhere (Hwang, Tsai, & Yang, 2008).
The following principles of ever-present learning such as permanent access to the target
material, the ability to find information immediately, interaction in the educational networkand practice in real-life situations have been exploited. Third, flexibility – the ability to adapt
the learning content to the programme objectives and students’ needs – was achieved by
employing various applications and multimedia materials and uploading specially generated or
carefully selected materials. All the mentioned materials and activities facilitated organisingtask-oriented and contextual activities and encouraged user-created content and peer feedback.
Thus, the research was designed to answer two research questions:
RQ1: Can the use of FB as a flexible ubiquitous learning space be an effective
technique for developing speaking skills of undergraduate students studying English asa second language?
RQ2: What are the learners’ impressions of the successfulness of the use of FB
activities for developing their speaking skills?

111

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Literature Review
Connectivism Principles in the Digital Age
Connectivism, which in modern research is frequently associated with the use of social
networks for educational purposes, is a relatively new phenomenon that appeared as a responseto the intense use of technology in education. Although its position in science is disputable, as
Siemens (2005) introduced it as a new learning theory, while other scholars define it as thethird generation of pedagogy of distance education (Anderson & Dron, 2012), it addresses the
specifics of the new digital age learning that experienced the tectonic shift from internal,
individualised activity to the interaction of the individual on networks (Siemens, 2005).
According to connectivists, knowledge nowadays is distributed through a network ofconnections and requires the ability to construct and traverse those networks (Downes, 2012).
Modern learning is not a process that is completely under the control of the individual. It is notjust knowledge transferring, it requires active communication of learners through networks
with the learning sources (Kop, 2011). Al Dahdouh, Osórioand & Caires (2015) consider thatlearning today is what learners can reach in the external network: other people, organisations,
databases, and other artefacts. Learning is now not a self-directed process, it is a networkdirected one, and social media play a significant role in this process helping learners interact
and learn actively.
Connectivism outlines the four key principles for learning: autonomy, connectedness,diversity, and openness (Downes, 2010). Ally (2008) stressed the importance of the applicationof these ideas in the process of designing learning materials and instructions. The researcher
highlighted the significance of autonomous and independent learning for students. They shouldbe allowed to access and research information preferably in a networked learning environment.
The learners should update knowledge by active networked participation which means thatthey should be able to connect with each other and express and share information. Diversity ofsources for information obtaining and diversity of technology interfaces for informationdelivery should be provided. Authentic and experiential learning should be organised bycontinuous information finding and research.
E-learning and Speaking Skills Development
The effectiveness of e-learning and digital-language teaching is noted by various researchers,
especially in the era of the pandemic. Zakarneh (2018) considers an electronic platform more
acceptable than a traditional classroom not only for acquiring knowledge of vocabulary,grammar, reading and writing skills but also for developing speaking skills.
Some research investigates specifics of speaking skills development in the e-learning process(Rodrigues & Vethamani, 2015). Lamy & Hampel (2007) consider that online learning has
expanded in oral discourse. This communication can be established via the Internet between
learners and native speakers (Tudini, 2003) and between learners themselves (Yilmaz &Granena, 2010). Online communication gives the possibility to talk with expert speakers andallows shy students to express themselves more freely as there is less teacher control and moreauthentic tasks (Rodrigues & Vethamani, 2015; Holubnycha, 2019). Egbert (2005) explainsthat online communication provides learners with opportunities to communicate orally withother people in an environment that is conducive to learning. Abrams (2003) puts forward theidea that online communication enables language learners to have oral communication with112

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

real audiences and provides them with authentic language experiences. Robin (2016)
emphasises the importance of digital storytelling as a special activity that may improve oral
proficiency. It involves telling stories using blended digital media elements which may include
text, pictures, audio narration, music and video. Ajayi (2008) also puts forward the idea thatthe use of e-learning facilities, which involves various tools and techniques from feedback
systems to video and audio conferencing, may increase opportunities for lifelong learning.
Challenges in the Development of Speaking Skills
An analysis of the studies on the issue of difficulties in teaching speaking displays several
factors which make a significant impact on learners’ speaking skills. Scholars commonly divide
the factors that contribute to speaking problems into two classes – linguistic and non-linguistic(Horwitz, 2001; Susilawati, 2017). Linguistic difficulties are connected with the lack ofvocabulary (Adam, 2016) as a significant component of foreign language proficiency (Cook,2013), grammar rules, poor knowledge, and incorrect pronunciation. Non-linguistic or
psychological problems are usually caused by a lack of learner’s confidence leading to fear of
making a mistake which results in learners’ low perception abilities and difficulties inprocessing language output (Susilawati, 2017). Hosni (2014) and Rahayu (2015) singled out
the factors which influence the problems in speaking activity, namely: 1) inhibition 2) nothing
to say 3) low participation 4) mother tongue use 5) low motivation 6) environment factors 7)
lack of confidence.
The term “inhibition”, regarding foreign language speaking performance, has recently become
an object of scholars’ concern and extensive research (Abedini & Chalak, 2017; Loan & Tuyen,2020). Inhibition is viewed as an obstacle for effective communication making learners
hesitant, anxious and passive during their speaking performance (Rumiyati & Seftika, 2018).
In addition, Megawati and Mandaran (2016) stress that low or uneven participation can be a
problem in a large speaking class when not every student can have enough time for speaking
and other students fear being heard by other communication participants, some of which may
tend to dominate.
Methodology
For the profound investigation of the research problem, the theoretical methods of conceptualand comparative analysis and synthesis were used while studying the systematic review ofsocial media integration for teaching speaking (John &Yunus, 2021). The works analyzed inthis and other research and the applied methods of quasi-experiment (Marleni & Asilestari ,2018; Saputra, 2018), pre-post testing (Minalla, 2018; AlSaleem, 2018), observation (Hamad,2017) and survey (Fowler, 2013; Nadeem, 2020; Quadi, 2021; Malik, 2021) made the authorsdevise their own research design and use the empirical methods such as testing, observation,
quasi-experiment and survey to investigate the impact of Facebook learning opportunities forspeaking skills development in the experimental group. The statistical methods, descriptive andinferential statistics as well as independent samples t-test, were utilised for the evaluation of
the quasi-experiment results.
Participants
The research was carried out during the first semester of the 2020-2021 academic year at
Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University. The participants (N=116) were the first-year
undergraduate students who attended the compulsory academic course “Foreign Language”

113

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

(Introduction to Legal English). The permission to conduct the study was obtained from the
University. All the students were informed about the nature of the research and participatedvoluntarily.
Instruments and Research Procedure
The research was carried out in three main stages: pre-experimental stage, experimental
teaching and experimental assessment. During the pre-experimental stage, the researchers
made the sampling of participants. All the first-year students taking the course completed auniform English language proficiency test (pre-test) consisting of two parts: 1) assessing
language knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, reading, listening and writing and 2)
speaking skills. The approximate equality of all the developed general English skills applied atgroups selection was vitally essential for the accuracy of the quasi-experiment prospective
results assessment. Based on the test results, 6 academic groups with approximately equal
proficiency level were selected out of total 12. The selected 6 groups were randomly divided
into the control group (3 academic groups; N=58) and experimental group (3 academic groups;
N=58).
At the stage of experimental teaching, students of the experimental and control groups learnt
the same academic material and were to develop the same speaking competencies determinedin the syllabus of the academic course. The traditional education techniques were used to teachthe control group, while the students of the experimental group were exposed to the learningmaterials posted on the Facebook platform. The aim was to develop their skills in talk astransition, talk as interaction and mediation, and talk as performance. For this reason there wereno risks for students to participate in the experimental teaching. The materials were uploaded
on FB in advance and were previously selected and adapted. The quasi-experiment was focusedon four aspects of developing speaking skills: vocabulary and grammar, discourse
management, interactive communication, and pronunciation. That is why teaching via the
Facebook group was carried out during one semester, a four-month period, and sometimes
several activities were applied depending on the teaching goals. Some FB-related assignments
were given as home tasks. Thus, experimenters applied some principles of the flippedclassroom model. Understanding and remembering as the lowest level of Bloom’s taxonomy
at times took place before a lesson. For example, the introduction of new vocabulary as well
as exposure to the target material to boost students’ interest or make them find additional
information would be taught at the lower levels of the taxonomy. It resulted in the more
efficient upper level application and analysis during the lesson. Continuous assessment ofstudents’ speaking performance progress in various forms depending on the competencies andobjectives took place throughout the semester.
The experimental assessment consisted of several steps. 1) At the end of the semester after theexperimental treatment, the researchers assessed speaking performance of the experimentalgroup and control group students in the form of the post-test which included two sections:monologic and dialogic. The first section was taken individually and required a one-minutetalk on one of the programme topics, such as main modern legal systems and their basic
characteristics or responsibilities of legal professionals in the United States and the UK. The
second was performed in groups of three where students were to discuss some programmerelated controversial issues such as the use of capital punishment or false forced confession.
Cambridge English (B2) assessment scales divided into six bands from 0 to 5 for each criterion(vocabulary and grammar, discourse management, interactive communication, andpronunciation) and descriptors were applied by the researchers. The data was collected,

114

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

analysed and interpreted based on descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation,and inferential statistics such as independent samples t-test by means of the Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS) The comparison between the post test results obtained in control
and experimental groups was made to answer the first research question (RQ1) and verify theauthors’ hypothesis that a Facebook group can be productively used as a ubiquitous learningspace for speaking skills development. 2) All students of the experimental group completed asurvey that was designed to answer the second research question (RQ2). An initialquestionnaire was created after reviewing relevant literature and based on the principles ofreliability (Fowler, 2013). Respondents were asked to answer 5 questions concerning theirgeneral perception and feelings about the use of FB for developing speaking (Q1), increasing
knowledge of legal vocabulary and grammar (Q2), more effective discourse management (Q3),
progressing interactive abilities (Q4), and improving pronunciation (Q5). All items included in
the questionnaire were compiled following the objectives of the research and adopted in similar
previous studies (Rajagopal & Shah, 2021; Qadi, 2021; Kojo, Agyekum & Arthur, 2018).
However, in this study, questioning items explored the five categories of speaking abilities andcertain questions were constructed to cover new opportunities of Facebook that had not been
included in previous research.
In designing and creating the questionnaire, the researchers used a model based on a 5-point
Likert type scale. A pilot testing was conducted on 10 participants to check the questionnaire’s
clarity. To obtain validity, the questionnaire was presented to a group of university professors
from the Department of Foreign Languages of Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University to
get their comments and suggestions. When the original questionnaire was amended and themodifications made, the final questionnaire was presented. The responses were obtained andanalysed, and the number of answers given to each statement was converted to percentages andpresented in the pie charts.
Research Material
To conduct the research the authors designed a set of learning materials aimed at speaking
skills development which included the development of talk as transition, talk as interaction
and mediation, and talk as performance. The new tendencies in EL teaching summarised in the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment –Companion volume (2020) were taken into account. Assignments for talk as transition practiceconcentrated on the ability to convey clear and accurate messages to others with the aim to
inform, describe, confirm, make suggestions, justify an opinion and so forth. Talk asinteraction was developed as a discourse co-constructed by two or more interlocutors aimed atfulfilling the interpersonal and evaluative functions. Among those functions were
understanding an interlocutor, information exchange, maintaining a topic-related conversation,
participation in formal/informal discussions, debates, interviews, and goal-oriented cooperations. The work with talk as mediation focused on the students’ abilities to mediate legal
concepts and texts. It involved the ability to construct new meanings, to adapt new or complex
notions and pass on information in an appropriate and comprehensible form as well as theability to mediate communication (to act as an intermediary in disagreements or facilitate oralinteraction in delicate situations). The tasks for talk as performance centred on the oral report,
presentation-making, and digital storytelling skills. The activities utilised for these objectives
were divided into three main groups.

115

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Language Input Activities
Due to the specific features of Legal English grammar and vocabulary, the researchers first
concentrated on the development of linguistic competence by employing form-oriented input
activities for both intentional and incidental vocabulary and grammar learning. Visual displaysof the vocabulary and grammar rules (ready-made or specially created charts, wordlists,
infographics as well as word clouds) were applied. In addition, quizzes, interactive tests, links
to online vocabulary games and different multimedia format materials were posted on the
Facebook group. A detailed description of this material and used applications was given by theauthors in the previous article (Mykytiuk, Lysytska, & Melnikova,, 2020).
Secondly, the attention was paid to the discourse competence which included: 1) the
development of knowledge and skills connected with the use of cohesion devices, 2) coherence
devices such as conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions to show logical relationships,
or to contrast, to compare, to exemplify, to expand and 3) genres specifics like oral report,
lawyer-client interview. Sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence, for example, toencourage, to agree or disagree, to criticise) were also focused on. The researchers supposedthat information visualisation (charts, infographics, diagrams, descriptive texts) would help todeliver relevant material effectively to facilitate understanding, to perceive patterns easier, toimprove retention, and make the work faster and more productive.
Content-oriented input activities were utilised to introduce the new topic, to provide additional
information, to present opposite viewpoints and to give thought-provoking. Speaking activities
were organised with the posts on the FB group containing topic-related latest news, reference
information, fragments of articles as well as listening and video chunks. For example, a picture/infographic narrating activity. Several sequential pictures or infographics were typically used
for this activity. The teacher provided information on the ways of using the pictures/infographics to create a story, which could be posted as a comment to the post. This comment
could include the necessary vocabulary or grammar structures to use while narrating. The
screenshot of the infographic posted on the Facebook platform for the narrating activity isshown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
The Screenshot of the Infographic Posted on the Facebook Platform for the Infographic
Narrating Activity

116

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Special emphasis was put on the ready-made educational video materials taken from different
sources (Learn Business English, Study Legal English, engVid, Cambridge Law Studio and soforth). Some parts of TV programmes, lectures taken from a number of websites, including
YouTube, TED, Vimeo, Veritasium, as well as official promotional videos of international, EU
and European organisations were used to create interactive materials. Sometimes open-ended
or multiple-choice questions and comments on videos were embedded with the EdPuzzle tool.
They were productively exploited to present topic-related information and to send the video
assignments to students. It helped to provide asynchronous communication and assess theirunderstanding of the material or progress and finally to organise oral practice. The screenshotof the interactive video with the embedded test prepared on the EdPuzzle platform is shown in
Figure 2.
Figure 2
An Interactive Video with the Embedded Test Prepared on Edpuzzle Platform

To work with the topic related content and to practice pronunciation, word stress, intonation,rhythm, fluency and connected utterances the speech shadowing activity was organised withthe posted authentic short video and listening materials. This technique included active
listening to comprehend the speech and repeating what was heard in real-time. The researchers
supposed that this technique would be beneficial for developing listening comprehension, theability to produce speech, to learn new vocabulary, and practice metacognitive monitoringskills. It was employed both as an in-class and out-class assignment. Special attention wasgiven to it when practising talk as performance.
Structured Output Activities. These were partly authentic and partly artificial activities aimed
for the initial stage of spoken production development. The materials posted on the FB platform
provided access to forms or structures that students had to use to practice particular language
or terminology, to obtain missing information, to exchange necessary information and so on.
Primarily talk as transition was practised.
The researchers applied the information gap technique taking into consideration that a need formeaningful communication gives the learners a genuine motivation to speak which usually
results in learning the language more effectively. Information gap activity raised motivation

117

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

for speaking due to real communication and developed learners’ sub-skills such asparaphrasing and clarifying meaning. While performing this activity the learners activated theirprevious knowledge of the topical vocabulary, and acquired new lexical units which they
lacked while making questions. Hence, their speaking skills focused on communicationachievements rather developed.
Students were also asked to use posted tables, Freya models, grids or comparison charts to fillin the gaps basing on what was said by their group mates or read information. In addition, theycreated their charts using different applications (Visme, amCharts, Canva) and posted them on
the FB group for their group mates to complete. The screenshot of the comparison chart postedon the FB group is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3
A Comparison Chart Posted on the FB Group for the Information Gap Activity

The scriptorium technique closely related to the shadowing activity was also applied as classand home assignments. In addition to repeating the information heard from the posted video
and audio materials students were required to write it down. The researchers believed that theuse of more than one sensory organ would help to remember better the pronunciation and thestructure of sentences. Then students were asked to analyse, make a plan of the received
information and create their own reports/utterances following the written examples.
The posted messages, narrated stories, news bulletins, interviews and parts of documentaries
were used to organise such activities as note taking and summarising information orally.
Students indicated agreement or disagreement, responded, and evaluated the information using
provided structures or scales. In addition, they made a list of interview questions, and createda new one according to examples.
In jigsaw activities students could share their knowledge with groupmates. Firstly, students
were divided into small groups that discussed and studied the posted material on a particular
topic and then they were re-shuffled into new groups with representatives from each previous

118

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

group where they shared the information of their original discussion. New groups had tosynthesise and present all the discussed ideas.
Communicative Output Activities
Talk as interaction, mediation and performance were practised using these activities which
helped to progress from reactive to proactive participation. Different communicative language
competences from linguistic to pragmatic and sociolinguistic were developed. Among them
the ability to take the discourse initiative, to intervene politely, to facilitate and manage
collaborative interaction were trained.
Brainstorming was one of these activities which is traditionally based on learners’ contributing
to the free flow of ideas and performed by each learner individually. The researchers posted adebatable topic Capital Punishment: Pros and Contras for brainstorming. It was important for
the researchers to be sure that every learner realised the essence of the topic so it was
accompanied with some prompts and explanations. The list of relevant lexical units was added.
This type of activity facilitated learners’ acquiring new vocabulary and information andactivating passive vocabulary. It provided a link between new and existing knowledge, making
intelligent guesses and motivated students to communicate by allowing them to express ideas
freely without the risk of being criticised, which formed a productive basis for further
discussion of the topic in class.
Expressing opinions / ideas activities were organised with the posted videos or texts oncontroversial topics. For example: Come out with your opinions on the following statement:“The incidence of crime is due to the general state of culture”. Sometimes students were
provided with a link to Pear Deck or Padlet where they could write their ideas and thencomment on them. The more complicated tasks related to this activity were perspective-taking.
Students were asked to support a standpoint even if it was different from their own. They used
the brainstormed ideas or posted materials, expressed a personal response to the posted texts
with controversial ideas as well as analysed and criticised argumentative texts. Social media
bubble analysis was also employed to explain a writer’s or speaker’s ideas or viewpoints.
The Facebook group provided the area to discuss and exchange ideas on topics of general andspecial interest. A discussion was held to conclude or just to summarise the existing ideas. The
researchers employed different in-class discussion activities from developmental discussion topanel discussion and Socratic seminars. The screenshot of the video unit “Prisoners during
Covid: There is not much hope” posted on the FB group for discussion activity is shown in
Figure 4. After viewing the video unit (as a home task assignment) students made the list of
the problems the prisoners mentioned, were asked to find any other problems in various
resources, in comments wrote possible solutions and discussed them in the class.

119

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 4
A Screenshot of the Video Unit Posted on the FB Group for Discussion Activity

Role-play / interview activities were also utilised in the process of ubiquitous FB-mediatedlearning. A teacher provided a theme to students and with the help of a Facebook link they
were redirected to the quiz which presented the ideas and brief information with possible
questions to the interviewee. The link to the video sample of an interview with a famous
defence lawyer also helped the students to realise not only the content but the style, language,and life hacks they should use. Interview techniques allowed stimulating the students to be
active and communicate freely taking the roles of an interviewer and interviewee.
Story completion as a free-speaking and creative activity was organised by researchers byposting on the Facebook group a text on committing a certain crime. The text contained several
initial sentences aimed to picture the basic circumstances of an event. The individual pre-classtask for the learners was to predict the possible sequence of further events. Learners were topost the essential vocabulary of their story development in a group for everybody’s access.
Such actions gave other students a possibility to be acquainted with potentially unknown lexicalunits. Completing this task helped the learners enhance their speaking skills through activating
topical and new vocabulary. In addition, the students trained grammar patterns application, as
well as demonstrated creativity.
Digital story narrating was a group assignment when students were to write scripts and present
ideas orally in short video units. This activity not only improved students’ language andcommunicative competences but also helped to develop their digital literacy as they useddifferent film-making applications and posted their videos. It promoted autonomous learningand made education student-centred and collaborative. The best works participated in theannual digital story contest at the University. A screenshot about this event posted on the FB
group is shown in Figure 5.

120

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 5
A Screenshot of the Post about the Digital Story Contest Posted on the FB Group

Results
The Effectiveness of FB as a Flexible Ubiquitous Learning Space for Developing Speaking
Skills
The employed independent-samples t-test revealed the following results shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Independent-Samples T-Test Results of the Achievement Scores of the Experimental andControl Groups on the Speaking Post Test
Speaking assessment
criteria

EG Mean/SD(n=58)CG Mean/SD(n=58)

t-valuep-value

Vocabulary and grammar

4.241±0.709

3.793±0.744-3.324<0,001

Discourse management

4.086±0.732

3.638±0.693-3.385<0,001

Interactive
communication

4.224±0.702

3.776±0.702-3.439<0,001

Pronunciation

4.19±0.736

3.845±0.745-2.508<0,014

As it is represented in Table I, there is a significant difference between the test achievementscores of control and experimental groups according to all four checked criteria. According to
the “vocabulary and grammar knowledge” criterion t = -3.324, p <0,001; mean score of theexperimental group achievement (= 4.241) is higher than the control group’s achievement(=3.793) score. The outperformance of the experimental group could be attributed to thefrequent exposure to the target vocabulary and grammar rules and patterns in different contexts.
It contributed to intentional and incidental learning. The visual nature of material presentation
possibly was productive for information processing, retention, and retrieval. The uploaded
materials helped to organise real-life context interactional practice in which students were able
to generate the target material performing various assignments.

121

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

According to “discourse management” criterion t = -3.385, p <0.001; mean score ofexperimental group achievement (= 4.086) is better than the control group’s achievement(=3.638) score. More effective discourse management of the experimental group supposedly
was achieved by explicit visualised teaching of cohesion and coherence devices andexemplified teaching of different genres specifics, conversational principles, paralinguisticfeatures, and linguistic means of conversational functions. Provision with a wide authentic
context could help expand knowledge on the topic, produce topic-related extended utterancesand practice accomplishment of various strategic and other functions important for talk astransition, interaction, mediation, and performance in organised guided and free speaking
activities.
According to “interactive communication” criterion t = -3 .439, p <0.001; mean score ofexperimental group achievement (= 4.224) is higher than the control group’s achievement(=3.776) score. It may be suggested that exposure to authentic and educational video and audio
conversations for both in-class and out-class activities might have resulted in better receptionof interaction patterns and subsequent more productive practice of interpersonal and evaluative
functions in talks as interaction and mediation by the experimental group.
According to “pronunciation” criterion t = -2.508, p <0.001; mean score of the experimentalgroup achievement (= 4.19) is better than the control group’s achievement (=3.845) score.
Listening to authentic English in posted real world audios and videos provided students withnatural sound pronunciation, word stress, intonation, and rhythm which they could imitate laterin oral practice. Probably it led to better achievement.
The researchers suppose that the method and materials applied in the quasi-experiment
facilitated the elimination of the usually emerging difficulties in teaching speaking. Speaking
activities organised with the posts on the FB group aimed to smooth the learners’ possible
speaking problems. Language input activities – form-oriented and content-oriented –concentrated on one of the main causes of speaking difficulties which is lack of grammar andvocabulary knowledge. Structured and communicative output activities were intended todevelop the learners’ skills to produce utterances and progress from reactive to proactive
discourse participation. As p-values according to all assessment criteria were less than the valueof probability (0.05), it could be stated that the treatment used on the experimental groupenhanced students’ achievement, which supports our hypothesis about the effectiveness of thesuggested methodology.
Learners’ Impressions of the Successfulness of the Use of FB Activities for Developing
Their Speaking Skills
The survey addressed to 58 students of the experimental group aimed at finding out the
impression of students about the effectiveness of FB work for shaping speaking skills showed
the following results. The first descriptive question (“Has Facebook activity helped to improveyour speaking skills?”) was asked about students’ general acceptance and perceptions on theuse of FB in developing speaking skills. The research demonstrates that a rather big quantityof students (60%: 40% ‒ Agree and 20% ‒ Strongly agree) considered that FB helped them toimprove speaking skills. Only 3% of students strongly rejected the benefits, 10% express
disagreement to the efficiency of FB work. 27% of respondents hesitated about the advantages
or disadvantages of FB activity for improving speaking skills.
The participants indicated that learning via FB is more motivating. One student commented,

122

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

I liked the topic and the task we performed. It made me think and argue with the group.
(S1)
The students highlighted the convenience and easy access to materials, expressing the overall
positive impression of the learning by FB but some of them found the speed of the studying
process too high, stating “I tried to make notes of all unknown words, but I didn’t manage. It’sdifficult to watch the video, make notes, learn new words to perform the task.” (S2)
Figure 6
Has Facebook Activity Helped to Improve Your Speaking Skills?
3%
20%

10%
Strongly disagree
Disagree
27%

Neither agree nor
disagreeAgree

40%
Strongly agree

Questions 2-5 were aimed at investigating if separate English-speaking skills were successfully
developed via the use of FB, according to the students’ opinion. These English speaking skills
correspond to the basic speaking qualifications according to the CEFR and are the descriptorsof evaluation of students’ strengths and weaknesses in speaking activities.
Question 2 (Have you increased your knowledge and skills of using legal vocabulary on
familiar topics and specific grammar with the use of Facebook activity?) corresponded to theGrammar and Vocabulary Qualification. The result showed that 58 per cent of respondents(40% ‒ Agree and 18% ‒ Strongly agree) confirmed that they gained more knowledge in legal
terminology and its use. The answers concerning this question revealed that although most
students saw the benefits of FB use to achieve educational goals, 5% strongly disagreed to theincreasing knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, while 25% were not sure about it. One
participant commented that “during the class we had the opportunity to increase our
vocabulary with specific terms. If I didn’t’ know some expression I could immediately click on
the word and look it up, and when I heard it several times, I already knew it.” (S3). Anotherstated, “I heard and tried to learn some words, but after the lesson, I had to work on my own
to remember it. Otherwise, I forgot all of them.” (S4)123

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 7
Have You Increased Your Knowledge and Skills of Using Legal Vocabulary on Familiar Topics
and Specific Grammar with the Use of Facebook Activity?

5%
18%

Strongly disagree

12%Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
25%

Agree

40%

Strongly agree

Question 3 (Can you more easily produce extended spoken texts and contribute new
information due to the use of FB activity? Can you more freely express your ideas?)corresponds to the Discourse Management Qualification. The rationale of this question was tofigure out if students benefit from FB activities for better discourse management. The findingsof this question revealed that 51% of the students approved that the FB tasks were likely to beefficient for developing production skills while 7% expressed the ineffectiveness. Fifteen % of
the respondents also disagreed that they gained new skills due to the use of FB.
Figure 8
Can You More Easily Produce Extended Spoken Texts and Contribute New Information due tothe Use of FB Activity?

7%

Strongly disagree

20%
15%

Disagree
Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree

31%

27%

Strongly agree124

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The interviewees expressed a preference of learning by means of FB, commenting that a morenatural language environment made them learn faster, comprehend and remember various
useful cohesion devices for more relevant and long speech, “I isolated some ideas, tried tomemorise the wording, and when I saw how I can comment and quickly respond to thereplicas of others, I felt like a part of the discussion! I did it." (S4)Question 4 (Can you receive and more easily exchange the information, communicate actively
with others with the constant use of FB activity? Can you participate in spontaneousconversations on specific topics?) corresponded to the Interactive Communication
Qualification. The results showed that 52% (34% ‒ Agree and 18% ‒ Strongly agree) believedthat FB had a big impact on the students’ level of speaking. As the results displayed, 25% (11%‒ Strongly disagree and 14% ‒ Disagree) of students indicated that FB activity had not helped
them in developing interactive speaking abilities. The remaining 26% were not certain about
the effectiveness of the work. The participants reported that they became more engaged, which
made them participate in communication more freely, “I found it really great to have theopportunity to discuss with friends about the topics that concern all of us. We use the net, we
can learn and chat at the same time.” (S5)
Figure 9
Can You Receive and More Easily Exchange the Information, Communicate Actively with
Others with the Constant Use of FB Activity? Can You Participate in Spontaneous
Conversations on Specific Topics?

15%

11%

14%

Strongly disagree
Disagree

34%

Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree

26%

Strongly agree

Question 5 (Have you improved your pronunciation using FB tasks?) corresponded to thePronunciation Qualification. It was designed to find out the students’ point of view about theconnection between FB work and the improvement of pronunciation. The research showed that
only 18% of the respondents definitely admitted the better results, 35% accepted the influence.
The answers concerning this question revealed that not so many respondents ‒ 7% strongly
rejected the improvement in their pronunciation while 30% of them were uncertain about the
impact.

125

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 10
Have You Improved Your Pronunciation Using FB Tasks?

18%

7%
10%

Strongly disagree
Disagree35%30%

Neither agree nor
disagree
Agree
Strongly agree

The research showed that most students considered FB activity useful for the development of
all four speaking qualifications. The increasing vocabulary and grammar knowledge forcommunication was indicated by the majority of informants. The more uncertain respondents
were about the FB effectiveness for pronunciation. The students indicated that they could
imitate the pronunciation of speakers and remember the intonation, “It’s great to memorise thepronunciation when I hear it naturally in speech. I even can remember the voice!” (S6)
Discussion and Limitations
This experiment-based research contributes to ascertaining the hypothesis on the usefulness ofthe FB environment as a flexible ubiquitous learning space for foreign language speaking skills
development which is proved by the results. In this research, the authors are in alignment withthe results of the recent research conducted by a number of scholars who verified theadvantages of social media for ubiquitous learning mentioning that social media are “sociallyand participatory Web, in which users are not just content consumers but also content
generators, often in a collaborative manner” (Li et al., 2016). Social media together with mobile
learning provide learners with constant connectivity, foster collaborative learning, and enable
authentic learning on the move (Gikas & Grant, 2013). Hasnine et al. (2020) stated that smartly
generated learning contexts are significant for an intelligent ubiquitous learning environment.
The importance of adaptation of a ubiquitous learning space employing its “plasticity”(flexibility) capacity by content and application filtering, polymorphic presentation, andcontent ranking was underlined by Bomsdorf (2005).
The significance of the networked nature of learning for the modern generation when students
develop their personal learning network of human and academic resources stressed by the
supporters of connectivism was taken into account in this study. Montebello and Camilleri(2018) stated that social media give the opportunity to connect, communicate, participate, andbe productive and experience satisfaction from accomplishments in a highly accessible way.
In higher education, the experience and maturity of students help to take better advantage ofthese possibilities. The findings of this research are also consistent with the studies of thepositive effect of Facebook activities on enhancing oral communication skills by AlSaleem

126

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

(2018) and Barbosa (2017). During the preparation for the study, a large number of scientificstudies were analysed that provided data on the effective use of Facebook for educational
purposes, but there are also some works that demonstrate the shortcomings of using thisplatform. The negative aspects of the use of FB are the addiction and distraction of students'
attention to the virtual content of social media. Some researchers also highlight the fact thatstudents and pupils spend more time in the virtual world, and this negatively affects bothlearning and health behaviour (Lau, 2017; Singh, 2014; Abbasi et al, 2021) Summarising thenegative impacts of Facebook use for education identified by various researchers, Nadeem(Nadeem, 2020) mentions Facebook addiction and lack of concentration in studies. The
shortcomings of Facebook as a learning tool found by the scholars, present mostly
psychological aspects, while only a few researches have been found to indicate thedisadvantages of FB use for developing speaking skills. Namely, Kabilan et al. (2010), Omer
et al. (2012), and Selwyn (2007) state that Facebook does not provide an acceptableenvironment for academic language teaching and learning, confusing those learners who are
not mature enough to be aware of the difference between formal and informal language.
Although some research cautions that students can employ unconventional language codesfrom Facebook (Nwala & Tamunobelema, 2019), this fact does not detract from the benefitsof using this platform to develop speaking skills, as the current study shows.
Notwithstanding the merits of this study, some limitations must be identified. This study islimited by the implementation period (one semester). The research was conducted on the firstyear students of the National Law University of Ukraine, thus the experiment does not present
the results of all the population of the University.
Recommendations
Promotion of using the Facebook social network for academic purposes and scientific research
can be useful in higher education. Educators should comprehend how students use social media
technologies and then integrate them into students’ lives concerning the matter of overcoming
educational anxiety and assisting students facing challenges. The use of FB provides a uniqueperspective for ubiquitous learning and teaching outside the classroom as well, but the role ofthe teacher remains necessary for continuous instruction, explanation, commenting, andratings. This issue should be further explained and investigated in terms of the amount of timenecessary for such a project and how reasonable another investigation might be. Furthermore,
the research could also be completed on how certain speaking activities could be performed
with the use of Facebook. Another potential research study could pertain to how the otherlanguage skills such as reading, listening, and writing might be gained with the use of
Facebook, and for which of them the use of social media is more beneficial. Future inquiry canalso focus on the relationship between Facebook use and blended learning during pandemics
and crises by applying the suggested model.
Conclusions
The present research shows that the Facebook group may be considered an effective learningspace for speaking skills development. The suggested technique which employs the form ofeducation that covers the principles of ubiquitous learning is quite efficacious, which is
confirmed by statistical data obtained during the quasi-experiment and the survey of students.
The achievement scores of the post-test assessing students’ speaking skills showed a greater
success of the experimental group in comparison with the control one in terms of expanding
vocabulary, increasing English language grammar literacy, developing interactive skills,

127

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

discourse management and pronunciation. The authors suppose it can be explained by thepermanent and immediate access to a variety of contexts and resources enriching learners withlinguistic and contextual knowledge. Such a result can also be determined by a living authentic
environment that makes it possible to organise task-oriented and contextual activities that
stimulate students to research various problems, to express oneself more freely and creatively
and to encourage communication. Also, Facebook space is used as a flexible learning
environment that provides learners with different media resources, uploaded materials, links tovarious applications, and other social networking opportunities that help to correlate
educational programme objectives with digital age learners’ interests.

128

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Abedini, F., & Chalak, A.= (2017). Investigating the inhibitive factors in the speaking of
Iranian EFL learners. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 4(6),82–97. http://www.jallr.com/index.php/JALLR/article/view/636.
Abrams, Z. I. (2003). The effect of synchronous and asynchronous CMC on oral performancein German. Modern Language Journal, 87(2).
157–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00184.
Adam, M. A. A. (2016). Role of vocabulary learning strategies in promoting EFL learners
performance [Doctoral dissertation, Sudan University of Science and Technology].
SUST Repository. http://repository.sustech.edu/handle/123456789/15469
Ajayi, I. A. (2008). Towards effective use of information and communication technology forteaching in Nigerian colleges of education. Asian Journal of Information Technology,
7(5), 210–214. https://medwelljournals.com/abstract/?doi=ajit.2008.210.214.
Al Hosni, S. (2014). Speaking difficulties encountered by young EFL learners. International
Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature (IJSELL), 2(6), 22–30.
https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijsell/v2-i6/4.pdf.
AlDahdouh, A., Osório, A., & Caires, S. (2015). Understanding knowledge network, learningand connectivism. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance
Learning, 12(10), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.46186.
Ally, M. (2008). Foundations of educational theory for online learning. In The Theory andPractice of Online Learning. Athabasca, AB: Athabasca University Press, 15–44.
AlSaleem, B. (2018). The effect of Facebook activities on enhancing oral communication
skills for EFL learners. International Education Studies, 11(5), 144–153.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1178339.
Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. The
International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12(3), 80–97.
https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v11n5p144
Barbosa, C. (2017). English language learning through a Facebook group: activities fordeveloping oral skills. Porto Alegre, 8(2), 220–233.
https://doi.org/10.15448/2178-3640.2017.2.28205.
Bomsdorf, B. (2005). Adaptation of learning spaces: supporting ubiquitous learning in higher
distance education. In Davis, N., Kirste, T., Schumann, H. (Ed.), Mobile Computing
and Ambient Intelligence: The Challenge of Multimedia. Internationales Begegnungs‒ und Forschungszentrum fuer Informatik (IBFI), Schloss Dagstuhl, Germany.
https://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2005/371/pdf/05181.BomsdorfBirgit.Paper.37
1.pdf.
Bygstad, B., Øvrelid, E., Ludvigsen, S. & Dæhlen, M. (2022). From dual digitalization todigital learning space: Exploring the digital transformation of higher education.
Computers & Education, 182, 104463.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104463
Cook, V. (2016). Second language learning and language teaching. New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315883113

129

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Council of Europe (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume, Council of Europe Publishing.
Strasbourg. https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-forlanguages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4
Downes, S. (2010, October 26). What is democracy in education? Half an Hour.
http://halfanhour.blogspot.com/2010/10/what-is-democracy-in-education.html
Downes, S. (2012). Connectivism and connective knowledge: Essays on meaning andlearning networks. Retrieved 10 May 2021, fromhttp://www.downes.ca/files/books/Connective_Knowledge-19May2012.pdf
Egbert, J. (2005). CALL essentials: Principles and practice in CALL classroom. Alexandria,
Va: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Fowler, F. (2013) Survey research methods. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE
Gallardo-Echenique, E. E., Marqués-Molías, L., Bullen, M., & Strijbos, J.-W. (2015). Let’stalk about digital learners in the digital era. The International Review of Research inOpen and Distributed Learning, 16(3). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v16i3.2196
Gikas, J., & Grant, M.M. (2013). Mobile computing devices in higher education: Student
perspectives on learning with cellphones, smartphones & social media. Internet High.
Educ., 19, 18–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.06.002.
Gruzd, A., Haythornthwaite, C., Paulin, D., Gilbert, S., Del Valle, M.E. (2018). Uses andgratifications factors for social media use in teaching: Instructors’ perspectives. New
Media & Society 20, 475–494. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816662933
Hamad, M.M. (2017). Using WhatsApp to enhance students’ learning of English language“Experience to Share”. Higher Education Studies, 7(4), 74–87.
http://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v7n4p74
Hamidah, F. N. (2017). Using Facebook group in teaching listening of English foraccounting. Jurnal Linguistik Terapan, [S.l.], 7(2), 40–43.
https://doi.org/10.2991/iconelt-17.2018.62.
Hasnine, M.N., Akçapınar, G., Mouri, K., & Ueda, H. (2020). An intelligent ubiquitous
learning environment and analytics on images for contextual factors analysis. Applied
Sciences, 10(24), 8996. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10248996.
Holubnycha, L., Kostikova, I., Kravchenko, H., Simonok, V., & Serheieva, H. (2019). Cloudcomputing for university students’ language learning. Revista Romaneasca pentru
Educatie Multidimensionala, 11(4), 55–69. https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/157.
Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics, 21, 112-126. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0267190501000071.
Hwang, G.-J., Tsai, C.-C., & Yang, S. J. H. (2008). Criteria, strategies and research issues ofcontext-aware ubiquitous learning. Educational Technology & Society, 11(2), 81–91.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.11.2.81.
John, E., Yunus, M. (2021). A systematic review of social media integration to teachspeaking. Sustainability, 13, 9047. https:// doi.org/10.3390/su13169047
Kabilan, M. K., Ahmad, N., & Abidin, M. J. Z. (2010). Facebook: An online environment forlearning of English in institutions of higher education? The Internet and Higher
Education, 13(4), 179–187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.07.003

130

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Kabilan, M. K., & Zahar, T. Z. (2016). Enhancing students’ vocabulary knowledge using theFacebook environment. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 5(2), 217–230.
https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v5i2.1346.
Kojo, D., Agyekum, B., & Arthur, B. (2018) Exploring the effects of social media on thereading culture of students in Tamale Technical University. Journal of Education andPractice, 7(9), 47–56. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234641415.pdf
Kop, R. (2011). The challenges to connectivist learning on open online networks: Learning
experiences during a massive open online course. The International Review of
Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(3), 19–38.
https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v12i3.882.
Lampe, C., D. Wohn, J. Vitak, N. Ellison & R. Wash. (2011). Students’ use of Facebook fororganizing collaborative classroom activities. International Journal of ComputerSupported Collaborative Learning, 6, 329–347.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-011-9115-y.
Lamy, M. N., & Hampel, R. (2007). Online communication in language learning andteaching. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230592681
Lau, W. (2017) Effects of social media usage and social media multitasking on the academic
performance of university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 286–291.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.043.
Li, Q., Lau, R. W. H., Popescu, E., Rao, Y., Leung, H., & Zhu, X. (2016). Social media for
ubiquitous learning and adaptive tutoring [Guest editors' introduction]. IEEE
Multimedia, 23(1), 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1109/mmul.2016.12.
Liburd, J. J., Christensen, I.-M.F. (2013). Using web 2.0 in higher tourism education. Journalof Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 12(1), 99–108.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2012.09.002
Loan, T., & Tuyen, L. (2016). Factors causing students' inhibition in English speaking
performance. International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature,8(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.20431/2347-3134.0804001.
Malik Abbasi, M., Lashari, A., Kumar. H., Khan, S., & Rathore, K. (2021). Impact ofFacebook on the trends of university students. Journal of Social Sciences and Media
Studies, 2(3), 29 – 37.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352477002_
Marleni, L., Asilestari, P. (2018). The effect of using social media: WhatsApp toward thestudents speaking skill. Journal of English Language and Education, 3(2), 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.31004/jele.v3i2.6
Megawati, F., & Mandaran, V. (2016, Agustus 30). Speaking problems in English
communication. The 1st English language teaching learning conference (ELTIC): Its
trends of curriculum challenges to face Asean economic community, Purworejo.
https://bit.ly/2T0tEe9
Minalla, A.A. (2018). The effect of WhatsApp chat group in enhancing EFL learners’ verbal
interaction outside classroom contexts. English Language Teaching, 11(3), 1–7.
http://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v11n3p1
Montebello, M., & Camilleri, V. (2018). The role of social media in higher education.
International Journal of Learning and Teaching, 4(4), 311–317.
https://doi.org/10.18178/ijlt.4.4.311-317.

131

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Mykytiuk, S., Lysytska, O. & Melnikova, T. (2020). Facebook group as an educational
platform for foreign language acquisition. Postmodern Openings, 11(1) Supl. 1, 131–157. https://doi.org/10.18662/po/11.1sup1/127.
Nadeem, S., Dhool, M., Hassan, M., Butt, R. Rasheed A., & Bashir, A. (2020). A Systematic
review on the impact of Facebook usage on academic performance. Reviews ofManagement Sciences, 1(II), 17–39.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348160663
Ng, C. F. (2021). The physical learning environment of online distance learners in higher
education – A conceptual model. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 635117.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635117
Nwala, M., & Tamunobelema, I. (2019). The social media and language use: The case of
Facebook. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 10(4), 9–13.
http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.10n.4p.9
Oberländer, M. & Bipp, T. (2021). Do digital competencies and social support boost work
engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic? Computers in Human Behaviour.
130(9), 107–172. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.778174
Ogata, H., Matsuka, Y., El-Bishouty, M. M., & Yano, Y. (2009). LORAMS: Linking
physical objects and videos for capturing and sharing learning experiences towards
ubiquitous learning. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation,
3(4), 337–350. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijmlo.2009.027452.
Omar, H., Embi, M. A., & Yunus, M. M. (2012). ESL learners’ interaction in an Online
discussion via Facebook. Asian Social Science, 8(11), 67–74.
https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v8n11p67
Qadi, A. (2021) The role of Facebook in enhancement of undergraduates’ receptive skills at a
Saudi university. English Language Teaching, 8(14), 1916–4750
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v14n8p19
Rahayu, N. (2015). An analysis of students’ problems in speaking English daily language
program at Husnul Khotimah Islamic Boarding School [Bachelor thesis, IAIN Syekh
Nurjati Cirebon]. IAIN Syekh Nurjati Cirebon Repository.
http://repository.syekhnurjati.ac.id/2901/
Rajagopal, K., & Shah, P. M. (2021). Students’ perceptions of using Facebook in ESL
classroom. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social
Sciences, 11(11), 1327–1349. DOI:10.6007/IJARBSS/v11-i11/11088
Robin, B. R. (2016). The power of digital storytelling to support teaching and learning.
Digital Education Review, 30, 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1344/der.2016.30.17-29.
Rodrigues, P., & Vethamani, M. (2015). The impact of online learning in the development of
speaking skills. Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Education, 5(1), 43–67.
https://university2.taylors.edu.my/jire/downloads/vol5_04.pdf.
Rumiyati & Seftika (2018). Anxiety of speaking English in English foreign language (EFL)
class. Journal of English Education. Literature and Linguistics, 1(1), 46–61.
https://ojs.stkippgri-lubuklinggau.ac.id/index.php/JEELL/article/view/37.
Saputra, J. B. (2018). An analysis of students’ speaking anxiety toward their speaking skill.
Premise: Journal of English Education and Applied Linguistics. 7, 111–123.
http://dx.doi.org/10.24127/pj.v7i1.1334

132

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Singh, D. (2014) A systematic review of literature on effect of Internet use on students in
India. Online International Interdisciplinary Research Journal, IV, 180–193.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dhyan-Singh-2/publication/273538253_
Selwyn, N. (2007). The use of computer technology in university teaching and learning: a
critical perspective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23(2), 83–94.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00204.x
Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International
Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning. 2(1), 3–10.
https://www.itdl.org/Journal
Slisko, J. (2021). Facebook-supported tasks for exploring critical and creative thinking in aphysics teaching course. Knowledge Management & E-Learning, 13(1), 58–82.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1294714.
Susilawati, M. (2017). Students’ speaking problems in English presentation. Jurnal
Pendidican Dan Pemdelajaran Khatulistiwa, 6(6), 1–12.
https://jurnal.untan.ac.id/index.php/jpdpb/article/view/20488.
Tudini, V. (2003). Using native speakers in chat. Language, Learning and Technology, 7(3),141–159. http://dx.doi.org/10125/25218.
Wang, Y. & Cao, Y. & Gong, S. & Wang, Z. & Li, N. & Ai, L. (2022). Interaction andlearning engagement in online learning: The mediating roles of online learning selfefficacy and academic emotions. Learning and Individual Differences, 94, 102–128.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102128
Yilmaz, Y., & Granena, G. (2010). The effects of task type in synchronous computer
mediated communication. ReCALL, 22(1), 20–38. doi:10.1017/S0958344009990176.
Zakarneh, B. M. (2018). Effectiveness of e-learning mode for teaching English language in
Arab universities. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English
Literature, 7(7), 171–181. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.7n.7p.171.

Zheng, B., Niiya, M., Warschauer, M. (2015). Wikis and collaborative learning inhigher education. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 24(3), 357–374.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2014.948041
Corresponding author: Svitlana Mykytiuk
Email: s.s.mykytyuk@nlu.edu.ua

133

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

134

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The Utilisation of Peer-Assisted Learning/Mentoring and Translanguaging
in Higher Education
Eleni Meletiadou
London Metropolitan University
UK

135

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
The use of peer-assisted learning/mentoring (PALM) and translanguaging (TRL) as inclusive
learning strategies to support students’ transition into Higher Education and enhance theirwellbeing in the post-Covid era has not been widely explored. Lecturers express their deep
concern about the mental health issues and lack of confidence an increasing number of learners
have faced lately in the UK due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In terms of the present study, 80
undergraduate multilingual students were involved in PALM tasks during which they could
use their first language through translanguaging and English, the target language, for one
academic semester. The main goal was to ensure they had equal opportunities to develop theiroral fluency while preparing group presentations. Paired T-tests were used to compare students’
pre- to post-tests scores. In terms of this mixed-methods case study, the researcher also
analyzed students’ reflective reports and the anonymous feedback learners provided
thematically to explore their attitudes. Findings indicated that these two approaches enabledstudents to improve their academic performance significantly although learners felt uneasy at
the beginning. The combination of these two methods created a psychologically safe space as
learners gradually developed a personal relationship with their peers. In response to the needfor more information, as regards the use of PALM activities and TRL with multilingual
learners, this study intends to contribute student voice since the inclusion of learner opinion
has been minimal. Recommendations for the successful implementation of these two
instructional approaches in undergraduate courses and suggestions for further research areprovided.
Keywords: peer-assisted learning/mentoring, translanguaging, well-being, presentation skills,
undergraduate students, inclusion

136

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Higher Education (HE) has increasingly moved away from an elitist and exclusive mentality,
focused on power and privilege claims, and towards a more egalitarian and inclusive mindset,
based on justice and human rights claims (Blessinger & Stefani, 2017). In view of the call forHigher Education Institutions (HEI) to create support mechanisms to help learners adjust to
university requirements, it is crucial to consider arguments that the majority of learners’ failure
or withdrawal tends to indicate challenges in adapting to the environment rather than learning
difficulties (Haverila, Haverila & McLaughlin, 2020). Moreover, international students face
additional problems as they speak English as a foreign/second or even third language (Gorter& Cenoz, 2017).
Peer Assisted Learning/Mentoring (PALM) has become prominent in educational learning andresearch (Hobson, 2020). It provides a setting for learners to work together while interacting
and solving problems, reflecting on examples and the content of class sessions, and exchanging
feedback (Hilsdon, 2014). PALM can be defined as an instructional intervention in terms ofwhich learners interact with each other and depend on one another to enhance theirunderstanding of the content of lectures and seminars and develop their autonomy as learners.
Whilst PALM improves students’ academic performance by fostering a deep approach tolearning in which individual learners can develop high level cognitive capacities, it also offers
the medium through which learners can increase their autonomy (Louden, McComb, Moore &Cole, 2019) offering and receiving emotional support.
The benefits of PALM as regards the enhancement of students’ presentation skills and overall
well-being have been chronicled by researchers (Hobson, 2020). The present research was
conducted with the goal of examining the effectiveness of a well-developed university-based
PALM intervention design to foster inclusivity and help the diverse student cohort, including
low-achieving students and international students, at a University in the UK amidst the
COVID-19 pandemic. The research outcomes are expected to make an important contribution
to the context field of language education by offering a rigorous assessment of the impact of
the use of PALM as an inclusive learning technique in undergraduate practice (Beatty, Acar &Cheatham, 2021). Additionally, there are few studies which explore the combined use oftranslanguaging (TRL) and PALM as a means of promoting inclusion and supporting students’
well-being in the post-COVID-19 era in HE (Di Sabato & Hughes, 2021).
This article intends to examine if the combined use of PALM and TRL, as inclusive learning
strategies which promote equality and cooperation among learners in HEI, can improveundergraduate multilingual students’ presentation skills and well-being even in the midst of the
COVID-19 pandemic. These strategies promote involvement as they allow more international
students to engage actively with their peers. For instance, in terms of TRL, these learners canuse words and phrases from their own mother tongue when they find it difficult to express theirideas in the target language. In terms of PALM, international students can be supported by
local students, who can help them express their ideas more accurately, and, thus, become more
confident. Consequently, these two approaches foster tolerance and inclusion for all learners,
irrespective of their (linguistic) background. The study aspires to investigate the following
research questions:
1. What is the impact of PALM and TRL on undergraduate multilingual students’ oral
fluency and presentation skills?
2. What are the attitudes of undergraduate multilingual students towards PALM and TRL?
3. What is the impact of PALM and TRL on multilingual students’ wellbeing?

137

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The remainder of the article will explore the latest literature regarding the use of PALM andTRL as inclusive learning strategies to enhance students’ presentation skills and well-being
with the anticipated outcome being to add to the body of information that addresses issues
related to academic success for language learners especially in terms of the current pandemic(Tigert, Groff, Martin-Beltrán, Peercy & Silverman, 2019). Subsequently, the methodology ofthe study and its findings will be examined and discussed taking into consideration previous
research findings. Finally, conclusions will be drawn, the limitations of this research study willbe identified, and suggestions for further research as well as ideas for the effective applicationof PALM and TRL will be provided.
Literature Review
The Use of PALM and TRL in HE
PALM, as an educational and instructional method, has been present since Ancient Greek
philosophers, like Socrates, began discussing their ideas in small groups. It refers to students’learning from and with students (Boud & Cohen, 2014). Collaborative learning has been
considered as an important pedagogy in HE, as it paves the way for students to interact among
themselves in small groups (Cabrera, Crissman, Bernal, Nora, Terenzini & Pascarella, 2002).
Taking into consideration the multilingual and multicultural student cohorts in HEI nowadays,
several studies have explored TRL, which is defined as the deployment of a speaker’s full
linguistic repertoire without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politicallydefined boundaries of named, usually national and state, languages (Otheguy, García & Reid,
2015, p. 281). This concept is increasingly influential in HE in English dominant contexts(Andrei, Kibler & Salerno, 2020). However, more studies on the pedagogical implications ofcombining TRL methods and PALM in HE are necessary, especially in situations where
English is the main language of HE (Rodriguez, Musanti & Cavazos, 2021).
Several researchers have investigated the use of TRL to date. Fang and Liu (2020) exploredthe impact of TRL on multilingual students using a mixed-methods approach, together withclassroom observations, semi-structured interviews, and a questionnaire. They reported thatlearners held a neutral-to-positive stance towards TRL practices. Lecturers also recognised theefficacy of TRL for content learning as it seemed to enhance understanding, strengthen
students’ social relations, and improve learning for undergraduates with lower English
competence. The study revealed that there was some discomfort with the application of TRL
and exaggerated use of the mother tongue (L1). Despite the instability of L1 as a resource forsubject learning, the researchers suggested that educators and students had to assume an openminded plurilingual approach to language learning and teaching.
Moreover, Motlhaka and Makalela (2016) examined the use of TRL in a university writingclass based on Bakhtin and Vygotsky’s sociocultural framework on first year BA students in
Education. They claimed that interactive instruction raised learners’ awareness as they formed
their own distinct voices in writing using compensation and various social techniques when
they moved between L1 and L2 writing. Despite the small sample of the study, the researchers
argued that TRL was a suitable framework for academic literacy and that it offered excellent
conditions for interactive pedagogy in multilingual settings.

138

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The Impact of PALM and TRL on Multilingual Students’ Oral Fluency, Presentation
Skills, and Wellbeing
The present study also aspired to explore the influence of PALM on students’ presentations
skills. Many modules in undergraduate courses require learners to prepare an oral presentation
either alone or as part of a group. International and multilingual students often complain thatinterference from their L1 or from other languages they have mastered prevents them frompreparing high-quality oral presentations (Denizer, 2017). They also confess that they do notunderstand the instructions of the tasks or the main concepts that they are asked to present andelaborate on (Meier, 2017).
PALM, when combined with TRL, seems to provide a viable solution to most of the problems
that students encounter as they develop their understanding of the theory with the help of theirpeers finding support and useful advice regarding how to overcome the multiple barriers they
face as multilingual learners (Caruso, 2018). Using their L1 also allows them to feel
psychologically safe as they can resort to their L1 if they cannot think of a word or a phrase in
the L2 (Charamba & Zano, 2019). Various researchers have reported their findings regarding
the impact of TRL and PALM on learners’ presentation skills but not amidst the COVID-19
crisis which has inflicted a heavy burden on students’ mental health and overall wellbeing.
Kohls, Baldofski, Moeller, Klemm and Rummel-Kluge (2021) reported that university students
in Germany who participated in their study seemed to be vulnerable and suffer from elevateddepressive symptoms due to the pandemic.
Furthermore, Mbirimi-Hungwe and McCabe (2020) used a “transcollab” model of teachingcombining TRL and collaborative learning to support learners’ understanding of academic
concepts. The aim was to assist them to comprehend academic texts. Results showed thatthrough collaborative learning, TRL can be used to improve plurilingual students’ mastery ofconcepts. Although the study involved South African medical students only, the researchers
argued that TRL can be utilized in cooperative learning tasks to enhance deeper understandingof the content, major theories and concepts.
Dalziel and Guarda (2021) also explored student TRL practices in the English as a Medium of
Instruction (EMI) classroom at the University of Padova in Italy. In terms of this study, learners
were invited to actively engage in group work or oral presentations, to unveil the possible useof spontaneous TRL practices. Despite the common belief in the benefits of an English-only
approach, this study revealed that in many EMI classes both lecturers and students activate
TRL practices. The researchers of this research confirmed that TRL is intended as the strategic
use that multilingual speakers make of their entire linguistic range so as to facilitate theeffective learning of content (Canagarajah & Said, 2011).
Additionally, Chester, Burton, Xenos, and Elgar (2013) examined the efficacy of a mentoring
programme assisting the transition of first year undergraduates at a university in Australia.
There were 241 first year students who participated in and provided data for the evaluation
study. The researchers reported considerable positive change in three of the five aspects oflearner success, with a significant increase in deep and strategic learning methods, and areduction in surface learning. Although the effects demonstrated in this research could be theresult of maturation, the outcomes indicate that proactive implementation in the first semesterof the first year in a university setting can enhance crucial aspects of learning and wellbeing,lead to positive changes in academic self-efficacy and academic performance, and increase thesuccess rate for undergraduate students.

139

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

As can be seen, there appear to be some gaps in the literature regarding the impact of PALM
and TRL on undergraduate multilingual students’ well-being and presentation skills (Back,
Han & Weng, 2020). Although the use of PALM is associated with increased academic
performance (Hodgson, Benson & Brack, 2015), more studies are necessary to explore the
combined impact of PALM and TRL, when used as inclusive learning strategies with
undergraduate language learners in HEI in the UK especially amidst crises, such as the COVID19 pandemic (Mbirimi-Hungwe & McCabe, 2020). The present study intends to add to thebody of information that addresses issues related to academic success for language learners
using a case study and data from anonymous student feedback, reflective reports and focus
group discussions. It examined the use of PALM and TRL as innovative inclusive instructional
techniques with undergraduate multilingual students in HEI and explored their impact on theselearners’ presentation skills and well-being amidst the unprecedented COVID-19 crisis.
Methodology
Participants
The study under consideration involved 80 multilingual students (Table 1), aged 19-27, whoparticipated in well-structured PALM activities for an entire academic semester (12 weeks)
and a lecturer who conducted this research. The goal was to develop learners’ presentation
skills, self-confidence, and oral fluency to perform well in their final assignment which was anindividual oral presentation. The researcher received ethics approval from the university andinformed consent from the students. Students had just joined the university after the COVID19 pandemic and needed support as many of them either faced mental health issues or had
caring responsibilities. Participants were multilingual and multicultural learners (i.e., students
whose one parent was from Italy and the other from Poland) and were intimidated at the thoughtof presenting to an audience (Table 1).
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Students

GenderOriginStudents

Frequency

Male
FemaleLocal students
International students (i.e., French, Italian, Spanish, Polish)

33
47
24
56

Students attended three one-hour classes per week. The instructor asked learners to offer
anonymous feedback every 2-3 weeks through Mentimeter. Mentimeter is an online polling
tool frequently used in education to increase classroom engagement and ensure that everyone's
voice is heard (Ożadowicz, 2020). She also held focus group discussions with ten groups ofeight students each time (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2018) using the same prompt questions(Appendix A) to examine whether learners faced any challenges during the implementation
twice with assessments during Weeks 4 and 8. These discussions provided valuable insights
into the nature of problems that students faced during the implementation and allowed them toshare their views and voice their concerns. The lecturer could then discuss and agree with thestudents on ways in which she could accommodate their needs taking her own restrictions into
consideration.

140

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

For instance, as students complained about the lack of sufficient time to complete tasks, thelecturer provided an extension of one week. Moreover, since some learners indicated that theyneeded more time to interact with their peers, the lecturer also increased the time devoted tointeraction in groups and pairs offering 15 additional minutes per week. Students were also
encouraged to reflect on their own behaviour, such as their tendency to dominate conversations,and think of ways in which they could foster inclusion for all students and allow them to share
their own ideas as well. Some students indicated that one of them could have the role of atimekeeper in his/her group to ensure that all learners participated in the conversations. The
lecturer therefore made necessary changes responding to students’ feedback to support alllearners as much as possible, emphasizing inclusivity and providing equal opportunities forstudent progression and academic success. Participation in the discussions and the provision of
feedback was optional, but learners engaged with enthusiasm.
Although most PALM schemes involve the interaction of first year with more experienced
learners such as third year students, the current research innovated by exploring the interactionof first year peers who mentor each other. The lecturer chose to have learners work in mixedability groups of 4 students in which there was at least one native English speaker who could
provide linguistic support to the other students. Multilingual international learners were also
encouraged to contribute more in terms of content and ideas and were allowed to use words or
short phrases in their L1.
Instruments and Procedure
Students had to present on a specific topic of their choice which was different for each groupas a pre-test in week 2. They were then engaged in bi-weekly oral presentation tasks for a totalof 4. The groups of 4were randomly assigned. Learners had to prepare 4 slides in their groups
and present them to their peers and lecturer. As an observer, the researcher saw that learners
first ensured that they understood the instructions for the task, then elaborated on the key
concepts. They worked on a different topic every 2 weeks, and finally divided their work in
half. Students then worked in pairs as they focused on 2 of the 4 slides. Afterwards, learners
worked individually to complete their part of their work and then discussed their work in groups
to finalise the slides they would use and decide how they would present them to the othergroups (Figure 1).
Participants were encouraged to use their L1 when they worked in groups and pairs wheneverthey could not remember a word or a phrase in L2. However, their presentation was in English,
and they had to use the L2 while presenting their work. The researcher played the role of thesupervisor and moderator and made sure all students were supported and contributing equallyto the tasks. Learners were encouraged to change groups every 2 weeks to network and receive
feedback and support from different peers. After spending a year and a half in isolation,
students needed more exposure to people and enjoyed interacting with peers while developing
their oral fluency and presentation skills (Kohls et al., 2021). The lecturer was always present
to resolve minor disagreements or misunderstandings. The overarching goal was to promotecollaboration taking into consideration diverse students’ learning styles (Mbirimi-Hungwe &McCabe, 2020).

141

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 1
Implementation of PALM Tasks

1. Groupwork
2. Pairwork
3.
Individua
l work
4. Group
work

Students provided feedback to their peers after each presentation in the form of comments
highlighting strengths and providing suggestions for further improvement. However, only thelecturer provided marks based on the assessment criteria (pre-test in week 2 and post-test in
week 10). The lecturer explained the assessment criteria to the learners and provided support
to ensure that the feedback was constructive and polite. The overarching goal was to enhancetheir academic performance and improve their engagement in the learning process.
At the end of the implementation, learners had to write a reflective report regarding their groupexperience. The lecturer analysed the content of students’ anonymous feedback, focus group
discussions, and final reflective reports to identify the strengths and potential challenges of thisintervention. Learners participated in these tasks in a face-to-face setting, and the researcher
collected field notes from observations to triangulate the data and increase the reliability of thedata collected (Flick, 2018). The researcher analysed all data using thematic analysis (Nowell,
Norris, White & Moules, 2017) to identify patterns in the data and use these themes to address
the research. She also had an assistant who analysed 10% of the data, which were chosenrandomly, to enhance the reliability of the analysis. The researcher and her assistant identified
and agreed on themes which provided a response to the research questions of this research.
Results and Discussion
This section of the article is divided into three subsections. Each one presents and discusses thefindings of this study in relation to the three research questions.
Impact on Students’ Presentation Skills
The present study examined the impact of PALM and TL on students’ presentation skills bycomparing learners’ post- versus pre-test scores (Table 2) (Hincks, 2003). Students had topresent a set of 4 slides before and after the implementation of four PALM tasks in terms ofwhich learners were allowed to use TL. The researcher provided a score based on theassessment criteria for all students’ group presentations and a second assessor, an experienced
lecturer, checked 20% of the presentations. She used the same marking criteria, and theinterrater agreement was 90%, which is considered relatively high (Belotto, 2018).

142

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 2Students’ Pre- and Post-test ScoresM
Pre-test
Post-test
Paired t-test (pre-vs post-test)
Cohen’s d

SD

29.88
14.99
54.54
9.95
t (79) = 21.76, p < .05
d = 1.93

A paired t-test was conducted to explore students’ progress (George & Mallery, 2016). This
indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between learners' pre-test (M =29.88, SD = 14.99, n = 80) and post-test (M = 54.54, SD = 9.95, n = 80) in their oral
performance (t (79) = 21.76, p < .05). Cohen’s effect size value (d = 1.93) suggested a “large”
effect size and high practical significance for the enhancement of these students’ oralpresentation skills (Cohen et al., 2013). The findings of the study support the results of previous
research which has explored the impact of these two approaches in isolation and reported theirbeneficial impact on students’ academic performance (Dalziel & Guarda, 2021; MbirimiHungwe & McCabe, 2020).
Perceived Benefits and Challenges of PALM and TL
In terms of the present research, several challenges and benefits related to the use of PALM
and TL were identified and reported by most of the participants (Table 3).
Table 3
Benefits and Challenges of PALM and TRL

PALM = Peer-assisted learning/mentoring143

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

TRL* = translanguaging

The researcher tried to create TRL spaces for teaching and learning using PALM to allow
students to interact freely with each other. Learners chose the language they preferred as theyjointly reflected, exchanged ideas, and used language to enhance their understanding of boththe content and tasks of the current module drawing on their linguistic repertoire and cultural
background (Table 3). The lecturer made the strategic instructional decision to explain content
in the L2 but allowed students to further explain and elaborate on the basic concepts and the
instructions of the various tasks using words and phrases from other languages as well. She
also allowed the more proficient students who were native speakers to help their peers byrestating their comments. High-achieving students could therefore benefit from low-achieving
students’ ideas and contributions. They helped them improve their linguistic performance inthe L2, while less proficient students also felt appreciated for their input.
International students then overcame their hesitations and were able to make explicit
connections between concepts and vocabulary development in both L1 and L2 (Table 3). Fluid
language use was modelled and encouraged, and learners felt psychologically safe to share
their thoughts after being in isolation for quite some time due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
They were encouraged to use their multilingualism naturally and fluidly. This turned thesesessions into a playful game and allowed even the shyest students to overcome theirreservations and engage in the interactions contributing to the main tasks. Learners built theirconfidence as they felt safe to display their multilingualism and enhance their learning drawing
on their multilingual/ multicultural background when discussing academic concepts and ideas
for their group presentations. In this TRL festival, learners were allowed to voice their ideas in
L1 and then translate them in the L2 validating students’ multilingual skills and bridging all
languages in an academic context.
Students did not laugh at each other but came to their peers’ rescue. This reminded learners of
the notion of ubuntu (Table 3) which Makalela (2016) first reported. Students felt they needed
each other to understand the theory and the task to prepare their presentations no matter which
language they had to use to reach their goal. For them, it was natural and even amusing to move144

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

from one language to another, while preparing their presentations in English. Successfulcommunication, negotiation of meaning, and active interaction among students were nothindered by TRL. Learners felt relieved as they did not have to admit their shortcomings intheir lecturer’s presence (García, 2012; García & Wei, 2014; Makalela 2016). Monolingualinteraction was a thing of the past. International education necessitates the fluid movement oflanguages (Makoni, 2017) and proposes that students should transcend linguistic boundaries tograsp meaning. The researcher promoted a series of collaborative activities in terms of whichlearners shared and exchanged knowledge to prepare their group tasks (Table 3) and their final
individual presentations.
During the group and pair interactions, students often resorted to English when there were
misunderstandings due to the use of various languages. Ultimately, English was used as aresource to enhance the understanding of the theory and the instructions for the task (Table 3).
Learners could make sense of the concepts and guidance for the task in which ever language
they found more convenient, and they could then use English more confidently (Makalela,
2016; Mbirimi-Hungwe & Hungwe, 2018). Native English speakers could also learn new
words and gain insights into exciting new cultures. They were then able to understand theirpeers better and work more effectively in terms of the task (Table 3). They all knew that theywould have to work with people from various countries in the future, and this was the perfectopportunity for them to start developing their intercultural and multilingual awareness.
Students also knew that they needed each other to complete the task successfully. They allcontributed equally as some peers provided explanations in some learners’ L1, others shared
their innovative ideas, and some even offered technical support to improve their presentations.
The combination of TRL and PALM allowed learners to understand the theory using various
linguistic repertoires. This highlighted the interrelatedness of languages and the value of peer
support as students - acting as mentors and mentees - were able to transcend linguistic andcultural boundaries to help their peers and support them when they faced challenges in termsof the L2 or the task itself (Table 3). The fact that all students completed the task successfullyin the L2 without complaints, major misunderstandings or conflicts indicated that learners
should be allowed to interact in whichever language they found appropriate for learning(Heugh, 2014).
Although several educators still insist that using many languages creates confusion (García,2012), students in the present research were able to negotiate meaning and complete their tasks
successfully without their lecturer’s intervention. Possibly the interrelatedness, exposure, andappreciation of other languages and the joy of interacting with peers (Table 3) and supporting
each other to reach a final learning goal, after a period of physical and mental isolation due to
COVID-19 pandemic, were two of the reasons which may explain why the combination ofthese two instructional techniques proved to be helpful for these students who faced various
barriers, linguistic, mental, and educational.
As English is the language for business and employment (Mbirimi-Hungwe, 2019), it isfrequently used as the medium of instruction globally. This puts international and multilingual
learners at a disadvantage as they need additional teaching support to learn the concepts in theL2. However, if students are allowed to negotiate meaning through peer learning/mentoring
and understand the main theories and instructions of the different tasks through the use ofdifferent languages, they could then contribute to their groups and master the main concepts asthey improve their mastery of the L2 (Table 3).

145

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

In terms of the present research, it was surprising to observe learners as they used phrases invarious languages keeping English as the central language of communication (Table 3).
Moving easily from one language to the other enabled all students to feel included as the
combination of PALM and TRL widened learners’ participation and engagement in thelearning tasks. The PALM and TRL implementation scheme also catered for all students’learning styles as learners were involved in group, pair, and individual work. This facilitated
not only deep learning, and self-reliance, but also support and inclusion for all students (Table3). Learners were also encouraged to interact, negotiate meaning, and reflect on a variety of
key concepts as they engaged in the preparation of their group presentations developing avariety of skills, but most of all their oral fluency. They defied all barriers imposed by theirdiverse linguistic and cultural background and promoted equal participation and inclusion of
all learners irrespective of their background.
Students indicated that the lecturer should play the role of the supervisor and facilitator
allowing learners to develop their skills and improve their academic performance by realising
the value of interdependence and interconnectedness of learners as they tried to make sense of
the world and their own learning (Table 3). This intervention allowed them to become whothey wanted to be by developing their autonomous and collaborative skills. Therefore, theyfirst interacted with their peers and clarified the concepts and the tasks in groups, then in pairs
and finally were allowed to work autonomously and reflect on their previous experience as
they completed their individual tasks. Students were thus able to work and carry their peerswith them during these collaborative activities in which learners continuously changed roles(mentors vs mentees) and languages with the ultimate goal of engaging all students in the
preparation of their presentations after clarifying the theory and the task at hand. The affectiveside of this task was clear as learners enjoyed this interdependence placing emphasis on thecollective good which also allowed them to complete their assignment successfully.
Although previous studies stress the importance of peer learning/mentoring as a highly valued
academic practice (Hilsdon, 2014), educators still face some challenges in terms of groupcomposition, time required, and misunderstandings (Table 3) which need to be addressed tomaximize the mediating role of the collaborative activity. If groups and pairs, comprising
students with varying degrees of content and language mastering, share the common goal ofcompleting a group presentation or helping one another to grasp the module content, thispromotes constructive interaction and eventually facilitates subject matter understanding.
While mentoring relations in this study revealed a contribution to enhanced subject matter
understanding, they sometimes made certain students dependent on peers more than wasappropriate. In this case, the use of group, pair, and individual work discouraged learners’
overdependence on their peers.
Perceived Impact of PALM and TRL on Student Well-Being
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, HE students’ lives and learning conditions have changed
dramatically. Self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000) states that the basic
psychological needs for competence, independence, and relatedness represent core conditions
for personal growth, integration, social development, and psychological well-being as
empirical studies have also indicated (Riggenbach, Amouroux, Van Petegem, Tourniaire,
Tonelli, Wiener, Hofer & Antonietti, 2019). Moreover, the satisfaction of basic psychologicalneeds can act as a buffer in times of stress, reducing appraisals of anxiety and promoting
adaptive coping (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). To enable personal growth, intrinsic
motivation, and psychological well-being, satisfaction of basic psychological needs has been146

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

increasingly taken up and promoted in the educational context with SDT acting as a framework
for interventions (Lüftenegger, Klug, Harrer, Langer, Spiel & Schober, 2016).
The students in the current study indicated that the combination of the two approaches
improved their self-confidence (Table 3) satisfying their need for competence which refers toexperiencing one’s behaviour as effective. For example, learners felt competent when they
were able to meet the requirements of their studies. This also satisfied their need for autonomy(Table 3) which refers to experiencing one’s behaviour as volitional and self-endorsed. For
instance, these learners felt autonomous when they willingly devoted time and effort to thecompletion of their group presentation. Finally, the need for relatedness refers to feelingconnected with and experiencing mutual support from significant others (Niemiec & Ryan,
2009) which was the core goal of the research since inclusivity was promoted by enabling all
students to strive to reach their full potential.
The current study contributes in terms of the need for HEI to improve learners’ quality of life
in various ways as they need not only to impart knowledge, but also to develop the whole
student by providing opportunities for personal growth and fulfilment. Therefore, students needa range of transversal skills such as complex and autonomous thinking, creativity, and effective
communication (Succi & Canovi, 2020). As social spaces, enabling social interaction, HEI
must offer learners opportunities for formal and informal networking allowing students to feelthat they belong (Table 3) and helping them unfold their potential (Tonon, 2020). This wasincredibly difficult during the COVID-19 pandemic due to the disruption it caused representing
an unprecedented challenge for students’ quality of life and thriving.
As HEI resorted to distance education as an emergency response to the pandemic, the lack ofphysical presence and the lesser extent of informal discourse and spontaneous interaction
created a communication gap which caused negative emotions, gaps in understanding, andmisconceptions. To counteract these responses, it is crucial to explicitly address learners’
individual needs, feelings, and difficulties and promote interaction among learners andrelatedness which contributes to psychological wellbeing (Olsson, McGee, Nada-Raja &Williams, 2013). These were supported by the present scheme (Table 3).
The current research reveals that these practices enhance learners’ emotional well-being
alleviating language learning anxiety, reducing negative behaviour, and promoting social
justice through equity in education (Table 3). These two practices have resulted in giving backvoice to multilingual, multicultural (Anderson & Cowart, 2012; Lehtomäki, Moate & PostiAhokas, 2016), and low-achieving students (Table 3), transforming cognitive structures byfostering language fluidity, raising well-being and attainment levels, and eventuallytransforming an unequal classroom into a more just educational space. The researcher’s efforts
in part legitimize PALM and TRL Education for Social Justice agenda which allows
universities to become places for releasing subjectivities, ensuring well-being, anddecolonizing society as they promote inclusivity and equality of opportunity for all learners
irrespective of their background.
Provided that multilingual learners often show lower educational attainment when comparedwith their monolingual peers for whom English is their first language (Duarte & Gogolin,2013), these students are refrained from using their full linguistic repertoires and thus
constrained in learning and expression (García & Wei, 2014). Since the lack of attention to
students’ home languages has been repeatedly described as possibly having far-reaching
negative effects, TRL pedagogy is presented as a unique approach through which diverse

147

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

learners may use all their languages in formal education (Table 3), despite teachers not knowing
those languages (García & Wei, 2014). The benefits are even better when it is combined with
PALM which facilitates the whole procedure placing TRL in an extremely supportive
framework.
The simultaneous use of PALM and TRL closes the gap among students from different
linguistic and cultural backgrounds and allows learners to recognise and use linguistic andcultural diversity as a resource for learning. This can help all students prepare for globallyconnected societies and changing working styles (García & Wei, 2014). The current study
addresses calls from practitioners about ways in which TRL can be successfully implemented
in education (Canagarajah & Said, 2011). The use of these two approaches allowed learners in
the present research to make cross-linguistic friendships (Table 3) as multilingualism andmulticulturalism were promoted increasing students’ motivation and positive attitudes towards
learning (Günther-van der Meij, Duarte & Nap, 2018). There is a clear link between the use of
TRL and PALM and learners’ social-emotional well-being. Students indicated that they
enjoyed making new friends and working closely with them, especially after almost 2 years of
isolation (Table 3). TRL and PALM reduced individual differences between students andhelped them deal with negative emotions such as feeling mad or sad about not being able toimprove their academic performance.
It is noteworthy that the current study indicated that the combined use of PALM and TRL may
offer various benefits to university students, including mentor modelling, strategy knowledge,
and spontaneous strategy use. These seem to have a positive impact on learners’ academic
progress, language development, engagement, and social-emotional well-being. TRL and peer
learning/mentoring were used effectively by students in the present research as they utilized
them for specific and meaningful reasons, such as academic success and well-being. This led
to the development of all learners up to a certain degree, depending on their individual learning
styles.
Recommendations and Conclusion
PALM and TRL have been “hot topics” in HE for quite some time in terms of their relevancefor students, lecturers, and educational institutions internationally. While PALM research has
grown exponentially with the increasing focus on the social aspects of teaching and learning,
the notion of TRL is currently widely used when responding to multilingual students’ needs inthe increasingly plurilingual universities (García & Lin, 2017). The present study aspired to
explore the impact of PALM and TRL on learners’ academic performance and well-being andadd to the existing literature. It has some limitations as it implemented these two approacheswith university students only, for a limited amount of time, and without explicitly training
learners in peer learning/mentoring strategies. Moreover, the researcher could use additional
ways of eliciting feedback from the students, possibly in the form of diaries, and involve morelecturers in the intervention so as to explore additional challenges of the combined use of these
two strategies.
Despite its limitations, the current research promoted “translanguaging to construct meaning”
instead of forming barriers for learning and relying upon peers as “funds of knowledge” (Moll,
2007, p. 74) as yet another successful strategy to support international and/or local students in
the UK deal with the challenges of HE studies in a second or foreign language of instruction.
Apparently, the use of more than one language in HEI potentially assists rather than diminishes
the development of academic discourse (Van der Walt & Dornbrack, 2011). Languages are148

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

vehicles through which learners grasp and make sense of the content to convert information
into knowledge. The use of a language that students are conversant with to clear up any kindof confusion is revealed to be a common practice in HEI.
Consequently, if the aim of teaching is to facilitate knowledge acquisition, then students could
use any language that would be conducive to knowledge acquisition for as long as it is possible,
as was the case with the current intervention. Sticking to the use of a language that constitutes
a barrier to knowledge acquisition, as is sometimes the case when only English is permitted ina class, would undermine the facilitating role of peers, who can act as mentors, since thelearning sessions would be less productive in terms of knowledge acquisition. Thus, drawing
upon languages used by learners to facilitate knowledge acquisition in terms of peer work isrevealed to be one of the strategies that students believe leads to enhanced comprehension(Table 3).
Taking into consideration the findings of the present study, we could recommend that educators
should be involved in professional development training seminars/courses and create
communities of practice with colleagues to share best practice and challenges they may face interms of the implementation of PALM and TRL in their classes. Practitioners need to carefullyplan and supervise relevant activities, but also allow some space for spontaneity and flexibility
always taking their learners’ specific needs and mood into consideration. They should also
invite more knowledgeable colleagues to mentor them and discuss the challenges they may befacing.
Additionally, HEI should consider training their staff to help them adopt these practices more
widely because their consistent use by educators can increase multilingual students’, often the
majority in many HEIs in the UK, comprehension, support their language and academic
development, and encourage their socio-emotional well-being. The present research indicatedthat PALM and TRL can act as scaffolds for multilingual students’ emotional well-being
minimising learning anxiety and behavioural issues, and allowing emotional scaffolding (Park,
2014) in addition to improving acquisition of content.
These findings emphasize the link between emotion and cognition, highlighting the role ofpositive affect in increasing classroom engagement (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2012).
They speak to the power that anxiety holds among learners and provide further evidence of theability of TRL and PALM strategies to alleviate some of this stress and increase interaction.
Hopefully, these findings will further encourage educators to dedicate time and space toemotional and cognitive scaffolding with a combination of these two approaches. It can be
anticipated that future research will continue to delve into the power of TRL and PALM forstudents in primary, secondary and tertiary education in the UK and globally.

149

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Anderson, G., & Cowart, M. (2012). They are talking: Are we listening? Using student voice
to enhance culturally responsive teaching. Teacher Education and Practice, 25(1), 10-23.
Andrei, E., Kibler, A. K., & Salerno, A. S. (2020). “No, professor, that is not true”: First
attempts at introducing translanguaging to pre–service teachers. In Envisioning
TESOL through a Translanguaging Lens (pp. 93–109). Cham: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47031-9_5
Back, M., Han, M., & Weng, S. C. (2020). Emotional scaffolding for emergent multilingual
learners through translanguaging: Case stories. Language and Education, 34(5), 387–
406. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2020.1744638
Beatty, L., Acar, S., & Cheatham, G. A. (2021). Translanguaging in inclusive classrooms:
Learning with children and families. Young Exceptional Children, 24(3), 154–169.
https://doi.org/10.1177/10962506211002536
Belotto, M. J. (2018). Data analysis methods for qualitative research: Managing thechallenges of coding, interrater reliability, and thematic analysis. Qualitative Report,
23(11), 2622–33. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2018.3492
Blessinger, P., & Stefani, L. (2017). Inclusive leadership in higher education: Inclusion as acore institutional value. In Inclusive leadership in higher education (pp. 7-19). New
York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315466095-1
Boud, D., & Cohen, R. (2014). Peer learning in higher education: Learning from and witheach other. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315042565
Cabrera, A. F., Crissman, J. L., Bernal, E. M., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., & Pascarella, E. T.
(2002). Collaborative learning: Its impact on college students' development anddiversity. Journal of College Student Development, 43(1), 20–34.
Canagarajah, S., & Said, S. B. (2011). Linguistic imperialism. In Routledge handbook of
applied linguistics (pp. 388–400). Abingdon: Routledge.
Caruso, E. (2018). Translanguaging in higher education: Using several languages for the
analysis of academic content in the teaching and learning process. Language Learningin Higher Education, 8(1), 65-90. https://doi.org/10.1515/cercles-2018-0004
Charamba, E., & Zano, K. (2019). Effects of translanguaging as an intervention strategy in aSouth African Chemistry classroom. Bilingual Research Journal, 42(3), 291–307.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2019.1631229
Chester, A., Burton, L. J., Xenos, S., & Elgar, K. (2013). Peer mentoring: Supporting
successful transition for first year undergraduate psychology students. Australian
Journal of Psychology, 65(1), 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12006
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research methods in education. New York:
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203720967
Dalziel, F., & Guarda, M. (2021). Student translanguaging practices in the EMI classroom: A
study of italian higher education. In English-Medium instruction and translanguaging(pp. 124–140). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781788927338-013

150

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The” what” and” why” of goal pursuits: Human needs andthe self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Denizer, E. N. (2017). Does mother tongue interfere in second language learning? Journal of
Foreign Language Education and Technology, 2(1), 39–54.
Di Sabato, B., & Hughes, B. (Eds.). (2021). Multilingual perspectives from Europe andbeyond on language policy and practice. New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429351075
Duarte, J., & Gogolin, I. (Eds.). (2013). Linguistic superdiversity in urban areas: Research
approaches (Vol. 2). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.
Günther-van der Meij, M., Duarte, J., & Nap, L. (2020). Including multiple languages insecondary education: A translanguaging approach. European Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 8(1), 73–106. https://doi.org/10.1515/eujal-2019-0027
Fang, F., & Liu, Y. (2020). ‘Using all English is not always meaningful’: Stakeholders’perspectives on the use of and attitudes towards translanguaging at a Chinese
university. Lingua, 247, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2020.102959.
Flick, U. (2018). Triangulation in data collection. In The SAGE handbook of qualitative datacollection (pp. 527–544). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526416070.n34
García, O. (2012). Multilingual pedagogies. In The Routledge handbook of multilingualism(pp. 249–263). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203154427-22
García, O., & Lin, A. M. (2017). Translanguaging in bilingual education. Bilingual andMultilingual Education,117–130. Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02258-1
García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Language, bilingualism and education. In Translanguaging:
Language, Bilingualism and Education (pp. 46–62). Palgrave Pivot, London.
George, D., & Mallery, P. (2016). IBM SPSS statistics 23 step by step: A simple guide andreference. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315545899
Gorter, D., & Cenoz, J. (2017). Language education policy and multilingual assessment.
Language and Education, 31(3), 231–248.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2016.1261892
Haverila, M. J., Haverila, K., & McLaughlin, C. (2020). Variables affecting the retention
intentions of students in higher education institutions: A comparison between
international and domestic students. Journal of International Students, 10(2), 358–
382. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v10i2.1849
Heugh, K. (2014). Turbulence and dilemma: Implications of diversity and multilingualism inAustralian education. International Journal of Multilingualism, 11(3), 347–63.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2014.921180
Hilsdon, J. (2014). Peer learning for change in higher education. Innovations in Education
and Teaching International, 51(3), 244–254.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2013.796709
Hincks, R. (2003). Speech technologies for pronunciation feedback and evaluation. ReCALL,
3–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344003000211

151

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Hobson, A. J. (2020). ONSIDE mentoring: A framework for supporting professional
learning, development, and well‐being. In The Wiley international handbook ofmentoring: Paradigms, practices, programs, and possibilities (pp. 521–545). Malden,
MA: Wiley Blackwell.
Hodgson, Y., Benson, R., & Brack, C. (2015). Student conceptions of peer-assisted learning.
Journal of Further and Higher Education, 39(4), 579–597.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2014.938262
Kohls, E., Baldofski, S., Moeller, R., Klemm, S. L., & Rummel-Kluge, C. (2021). Mental
health, social and emotional well-being, and perceived burdens of university students
during COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 441.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643957
Lehtomäki, E., Moate, J., & Posti-Ahokas, H. (2016). Global connectedness in higher
education: Student voices on the value of cross-cultural learning dialogue. Studies inHigher Education, 41(11), 2011–2027.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1007943
Louden, J., McComb, S., Moore, C., & Cole, J. (2019, September). Evaluating three years of
our peer-assisted learning scheme. In RAISE Conference 2019: Exploring the Impactof Student Engagement.
Lüftenegger, M., Klug, J., Harrer, K., Langer, M., Spiel, C., & Schober, B. (2016). Students’achievement goals, learning-related emotions and academic achievement. Frontiers in
Psychology, 7, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00603
Makalela, L. (2016). Ubuntu translanguaging: An alternative framework for complex
multilingual encounters. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies,34(3), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2016.1250350
Makoni, S. B. (2017). Language planning, security, police communication andmultilingualism in uniform: The case of South African Police Services. Language &Communication, 57, 48–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2016.12.009
Mbirimi-Hungwe, V., & Hungwe, T. (2018). Translanguaging for epistemic access tocomputer science concepts: A call for change. Per Linguam: a Journal of Language
Learning Per Linguam: Tydskrif vir Taalaanleer, 34(2), 97–111.
https://doi.org/10.5785/34-2-771
Mbirimi-Hungwe, V., & McCabe, R. M. (2020). Translanguaging during collaborative
learning: A ‘transcollab’model of teaching. Southern African Linguistics and Applied
Language Studies, 38(3), 244–259. https://doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2020.1847670
Meier, G. S. (2017). The multilingual turn as a critical movement in education: Assumptions,challenges and a need for reflection. Applied Linguistics Review, 8(1), 131–161.
https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2016-2010
Moll, L. C. (2007). Bilingual classrooms and community analysis: some recent trends. In
Bilingual education: An introductory reader (pp. 272–280). Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.
Motlhaka, H. A., & Makalela, L. (2016). Translanguaging in an academic writing class:
Implications for a dialogic pedagogy. Southern African Linguistics and Applied
Language Studies, 34(3), 251_260. https://doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2016.1250356

152

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in theclassroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory andResearch in Education, 7(2), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509104318
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis:
Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative
Methods, 16(1), https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847.
Olsson, C. A., McGee, R., Nada-Raja, S., & Williams, S. M. (2013). A 32-year longitudinal
study of child and adolescent pathways to well-being in adulthood. Journal ofHappiness Studies, 14(3), 1069–1083. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9369-8
Otheguy, R., García, O. & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing
named languages: A perspective from linguistics. Applied Linguistics Review, 6(3),281–307. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2015-001
Ożadowicz, A. (2020). Modified blended learning in engineering higher education during the
COVID-19 lockdown—Building automation courses case study. Education Sciences,10(10), 292. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10100292
Park, M. H. (2014). Increasing English language learners' engagement in instruction throughemotional scaffolding. Multicultural Education, 22(1), 20–29.
Pekrun, R., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2012). Academic emotions and student engagement. In
Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 259-282). Boston, MA: Springer.
Riggenbach, A., Amouroux, R., Van Petegem, S., Tourniaire, B., Tonelli, A., Wiener, S.,
Hofer, M. & Antonietti, J. P. (2021). Autonomy and competence satisfaction as
resources for facing chronic pain disability in adolescence: A self-determination
perspective. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 26(3), 322–332.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2020.1813900
Rodríguez, A. D., Musanti, S. I., & Cavazos, A. G. (2021). Translanguaging in higher
education in the US: Leveraging students’ bilingualism. Critical Inquiry in Language
Studies, 40(1), 38–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2021.1893730
Succi, C., & Canovi, M. (2020). Soft skills to enhance graduate employability: comparing
students and employers’ perceptions. Studies in Higher Education, 45(9), 1834–1847.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1585420
Tigert, J., Groff, J., Martin-Beltrán, M., Peercy, M. M., & Silverman, R. (2019). Exploring thepedagogical potential of translanguaging in peer reading interactions: Codeswitching in
the classroom. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315401102-3
Tonon, G. H. (Ed.). (2020). Teaching quality of life in different domains. Boston: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21551-4
Van der Walt, C., & Dornbrack, J. (2011). Academic biliteracy in South African higher
education: strategies and practices of successful students. Language, Culture andCurriculum, 24(1), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2011.554985
Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: basic
psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. Journal of
Psychotherapy Integration, 23(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359
Corresponding author: Eleni Meletiadou
Email: elenim@outlook.com

153

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Appendix A
Focus Group Questions
1. How do you feel about using PALM in your classes?
2. How do you feel about using TRL in your classes?
3. Based on your experience, can you name any benefits of PALM? Can you elaborateon them? If there are no benefits, can you possibly tell us why you think PALM is notbeneficial for your learning?
4. Based on your experience, can you name any benefits of TRL? Can you elaborate onthem? If there are no benefits, can you possibly tell us why you think TRL is notbeneficial for your learning?
5. Are there any challenges regarding the use of PALM in your classes?
6. Are there any challenges regarding the use of TRL in your classes?
7. Are there any suggestions for improvement for the use of PALM in your classes?
8. Are there any suggestions for improvement for the use of TRL in your classes?
9. Would you like to use PALM in the future?
10. Would you like to use TRL in the future?

154

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Factors Obstructing English Teaching Effectiveness: Teacher Voices fromThailand’s Deep South
Muhammadafeefee Assalihee
Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand
Yusop Boonsuk
Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand

155

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
Administering English language teaching (ELT) in rural settings of the three southern borderprovinces has been challenging for both teachers and learners due to two decades of politicalunrest, eruptions of violence, fears, and insecurity. To enhance ELT, this study aimed toinvestigate factors affecting the ineffectiveness of ELT in these three educational environments
and introduce a new lens of contextualized English instructions for learners in schools locatedin Southernmost Thailand, where learners live amid linguistic and cultural diversity. In thisqualitative study, data were collected from teachers operating in two schools of each province(totaling six institutions) by semi-structured interviews and analyzed by content analysis.
Findings revealed that five primary factors deteriorating English language learning efficiency
in the three southern border provinces were Implementation of Broad-Spectrum ELT Policies;
Insufficient Teaching Integrations with Islamization; Inadequate Awareness of the
Significance of English; Inconsistencies between ELT Textbooks and the Sociolinguistic
Reality of English; and Impractical Classroom Arrangement. The findings could be beneficial
if they are further utilized by the Ministry of Education in establishing policies for ELT in
specific contexts as well as school administrators and teachers in formulating instructional
approaches, managing learning resources, and arranging classrooms based on local needs andidentities. Although this study has a specific spatial scope, which is the three southern borderprovinces of Thailand, its findings can be adapted for a broader application as a part of the
global perspective and a clue to solve language learning problems across ELT communities
encountering a similar challenge.
Keywords: English language teaching, private Islamic schools, rural education, 21st-century
education156

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The number of people utilizing English as a global language has been significantly growing,
especially among non-native speakers with diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
Consequently, many nations, including Thailand, have policies to prioritize the uplifting ofEnglish language proficiencies as part of their human resources development processes towards
cultivating 21st-century global citizenship (Baker & Fang, 2020). In Thailand, where this study
was conducted, although most learners in Thailand are exposed to compulsory ELT fromprimary to higher education, learners’ English language mastery remained unsatisfactorycompared to those in neighboring countries in the region, such as Malaysia, Singapore, andIndonesia. According to Education First (2020), Thai citizens’ average level of English
proficiency ranked 89th from 100 non-native English-speaking countries worldwide and 20thfrom 24 countries in Asia. As evident in past years, this discovery also confirmed that Thailand
remained below average compared to its neighbors such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, andSingapore. Although several studies had addressed ELT problems and challenges in Thailand(Imsa-ard, 2020; Putri, 2020; Somjai, & Soontornwipast, 2020), the contexts of private Islamic
schools, especially in the Deep South region or the three southern border provinces, including
Yala, Pattani, and Narathiwat, were uninvestigated. Compared to the general demographics ofThailand, Deep South is a unique region because most students are Muslim, living with theIslamic culture. Furthermore, they use Malay as the first language and primary language ineveryday communication and use Thai and English as the second and third languages,
respectively. Considering this uniqueness and the limited number of studies on the context,
ELT problems in deep south private Islamic schools are worth exploring.
Hence, this study primarily aimed to examine problems and needs that ELT teachers had while
teaching in deep south private Islamic schools with contextual uniqueness. Results were
projected to offer beneficial insights into practical and strategic teaching development. The
insights would be especially fruitful to teachers and administrators in charge of ELT in private
Islamic schools seeking to foster pedagogical quality, reconceptualize ELT processes for a
21st-century education, and emphasize skill development for students rather than content
deliveries (Fang & Baker, 2018; Fang & Ren, 2018; Meyer & Norman, 2020). With a deeper
understanding, the provision of ELT that recognizes local and global dynamics is expected toprepare students more effectively for 21st-century global citizenship and equip them with
relevant skills and readiness to survive in modern society with fair living quality.
Literature Review
ELT in Thailand
Since the world has witnessed a notable increase of English language users and learners every
year, English has become a global and primary lingua franca for many users across cultures(Baker & Fang, 2020; Galloway, 2017; Galloway & Rose, 2018, 2021; Rose & Galloway,
2017, 2019; Rose, McKinley, & Galloway, 2021). Based on this phenomenon, schools in many
countries, including Thailand, subsequently added ELT to their curriculum to ensure thathuman resources are prepared for future English communication in learning and professional
environments. Although English is not an official language in Thailand, ELT courses arecompulsory and provided from elementary to tertiary levels of education (Khamkhien, 2010;
Methitham & Chamcharatsri, 2011). English has become even more essential to Thai citizens
after Thailand officially joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN
Economic Community (AEC) in 2015. Within the new AEC sphere, professionals can now
work closer together regardless of sovereign borders, and there is no exception for Thai
citizens. To convey messages in multicultural settings, AEC members use English as a lingua

157

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

franca when they work, commute to places, receive education, and share social spaces withothers in ASEAN (Kirkpatrick, 2010; Zein & Stroupe, 2018). To address the emerging needs
for enhancing English proficiency, there has been a constantly growing demand worldwide forEnglish language education, as English literacy is key to success in the globalized world.
To cultivate Thai students as global citizens and offer them access to fair quality of a future
life, English is a gateway to achieving these goals. Hence, to equip Thai students with English
language competencies, the Thai Ministry of Education has injected lump sums of funding to
educational institutions across the country and required them to organize English language
development projects for students and teachers over the past years, including domestic andoffshore English language training and boot camps. Nevertheless, the outcomes have been far
from satisfying. Grubbs, Chaengploy, and Worawong (2009) and Phungphol (2005) pointed
out that a factor promoting positive ELT outcomes and English language development for
students is the choice of instructional approach. Similarly, the current obstructing factor of ELT
in Thailand is the dominance of a traditional teaching approach, known as “chalk and talk.”This instructional method is substantially teacher-centered and lecture-based. Students are
expected to memorize content for examination. Exchanges of ideas in class are minimal or notencouraged. Those who are good listeners are viewed as behaviorally desirable. They are also
expected to jot down notes from verbal lectures but not to interrupt by raising questions.
Nevertheless, education in the 21st century has changed considerably, and today’s ELT styles
do not resemble many features of changing educational models.
ELT in Thai Private Islamic Schools
This study was conducted at private Islamic schools, educational institutions known to haveplayed a critical role in developing the Muslim society of ASEAN for a long time, such as in
Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Thailand, and Singapore (Margono, 2012). Most private Islamic
schools in Thailand are geographically located towards the South, especially in Yala, Pattani,and Narathiwat. Currently, several of these private Islamic schools are providing secularIslamic curriculum. Muslim parents in the Deep South prefer admitting their children to theseschools because Islamic and secular courses are offered together. In terms of ELT
performances, it is essential to note that private Islamic schools did not take a conventional
approach in providing education, and overall English language scores have been unsatisfactory,
as evident in the lower average score on the annual national examination than those of otherregions in Thailand (National Institute of Educational Testing Service, 2017). To this issue,
Binmadnee, Abdulsata, and Haji (2018) explored ELT problems in higher secondary education
provided by private Islamic schools in the Deep South and revealed many findings. For
instance, it was reported that the ELT courses offered in the Deep South did not address local
needs, promote learning, or serve as a tool, such as a language training laboratory, thatfacilitates effective teaching and learning. Furthermore, the implemented learning activities
were inconsistent with modern learning strategies. The teaching also lacked supplemental
learning materials and up-to-date measurements. Furthermore, teachers lacked the desirable
qualifications and traits of highly qualified language educators. Similarly, Srisueb and
Wasanasomsithi (2010) assessed ELT problems that students of private Islamic schools in
Narathiwat encountered and suggested that attitudes were reportedly a barrier. Morespecifically, the students did not believe that English was an essential language for thembecause it had minimal useful implications in daily life. Another problem that these students
encountered was learning difficulties. For instance, the students felt that English grammaticalrules were excessively complex. In addition, they also indicated that they struggled to form
English sentences when writing, pronounce specific English words, and listen for main ideas.

158

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Due to budget constraints, many schools in the three southern border provinces did not havesuitable teaching materials. The situation has made the provision of ELT courses challenging
and ineffective while unnecessarily slowing down the students’ development of English
proficiencies. Therefore, it is urgently necessary for the school administrators and teachers tojointly plan and design English language development policies and align their curriculum andinstructional models with the development of 21st-century skills.
Moreover, Assalihee, Boonsuk, Bakoh, and Sano (2019) synthesized ASEAN schools’
administrative and teaching models from administrators and teachers in Malaysia, Indonesia,
and Singapore and discovered guidelines for maneuvering 21st-century ELT in private Islamic
schools, which included considering new roles and duties of teachers; emphasizing proactive
and cooperative learning; integrating technology in education; associating with local learning
resources; integrating the science of learning with other types of sciences; and designing a new
2st-century learner assessment model. The study also suggested that educational stakeholders
value and recognize contextual differences, including learners’ geographical locations andcultural diversity, to genuinely address learners’ needs. This notion is especially applicable to
the Deep South of Thailand, which is where most locals are Malay Muslims who share different
linguistic and cultural identities from most of the learners across Thailand. The diversity among
learners’ identities is crucial, and educational stakeholders in ELT must consider the identity
mosaic when planning for school administration, designing teaching management, formulating
policies, and drafting curriculum. To address the research gap and identify root causes of failurein the administration of ELT in the three southern border provinces, this study aimed to answer
the research question:
1. What factors are obstructing ELT efficiency in the three southern border provinces ofThailand?”Research Methodology
Research Contexts and Participants
The Deep South was chosen as this study’s spatial scope due to its unique identities shaped by
locals with distinctive ethnicities such as Malay and religious beliefs such as Islam comparedwith the majority of the Thai population. As a result, the Deep South is a region filled withprivate Islamic schools offering blended secular-Islamic curriculum. Furthermore, since thearea is bordered by Malaysia, many locals are bilingual who can communicate in Thai and
Malay. Based on these facts, this spatial context is particularly noteworthy to explore how
English language education is administered as a third language.
This study employed a qualitative approach. Data were collected from semi-structured
interviews with 18 key informants, including lower English teachers in six private Islamic
schools in the Deep South of Thailand. Breaking down the number, three key informants wereselected from each of the six schools. Furthermore, two of these schools were purposively
selected from each of the three southern border provinces, including Pattani, Yala, andNarathiwat, given that the schools must 1) have obtained 2020’s mean national achievement
test score in English Language and Communication lower than the national mean, which is
33.67/100 (National Institute of Educational Testing Service, 2020), 2) have been established
for at least ten years and provided English language education throughout their existence, and3) possess an official status as a private Islamic school under the Office of the Private Education
Commission, Ministry of Education. Similarly, purposive sampling (Cohen, Manion, &159

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Morrison, 2018; Creswell, 2013) with specific inclusion criteria were used to select the key
informants based on the research aims. The English teachers were included based on their
qualifications in ELT, teaching experiences of more than ten years, teaching duties at the lower
secondary level of no less than 15 periods a week, and records of teaching students in multiple
grades from Lower Secondary to Upper Secondary, which is as illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1
Teachers’ Demographics
Teachers(T)

Site (S)Age

Genders

Education backgroundNo. ofteaching hours

BEd in English

Years ofteaching
experience
13

T1

S1

36

F

T2

S1

42

F

BEd in English

20

18

T3

S1

43

F

BEd in English

20

19

T4

S2

33

M

BA in English & Dip.
in Teaching

10

16

T5

S2

33

F

BE in Islamic Studies,International Program

10

18

T6

S2

52

F

BEd in English

30

19

T7

S3

35

F

BEd in English

12

15

T8

S3

33

F

BA in English

10

18

T9

S3

37

M

BEd in English & MEd
in School Admin.

14

18

T10

S4

40

F

BEd in English & MEd
in School Admin.

15

16

T11

S4

32

F

BEd in English

11

19

T12

S4

33

F

BEd in English

10

18

T13

S5

56

F

BEd in English

25

17

T14

S5

34

F

BEd in Business
English & Dip. in
Teaching

11

19

T15

S5

33

F

BEd in English

10

18

T16

S6

34

F

B.A. in English & Dip.
in Teaching

11

18

T17

S6

34

F

BEd in English

11

19

T18

S6

33

F

BEd in English

10

15

18

Data Collection and Analysis
In the initial phase, relevant school administrators were contacted and asked to allow data to
be collected and interviews to be conducted with their teachers. The selected teachers were also

160

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

contacted and asked if they would like to voluntarily contribute to the research by interviewing.
After enough key informants were obtained based on the criteria, consent forms were given out
for the interviewees to sign. Subsequently, interview schedules were set, including dates, times,
and venues at the interviewees’ convenience.
The three main questions used in this study were formulated based on a study related to ELT
in private Islamic schools (Binmadnee et al., 2018). Essentially, the developed questions were
1) What are the current situations of ELT in private Islamic schools? 2) What are critical factors
affecting the effectiveness of ELT management in private Islamic schools? 3) What are
required or needed for teachers to teach English in the context of private Islamic schools? In
addition, three probing questions were also prepared and only asked when further clarification
was needed from the interviewees. More specifically, the questions included 1) How is teaching
English in private Islamic schools different from other schools? 2) Who are the current primaryobstacles in ELT? Are they the teachers, students, school administrators, or public agencies?
3) What action needs to be taken as urgently as possible to maximize the effectiveness of ELT
in private Islamic schools? All the questions were assessed by three experts to improve itemobjective congruence. Adjustments were subsequently made following their feedback.
Eventually, pilot interviews were conducted with three English teachers who were not the key
informants to find out whether these questions were accurate, on point, and provided
meaningful results so that they could be further implemented in the formal interviews.
Before each interview session, the interviewees were asked for permission for audio recording.
The interviewees were also informed that this study did not affect any of their assessments.
Furthermore, the interviewees acknowledged that if they felt uncomfortable with the study,
they could withdraw from participation at any time. The interviews were conducted primarilyin Thai, and each session was approximately 40-50 minutes. After the interviews, the audio
logs were transcribed and translated into English, and the transcription was sent to eachcorresponding interviewee for accuracy validation. Eventually, the data were analyzed byqualitative content analysis to construct contextual interpretations, identify patterns, andestablish facts (Dörnyei, 2007; Patton, 2002). Top-down coding was utilized to generate aclassification of data based on preconceived codes matching research focuses, and bottom-up
coding was also applied to create other codes from the resultant data (Creswell & Plano-Clark,
2007). The interview data were repeatedly read and checked throughout the data analysis
process to ensure that every emerging theme relevant to the study was extracted. Once thethemes were obtained, they were organized and categorized for consistencies and coded into
thematic results to present data interrelatedness. More specifically, the data were coded using
three steps, including data sorting, interpreting, and theorizing (Lewins & Silver, 2007, pp.
262–267). Towards the end of the analysis, redundant subthemes were merged into a larger
theme, while the irrelevant ones were removed. On top of that, efforts were taken to increase
the anonymity of the data and prevent any potential identification of the participants. Hence,each excerpt presented in the Findings section utilizes pseudonyms and redacts identifiablenames. For instance, T1S1 refers to Teacher 1 at Site 1.
Findings
The interview data obtained from the 18 teachers in the six schools in the Deep South revealed
that five primary issues causing teachers’ inefficiency in ELT and students’ low English
language proficiencies were as follows:

161

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Implementation of Broad-Spectrum ELT Policies
As pointed out in the interviews, most of the key informants agreed that the current English
language education policy in Thailand was not practical and needed reconceptualization,
especially when it is applied to the secular-Islamic education system implemented in private
Islamic schools in the three southern border provinces (see Excerpts 1 and 2) where students
had been exposed to different linguacultural upbringings from those in other regions ofThailand.
Excerpt 1 (T1S1)
There are ministerial and school policies on English language education, but the school has
limitations, so it has not implemented all the ministerial policies. Since our school is a private
religious school offering religious courses, we must allocate some class periods for religious
education. Hence, we have less time to run secular courses, such as English subjects.
Excerpt 2 (T5S2)
The currently implemented school policy for ELT seems inconsistent and does not address
school contexts, emphasizing more on the teaching of Arabic than English, and the school
could not manage to run a schedule based on the requirement of the Ministry of Education’s
curriculum policy, requiring a minimum of five lessons per week. The school could only do
three lessons per week because it is necessary to allocate time for religious studies as well, andwith this allocation, we do not have enough time for ELT.
As stated above, the policy applied to private Islamic schools presented a significant contextual
mismatch. Hence, teachers recommended that the Ministry of Education or the Office ofPrivate Education solve problems through a curricular integration by removing less relevant
courses and adding more English classes. Furthermore, desirable learning competencies forforeign language communication, especially English, were also suggested to be determined.
Another recommended solution was to use English as a medium of instruction in non-English
courses to offer more opportunities to practice the language. Simultaneously, it might be wise
for the policy to also provide relevant ELT training for teachers in these schools (see Excerpts
3 and 4).
Excerpt 3 (T10S4)
The government or the Ministry of Education should issue policies that encourage schools torevise their curriculums by integrating English into every subject to promote English language
learning. Similarly, contents related to Islamic Studies could also be added to English courses.
Doing so would encourage students to see the value of learning English even more because
they get to appreciate the religion and the language at the same time. As for the school, it isready to change and welcome the new teaching style if there is a clear policy from thegovernment side.
Excerpt 4 (T16S6)
Because the school does not have enough English language teachers for teaching, the policythat should be implemented is related to the recruitment of government employees to performthese teaching duties in private Islamic schools. This policy would provide opportunities and162

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

equality to students in terms of access to qualified teachers. Also, teachers should know aboutteaching integrations to teach religious content using English to better address school contexts.
Insufficient Teaching Integrations with Islamization
On this note, the key informants believed that one of the practical teaching methods that could
stimulate learning attention and enhance students’ competence is associating in- and off-classteaching activities with learners’ identities. To elaborate, they agreed that it is vital for theIslamic ways of life to be integrated with ELT speaking, reading, and presenting activities.
Students could have a conversation, read an article, and present ideas on topics that are Islamic
related in English (see Excerpt 5 and 6). Furthermore, students could take a field trip to placesof interest with Islamic and historical significance in the communities where they live topractice presenting information about these sites in English (see Excerpt 7). However, although
the integrations and Islamization were perceived as an appropriate adaptation towards
providing 21st-century education, the findings also suggested that most English teachers in the
Deep South did not pay adequate attention to the practical side of the integrations.
Excerpt 5 (T7S3)
I believe applying Islamic values in class makes teaching easier. It is like the kids already haveprior knowledge, and the only thing we need to do is switch from talking with the familiar Thai
language to English. For instance, when you assign topics for them to practice speaking or
making presentations, you should propose topics related to the Islamic culture. If you wantthem to practice reading, you can find the history of Prophet Muhammad in English for themto read, or you can introduce them to important Islamic days such as Hari Raya (Eid al-Fitr) or
the importance of the Ramadan month for further discussion.
Excerpt 6 (T12S4)
There are many Islamic books and learning resources in English on the Internet and YouTube.
But those realistically consistent with local school contexts yet remain limited. Personally, I
think that teachers can use media from other sources, but the main problem is that they are still
too attached to textbooks even though they are not integrated with Islam. This problem may be
because teachers do not have enough time to prepare materials or possess integration skills.
Schools must train teachers, and the government must also support their development.
Excerpt 7 (T14S5)
There are many important historical Islamic sites around the school and the community here,
so I think English learning activities can be organized by linking to learners’ familiar
environments, such as locations where they live. For example, you can take the students toKrue Se Mosque, set up a tour guide club, create videos to introduce the location in English,
and present them in class. Active learning provides exciting learning experiences, but teachers
here rarely consider doing it.
Inadequate Awareness of the Significance of English
Another critical barrier perceivably diminishing the English learning performance, lowering
English language proficiencies, and deteriorating learning motivation was the missing
prioritization due to inadequate awareness of the significance of English (see Excerpts 8 to 9).

163

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Excerpt 8 (T1S1)
Most of the students I teach at school do not like learning English because they think English
is excessively complicated, and they do not have a subject-specific knowledge capital.
Excerpt 9 (T9S3)
I have talked to many students, especially those living in rural areas. They expressed that
English was not necessary because they did not have a chance to use it daily. So, they thought
it was not essential or valuable. Since they live in rural areas and had limited access to English
language development as they grew up, they were not interested in learning the language. Someschools focus on teaching Arabic and Malay. Therefore, English has become less relevant, andonly a few hours of English subjects were allocated and taught as a result.
Based on the said limitation, the teachers suggested a strategy to motivate learners in line withthe contexts of private Islamic schools, which is by supplementarily employing native English
teachers so that students can familiarize themselves with native English speakers and sense that
English is one of the essential languages in everyday life. Another strategy to motivate learningis the use of modern media. Students should be allowed to access such media moreconveniently. In addition, more English courses should be added per week, and they should
focus on fun factors in communication rather than grammatical correctness (see Excerpts 10
and 11).
Excerpt 10 (T18S6)
There are three core English language subjects a week. They are considered not enough. The
subject should be taught every day. Schools should add extra English language courses, butthey must be fun to learn and focus on communication. They must not put pressure on thestudents or make them feel like English is difficult to master.
Excerpt 11 (T6S2)
Teacher diversity should be utilized. International teachers might help. The school has broughtinternational students from universities to school, and they did activities with the students. It
appeared the students enjoyed the moments very much, expressed their eagerness to get toknow these international students, and demonstrated seeing values in language learning
because understanding a language gives them the ability to communicate with international
people.
From the interview data, there were several factors influencing students’ attitudes towards
English language learning. (1) It was students’ personal decision to dislike English since they
had lower foundation knowledge of English (see Excerpt 8); (2) The students lived in nonEnglish-speaking environments, requiring minimal real-world usage of English as a primarylanguage. In many cases, the students spent most of their lives traveling back and forth between
homes and schools, and they did not have many opportunities to go out, learn something new,or live in any other unfamiliar communities (see Excerpt 9); (3) Not much time was allocatedfor English language lessons per week because the students simultaneously studied secular andIslamic courses. Hence, their exposure to the use of English remained low (see Excerpt 10).

164

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

ELT Cultural contents
Based on the logic that English has become a global language and no citizens from a specificnation, such as the USA or the UK, could claim exclusive ownership of the language, mostinformants believed that currently utilized English language courses, including textbooks, were
not effectively designed for them and they were not practical in addressing real-world contexts.
Contents and images presented in these materials looked unfamiliar to them, leaving significant
learning gaps since the students had difficulty associating them with their backgrounds (seeexcerpts 12 and 13).
Excerpt 12 (T9S3)
Textbooks are too broad and far learners’ environments. Contents are about European, British,
and Canadian cultures. Let me use sports as an example, western sports are illustrated, such as
skiing and baseball. The students looked confused when I taught them about these sports.
Excerpt 13 (T15S5)
The content in the textbooks does not correspond to the contexts of our learners. Images arefull of western tourist attractions and western meals like pizzas, burgers, and steaks. Similarly,
the reading content often features British and American cultures, such as Halloween andChristmas. Most of the students did not even know about them. It was difficult for them toimagine, and it was not easy for teachers to teach them either because the students did not knowwhat to say.
From the above data, most ELT textbooks in Thailand seemed biased with content choices as
they emphasized that western cultures perceivably belong to native speakers of the British andAmerican English varieties. On the contrary, students’ cultures were not included in thesetextbooks and not substantially mentioned in ELT. To address this problem, some informants(see Excerpts 14 and 15) recommended that the efficiency of deep south ELT could beenhanced by selecting textbooks that offer multicultural content, including learners’ and othercultures. Furthermore, it would be wise avoid emphasizing western cultures if teachers would
like to enrich English language learning experiences for their students as a positive atmospherepromotes learning motivation and positive attitudes towards learning English.
Excerpt 14 (T7S3)
I would like to say that teaching content should be a mixture of western and local cultures tofacilitate our students as they study English. Lessons should contain multicultural content. It
would be even more optimal if students’ cultures could be incorporated into the learning. If thestudents could study English through their cultures, I am sure they will get excited as if thecontent were genuinely about their lives.
Excerpt 15 (T4S2)
We live in a multicultural society here. There are people of various religions and races living
together. I think a suitable English language textbook for our students here would be the one
presenting through multicultural content. It would be a plus if there is content about students’cultures in it.

165

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Impractical Classroom Arrangement
Appropriate classroom arrangement was a success factor in enhancing English language
proficiencies for deep south students. An ideal classroom would be the one that allows students
to talk, exchange, and discuss ideas. In reality, however, it was found that the students were
too shy to raise and share opinions with their classmates or teachers. The interviews revealed
a noteworthy answer, reflecting that many teachers did not attempt to arrange their classrooms.
In fact, seats were reportedly left unadjusted, meaning that they were sorted into the usual row
patterns front to back. However, this seating strategy did not facilitate discussion- and activitybased learning (see Excerpts 14 and 15).
Excerpt 16 (T14S5)
I tried to figure out how to get my students to actively engage in in-class discussions andactivities. Before every activity, we usually brainstormed for ideas, but the usual seating did
not help with the discussion because the students could only turn to a particular direction when
they sit in rows. So, it was not easy to organize activities in a classroom with that kind ofseating arrangement.
Excerpt 17 (T1S1)
In fact, there were several causes. The one that stood out was classroom management,
especially the seating arrangements that did not allow the students to turn to one another todiscuss ideas. The conventional seating forced them only to face their teachers in front of theclassroom.
To motivate students, enhance their participation, and encourage them to exchange ideas withthe class, many teachers introduced new classroom seating patterns. They suggested that seatsand tables could be set in a pattern for students to face each other, such as circular and Ushaped designs. The seating could also change from period to period based on learning
activities. The findings discovered that after the teachers rearranged their seats and tables,
students engaged more in discussion and significantly shared more ideas with their classmates(see Excerpts 18-19).
Excerpt 18 (T11S4)
To tone the atmosphere for discussion and give students opportunities to share more ideas andexperiences, I suddenly decided to rearrange seats and tables in my classroom into all kinds ofshapes from the U shape on one day to the O shape on the following day. The students got to
sit in large and small groups, depending on the activities that we did.
Excerpt 19 (T13S5)
After doing it for a while, I asked the students for feedback. They told me that they liked it
when I organize the classroom like this. It was not boring, and it added colors to the learning.
They did not feel uncomfortable having to sit like this. More importantly, some said theywanted every classroom to be like this one because they do not want to feel bad for being seen
as a slacker sitting towards the back of the room.

166

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Discussion
The findings provided teachers’ reflections confirming that there were five primary factors orcauses that shared significant influences on ELT efficiency levels in private Islamic schools in
the Deep South of Thailand. To begin with, most of the key informants agreed that they had
experienced broad-spectrum and top-down ELT policies (Ahuja, 2011; Kaur, Young, &Kirkpatrick, 2016). The central administration designed most of the policies and courses,
possibly based on a limited understanding of local contexts. Hence, the incorporation of local
resources for learning was neglected. However, the Deep South of Thailand is a unique region
as it is home to the Muslim majority. Muslim students strictly follow the Islamic way of life,
which is different from most learners in Thailand. Therefore, ELT follows contextual
suitability and practicality, considering the uniqueness that deep south students share. It is
crucial for local practitioners to have more opportunities to design curriculum and construct
guidelines for instructional management following students’ cultural identities. This contextual
awareness could add pride to the learning and help students learn through simplified or tailoredcontent based on existing real-world knowledge. To elaborate, Islamic contents and values thatreflect students’ identities should be integrated into private Islamic schools’ ELT in the Deep
South. Furthermore, textbooks for Thai Muslim students must be carefully selected to diversify
contents since it is no longer necessary to study English by attaching to a specific culture or an
ethnic group. More importantly, ELT should introduce more links to Islamic values andcultures and fewer links to western cultures because western knowledge is a far-flung concept
beyond most students’ imagination (Prabjandee, 2020; Rajprasit & Marlina, 2019). With thistransformation, students are given opportunities to compare western cultures with theirs via
tailored textbooks and explore the current English diversity. Ideal ELT textbooks for deep
south Muslim students are those customized to contain content on their unique cultural
identities and the Islamic way of life. Nevertheless, the current practices of integrating Islam
with ELT had not been a popular choice in these private Islamic schools, and those who did
still faced several limitations, including the teaching required to adhere to national policies,
teachers lacking the practical knowledge to pull off an effective integration, and Thai
educational stakeholders preferring to introduce students to western cultures whilemarginalizing their very cultures (Tarrayo, Ulla, & Lekwilai, 2020).
Another significant issue that was addressed by the key informants was the inequality of accessto learning resources between students in regular and special classes. Many schools had
policies to offer students opportunities to study in special classes with privileged access to moreresources than those in regular classes. This act of separating students into categories seemed
discriminatory and could directly impact academic achievement (Goudeau & Croizet, 2017).
Those who lack access to learning opportunities might not perform well in education
eventually. Rather, the goal of education could be to equally provide skill development forevery student to grow up as a quality global citizen with the required competencies to face therapidly changing world. Hence, educational inequality is another problem that requires theattention of school administrators and officers in relevant agencies, especially in private Islamic
schools in the Deep South where students have been living with prolonged political unrest andfrequent eruptions of violent incidents. Therefore, to prevent and reduce possible educational
disparities, the government and concerned third parties involved in educational development
should investigate strategies for facilitating greater access to high quality teaching and learning
for all students. At the same time, schools must strive ensure equal treatment is given to each
student.

167

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Moreover, the findings also indicated that levels of awareness of the significance of English
were significantly linked to the effectiveness of ELT. This notion suggested that if students
recognize the importance of the language, they might also understand the consequence of notknowing it. In other words, how much they value English can be measured through positivechanges in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors towards learning the language (Baker, 2015;
Bartram, 2010; Garrett, 2010). Hence, educational stakeholders, especially teachers, should
actively foster this positive awareness for their students. They should seek to tone theirclassroom atmospheres to promote effective and meaningful English language learning, offer
students some opportunities to take part in designing their English learning activities, introduce
off-class learning experiences, and constantly create situations for them to practice English by
involving as many interlocutors from diverse linguacultural backgrounds as possible.
The findings also indicated that there is another aspect of ELT that demands thoughtfulconsideration. Evidently, most English language teachers remained in conventional classroom
designs and arrangements where students had to sit in rows and turn their backs to their peers.
This type of classroom arrangement is often considered to be antiquated in the 21st century andcould even lead to discriminatory practices as some front-row students could be viewed as
intelligent, whereas back-row students could be perceived as slow learners. Today’s learning
activities require students to actively engage in discussion, collaboration, and presentation ofideas with free space for imagination to run wild (Harvey & Kenyon, 2013). Many classroom
arrangements are proven to support students throughout their learning challenges and help easedepressive feelings for some who were once viewed negatively as back-row students becauseback rows could be eliminated in these new classrooms, for instance, arranged as an open space,in a U shape, with a seat switching agreement, with group seating, or with an ultra-large writingboard added. Unfortunately, many schools face efficiency barriers such as limited budgets,
inflexible classroom spaces, and even the lack of readiness of teachers.
Conclusion
English serves as a gateway to broader educational and professional opportunities. The findings
confirmed that ELT in the 21st century has changed towards acknowledging local contexts
more and European cultures less. Implementing contextualized textbooks with more local
content and integrating information and communications technology (ICT) are not the only
options teachers should resort to for their ELT. They are suggested to expose their students tooff-class experiences and surround them with locally available English language learning
experiences and resources. Locally accessible learning tools can be priceless, ideal, authentic,
and effective learning materials utilizable if schools lack access to relevant resources. Anotherhighly recommended option is online media. Modern technology grants equal English language
learning opportunities to students regardless of their residential areas. Private Islamic schools
in the Deep South are in a unique position because they are surrounded by Malay Muslims bornand bred in a Malaysian culture. Local lifestyles are substantially different from those of otherregions in the country. Since they live in unique geography along the coasts of the Andaman
Sea and the Pacific Ocean, people have unique occupations and ways of life. Teachers shouldtake advantage of this knowledge and take their classrooms to a new level by exposing theirstudents to real-world experiences. The diverse cultural backgrounds of the students can befactored in by contextualizing and Islamizing ELT based on diverse ways of life and faith. By
adding these values to ELT, students might be convinced to begin developing the language
because it would make more sense for them to study English if it is about their familiar cultures.
The government issue policies to support the emphasis of learning through local content andavoid pressuring locals to implement curriculum, books, and content introduced by the central

168

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

administration. Additionally, financial support should be provided to increase resource
availability and provide professional training for teachers based on local contexts.
The study presented noteworthy reflections of English teachers in private Islamic schools thatwere thought-provoking and enlightening. The same reflections can inform school leaderswhen formulating their English language development policies and practical guidelines forprivate Islamic schools. Furthermore, the insights might be especially beneficial to school
administrators when designing training activities for their teachers and support staff based onschool contexts. To clarify, the research findings can serve as a guideline when designingschool ELT policies and programs to address learning needs and contexts using learners’ local
cultural contents. Furthermore, teachers could also review these findings as they develop theirteaching strategies and collaborate with other teachers to create English teaching materials toincrease learning excitement and effectiveness.
In other words, teachers can design ELT activities and materials to include more diverse
elements, such as content related to learner identities. By doing so, learners have more
opportunities to practice English through imaginable, familiar, or tangible components aroundthem. Hence, school administrators and teachers in Thailand are suggested to consider
providing their students with ELT activities that involve existing knowledge and familiar local
cultures when making policies and designing ELT curriculums (Galloway & Rose, 2018;
Jindapitak, Teo, & Savski, 2022; Prabjandee & Fang, 2022). Future studies are suggested to
expand this exploration to a quantitative dimension to obtain data on the needs and practices
of English teachers in private Islamic schools that can substantially represent the teacher
population. In addition, further studies could focus on skill development while integrating
Islamic studies and other disciplines into English language courses and the production ofEnglish textbooks that address school contexts.
Note that this study had some limitations in its data collection since it was conducted during
the outbreak of COVID-19. Consequently, some interview sessions were canceled, postponed,
and rescheduled because schools were ordered to shut down, and participants had contracted
COVID-19. Some target schools were small and did not have enough teachers. As a result, they
were forced to partially use those without ELT qualifications.
Acknowledgments
This research project was funded by the Prince of Songkla University Pattani Research Funding
through grant No. ISL6303020S.

169

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Ahuja, A. (2011). Education crisis leaves kingdom outclassed, Spectrum, 4(23), 6–7.
Assalihee, M., Boonsuk, Y., Bakoh, N., & Sano, I. L. (2019). Reconceptualizing the 21st
century English pedagogies for Islamic school teachers in Asean. Journal of
Nusantara Studies (JONUS), 4(1), 401-421.
https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol4iss1pp401-421
Baker, W. (2015). Culture and identity through English as a lingua franca: Rethinking
concepts and goals in intercultural communication. De Gruyter Mouton.
Baker, W., & Fang, F. (2020). ‘So maybe I’m a global citizen’: Developing intercultural
citizenship in English medium education. Language, Culture and Curriculum.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2020.1748045
Bartram, B. (2010). Attitude to modern foreign language learning: Insights from comparativeeducation. Continuum.
Binmadnee, P., Abdulsata, S., & Haji, S. (2018). Study the problem condition and thesolution of English studying in the upper secondary Islamic private school students inthree southern border provinces. Al-nur Journal of Graduate School, Fatoni
University, 13(25), 25-37.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education. Taylor
Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539
Creswell, J., & Plano-Clark, V. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (3rd ed.). Sage.
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.
Education First. (2020). EF English proficiency index. Retrieved on May 06, 2021
from https://www.ef.com/wwen/epi/regions/asia/thailand/Fang, F., & Baker, W. (2018). ‘A more inclusive mind towards the world’: English language
teaching and study abroad in China from intercultural citizenship and English as a
lingua franca perspective. Language Teaching Research, 22(5), 608–624.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168817718574
Fang, F., & Ren, W. (2018). Developing students’ awareness of Global Englishes. ELT
Journal, 72(4), 384-394. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccy012
Galloway, N. (2017). Global Englishes and change in English language teaching: Attitudes
and impact. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315158983
Galloway, N., & Rose, H. (2018). Incorporating Global Englishes into the ELT classroom.
ELT Journal, 72(1), 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccx010
Galloway, N., & Rose, H. (2021). The global spread of English and Global Englishes
Language Teaching. In Language Teacher Education for Global Englishes (pp. 1119). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026144482000051
Garrett, P. (2010). Attitudes to language. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511844713

170

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Goudeau, S., & Croizet, J.-C. (2017). Hidden advantages and disadvantages of social class:How classroom settings reproduce social inequality by staging unfair comparison.
Psychological science, 28(2), 162–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616676600
Grubbs, S. J., Chaengploy, S., & Worawong, K. (2009). Rajabhat and traditional universities:
institutional differences in Thai students’ perceptions of English. Higher
Education, 57(3), 283–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-008-9144-2
Harvey, E. J., & Kenyon, M. C. (2013). Classroom seating considerations for 21st century
students and faculty. Journal of Learning Spaces, 2(1), 1–13.
Imsa-ard, P. (2020). Motivation and attitudes towards English language learning in Thailand:
A large-scale survey of secondary school students. rEFLections, 27(2), 140–161.
Jindapitak, N., Teo, A., & Savski, K. (2022). Bringing Global Englishes to the ELTclassroom: English language learners’ reflections. Asian Englishes, 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2022.2033910
Kaur, A., Young, D., & Kirkpatrick, R. (2016). English education policy in Thailand: Why
the poor results?. In English language education policy in Asia (pp. 345–361).
Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22464-0
Khamkhien, A. (2010). Teaching English speaking and English speaking tests in the Thaicontext: A reflection from Thai perspective. English Language Teaching, 3(1), 184–
190. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v3n1p184
Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as a lingua franca in ASEAN: A multilingual model (Vol. 1).
Hong Kong University Press.
Lewins, A., & Silver, C. (2007). Qualitative coding in software: principles andprocesses. Using software in qualitative research. Using Software in Qualitative
Research. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9780857025012.d85
Margono, U. (2012). Islamic education in Indonesia and Malaysia: The existence andimplementation until 20th century. Journal At-Ta’dib, 7(2), 363–378.
http://dx.doi.org/10.21111/at-tadib.v7i2.80
Methitham, P., & Chamcharatsri, P. B. (2011). Critiquing ELT in Thailand: A reflection from
history to practice. Journal of Humanities, Naresuan University, 8(2), 57–68.
Meyer, M. W., & Norman, D. (2020). Changing design education for the 21st century. She Ji:
The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation, 6(1), 13–49.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sheji.2019.12.002
National Institute of Educational Testing Service. (2017). National Educational Test
Reporting System (O-NET). Bamgkok: National Institute of Educational Testing
Service.
National Institute of Educational Testing Service. (2020). National Educational Test
Reporting System (O-NET). Bamgkok: National Institute of Educational Testing
Service.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Sage.
Phungphol, Y. (2005). Learner-centered teaching approach: A paradigm shift in Thai
education. ABAC Journal, 25(2).

171

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Prabjandee, D. (2020). Teacher professional development to implement Global Englishes
language teaching. Asian Englishes, 22(1), 52–67.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2019.1624931
Prabjandee, D., & Fang, F. (2022). ‘I was like, just wow!’: insights from Global Englishes
teacher professional development. Asian Englishes, 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2021.1989546
Putri, V. A. (2020). The English-learning strategies of an indigenous English learner in thenortheast of Thailand. Indonesian EFL Journal, 6(1), 11–18.
https://doi.org/10.25134/ieflj.v6i1.2633
Rajprasit, K., & Marlina, R. (2019). An attempt to raise Thai students’ awareness of World
Englishes in a General English Program. Indonesian JELT: Indonesian Journal of
English Language Teaching, 14(1), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v14i1.1416
Rose, H., & Galloway, N. (2017). Debating standard language ideology in the classroom:
Using the ‘Speak Good English Movement’to raise awareness of global Englishes.
RELC Journal, 48(3), 294–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688216684281
Rose, H., & Galloway, N. (2019). Global Englishes for language teaching. Cambridge
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316678343
Rose, H., McKinley, J. and Galloway, N. (2021) Global Englishes and language teaching: areview of pedagogical research. Language Teaching, 54(2), 157–189.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444820000518.
Somjai, S., & Soontornwipast, K. (2020). The integration of implicit and explicit vocabulary
instruction, project-based learning, multimedia, and experiential learning to improve
Thai EFL senior high school students’ vocabulary ability. Arab World English
Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on CALL, (6).
https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/call6.12
Srisueb, P., & Wasanasomsithi, P. (2010). A needs analysis of secondary school students
learning English as a third language in Islamic religious schools in Narathiwat
province. Princess of Naradhiwas University Journal, 2(3), 84–98.
Tarrayo, V. N., Ulla, M. B., & Lekwilai, P. (2020). Does Thai English exist? Voices fromEnglish language teachers in two Thai universities. Asian Englishes.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2020.1821299
Zein, S., & Stroupe, R. (Eds.). (2018). English language teacher preparation in Asia: Policy,
research and practice. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315105680
Corresponding author: Yusop Boonsuk
Email: yusop.b@psu.ac.th172

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Mobile Learning for Malay Language among Foreign Workers:
A Preliminary Study
Nur Izzah binti Osman
Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Siti Nazleen binti Abdul Rabu
Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

173

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
This study aims to understand the learning process and language acquisition of Communicative
Malay Language (CML) among foreign workers in Malaysia. A total of 10 foreign workers
who were randomly selected in Kuala Lumpur and volunteered to participate were interviewed
individually. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, translated and interpreted to enable
the researcher to conduct content analysis. The analysis revealed that most of the respondents
were not adequately supplied with general knowledge about the country, and especially thelanguage, when they arrived in Malaysia for the first time. Although only half of themspecifically reported the utilization of mobile applications in learning CML, all of the
respondents were aware of mobile applications in general and agreed that this would be a good
instrument to help them learn the language, especially the listening aspect.
Keywords: adult learning, andragogy, Malay as foreign language, mobile assisted language
learning, self-directed learning

174

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The population of foreign workers in Malaysia is estimated to increase to approximately 1.9
million by 2022 (Ng, 2018). This is not a surprising situation, since Malaysia is progressing
well towards a better infrastructure and economic status, which requires the recruitment of
more foreign workers (Karim, Mohamad Diah, Mustari, Sarker, & Islam, 2015). However,many foreign workers lack appropriate preparation with general knowledge about the newcountry and language prior to arriving to start work in the country (Al Gammal, 2020).
According to Malaysia’s Ministry of Human Resources, one of the most prominent aspects
required from these workers is to be equipped with the ability to communicate with the locals(International Labour Organisation, 2015). Generally, one of the most crucial elements incommunication is the comprehension of language (Sirbu, 2015).
The context of this study is that language is an important aspect that helps foreign workers toconvey and express their thoughts and needs and to comprehend information, thus producing
more efficient and effective communication. Failing to master this aspect will cause
miscommunication with the local residents as well as constraints on the efficiency of one’s
business organization. Nonetheless, for these foreign workers, learning without any proper
settings might have been the result of a hurried relocation given that they are not offered any
formal comprehensive induction before coming to Malaysia, and they possess irregular andlong working hours (Putul & Mia, 2020). Thus, acquiring the language goes beyond a standard
pedagogy that is taught in schools. The workers under consideration are all adults, whoselearning style differs from that of children.
Furthermore, there is still a lack of empirical evidence to understand the process of Malay
language acquisition among foreign workers in Malaysia. Therefore, this study aims tounderstand the learning process of Communicative Malay Language (CML) among foreign
workers in Malaysia as well as to explore the emergence of a mobile-assisted language learning
application among foreign workers.
Language Proficiency Skills
According to Sadiku (2015), there are four language skills that build language proficiency,
namely reading, speaking, listening and writing. These skills can be categorized into two maingroups of proficiencies: oral proficiency and written proficiency. Oral proficiency involves
high interactivity and spontaneous feedback between people, whereas written proficiency ismore recursive, thus allowing a person to review and amend utterances. Generally all of theabovementioned language skills are important to achieve high quality proficiency. Söderqvist(2018), on the other hand, argued that there are two main types of proficiency, which areproduction and reception. Productive proficiency encompasses speaking and writing skills,
while receptive proficiency encompasses reading and listening skills. For the scope of thisstudy, it is important to note that it is impossible for a person to function well by merely
depending on a single language proficiency skill. The language learner must combine at least
two types of proficiency skills in order to interact with the immediate surroundings, whether it
is a verbal or a non-verbal interaction. Based on the explanations given by Sadiku and
Söderqvist, the main goal of this study is to determine which of the language proficiency skills
are most needed among foreign workers in Malaysia in order for them to function well as partof the working community.

175

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL)
According to Sagar (2013), there are nearly six billion subscriptions to mobile phone services
worldwide, and the rate of mobile devices accessing the Internet is three times higher than thatof computers. Sagar added that the advancement of mobile devices today has offered new waysof learning that are well adapted to learning languages due to their flexibility and costeffectiveness. This phenomenon is relevant to the large-scale development of mobile
applications for adults’ foreign language learning, as this method of learning allows thiscategory of the working generation to develop a skill that can complement their formal
education, thus improving their lives (Sagar, 2013). Furthermore, Deng and Shao (2011), who
also advocate the employment of technology in learning, have suggested that mobile
applications are among the most effective tools for self-directed language learning. This isbecause smartphones have gradually become a necessity for people to own, regardless of theirage and demographic background (Deng & Shao, 2011). To date, there are numbers of studies
that have proved the effectiveness of MALL globally (Zhang, & Zou, 2021).
On the other hand, a systematic review that was conducted by Hawamdeh and Soykan (2021)
revealed that most studies pertaining to the effectiveness of mobile language learning wereconducted in the Middle East and Southeast Asia. The analysis also showed that English is themost examined foreign language among mobile learners. Hawamdeh and Soykan’s analysis
concluded that the trend of mobile learning for the past five years has surged significantly.
Their analysis also indicated that there are increasing numbers of empirical findings to provethat mobile phones are more effective than other methods of learning, especially for learning
English. Nonetheless, it is still an arguable statement, since most of the research involved
higher education students from developing countries. If adults and/or foreign workers werebeing included, the result may be varied. In order to compare English and Malay Language, it
is significant that there are obviously numerous mobile resources that could be found forEnglish since English is the current lingua franca of the world (Rao, 2019).
Therefore, the effectiveness of mobile learning as an all-inclusive process is still yet to beestablished. In the scope of this study, there are two main concerns that need to be addressed.
The first concern involves the adoption of mobile technology among foreign workers,
particularly in Malaysia. According to Al Masud, Hamzah, and Ahmad (2020), most foreign
workers in Malaysia are low-educated and low-skilled. This may impact the way they utilize
mobile technology in their daily lives. Although technology is meant to ease the complexity ofcertain tasks, for lower-educated people, it seems to be the other way around. This situation isbetter known as the digital divide. In general, the digital divide is regarded as social inequality
in which learners of lower socioeconomic status exhibit lower levels of internet literacy which
is impacted by the lack of device ownership and internet-based skills (Puspitasari & Ishii,2016). The second issue to address is the acceptance of mobile learning among adults.
Theory of Andragogy (Knowles, 1978) and Self-Directed Learning
The acquisition of foreign language proficiency is viewed differently among adults. This isbecause adults learn differently from children (Brockett & Hiemstra, 2018). Citing Knowles(1978), Brockett and Hiemstra mentioned that adults tend to have self-directed learning styles.
These learning styles refer to adults’ predominant characteristics in deciding and diagnosing
their learning needs as well as formulating and utilizing resources in order to achieve theirlearning goals (Brockett & Hiemstra, 2018). This means that what may seem important to learn
for some people may not be important for others. This would result in different learning

176

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

outcomes among adult learners. In the scope of this study, some foreign language learners may
possess good oral proficiency rather than written proficiency and vice versa. Brockett andHiemstra added that adults are autonomous in finding any available materials that would assist
in their personal learning, including signing up for courses, buying extra books or even
employing technological assistance. According to Wehmeyer, Shogren, and Thompson (2018),
adult education in general emphasizes self-directed or self-regulated learning. This means that
adults hold greater autonomy, which allows them to design their learning process to suit theirprofessional needs (Wehmeyer, Shogren, & Thompson, 2018). This takes into account theindividual’s ability, interests, preferences and opportunities that can be accessed in the effort
to achieve their learning goal. Combining the commentaries and description of the term “selfdirected learning” from both Brockett and Hiemstra as well as Wehmeyer, Shogren, andThompson, this study investigates the way foreign workers learn CML to suit the needs of theirprofessions.
However, as mentioned in the previous section, adults’ acceptance to MALL may differ froman individual to another. In other words, they have full authority to reject or accept mobile
learning. This decision is made based on their cognitive maturity level. Therefore for this study,
it is imperative to know that stages of adulthood affect the acceptance of mobile language
learning. This is because a self-directed learning style is closely related to adults’ cognitive
maturity, and this would determine their perceptions on the best method of learning forthemselves. In Malaysia, the legal age range for foreign workers is between 18 years to 45
years old (The Malaysian Employer Federation, 2014). This age range covers from young to
middle aged adulthood. For this range of adults, the acceptance of mobile learning occurs only
if the platform is able to support their communication needs and would enable them to fulfil
personal achievement without facing complicated features that would slow the learning process
and eventually demotivated them (Hashim, Tan, & Rashid, 2015). Thus, for the context of thiscurrent study, foreign workers’ maturity might also have affected the way they employ mobile
learning, apart from having lower socioeconomic status.
Research Methodology
The purpose of this qualitative study is to gain a deeper understanding of adults’ learning
process in acquiring CML, including their perceptions towards the utilization of mobile
applications. It is important to understand how these learners view and experience the selfdirected language acquisition process, especially given that the emergence of mobile
applications would affect the way they learn. This preliminary study involves a total of ten
respondents who are foreign workers from various sectors in Kuala Lumpur. Therefore, basedon the literature discussed above, this study is intended to explore the following researchquestions:
1) Which language skills are most needed among foreign workers in acquiring CML?
2) How do foreign workers learn and acquire CML?
3) What are the potential utilizations of mobile applications in assisting CML learning
among foreign workers?
In order to answer all the aforementioned research questions, a set of interview questions was
prepared. The questions were validated by two academic qualitative researchers. Since this isa preliminary study, no pilot studies was conducted prior to the interview.

177

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The population involved in this study are foreign workers based in the main city, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia. They worked in various blue collar sectors. A simple random method has
been utilized for this study. Note that for the interviews, Indonesian workers were excluded
from the sample for this study due to the same basis of Malay language. All the potential
respondents were approached individually, they were informed about the purpose of theresearch as well as the confidentiality of their information. Initially, there were more than 20
foreign workers who were personally approached by the first author of this research.
Nonetheless, only 10 workers agreed to participate. The set of the interview questions wereprepared in both Malay Language and English. However, since most of the workers had low
proficiency in reading for both languages, the researchers decided to make the tone of theinterviews less formal by conducting the interviews casually in which all the questions wereasked in a conversational way using mixed languages between English and Malay Language.
During each interview session, most of the respondents were accompanied by their colleagues
as they were not comfortable to have a direct conversation with the researcher in private. The
researcher agreed and all the interviews were completed at their workplaces during break time
or after working hours. The average time for each interview was around 20 to 30 minutes. In
hindsight, their colleagues were mostly senior workers and would help to interpret and break
down any situation that the respondents were trying to convey during the interviews.
The interviews were recorded and transcribed for content analysis. Content analysis isconsidered as one of the most important qualitative analysis techniques in the social sciences(Krippendorff, 2018). According to Krippendorff (2018), content analysis is used to analyse
data within a specific context of meaning imposed by a person. These meanings are typicallyinferred by text, which is conventionally collected from verbal discourse or written documents.
Krippendorff added that this form of analysis allows the researcher to construct inferences ofa phenomenon based on the rich repertoire of the data collection through coding. The frequencyof these references would then indicate the contextual meaning and interpretation. For thescope of this study, this type of analysis technique is employed as the means to interpret
interview data using a dialectic process in which interview data was first understood, thenexplained and finally comprehended. The process of analysis and interpretation started bytranscribing the verbal face-to-face interview data. The transcriptions were then read several
times before proceeding with the coding process. This repetitive reading was conducted inorder to gain a preliminary understanding of the whole phenomenon and its context. The
statements given by the respondents were then identified and classified into meaningful items
that were coded into themes (Severinsson, 2003). The themes were interpreted within thecontext of this study. The final phase involved interpretation of the transcribed text as a whole
and re-contextualizing it into a new, clearer and more concrete understanding.
Findings and Interpretation
The main finding of this study focuses on the CML learning process among foreign workers
who are self-directed adult learners based on the fact that they possess a degree of maturity toaccess their own personal needs for learning and its development. This study also explores thepotential of mobile-assisted language learning applications among foreign workers. Based on
the qualitative content analysis conducted, the findings are distributed into six main themes:
The need to learn CML; The ability to master all four language proficiencies; Awareness of
CML courses available; Self-directed learning style; Awareness of mobile applications;
Awareness and use of mobile applications in learning CML.

178

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 1
Demographic Profile of Respondents
Respondent

Nationality

Age Range

Career Background

Duration of Staying

Respondent 1

Nepalese

25-34

Resident Guard

Less than a year

Respondent 2

Bangladeshi 25-34

Shop AssistantMore than 3 years

Respondent 3

Bangladeshi 35-44

Shop Manager

More than a year

Respondent 4

Bangladeshi 25-34

Shop AssistantMore than a year

Respondent 5

Bangladeshi 35-44

Car Wash Worker

More than 3 years

Respondent 6

Nepalese

Resident Guard

More than a year

Respondent 7

Bangladeshi 35-44

Construction Worker

More than 3 years

Respondent 8

Nepalese

25-34

Resident Guard

More than 3 years

Respondent 9

Nepalese

25-34

Resident Guard

More than 5 years

Respondent 10

Nepalese

35-44

Resident Guard

More than a year

25-34

Based on the demographic profile in Table 1, it is found that five respondents are from
Bangladesh (N=5), with the national native tongue of Bengali, while the other five are from
Nepal (N=5), with the national native tongue of Nepali. It is also found that all the Nepalese
respondents involved in this study are working as residential guards. The Bangladeshis, on theother hand, are working in various blue-collar sectors, such as construction workers, shop
assistants and car-wash workers. The table also shows that at the time of the interviews, only
one respondent had been in Malaysia for less than a year.
Theme I: The Need to Learn Communicative Malay Language
Table 2
Respondents’ Previous Working Experience before Migrating to Malaysia
Respondent

Previous Countries

Language Spoken Previously

Respondent 1-

EnglishRespondent 2-

EnglishRespondent 3

Saudi Arabia

English, Arabic

Respondent 4--

Respondent 5

Saudi Arabia, Dubai

Urdu, Arabic

Respondent 6-

EnglishRespondent 7--

Respondent 8

India

English, Urdu

Respondent 9

Saudi Arabia

English, Arabic

Respondent 10

India

English, Hindi

179

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Table 2 shows the other countries where the respondents had lived and the languages theyspoke other than their native tongue. When they were asked to describe their previous working
experiences, respondents 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 reported that they had worked in other countries in
the past, while the remainder had migrated for the first time to work in Malaysia. Respondents
3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 also stated that they were able to speak the native languages of the countries
they had previously migrated to at the communicative level. Respondents 4 and 7, who had
never migrated to any other countries before coming to Malaysia, reported that they were notable to speak in English – only Malay. The respondents were then asked about their perceptionsof CML. All of the respondents mentioned that Malay was easy to learn and some of them suggested
that it was much easier compared to other languages, including their own native languages:
Malay language is so easy…because Malay grammar is easier compared to
Bangladeshi and Arabic grammar…. (Respondent 3, Extract 1)
Malay is easier than Bangladeshi…here, I only learn from listening repetitively to what
other people are saying and I can catch them (words) already. (Respondent 7, Extract
1)
All of the respondents agreed that it is important for them to be able to speak Malay at the basic
level. However, all of them perceived that the need to learn CML is more for the sake ofsurvival rather than for mixing with the locals. Most of the respondents reported that theyneeded to learn CML solely for work. In other words, they can speak and comprehend thelanguage only in the context and the perimeter of their workplace and they are not able toconverse if it is not work-related:…I can speak and understand if it’s in this shop… such as “rice”, “fish”, “chicken”
and “vegetables” …. (Respondent 4, Extract 1)
They say things like “wash”, “vacuum this car”, “how much for this?”… I canunderstand…but when I go outside, I only speak Malay to buy things, such as asking
the price. I always go to Klang, but there I speak Urdu because there are a lot of
Malaysian Indians and they speak Urdu… not so much Malay. (Respondent 5, Extract 1)
Theme II: The Acquisition of All Four Language Skills
Table 3
Respondents’ Perception of Language Proficiency Skills
Respondent

Speaking

Reading

Writing

Listening

Respondent 1

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Respondent 2

Yes

No

No

Yes

Respondent 3

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Respondent 4

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Respondent 5

Yes

No

No

Yes

Respondent 6

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Respondent 7

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

180

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Respondent 8

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Respondent 9

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Respondent 10

Yes

No

No

Yes

Table 3 shows that all of the respondents are able to speak and listen well. As explained in theprevious section, these two skills are prominently correlated to oral communication skills(Brockett & Hiemstra, 2018). The interview data also discovered that respondents 3 and 8 areable to read and pronounce Malay words according to the spelling given, although they are notable to understand the meanings of all the words. This is because Malay is a phonetically-based
language. Table 3 also reveals that respondent 3 is the only respondent who has mastered all
the basic language skills. From the hermeneutic point of view, his ability to master all four
skills is closely related to the nature of his job as a shop manager. The respondent reported that
he had to deal with local suppliers and needed to read and write invoices and other memos. He
admitted that he still had a hard time understanding the conjugated versions of words, but heis nonetheless able to capture the meaning of the text as a whole.
Table 4
Respondents’ Self-rankings of the Importance of Language Skills

Respondent 1

The Importance of Language Skills(from the most important to the least important)
Speaking, Listening, Reading, Writing

Respondent 2

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing

Respondent 3

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing

Respondent 4

Speaking, Listening, Reading, Writing

Respondent 5

Speaking, Listening, Reading, Writing

Respondent 6

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing

Respondent 7

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing

Respondent 8

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing

Respondent 9

Listening, Speaking, Writing, Reading

Respondent 10

Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing

Respondent

All of the respondents were asked to rank their perceptions of language skills from the mostimportant to the least important. Table 4 shows that all of the respondents focused on theimportance of oral communication skills, namely speaking and listening. The table also showsthat most of the respondents (N=7) perceived that listening is the most essential skill incommunication. The table also clearly shows that these foreign workers do not put muchconcern on writing (N=9). This could be due to their working contexts, which typically do not
require much writing.
Theme III: Awareness of the CML Courses Available
The interview data revealed that all of the respondents involved in this study reported that they
were not aware of any CML courses available in the city where they worked. Nonetheless, with181

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

the exception of respondent 10, all of the Nepalese respondents working as residential guards
mentioned that they were given inductions and training before starting their jobs, and that oneof the contents of these inductions was CML. However, respondent 8 reported that the training
only taught them basic words and how to use them in simple sentences. They were not evengiven any books. His response is also parallel with respondent 9, who works for a different
security company:
They did not give us any books... We were not aware about any Malay language books
available and where to buy them… we were still new to Malaysia at that time... .
(Respondent 8, Extract 1)
Yes, we went for training and learned a bit about the language, but no books oranything... in the end, I had to learn by myself. (Respondent 9, Extract 1)
Theme IV: Self-Directed Learning Style
Overall, the interpretation of the interview texts revealed that all of the respondents rely on
daily communication with the locals to improve their language acquisition, which only focuseson oral language skills, namely speaking and listening. As reported in the previous section,none of the respondents were aware of any CML courses available in Malaysia. When they
were asked if they would hypothetically be interested in signing up to any formal settings tolearn CML, surprisingly only respondent 3 was interested. The data from the interview
conducted also shows that respondent 3 is a proactive learner, as he has bought his own learning
books. Interestingly, respondent 3 also added that it is better to learn Malay from native
speakers. Nevertheless, the respondent mentioned that he does not have any local friends, andthat this hinders his personal learning process, as he has to rely on his other Bangladeshi friends
to learn the language.
The remaining respondents, on the other hand, prefer to learn CML by themselves:
I want to learn by myself…because I have a job and I have no time to go to anyclasses.... (Respondent 2, Extract 1)…because I don’t live here, I just want to work here, so language class is notimportant…. (Respondent 4, Extract 2)…because I need to save money, plus I don’t have time, because I’m working untilnight. (Respondent 5, Extract 2)
The respondents were then asked about their method of learning and acquiring the language bythemselves. They were first asked if they used any conventional material such as books to learn
Malay. However, only respondents 3 and 4 reported that they used books. Their responses
correspond to their reading ability, as mentioned in Theme II.
Most of the respondents mentioned that they learned with the help of their friends andcolleagues:…I have local and Bangladeshi friends and other foreign friends like Indonesians toteach me Malay.... (Respondent 4, Extract 3)

182

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

I’m learning Malay with friends who have already been here before I came.
(Respondent 5, Extract 3)…I learn from friends, from locals and Indonesian workers. I also learn from listening
repetitively to other people’s sentences…. (Respondent 7, Extract 2)
Furthermore, the respondents also reported that they acquired vocabulary through repeatedlistening to words spoken among the locals. The interpreted data also indicate that some
respondents have utilized technology in assisting their personal learning:
I do watch a few Malay YouTube channels…. (Respondent 4, Extract 4)
At this car wash, there is a TV and it only shows Malay programs, so I usually watch
when there is no car… I don’t understand what they are saying, but the pictures (visual)
help me to understand. (Respondent 5, Extract 4)
I don’t use books to learn, but I learn from TV shows…. (Respondent 7, Extract 3)
The interview texts were further perused to determine whether other respondents also used
television or radio shows as the medium for their self-directed learning. Notwithstanding theuse of television or radio shows by respondents 4, 5, and 7, the remaining respondents arerather negative:
I don’t do that… I have my local friends who can teach me… they are good people.
(Respondent 1, Extract 1)
I can read books, but I simply have no time to learn Malay from TV or any media
because I don’t have all that at this shop…. (Respondent 3, Extract 1)
I don’t have any interest in watching Malay channels…. (Respondent 6, Extract 1)
I work 18 hours a day with over-time: I don’t have time to watch TV and learn
properly…. (Respondent 10, Extract 1)
Lastly, as stated in Table 2, most of the respondents (except for respondents 4 and 7) possessed
second or other foreign languages apart from their own native languages and CML.
Respondents 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 specifically informed the interviewer that they had previously
worked in other countries such as Saudi Arabia, Dubai, and India before coming to Malaysia.
During the interview sessions, all of these respondents reported that they had not signed up for
any language classes to learn languages such as Arabic, Hindi and Urdu. In the same way thatthey had learned Malay, the respondents also acquired the basics of these languages throughfriends and colleagues as well as listening to the locals speaking. As for English, therespondents explained that it was a subject taught in school, but some also claimed that they
had not completed school due to financial constraints, thus resulting in poor English.
Theme V: Awareness of Mobile Applications
This theme explains respondents’ awareness and utilization of mobile applications in their daily
lives. The findings gained from all the interview sessions provide a new understanding of how
some of these foreign workers incorporated technology into their daily lives. This part of the183

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

interview started with a screening question to determine the type of phone that the respondents
were currently using. All of the respondents proved that they owned smartphones by showing
their phones during the interview sessions. However, respondent 4 mentioned that he had only
started using a mobile phone since moving to Malaysia. He also mentioned that he did not own
any phones, including old-style keypad phones, when he was in Bangladesh. Similarly,
respondent 7 was also first introduced to smartphone use after arriving in Malaysia. Both ofthese respondents were asked to clarify why this was the case, and both reported that they had
faced financial constraints back in Bangladesh. Furthermore, all of the respondents reported
that they were aware of mobile applications and had downloaded several applications throughAndroid Playstore, except for respondent 5, who had never downloaded anything and only used
the built-in applications on his mobile smartphone.
Theme VI: Awareness and Use of Mobile Applications in Learning CMLThis theme is the most crucial part of the study, as it revolves around the utilization of mobile
applications in assisting CML self-directed learning among foreign workers. The interview
sessions revealed the emergence of the mobile-assisted language learning phenomenon. Theinterview data revealed that five respondents had already downloaded Malay language learning
applications, while the other five respondents were asked to clarify why they had not done so:
I know what a mobile application is… but I didn’t know such applications (to learn
CML) exist …. (Respondent 1, Extract 2)
I came here four years ago: I don’t think this kind of application was available at thattime…. (Respondent 2, Extract 2)
I didn’t know there were (CML) applications… I have never used or downloaded any
Malay language learning applications… I think it’s too hard for me and I never want
to try….” (Respondent 3, Extract 2)
I think we have, but I’m not interested. (Respondent 9, Extract 2)
Yes I know, but I never try it…. (Respondent 10, Extract 3)
A list of CML learning mobile applications available on the Play store was shown to the
respondents who reported that they were not aware of these mobile applications. Respondent
3 immediately downloaded one of the applications and tried it during the interview session. He
then mentioned that the use of mobile applications is a good idea to help in learning CML
during the hectic working day. Furthermore, all of the respondents agreed that the use of mobile
applications is a good and relevant idea to be implemented as learning tools for those who do
not go to any formal classes.
As for the scope of mobile applications’ feasibility, respondent 9 indicated that a CML mobile
application would help in strengthening his listening comprehension. His opinion is in line withrespondents 6, 8 and 10, who all stressed that the use of mobile applications would help themto practice oral communication, especially on the listening aspect.

184

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Discussion and Recommendation
Theme I: The Need to Learn Communicative Malay Language
Based on the findings, it can be inferred that most participants agreed that Malay Language
was fairly easy to be used at the communicative level (Basir, 2018; Mohd Ali, Redzuan, Abu
Samah, & Mohd Rashid, 2001) and the need to learn the language in a formal setting such as
going to any available CML courses may not be their priority. In addition, respondents
perceived that they only needed to learn more segmented phrases since they only utilize thelanguage within a transactional scope. This sparks the idea to provide a sort of on-the-go lesson
which could introduce them to daily phrases in Malay Language. Therefore, government
entities, especially those who are closely related to foreign workers’ recruitment, are highlyencouraged to produce phrase bank materials which could be given to the foreign workers on
the first week of their arrival in Malaysia. This also would boost the positive image of Malaysia
as a host country in providing better social preparation to foreign workers before starting towork among the locals.
Theme II: The Acquisition of All Four Language Skills
The interviews revealed that listening is the most essential skill in communication among
participants, followed by speaking skills. This is parallel to Polat and Erişti (2019) who statedthat listening skill is a central skill which affects language acquisition the most. Although thefindings is too small to be generalized to the whole population of foreign workers in Malaysia,
it is still noteworthy to say that this type of communication skills could be the contributing
factor to much better understanding between the workers and the locals in Malaysia since they
possess different cultural beliefs and world views. However, as mentioned previously, theparticipants reported that their main idea to learn the language was not to mix around with thelocals. This could be due to their intimidation towards the locals. This intimidation may becaused by two reasons. Firstly, it is known that they are intimidated and uncomfortable to bearound the locals due to long history of discrimination, exploitation and harassment byirresponsible authorities and employers (Putul & Mia, 2020). Another reason of intimidation
could be due to language anxiety. According to Polat and Erişti, language anxiety can bereferred as a feeling of tension, fear, uneasiness, apprehension or restlessness that is caused by
the action that is required by a communicator before and during listening activity. In order toovercome these learning blocks, a simulated and interactive drillings of small conversations
could be executed (Polat & Erişti, 2019). This technique of learning could function as acognitive cushion to prepare them to the real-world experience. Nonetheless, in order to do so,a strong collaboration between educators and instructional technology developers is needed.
Theme III: Awareness of the CML Courses Available
Overall, 9 out of 10 respondents reported the lack of information on any CML courses available
in the main city, and even if the foreign workers who worked as residential guards were given
induction, they reported that the content of CML a lesson was barely helpful to them. This isan alarming situation especially to policy makers in Malaysia who had emphasized thecompulsory need of having basic knowledge of the language in the country. As imposed by the
Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia, foreign workers are supposed to be equipped with thebasic knowledge, yet little effort are made to expose the newcomers to the available courses
which could assist them much earlier as well as to develop positive perception on local
employers. Therefore, it is recommended that policy makers should include CML courses

185

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

being offered prior to their arrival. This type of course may be arranged through certain
agreements between participating countries which send their citizens to work in Malaysia.
Though it may sound easy to be executed, the cooperation of all parties especially from theemployers is crucial. This is said based on the different level of privilege received by theforeign workers from their employer.
In Malaysia, there is a disparity between the terms “expatriates” and “foreign workers”. This
disparity affects the level of given privilege to the foreigners. Definition-wise, “expatriates” isgenerally referred to non-nationals who are sent to host country by their organizations orcompanies which was based in either their home country or others, to accomplish a given task
at the host country within a stipulated time of typically more than six months to five years in aterm (MycNulty & Brewster, 2017). As for the foreign workers, they are known to be nonnationals who are engaged in remunerated activity in a country where they are recruited (The
Employment Act, 1955). Based on the segregated definitions, it can be inferred that expatriates
are mostly professionals who usually experienced a much better living environment. In thecontext of language learning, unlike foreign workers, expatriates in Malaysia are not obliged
to acquire basic Malay Language since most of them are able to speak in English and English
happens to be Malaysia’s second language. Nonetheless, that does not mean they are notentitled to any Malay Language lessons. In fact, they have better financial and time privilege
to learn Malay Language in a proper and formal setting as compared to the foreign workers.
However, to date, there is still inadequate empirical evidence on how the expatriates acquire
Malay Language as compared to the foreign workers, given that most of them come fromdeveloped first-world countries and are able to afford formal CML courses as well as to havemore organized time. Therefore, it is highly recommended that additional future studies be
conducted in order to gain a better understanding and comparison between these two categories
of CML learners in Malaysia.
Theme IV: Self-Directed Learning Style
The findings highlighted the fact that a self-directed learning style is obviously exhibited by
the respondents since most of them acquired CML through various independent methods. The
findings also intersect with another research study which was conducted by Khan, Hashim, andYousuf, (2021). According to Khan, Hashim, and Yousuf, most of the foreign workers in
Malaysia are not given any language training and more than 90% of the workers took at least
three to six months to acquire basic Malay Language by the help of their colleagues or family
members. The intersection of these findings proved that foreign workers in Malaysia are still
able to learn Malay Language at their own pace and time availability despite having to work
tirelessly. Learning also happened based on their own personal motivation which is not to fully
utilize the language within social context. The fact that they believe learning the language is a
crucial element to their survival at work, shows that there is a need to develop a flexible CML
learning platform that would cater to this niche population of workers whose contribution ofservices could significantly be improved by having more CML drillings.
Theme V: Awareness of Mobile Applications
The interviews revealed the fact that owning a smartphone does not necessarily lead to a techsavvy life among the foreign workers. Although all of the respondents proved that they owned
mobile phones when the interview took place, not all of them reported to have actively used amobile application since moving to Malaysia. Since 2020, Malaysia has been striving tobecome a digital nation and more than 80% of Malaysians have access to the internet (Said,186

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 20222020) and the use of mobile applications is booming with an extremely high rates of mobile
phone penetration (Yusof, 2020). Since the majority of the workers in Malaysia concentrated
on low-skilled occupations (World Bank, 2020), chances for them to be at par with otherprofessionals on the aspect of technological advancement is low. Here, it is highly encouraged
for the employers to provide an in-depth induction to increase awareness on the use of mobile
application among foreign workers in Malaysia. By doing so, the foreign workers are able toprogress well in their respective sectors and employers will be able to reduce cost on trainingsand development, given that mobile learning is way more cost-effective. Nonetheless, there arestill inadequate information on how foreign use mobile to support their language learning andcommunication (Epp, 2017). In the context of language, most foreigner adult language learners
did not take full advantage of mobile tools that have been presented to them (Epp, 2017). Thus,
a support system is much needed to close this gap as learning goes beyond mobile translation
services and dictionaries.
Theme VI: Awareness and Use of Mobile Applications in Learning CML
The findings consist of mixed reactions on the utilization of any available CML mobile
applications. However in general, it can be said that the existence of CML-specific mobile
application in Malaysia is still at the infant stage in which the popularity of its use to function
as a learning assistance tool is still low among the foreign workers. Nonetheless, most of the
respondents did not deny the fact that the use of the application may be able to help them tolearn target language in much cheaper and flexible way.
Another notable finding is that most respondents agreed that the application should focus on
more listening drills as they believe this skill is the most important skill that would shape their
entire ability to communicate well with the locals. Thus, educators and instructional developers
shall consider to produce mobile applications that focus on listening practice. This is not only
recommended in the context of CML but rather globally since it has been empirically proventhat listening skill is a crucial skill in any languages. Not only that, half of the respondents
admitted that they had worked in other foreign countries before coming to Malaysia andlikewise, they also learned the languages of the respective countries independently since they
were not given any specific lessons nor being exposed to structured language learning. Thisshows, that the problem they faced in learning a foreign language is not limited to Malaysia’s
scope.
This brought up the idea of having a mobile learning platform that could be used at any given
moment globally. This is in line with Kukulska-Hulme’s (2019) views on the use of mobile
technology on foreign’ language learning. Kukulska-Hulme believes that there is a productivesynergy between foreign’ mass mobility and the language of their host society. In 2013,
UNESCO established the relevance of mobile learning towards equality in education acrossthe globe through its slogan “Education for All” (Kukulska-Hulme, 2019). Through this slogan,
UNESCO has recognized the unique benefits of mobile learning to global foreign such as
bridging the gap between formal and informal learning. Thus every policy makers, developers,
and government entities of developing countries should consider of creating their own official
language learning mobile applications and these applications can be introduced andcommercialized across nations with the help of internet advancement. This could be a gamechanger in globalization and would be able to close the gap between nations, minimizing
miscommunication among citizens of the world as well as to reduce discrimination and racismthat might have been caused by low language proficiency among newcomers.

187

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Limitation of Study
This study is limited to small numbers of participants. This is due to respondents’ lack ofvoluntarily participation. Initially more than 10 potential respondents were approach, but only
10 respondents were comfortable to spend their time and opinion. The rest of them declined
due to extreme concern on their privacy despite being informed of the whole confidentiality of
personal information. Thus, the findings of this study may not be able to generalize the CML
acquisition process to the whole foreign workers population.
Conclusion
Based on the analysis of the transcribed interviews, it was found that listening skill is the mostneeded skill in CML acquisition. It can also be concluded that none of the respondents involvedin this study had attended any formal lessons to acquire CML when they first arrived in
Malaysia, except for those who are working as residential guards, since they were given basic
CML lessons during the training and induction provided by the security companies for which
they worked. The respondents also claimed that time constraints and the need to survive in aforeign country had forced them to be self-taught rather than signing up for CML courses. This
demonstrates that these workers adopt a self-directed learning style, as they learn from various
sources to which they have access to enable them to work and live in the local community. The
findings also concluded that all of the respondents agreed that mobile applications are a goodidea to help them to learn the language on the go, although half of them mentioned that they
were not aware of the existence of such applications. For the other half, after they were being
introduced of such applications during the interviews, three of the respondents downloaded
one of the apps and soon after agreed to its usefulness. They also considered the Malay
language easy to learn, without any complex structure at the conversational level, and saw theuse of mobile applications as a good alternative to physical lessons, since most of the
respondents reported long workings hours. While these findings assist in constructing acomprehensive understanding of the CML learning process among foreign workers, thispreliminary study is limited to a small-scale sample within the perimeter of the main city ofKuala Lumpur. Therefore, future research should review this preliminary study from different
aspects, such as job categories that require different levels of professionalism and formal
language, as well as from the perspective of foreign workers who have signed up for formal
language classes.

188

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Al Gammal, M., Sharaf, N. A., & Bleek, A. A. F. E. (2020). E-Learning of foreign language
for the employees and majority of countries requirements. Palarch's Journal ofArchaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, 17(6), 8748–8756.
Al Masud, S. M. M., Hamzah, R. B., & Ahmad, H. (2020). Case study: Foreign workers in
Malaysia. Migration Letters, 17(5), 733–746. https://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v17i5.925
Basir, N. (2018). Perpaduan etnik menerusi penggunaan bahasa melayu [Ethnic unity
through the use of Malay Language].
Brockett, R. G., & Hiemstra, R. (2018). Self-direction in adult learning: Perspectives ontheory, research and practice. Abingdon: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429457319
Deng, H., & Shao, Y. (2011, October). Self-directed English vocabulary learning with amobile application in everyday context. Proceedings of the 10th World Conference on
Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 24–31).
Epp, C. D. (2017). Foreigns and mobile technology use: Gaps in the support provided bycurrent tools. Journal of interactive media in education, 2017(1).
https://doi.org/10.5334/jime.432
Hashim, K. F., Tan, F. B., & Rashid, A. (2015). Adult learners' intention to adopt mobile
learning: A motivational perspective. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 46(2), 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12148
Hawamdeh, M., & Soykan, E. (2021). Systematic analysis of effectiveness of using mobile
technologies (MT) in teaching and learning foreign language. Online Journal ofCommunication and Media Technologies, 11(4), e202124.
https://doi.org/10.30935/ojcmt/11256
International Labour Organisation. (2015). Strengthening post-arrival orientation programs
for foreign workers in ASEAN. Retrieved fromhttps://apmigration.ilo.org/resources/strengthening-post-arrival-orientation-programsfor-foreign-workers-in-asean
Karim, A. H. M., Mohamad Diah, N., Mustari, S., Sarker, M., & Islam, S. (2015).
Bangladeshi foreign workers in Malaysia: Their socio-cultural background and work
adaptability. South Asian Anthropologist, 15(1), 1-7.
Khan, A, M.; Hashim, A, T, M.; and Yousuf, M. (2021) Cross cultural study on foreign
worker’s communication and learning Malay language while working in Malaysia.
Review of International Geographical Education (RIGEO), 11(12), 465-476.
https://10.48047/rigeo.11.12.46
Knowles, M. S. (1978). Andragogy: Adult learning theory in perspective. Community
College Review, 5(3), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/009155217800500302
Krippendorff, K. (2018). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Los Angeles:
Sage.
Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2019). Mobile Language Learning Innovation Inspired byForeigns. Journal of Learning for Development, 6(2), 116–129.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0768.pub2

189

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Loeng S. Self-directed learning: A core concept in adult education. Education ResearchInternational. 2020;4(5):1-12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3816132
McNulty, Y., & Brewster, C. (2017). The concept of business expatriates. In Researchhandbook of expatriates. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Mohd Ali,N., Redzuan, M., Abu Samah, A., & Mohd Rashid, I. (2001), Pengajian Malaysia:
Kenegaraan dan Kewarganegaraan [Malaysian Studies : Nationalism andCitizenship] Second. Ed, Petaling Jaya: Prentice Hall.
Ng, S. (2018). Foreign worker sector braces for a tough 2019. The Malaysian Reserve.
https://themalaysianreserve.com/2018/12/24/foreign-worker-sector-braces-for-atough-2019/
Polat, M. & Erişti, B. (2019). The effects of authentic video materials on foreign language
listening skill development and listening anxiety at different levels of English
proficiency. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 6(1), 135154. https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.567863
Puspitasari, L., & Ishii, K. (2016). Digital divides and mobile Internet in Indonesia: Impact ofsmartphones. Telematics and Informatics, 33(2), 472–483.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2015.11.001
Putul, S. J., & Mia, M. T. (2020). Exploitation of foreign workers in Malaysia and protection
under domestic laws. Proceedings of the International Law Conference (iN-LAC
2018) - Law, Technology and the Imperative of Change in the 21st Century,(pp 125–
131). https://10.5220/0010054801250131
Rao, P. S. (2019). The role of English as a global language. Research Journal of
English, 4(1), 65–79.
Sadiku, L. M. (2015). The importance of four skills reading, speaking, writing, listening in alesson hour. European Journal of Language and Literature, 1(1), 29–31.
https://doi.org/10.26417/ejls.v1i1.p29-31
Sagar, C. (2013). Mobile learning and learning English as a foreign language for adults:
Challenges and strategies for future mobile learning projects. INTED2013
Proceedings, 5572–5582.
Said, F. (2020, September 3). What makes us Malaysian in the digital space? News Strait
Times. https://www.nst.com.my/opinion/columnists/2020/09/621491/what-makes-usmalaysian-digital-space
Severinsson, E. (2003). Moral stress and burnout: Qualitative content analysis. Nursing &Health Sciences, 5(1), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-2018.2003.00135.x
Sirbu, A. (2015). The significance of language as a tool of communication. Scientific Bulletin"Mircea cel Batran" Naval Academy, 18(2), 405.
Söderqvist, F. (2018). Perceptions of extramural English and English in the classroom:
Swedish upper secondary students’ writing, reading, listening and speaking skills.
Retrieved from http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:du-29483.
URN: urn:nbn:se:du-29483
Statnickė, G., Savanevičienė, A., & Šakys, I. (2019). The relationship between work
engagement of different generations and mobile learning. Acta Universitatis
Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 67(6), 1627–1642.
https://doi.org/10.11118/actaun201967061627

190

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

The Employment Act, 1955. Accessed fromhttps://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/WEBTEXT/48055/66265/E55mys01.htm
The Malaysian Employer Federation. (2014). Practical Guidelines for Employers on the
recruitment, placement, employment and repatriation of foreign workers in Malaysia.
Wehmeyer, M. L., Shogren, K. Y Thompson, J. (2018). Self-determination and adulttransitions and supports. New directions for adult and continuing education, 160, 56–
62. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.20299
World Bank. 2020. Who is Keeping Score? Estimating the number of foreign workers in
Malaysia. The Malaysian Development Experience: World Bank, Malaysia.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33730
Yusof, A. (2021, February 22). Malaysia remains attractive for E-commerce. News Strait
Times. https://www.nst.com.my/business/2021/02/667882/malaysia-remainsattractive-e-commerce
Zhang, R., & Zou, D. (2021). A state-of-the-art review of the modes and effectiveness ofmultimedia input for second and foreign language learning. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1744666
Corresponding author: Siti Nazleen binti Abdul Rabu
Email: snazleen@usm.my

191

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

192

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Online Assessment in the Digital Era: Moroccan EFL University Students’
Experiences, Perceptions and Challenges
Nourreddine Menyani
Ecole Normale Supérieure, Meknes, Moulay Ismail University, Morocco
Ahlame Boumehdi
Ecole Normale Supérieure, Meknes, Moulay Ismail University, Morocco
Oumaima El Jaadi
Ecole Normale Supérieure, Meknes, Moulay Ismail University, Morocco193

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Abstract
After the scientific consensus on the proliferation of COVID-19, a lethal virus, educational
institutions worldwide have swiftly migrated to online learning. This upheaval has propelled
online evaluation and assessment to be the norm during this period. The principal objective of
the study and research is to explore students’ experience with online emergency learning aswell as online evaluation. This paper also investigates how Moroccan English as a foreign
language (EFL) university learners perceive online assessment in comparison to face-to-faceassessment. Data were collected from a sample of 93 Moroccan EFL university students using
a self-designed questionnaire. The findings of this research revealed that the students
experienced technical issues while submitting their exams. They have also expressed theirdisappointment with the lack of feedback provided by their professors, not to mention theirconstant worry about academic honesty. This has led them to lose interest in their studies andpossess doubts about reliving this dissatisfactory experience. Therefore, the results implied thatparticipants perceive online assessment as an insignificant factor for performance improvement.
This unprecedented experience has had an unadulterated negative impact on students as it hasleft them both dissatisfied with their experience regarding distance learning and apprehensive
about their future educational experiences. It is, then, recommended that the notion of online
assessment should be given much attention in higher education in the Moroccan context.
Keywords: challenges, feedback, online assessment, students’ perceptions

194

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Since the unforeseen advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, governments worldwide, including
Morocco, have imposed severe regulations that prohibit social gatherings and galvanize selfisolation. As a strategy to prevent this virus from proliferating, several educational institutions
have abruptly shuttered their doors and shifted not only to online learning but also to online
assessment. The COVID-19 crisis has rapidly accelerated the digital transformation of
education globally, as colleges and universities have had to make numerous changes to theirteaching styles, research processes, and collaborative relationships Chan (2021). This rampant
health crisis has triggered irrevocable ramifications on the educational sector and thus led to its
incontrovertible exacerbation in the sense that it has reshaped the delivery and reception ofknowledge and skills. Online education is not a novel issue, but COVID-19 pandemic has beena stimulant force for the adoption of online learning in education in general (Chan, Bista, &Allen, 2021). The use of the Internet as an interface between students and teachers has become
tremendously ubiquitous, especially during the coronavirus pandemic. These changes haveprompted educational institutions to implement several preventative measures to stop thisvicious cycle from perpetuating itself, resulting in the shift from the traditional “chalk and talk”
learning/assessment to remote/virtual assessment as the sole outlet that ensures the successfulprogression of courses. The pandemic has transcended national and regional boundaries,
generations, and social classes – the many categories utilized to make sense of society. The
pandemic has also served as a catastrophic reminder of the absolute necessity of higher
education for knowledge generation and human well-being (Blanco, 2022).
During this period, the adoption of remote assessment/invigilation was a necessity rather thana luxury. For most Moroccan university students, this was the first time they had to take an
online exam. Likewise, students were in a complete turmoil due to the lack of a supporting
infrastructure. This served as an opportunity for both stakeholders and students to realize thatwhat works well with traditional assessment is not adequate enough for a reliable online
assessment experience. The online paradigm holds that learning itself may be different in the
online environment and, if that is true, then the methodology for measuring it should also be
different or should measure those things that are, in fact, different (Milam, Voorhees, & BedardVoorhees, 2004). Educational assessment is a systematic process of gauging information
to extrapolate pertinent results about the accuracy of the program, students’ progress andperformance, and achievement of outcomes. Assessing is a general term to describe all those
activities and processes involved in judging performance (Peters et al, 1988). In the same vein,
assessment has become the term of choice in education for determining the quality of student
work for purposes of identifying the student’s level of achievement (Mabry, 2005).
Continuous outbreaks of new COVID-19 variants are anticipated to compel future stringent
lockdowns, necessitating preparation, particularly in the educational sector. In this regard,investigating students’ perceptions and experiences with online assessment is of paramountimportance to successfully deal with the unpredictability of the situation. Readiness to learn
online, or E-learning, as set forth by the government is almost non-existent (Sakkir, Dollah, &Ahmad, 2021).
Hence, this paper endeavors to explore students’ experience with online emergency learning aswell as online evaluation. In addition, it seeks to explore the utility and effectiveness of online
assessment from a student perspective. Lastly, it sets out to investigate students’ readiness togo through the same experience in the future. Therefore, this study aims at answering thefollowing questions:
1. How do Moroccan English as a foreign language (EFL) university students perceive
online assessment?

195

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

2. How effective is online assessment from students’ perspective?
3. To what extent will the Moroccan EFL university students be ready for a complete
online learning experience in the future?
The use of online assessment is increasing because of multiple grounds. Despite the heavy
resort to online assessment, especially during the period of COVID-19 in the Moroccan context,
there is a paucity of research that investigates students’ perceptions of online assessment in the
educational context in general, and the effectiveness of online assessment systems or platforms
in particular. This pandemic laid bare the sinister underbelly of e-assessment in education. Thatbeing the case, exploring Moroccan EFL university students’ experiences and perceptions of
the effectiveness of online assessment will certainly lead to fruitful implications and will
decipher myriads of qualms surrounding this topic. Therefore, the findings of the research underinvestigation are significant as they would provide enough information about the parts of theonline assessment to be given much attention due to their importance, and the parts of thesystems to be improved or rectified to overcome potential challenges and to reach promisingoutcomes.
Literature Review
The entire globe has been in a state of emergency since late 2019 to early 2020, with face-toface education suffering severe setbacks that have been compensated for by online learning.
However, due to a multitude of factors, this abrupt shift has not been entirely successful. Twoof these are the unpreparedness for taking it as the sole mode of learning and the inability tomeet the conditions for fair online assessment. According to Jamiai (2021), the debate over theeffectiveness and quality of online learning is also highly controversial in the sense that
researchers’ perspectives differ on the levels of validity and credibility of the unexpected new
pedagogy adopted in Moroccan higher education. In the same vein, Neuwirth, Jović and
Moukherj (2021) have stated that the real issue with e-learning is ‘‘how should faculty approach
maintaining rigor and delivering quality education as well as provide support for their students’ongoing ability to engage in meaningful, interactive educational activities in the context of acrisis such as this pandemic?” (p. 42).
For the purpose of this research paper, the review of literature will be aligned with the objectives
for this study. In that sense, the focus will be on online assessment, its techniques, importance,
limitations, and solutions along with students’ perceptions.
The Importance of Assessment
A review of previous literature reveals that there is no clear-cut definition of assessment.
According to Bachman (2004), there appears to be no consensus on what assessment technicallymeans given its multifaceted interpretations and the diversified ways in which it has been usedin the field of language and educational testing. Therefore, the concept of assessment resides inthe eye of the beholder. It has many definitions, so it is essential that anyone who writes or
speaks about assessment defines it at the outset (Kinzie, 2015). For starters, Brown (2004) has
defined assessment as any act of interpreting information about student performance, collected
through a variety of means or practices. By the same token, Benson and Brack (2010) has
averred that when assessment is thought of, it is often equated with examinations andassignments, as well as grading the performance of students in order to decide if they are eligible
to “pass” a particular subject or part of it. In addition, Palomba and Banta (1999) have positeda more crystallized definition of assessment wherein they asserted that it is the systematic196

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

collection, review, and use of information about educational programs undertaken for the
purpose of improving student learning and development. In line with assessment, Weleschuk,
Dyjur, & Kelly (2019) have suggested that online assessments can be defined as any procedureor course of action for assessing students’ learning performance, providing feedback, or pushingstudents along in their learning process in completely online credit courses.
Given the miscellaneous definitions of assessment, it is critical to discriminate between
formative and summative assessment. The former is mainly concerned with students’ progress
and learning process. In the same line of reasoning, Gikandi, Morrow, & Davis (2011) havedefined formative assessment as:
the iterative processes of establishing what, how much and how well students arelearning in relation to the learning goals and expected outcomes in order to inform
tailored formative feedback and support further learning, a pedagogical strategy that ismore productive when the role is shared among the teacher, peers and the individual
learner. (p. 2337)
Thus, feedback of this particular type is crucial as it helps students to identify their strengths
and weaknesses and target areas that require improvement. The student needs feedback in order
to see deficiencies and mistakes (Senel & Senel, 2021). Moreover, given the epidemic’s
imposed status quo, feedback is essential to ensure interaction between faculty members andstudents in distance education. As Senel and Senel (2021) have contended, in the same article
mentioned above, “monitoring and “feedback”, which is a part of formative assessment indistance education is gaining more importance. Feedback can be considered as the primarymeans of student-faculty communication and interaction” (p. 182). On the other hand, the goalof a summative assessment is to compare students’ learning at the end of an instructional course
to a benchmark. According to Biesta (2009), summative evaluation has a directing influence as
it drives the impetus to make important decisions such as passing a course, enrolling in a higher
education institution, and receiving a diploma or certificate. In a similar vein, Mogboh andOkoye (2019) have stated that “summative assessment sums up what a student has achieved at
the end of a period of time, relative to the learning aims and the relevant state/national
standards” (p. 39). In the same breath, the authors have referred to two types of assessments:
summative, which is used to grade students against a set of standards or criteria and formative,
which is used for tracking students’ progress.
As a result, assessment practices affect students by leading their consideration of certain aspectsof module material and by stipulating how to process information (Baleni, 2015). Therefore,
assessment is critically important to education both for accreditation and to support learning(Taras, 2008).
Online Assessment Methods and Techniques
Bearing in mind that neither the circumstances nor the settings of traditional and online
assessment are similar, new techniques are necessarily being created to survive online
assessment challenges that are likely to result in assessing desired learning outcomes with adegree of compromise. It has been suggested that a variety of assessment techniques should be
employed to effectively assess student performance online (Pallof & Pratt, 2009).

197

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Palloff and Pratt (2009, p. 41) have provided the following techniques:••••

The provision of regular, ongoing communication with and feedback to students as ameans by which to embed assessment in the course itself,
The inclusion of dynamic interaction, defined by the use of group work, collaboration,
and a high level of interaction through discussion,
The modification of traditional assessment tools, such as essays, discussion question
responses, and projects that require demonstration of skill acquisition and problem solving ability, andThe use of alternative assessments, such as performance-based assessments, authentic
assessments, and the use of e-portfolios.

Palomba and Banta (1999) have bifurcated between direct and indirect assessment methods.
Direct measures divulge what students have learnt. They include objective tests where students
get to choose the right and wrong answers and performance measures where they produce theirown content as in essays, comprehensive portfolios, and so on. On the other hand,questionnaires and interviews are examples of indirect techniques that require students to reflect
on their learning instead of demonstrating it.
Students’ Perceptions of Online Assessment
There is a scarcity of research scrutinizing students’ perceptions of online assessment.
Additionally, there exist multiple remarkable disparities in how students perceive online
assessment. For some, online evaluation is favorable, and they uphold its enactment. Other
views are juxtaposed to the optimistic, favorable ones; online assessment does not bode wellfor them. For instance, Rolim and Isaisas (2018) have demonstrated that both students andinstructors positively accept the accessibility of online assessments. Likewise, Tran, Nguyen,
Nguyen, & Tran (2021) have suggested that the future of e-assessment is tremendously
propitious because the majority of students were enthusiastic towards its adoption during the
pandemic era. Moreover, Huda, Kabir, & Siddiq (2020) have reported that learners perceive
online assessment favorably; yet, they indicated that some students have conflicting feelings ofcomfort and apprehension. On their part, Alsalhi, Qusef, Al-Qatawneh, & Eltahir (2022) in theirresearch have implied that the “students were in favour of online assessment as students’ degreeof acceptance of online assessment during the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic indicate that,from the students’ own perspective, the degree of acceptance of online assessment was at a highlevel” (p. 23). However, they went on to say that students’ perspectives towards online
assessment vary according to gender, college, and academic year.
Khan and Khan (2018) have conducted a study in the United Arab Emirates where they
discovered that what matters for students the most regarding online assessment is a wellplanned transition. They suggested that “It is evident through this study and in literature that
one of the most essential elements to the acceptance of online assessments is how the transition
from traditional assessments is made” (p.673). They have also found out that students crave
meaningful interactions with their instructors as well as a constructive and timely feedback.
From this study, it is clear that in order to make online assessment more acceptable for students,
it is important that the interaction with instructors must remain personalized, active, andmeaningful. This is consistent with the results of another comparative study in the UK, South
Africa, and Hungary conducted by Cranfield, Tick, Venter, Blignaut, & Renaud (2021), which
demonstrated that students yearned for physical interaction and preferred face-to-face deliveryof information.

198

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Online Assessment Challenges
One of the most serious challenges in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic is theunpreparedness of teachers and students to undergo online assessment. Teachers lacked
familiarity with online assessment and did not have enough time to create effective online
assessments as COVID-19 took them by surprise (Baciri & Sahli, 2020). While every institutionof higher education likely has contingency planning for the short term, many did not have longterm continuity plans for the transition from in-person courses to an online modality (Chan etal., 2021). They have added, “The sudden transition to online coursework left some faculty
members scrambling to redesign courses to follow a modality they may never have taught in”(p. 13). In addition to that, mentioning online assessment without talking about the plagiarism
epidemic and cheating is futile, especially given that many higher education institutions lack
online and physical security to safeguard assessments and cheating, and thus circumstancessuch as COVID-19 might indeed necessitate some compromise in assessing intended learning
outcomes (Tuah & Naing, 2021). Finally, yet importantly, COVID-19 pandemic has
exacerbated existing disparities between students. Problems of connectivity are only the tip of
the iceberg. COVID-19 restrictions have widened the digital gap across all teaching andlearning spaces (due to the lack of a national response to the public health crisis), while
exacerbating economic and structural inequalities with regards to ICT access (i.e., Internet,
electricity, computers) among historically vulnerable populations (e.g., rural children, families
of color, students with disabilities, students of refugee status) (Salmi, 2021 as cited in Chan, etal., 2021).
Previous Research/Studies
Since the sudden outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic and the resulting shift to online
education and assessment, numerous researchers have endeavored to demystify the multifarious
angles of this issue and thus provide the basic platform for stakeholders to manage and deal
with this new trend of education. Senel and Senel (2021) have conducted a study on remoteassessment and discovered that rapid assessment and feedback were insufficient for effective
learning. Students have also reported that online test scores do not necessarily reflect theirscholastic aptitude. The same study pointed out that despite the accessibility to remoteassessment, students still prefer conventional exams. In the same context, another study
conducted by Montenegro-Rueda, Luque-de La Rosa, Sarasola Sánchez-Serrano, & FernándezCerero (2021) demonstrated that online assessment was accompanied with myriads ofchallenges that heavily affected both students and faculty members. These problems include aconspicuous shortage of platforms designed specifically for online assessment that lay thegroundwork for academic dishonesty, connectivity issues and technical problems, and privacy
issues. Concerning teachers’ perspectives, Anasse and Rhandy (2021) through their research
have revealed that there is a tendency among participants to favor paper-writing assessment toonline ones. This is because EFL Moroccan teachers lack prior experience with online
assessment, not to mention digital illiteracy. While many pieces of research have provided
diversified definitions of assessment, delved deeper into online assessment’s techniques andpractices, and focused on the impact of online education on students as well as teachers, few
tackled the problem of online assessment from students’ perspectives, experiences, andperceptions. Students’ experience with online assessment is very important to improve theeducational process since they play an important role in the learning process so does theirexperiences with certain learning processes.

199

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Method and Methodology
This section will describe and discuss in detail the research design and methodology used inthis study, as well as the population, the sample, and the geographical areas where the study
was conducted. It also examines the data collection instrument and the data analysis procedures.
The research under study adopted an exploratory research design as it sought to explore several
issues regarding online assessment during the COVID-19 pandemic, namely students’
perceptions of online assessment, its effectiveness, and challenges.
This study targeted Moroccan EFL university students. Therefore, the participants of this study
were ninety-three (N= 93) Moroccan EFL university students, namely from Moulay Ismail
University, Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENS) Meknes, and Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra. The
participants were second-year students (Semester 3) and third-year university students(Semester 5). The sample was composed of males and females aged between 18 and 24. This
study was conducted using a quantitative method manifested by a questionnaire as a datacollection instrument (Creswell, 2014). Based on a thorough review of the literature and basedon the objectives of the study, a questionnaire (Schommer & Walker, 1995) was designed,
reviewed, and then circulated online via various platforms, primarily Gmail and WhatsApp, toundergraduate students to complete (Creswell, 2012). Data collection took place during theeleventh month of 2021. The sampling method was of a convenient/purposive nature. For thedata analysis procedure, it was planned to use the SPSS version 19 (Statistical Package for theSocial Sciences), but because of the nature of online questionnaires, the analysis of the results
was generated automatically which were mainly descriptive statistics.
Data Analysis
The aim of this section is to analyze and interpret the collected data from the online survey
questionnaire that was administered to the ninety-three Moroccan EFL university students
attending numerous institutions. Generally, the overall analysis of the obtained data is carriedout in accordance with the research questions of this study and in alignment with the survey
questions. More precisely, the quantitative data, represented by the questionnaire, described theoverall tendency of the informants.
Students’ Readiness and Perceptions of Online Assessment (RQ1)
Students’ readiness and motivation for online assessment would truly aid in building a mental
model of how they perceive the experience and would definitely identify the success and utilityof online assessment. Hence, the students were provided with closed-ended questions, and they
were asked to respond to how ready they were for taking online exams. As reported in the figure
below, the majority of the respondents (72%) claimed to be unready and had no intention to sit
for online exams. Nevertheless, 28% of the informants indicated that they were ready for such
experience.

200

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 1
Students’ Readiness for Accessing Remote Assessment

The ease or difficulty of Internet access is a significant factor in measuring not only the successof online learning but also online evaluation as it unquestionably enhances the students’ accessto their tests remotely. Accordingly, the results, as shown in Figure 2, revealed that more than
one-third of participants (36.6%) stated their uncertainty and neutrality regarding the ease ofaccessing the Internet or difficulty of accessing their exams online. However, almost half of theinformants claimed that it was either easy (32.3%) or very easy (7.5%) for them to access their
exams using the online model. On the other hand, a lesser amount of them revealed that it waseither difficult (15.1%) or very difficult (8.6%).
Figure 2
Difficulty in terms of Internet for Accessing Exams Online

Giving and receiving feedback is commonly regarded as a form of assessment employed to
improve students’ performance. In this respect, the informants were required to respond to a
five-point scale (1= always, 2= usually, 3= often, 4= sometimes, 5= never) concerning receiving
online feedback as far as their performance was concerned. The obtained results, as illustrated
in Figure 3, suggested that the majority of the participants (41.9%) claimed that they sometimes
received feedback, some of them (17.2%) usually received feedback, a minority (10.8%) often

201

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

received feedback and the smallest number of participants (7.5%) revealed that they always
received feedback. Several respondents (22.6%) declared that they received no feedback.
Figure 3
Instructors’ Feedback to Students’ Online Performance

In this study, students’ perceptions were issued as a focal point of the investigation. As a result,learning about the participants’ perspectives on online assessment was vital. The obtained data
demonstrated that the majority of the respondents (41.9%) perceived their experience withremote online assessment as insignificant or average. Moreover, several informants described
this experience as either challenging (30.1%) or unfruitful (9.7%). However, some respondents
agreed that this online evaluation experience was fruitful (17.2%). Overall, the number of
informants who expressed a degree of dissatisfaction with the online assessment experience
was close to the same number that considered the feedback insignificant.
Figure 4Students’ Perceptions of their Online Assessment Experience

The Effectiveness of Online Assessment (RQ2)
Before the outbreak of the COVID-19 epidemic, students had only been exposed to traditional
onsite evaluation throughout their scholastic careers. Therefore, gaining an insight into theeffectiveness of online assessment from a student perspective was at the core of the present
study. For this reason, students were required to respond to a yes-no question regarding theeffectiveness of online assessment in comparison to a traditional face-to-face assessment. The

202

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

obtained results implied that 73.1% of the respondents believed that online assessment is noteffective when compared to a traditional face-to-face assessment. Conversely, 26.9% of theinformants thought that online assessment could be as effective as onsite assessment.
Figure 5
Belief in Online Effectiveness for Assessment

Concerning assessment challenges and pitfalls, students were required to respond to whether
they adhered to the ethics of taking exams or not. Accordingly, the survey data, as shown in
Figure 6, revealed that the vast majority (64.5%) adhered to exam-taking ethics, while 26.9%
stated that they did, albeit only to some extent. Nonetheless, a minority admitted not respecting
the principles of taking exams as they resorted to cheating.
Figure 6
Did Student Stick to Proper Exam Taking Ethics

One of the biggest concerns of online assessment was the inequality among test takers. It wasevident from the students’ responses that the majority of them (65.6%) claimed that online
assessment did not provide equal opportunities as traditional assessment; 21.4% of theinformants believed it did to some extent. However, 6.5% of the subjects were uncertain about
whether the chances offered by the online assessment were similar to those offered by face-toface assessment.

203

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 7
Students’ Beliefs: Online Assessment Provides Equal Opportunities as Face-to-Face Assessment

Students’ Readiness for an Entire Online Learning and Assessment Experience (RQ3)
Doubtless, students’ readiness to experiment with something new or go through a similar
experience determines its success or failure. This might also lead one to learn about thestudents’ perceptions regarding online assessment. In accordance with this, the informants wereto state if they were open to the same online assessment experience in the future. The results
illustrated that most of the respondents were either uncertain (38.7%) or not ready (35.5%)
anew for such an experience. However, some participants revealed their readiness for the same
online assessment experience in the future.
Figure 8Students’ Readiness for the Same Online Assessment Experience in the Future

Gaining insights into students’ learning preferences unequivocally entails how they perceive
the issue of remote assessment. For this purpose, students were to highlight their preferredlearning mode. The participants’ replies demonstrated their tendency towards hybrid andtraditional learning modes. To illustrate, more than half of the informants (51.6%) chose thehybrid mode as their preference, whereas 45.2% of them opted for the choice of a traditional
face-to-face learning mode. Still, only a minority (3.2%) preferred the online learning option.

204

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Figure 9Preferred Learning and Assessment Modes

Online Assessment Challenges, Drawbacks, and Advantages
Online Assessment Challenges
One of the primary objectives of this study was to unveil the challenges Moroccan EFL
university students faced while sitting for their very first online assessment. In fact, the survey
findings revealed that online assessment created numerous hurdles for students, including workoverload, increased stress, connectivity issues, and technical problems. The following are
examples of what most students stated regarding online assessment challenges:“Difficulties in having clear conversations with professors regarding problems andinstructions”“Time shortage, technical problems, weak bandwidth”“Time management”“Blockage of the website in which students had to submit their documents”“Enormous amount of stress”“Due to Internet issues, I could not download some exams on the spot”“Internet connection issues”
Online Assessment Drawbacks
This study not only investigated online assessment challenges encountered by students, but it
has also aimed at deciphering the shortcomings hovering around this experience. Along withthe aforementioned challenges, students in a response to online assessment drawbacks asserted
that academic dishonesty was the most feared side effect of online assessment. Examples ofsuch comments include:“It allows students to cheat without being caught”“Academic dishonesty will always be one the cardinal problems in online assessment”“Inequality: some do breach the ethics of exam taking”“It did not demonstrate the real level of students since most of them cheated to someextent”“Constant troubleshooting of technical problems along with cheating which leads to anutter inequality in grades”“The school not being ready for this kind of assessments”

205

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Online Assessment Advantages
This study also sought to determine whether students associate any positive characteristics with
online assessment. Though the results point to the majority of participants believing there is noadvantage to online assessments, a minority believe that online assessments adapt to diverse
learning styles and requirements. These advantages include:“Flexibility and lack of peer distraction”“Online assessment has enables me to work comfortably and thereby produce
satisfactory outcomes since I have the proclivity to study alone in a distraction-free,hassle-free environment”“It encourages autonomous learning”“I had the opportunity to listen to music while taking the exam”“It provides feedback about one’s progress”
Discussion and Conclusion
This study focused on exploring Moroccan EFL learners’ experiences, perceptions, andchallenges with online assessment. A number of noteworthy inferences can be made from thedata, as represented in the figures in the Data Analysis section and based on the interpretationsof the results. Additionally, having obtained data from the sample leads to robust findings andinsights that could possibly be generalizable.
Generally, as reported in Figure 1, the findings reveal students’ lack of readiness to online
assessment. Such status may be related to students’ unfamiliarity with online learning, or due
to their lack of experience. Simply put, online assessment was not a choice, but it was imposedon the learners owing to the spread of COVID-19. Furthermore, the research’s findings, in
response to RQ 1, imply that online assessment has been perceived as insignificant, challenging
and unfruitful. This is clearly demonstrated by the percentages and scores (See figures 1 & 4).
Students’ lack of readiness and the negative perceptions they hold towards online assessment
is heightened by the inconsistency of the feedback they receive from their instructors. Not
surprisingly, the participants reveal their reluctance to go through the same experience anew inthe future even though they experienced online assessment. They also stick to the traditional
conventions of assessment (See Figures 8 & 9). Therefore, it is difficult for learning to takeplace in online conditions since the students viewed the experience with dubious confidence inits success. The findings are consistent with those of Senel and Senel (2021). The findings alsoalign with Anasse and Rhandy’s (2021) research on teachers’ attitudes towards online
assessment as the same factors are applicable to teachers.
Additionally, in response to RQ 2, the findings from the informants’ responses, reveal
interesting outcomes concerning the effectiveness of online assessment. Apparently, from thefindings of the questionnaire (Figure 5) the majority of participants tend to believe that online
assessment is not as effective as face-to-face assessment. Its ineffectiveness stems from theunequal opportunities, as demonstrated by the results (Figure 7), it offers regarding students’performance. This is due to the drawbacks online assessment entails, including cheating. With
respect to this, the findings of this research corroborate with other researchers’ findings (Khan& Khan, 2018; Jamiai, 2021).
As for students’ readiness for a complete online learning experience in the future (RQ 3), thecurrent study’s findings, as shown in Figure 8, reveal that respondents were reluctant to relive
the same online assessment experience in the future. This is also justified by the choice of the206

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

learning mode learners opted for in their replies. More importantly, students’ own answers
regarding the challenges and drawbacks of remote assessment reveal much to consider. These
challenges include work overload, increased stress, connectivity issues, and technical problems.
The drawbacks revolve around academic dishonesty. With regard to previous research findings
concerning online assessment challenges and drawbacks, the findings of this study are
consistent with those of other researchers such as Chan et al. (2021) who have extrapolated thatonline learning has engendered myriad stumbling blocks for students in low- and middleincome countries, with many expressing concerns that learners are unable to access the Internet
due to poverty and destitution, Benson and Brack (2010) who linked challenges to submissionof items (connectivity, size, print paper preference), automated assessment, online discussion
for assessment, and Rogers (2006) who listed some challenges of online assessment which
revolve around mechanics of assessment and the prevention of digital cheating.
Limitations and Recommendations
It stands to reason that no research can be carried out without encountering some obstacles andshortcomings. The present research has confronted many limitations, which made it difficult
but not impossible. First, the findings of this study may not be widely generalizable. However,any findings from any research are generalizable only within that situation and within thecontext of the work, which is declared in advance. Second, the sampling population is not large
enough (93 Moroccan EFL university students) to make the study more representative on alarge scale. It is also possible that the adoption of another sampling technique apart from theone used in this study could yield better outcomes. Third, the methodology implemented in thisresearch study has limitations resulting from the innate nature of the data collection instruments.
Moreover, students’ perceptions and attitudes are subject to change over time. There is also ashortage of references and studies dealing with online assessment from a student perspective.
Based on the findings of the quantitative study derived from the collected data, the following
implications and recommendations are made for integrating online assessment and conducting
additional study. Consequently, it is required that policy makers, stakeholders, and decision
makers rethink the process of assessing learners online. Secondly, educational institutions
should provide platforms specifically designed for online assessment. Thirdly, both teachersand students should be trained on how to use a given online assessment platform. Finally,teachers must provide students with clear instructions regarding any online assessment.
Therefore, it is recommended that future research should focus on online assessment fromteachers’ perspectives. In addition to that, researchers should investigate students’ perceptions,experiences, and challenges with online assessment from a larger scale. Lastly, moreinvestigation is required to assess other effects of these assessments on long-term knowledge
retention.

207

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

References
Alsalhi, N. R., Qusef, A. D., Al-Qatawneh, S. S., & Eltahir, M. E. (2022). Students’perspective on online assessment during the COVID-19 pandemic in higher education
institutions. Information Sciences Letters, 11(1) 37–46.
https://doi.org/10.18576/isl/110106
Anasse, K., & Rhandy, R. (2021). Teachers’ attitudes towards online writing assessment
during Covid-19 pandemic. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature andTranslation, 3(8), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.32996/ijllt.2021.4.8.9
Bachman, L. F. (2004). Statistical analyses for language assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667350
Bachiri, H., & Sahli, R. (2020). The need of distance learning in the wake of COVID-19 in
Morocco. International Journal of Language and Literary Studies, 2(3), 240–256.
https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlls.v2i3.326sa
Baleni, Z. (2015). Online formative assessment in higher education: Its pros and cons. The
Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 13(4), 228–236
Benson, R., & Brack, C. (2010). Online learning and assessment in higher education: A
planning guide. Cambridge: Chandos Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1533/9781780631653
Biesta, G. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with
the question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation andAccountability, 21(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-008-9064-9
Blanco, L. (2021). Foreword. In Chan, R.Y, Bista, K., Allen, R.M, Online teaching andlearning in higher education during COVID-19: International perspectives
and experiences. Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge.
Brown, H. D. (2004). Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices. Pearson
Education.
Chan, R. Y., Bista, K., & Allen, R. M. (Eds.). (2021). Online teaching and learning in higher
education during COVID-19: International perspectives and experiences (1st ed.).
Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003125921
Cranfield, D., Tick, A., Venter, I. M., Blignaut, R. J., & Renaud, K. (2021). Higher education
students’ serceptions of online learning during COVID-19—A comparative study.
Education Sciences, 11(8), 403. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11080403
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative. Boston, USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (3rd ed.). Sage publications, Inc., California.
Gikandi, J. W., Morrow, D., & Davis, N. E. (2011). Online formative assessment in higher
education: A Review of the Literature. Computers & Education, 57(4), 2333–2351.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.06.004
Huda, S. S. M., Kabir, M., & Siddiq, T. (2020). E-Assessment in higher education: Students’perspective. International Journal of Education and Development using Information
and Communication Technology, 16(2), 250–258.

208

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Jamiai, A. (2021). Measuring master students’ online learning perceptions and satisfaction
during Covid-19 crisis in Morocco. International Journal of Language and Literary
Studies, 3(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlls.v3i1.488
Khan, S., & Khan, R. A. (2019). Online assessments: Exploring perspectives of university
students. Education and Information Technologies, 24(1), 661–677.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-018-9797-0
Mabry, L. (2005). Assessment. In S. Mathison (Ed.), Encyclopedia of evaluation. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Milam, J., Voorhees, R. A., & Bedard-Voorhees, A. (2004). Assessment of online education:
Policies, practices, and recommendations. New Directions for Community
Colleges, 2004(126), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.156
Mogboh, V. & Okoye, A.C. (2019). Formative and summative assessment: Trends andpractices in basic education. Journal of Education and Practice, 10(27), 39–45.
Montenegro-Rueda, M., Luque-de La Rosa, A., Sarasola Sánchez-Serrano, J. L., &Fernández-Cerero, J. (2021). Assessment in higher education during the COVID-19
pandemic: A systematic review. Sustainability, 13(19), 10509.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910509
Neuwirth, L. S., Jović, S., & Mukherji, B. R. (2021). Reimagining higher education during
and post-COVID-19: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Adult and Continuing
Education, 27(2), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477971420947738
Palomba, C. A., & Banta, T. W. (1999). Assessment essentials: Planning, implementing, andimproving assessment in higher education. Higher and adult education series. JosseyBass, Inc., Publishers, 350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94104
Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2009). Assessing the online learner: Resources and strategies forfaculty. Jossey-Bass.
Peters, M. A., Rizvi, F., McCulloch, G., Gibbs, P., Gorur, R., Hong, M., Hwang, Y., Zipin, L.,
Brennan, M., Robertson, S., Quay, J., Malbon, J., Taglietti, D., Barnett, R.,
Chengbing, W., McLaren, P., Apple, R., Papastephanou, M., Burbules, N., & Jackson,
L. (2020). Reimagining the new pedagogical possibilities for universities post-Covid19. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 1–44.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2020.1777655
Rogers, C. F. (2006). Faculty perceptions about E-cheating during online testing. Journal ofComputing Sciences in Colleges, 22(2), 206–212.
Rolim, C., & Isaias, P. (2018). Examining the use of E-assessment in higher education:
Teachers and Students’ Viewpoints. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(4),1785-1800. doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12669
Schommer, M., & Walker, K. (1995). Are epistemological beliefs similar acrossdomains? Journal of educational psychology, 87(3), 424.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.87.3.424
Senel, S., & Senel, H. C. (2021). Remote assessment in higher education during COVID-19
pandemic. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, 8(2), 181–199
https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.820140

209

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Taras, M. (2008). Summative and formative assessment: Perceptions and realities. Active
learning in higher education, 9(2), 172–192.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787408091655
Tran, T. T., Nguyen, P. L., Nguyen, N. H., & Tran, D. T. (2021, December). An empirical
study on students’ perception and satisfaction towards online assessment and testing in
tertiary eucation. In 18th International Conference of the Asia Association ofComputer-Assisted Language Learning (Asia CALL–2-2021) (pp. 207–216). Atlantis
Press.
Tuah, N. A. A., & Naing, L. (2021). Is online assessment in higher education institutions
during COVID-19 pandemic reliable? Siriraj Medical Journal, 73(1), 61–68
https://doi.org/10.33192/Smj.2021.09
Weleschuk, A., Dyjur, P., & Kelly, P. (2019). Online assessment in higher education. Taylor
Institute for Teaching and Learning Guide Series. Calgary, AB Taylor Inst Teach
Learn Univ Calgary. Accessed from: http://taylorinstitute.ucalgary.ca/resources/guides
Corresponding author: Nourreddine Menyani
Email: m.nourreddine@umi.ac.ma

210

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Reviewers – Volume 10 – Issue 1
The editorial team would like to thank the following reviewers for their contributions to thepeer review of this issue. Their dedication and assistance are greatly appreciated.
EditorDr Melinda Cowart
Texas Woman’s University (TWU), USA
Associate Editors
Dr Hasan Al-Wadi
University of Bahrain, Bahrain
Dr Murielle El Hajj Nahas
Lusail University, Qatar
Senior Reviewers
Dr Najwa Saba ’Ayon
Rafik Hariri University, Lebanon
Dr Shiao-Wei Chu
National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taiwan
Dr Saadia Elamin
University of Khartoum, Sudan
Dr Mikel GarantBeijing Institute of Technology, China
Dr Hjalmar Punla Hernandez
University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines
Dr Habsah Hussin
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr Andrew Leichsenring
Tamagawa University, JapanDr Elena Mishieva
Moscow State University, Russia
Dr Leonardo Munalim
The Philippine Women's University-School of Arts & Sciences and School of Education
Dr Shiao-Wei Chu
National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taiwan

211

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

Dr Saadia Elamin
University of Khartoum, Sudan
Dr Mikel GarantBeijing Institute of Technology, China
Dr Hjalmar Punla Hernandez
University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines
Dr Habsah Hussin
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr Andrew Leichsenring
Tamagawa University, JapanDr Eleni Meletiadou
London Metropolitan University, London, UK
Dr Elena Mishieva
Moscow State University, Russia
Dr Leonardo Munalim
The Philippine Women's University-School of Arts & Sciences and School of Education,
Philippines
Dr Akihiro Saito
Tokyo University of Science, JapanDr Claudia Sánchez
Texas Woman's University, USA
Dr.K.Sanmuganathan,
Head/ Dept. of ELT
University of Jaffna
Dr Bethe Schoenfeld
Western Galilee College, Israel
Dr Meliha Simsek
University of Health Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey
Reviewers
Dr Eugenia Charoni
Flagler College, Florida, USA
Mr John Michael Villar Faller
FPT University - Quy Nhon AI Campus, Viet Nam

212

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

Dr Liping Ga
University of Sulaimani, Iraq
Dr Yuemin He
Northern Virginia Community College in Annandale, Virginia, USA
Dr May Olaug Horverak
Birkenes Learning Centre, Norway
Dr Koban Koçİzmir Democracy University, Turkey
Nourreddine Menyani
Tofail University Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Kenitra, Morocco
Dr Serpil Meri-Yilan
Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey
Dr Maryam Niami
Islamic Azad University, Parand Branch, Iran
Dr Linh D Nguyen
Roi Et Rajabhat University, Thailand
Dr Urarat Parnrod
Songkhla Rajabhat University, Thailand
Dr Tono Suwartono
Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto, Central Java, Indonesia
Dr Miguel Varela
Academic Bridge Program, Qatar
Dr Michinobu Watanabe
Toin Gakuen High School, Yokohama, & Komazawa University, Tokyo

213

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education

214

Volume 10 – Issue 1 – 2022

the iafor

journal of education

ISSN: 2187-0594