論文

Implicature and the Cooperative Principle

Rory Davies

要旨

含意の定義とは、意味論と文法の規則に従った発言通りの意味と、話者の意図する意味の相違であると言える。
本論文では、含意の理論と H. P. Grice がどのようにその理論を生み出したのかについて考察する。はじめに、グライスの協調原理について述べ、彼の唱える効率的なコミュニケーションに必要な四つの会話の格率について解説する。加えて、含意の誘因―四つの格率の違反―意味に対してのそ
れらの効果について述べる。最後には、いくつかのグライスの意味論に対しての批判や、これまでに提唱されたそのほかの意味論について述べる。
キーワード：implicature（含意），cooperative principle（協調原理），implicature triggers（含意の誘因），
conversational maxims（会話の格率），
differentiation（識別），relevance（関連性）

Introduction
Implicature can be defined as the difference between what the words in an utterance mean
according to the rules of semantics and grammar, and what the speaker’s intended meaning is.
This paper looks at the theory of implicature and how H. P. Grice developed it. It sets out
his cooperative principle and describes the four conversational maxims that he believed werenecessary for efficient communication. It also looks at implicature triggers ― the flouting of any― 25 ―

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言語と文化 No. 22of the four maxims ― and their effects on meaning. In the final part of the paper I will set out anumber of criticisms of Grice’s theory, and some of the alternatives that have been suggested.

The Cooperative Principle
Grice believed that when people communicated they acted rationally and followed a cooperative
principle (CP). He did not think that this CP was specific to communication, but that it applied toother cooperative activities, for example baking a cake, or mending a car (Grice, 1989). Grice’s
CP stated “[M]ake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it
occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” (1975:
45). Grice set out four conversational maxims that he asserted people generally follow whencommunicating efficiently (1975: 45―46)“Quantity:
1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of theexchange).
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Quality:
Supermaxim: Try to make your contribution one that is true.
1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Relation:
1. Be relevant.
Manner:Supermaxim: Be perspicuous
1. Avoid obscurity of expression.
2. Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).
4. Be orderly.”
Grice believed that speakers obeying the CP should be truthful, informative, relevant, andclear. He did not claim that speakers are always cooperative; nor did he claim that speakers
always follow the maxims. Speakers may deliberately or accidentally violate one of the maxims fora number of effects, including lying ― a covert violation of the maxim of quality (1), or metaphor― an overt violation of the maxim of quality (1).

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Implicature and the Cooperative Principle

Speakers may also flout a maxim when they are unable to conform to all of the maxims at once
(Green, 1989).
Grice’s belief was that hearers assume that speakers are conforming to the CP, and interpretutterances under this assumption. If a speaker’s utterance appears to fail to satisfy the CP, thenthe hearer will look for another interpretation, one that does satisfy the CP. The difference
between what the words in an utterance mean according to the rules of semantics and grammar,
and what the speaker’s intending meaning was, Grice labeled implicature.
1. A: Did you get me any stamps?
B: The post office was closed.
In dialogue 1, B’s response to A’s question would seem to violate the maxim of relation.
However, if A assumes that B is abiding by the CP, then A assumes that B’s response is relevant(as well as truthful, informative and clear), and will search for an interpretation of the responsethat follows these assumptions. A will interpret the sentence to mean that since the post office
was closed, B was unable to buy any stamps for A. B has not explicitly stated whether or not she
has bought stamps, but has implied (or implicated) that she has not. The extra information is
implicature ― in this case conversational implicature.
Grice (1975) differentiated between conventional implicature and conversational implicature.
Conventional implicature is generated by the standard meaning of certain linguistic terms. It istherefore “a semantic rather than pragmatic phenomenon” (Davis, 2005).
Grice provided the following example of conventional implicature:
2. “He is an Englishman; he is, therefore, brave.” (Grice 1975: 44)
In this sentence, the meaning of therefore implicates causality. The hearer does not need toassume that the CP is being followed in order to correctly interpret the utterance.
Conversational implicature on the other hand is not part of the conventional meaning of anutterance, and depends on the assumption that the speaker is following the maxims of the CP(for example, dialogue 1). Grice (1975) set out a number of characteristics of conversational
implicatures. They should be:・non-conventional・calculable ― i.e. the hearer can deduce the implicated meaning from the utterance, assumingthat the conversation follows the CP.
・non-detachable ― i.e. if the message was expressed in another way, the same implicature
would apply.
・cancellable ― i.e. the speaker can deny a particular meaning, for example in dialogue 1,― 27 ―

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speaker B could add “but I bought some at the machine” to the utterance which would cancel
the implicated meaning of “No, I didn’t”.
Grice (1989) provided a theoretical model for conversational implicature (S is the speaker, H isthe hearer):
S conversationally implicates p if S implicates p when:(i) S is presumed to be following the CP.
(ii) the supposition that S believes p is required to make S’s utterance consistent with the CP.
(iii) S believes and expects H to believe that S believes, that H is able to determine that (ii) is
true.

Implicature triggers
Green (1989) writes that the most common form of implicature derives from a flouting of the
maxim of relation. An utterance that, semantically and grammatically, may appear irrelevant suchas in dialogue 1, can only be correctly interpreted if the hearer assumes that the speaker is in fact
being relevant. This results in a search for a relevant interpretation of the utterance.
3.

In (3), Dilbert’s colleague responds to Dilbert’s request for information with an apparently
irrelevant comment. His response does not seem to satisfy all of the maxims of the CP. However,
if we assume that he is following the CP we can infer that he actually means that he has ordered
the plastic casings, but they have yet to arrive. His response implicates “yes”. In fact this is not
the interpretation that Dilbert makes. He assumes that his colleague is deliberately using theambiguity of his response to avoid answering the initial question, and that the true response is infact “no”.

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Implicature and the Cooperative Principle

4. Asked if he would make a special effort to help Mr. Blair in return for his support overIraq, Mr. Bush replied: “I really don’t view our relationship as one of quid pro quo.”(http://www.guardian.co.uk/g8/story/0,13365,1520827,00.html)
In (4) an extract from the Guardian Unlimited website, Mr. Bush’s response to the question
appears to be irrelevant. However, if we assume he is adhering to the CP, then we can infer that
his response conversationally implicates “no, probably not”. Politicians (amongst others) often
use implicature as it allows them to avoid directly answering a question and it is cancellable, i.e.
they can deny a particular interpretation of it.
Relation is not the only maxim that can be flouted. In (3) Dilbert’s colleague also flouts the
maxim of quantity (1) since Dilbert has asked for information and he has not provided it. Green(1989) cites another example of the maxim of quantity (1) being flouted ― in response to a request
for a letter of recommendation about a student, A writes
5. Mr. X’s command of English is excellent, and he always attended class regularly.
The recipient has to work out why the writer has not conformed to all of the maxims of CP.
“This generally induces a metalinguistic comment about the discourse” (Green, 1989: 98). The
reader of A’s recommendation knows that A is able to conform to the four maxims should he or
she choose to. That A hasn’t, will lead the recipient to try to interpret the recommendation ina different way. Green suggests that the metalinguistic comment is “What I am not saying issignificant” (1989: 99), and that the reader interprets the recommendation as being negative.
Conformity to the maxim of manner may have prevented A from writing an explicitly negative
comment, since it is not considered good form to write this type of letter.
An overt violation of the maxim of quality can trigger implicature as in the case of sarcasm or
metaphor.
6. Nice shot! (said to someone who has just missed an easy putt)
7. He was a rock in defence.
In (6) and (7) the speaker blatantly flouts the maxim of quality (1). In (6) the speaker does notreally believe it was a good shot, and in (7) the speaker does not really think that the defender wasa rock. This blatant violation of the CP triggers the search for the true and intended meaning.
The implicature may result in the following interpretations:
8. Terrible shot!
9. He was like a rock in defence.
Green (1989) says that implicature can also be triggered by blatant violations of the maxim ofquantity (1), implicating that the speaker is “unwilling to say more” (Grice (1989: 99)).

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Last week, while chatting on MSNMessenger a friend told me that he wouldn’t be able to play
football at the weekend:
10. Pete:

I’m not gonna make it on Saturday.

Rory: How come?
Pete:

I’m on antibiotics.

Rory: What for?
Pete:

I’m sick.

Pete must have known that I would assume he was sick, as he had already told me he was on
antibiotics. He must have known that I was seeking further information. If we assume that Petewas being cooperative, then the fact that he did not provide me with further information implicatesthat he wanted me to infer that the information I sought was none of my business, or that he was
not willing to provide this information for whatever reason.
A blatant violation of the maxim of manner also provides an implicature that is a “metalinguistic
comment about the discourse in progress” Green (1989: 99).
In the following joke (11), remembered from my childhood, a young boy’s father violates the
maxim of manner (“Be perspicuous”) in order to prevent his son from understanding what is being
said.
11. Father (to wife): I found a C-O-N-D-O-M on the P-A-T-I-O.
Unfortunately the ploy backfires as the son interrupts, saying
12. Son (to father): What’s a patio?

Problems
Universality of the Maxims
There are a number of problems with theories on implicature that critics have raised. Keenan(1976) claimed that the cooperative principle and the maxims are not universal. She studied
Malagasy speakers and noted that they often appeared to flout the maxim of quantity (1).
13. A: Where is your mother?
B: She is either in the house or at the market.
In (13), speaker B is able to give a more precise answer but chooses to withhold some
information. Keenan claimed that this happened often and showed that Malagasy speakers mustlack the maxim of quantity (1). However, as Prince (1982) notes, just because a maxim is flouted,― 30 ―

Implicature and the Cooperative Principle

this does not mean that it does not exist. Furthermore, it is the flouting of maxims that actually
gives rise to implicature. Prince claims that as long as it can be shown that when the maxim ofquantity (1) is flouted Malagasy speakers draw inferences from it, then the maxim is present.
In (13) speaker B withholds a certain amount of information from speaker A. If the maxim ofquantity (1) exists then what is the implicature of the utterance? What should speaker A inferfrom the response. Prince (1982) cites Keenan’s own data to show that information is highly
prized in Malagasy society, especially ‘new’ information. The possession of ‘new’ knowledge
gives the holder a certain amount of prestige over those who do not have it. Prince claims that “theinference drawn, is that B is, temporarily at least, superior in some way to A. If A had no Maximof Quantity and were therefore unable to recognize the flouting of it, it is hard to see how B could
accrue prestige in his eyes from such an exchange. Thus it seems that, in this case too, Malagasy
speakers indeed have a Maxim of Quantity and use it to derive understandings that cannot be
logically deduced” (1982: 5).

Differentiation
Davis (2005) uses the example of scalar implicature to show that Gricean theory canovergenerate implicatures. He claims that [T]he schema used to “work out” observed
implicatures can usually be used just as well to work out nonexistent implicatures” (part 4).
14. Some athletes smoke
15. No athletes smoke
16. All athletes smoke
17. Less than 5% of athletes smoke(14) is an example of scalar implicature since weaker and stronger statements can be formedby substituting other words or expressions for some as in (15―17). In this example a weaker form
is used to implicate that a stronger form is false.
According to Gricean theory the implicature is one of quantity (1). Since the speaker’s
contribution is as informative as is required, then if the speaker were able to state (15), he would
have chosen to do so. The fact that he did not must lead us to infer that sentence (15) is not true.
Davis notes that the importance of this case is that the implicature is derived from what is not
said. Since the implication of (14) is that the stronger statement (16) is not true, Davis argues that
other statements could also be implicated to not be true. He lists a number of these, including:
18. “Some athletes smoke regularly
19. Some athletes smoke Marlboros― 31 ―

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20. Some athletes and maids smoke” (Part 4)
The problem is how to differentiate between these different implicatures.
Other differentiation problems arise with sentences such as
21. John cut someone
22. John broke an arm
Sentence (21) implicates “John did not cut himself”. Using the same argument as for sentence(14), Gricean logic would claim that the speaker would be flouting the maxim of quantity (1) if shewere to state (21) knowing that John had cut himself. However sentence (22) does not implicate“John did not break his own arm”, in fact it implicates that John did break his own arm.
A further differentiation problem that has yet to be addressed is the role played by stress (Davis,
2005).
23. McCartney wrote some wonderful tunes
Sentence (23) if unstressed would be unlikely to generate any implicature (depending on
the context). However, if the word some were stressed, the implicature would be that not allof McCartney’s tunes were wonderful. If the word tunes were stressed, it might implicate thatthough he wrote wonderful tunes, his lyric writing was not up to much.

Relevance
Sperber & Wilson (1986) produced one of the most influential alternatives to Grice’s theory.
They developed a theory of relevance based on a number of assumptions about communication:
1. Every utterance has a variety of linguistically possible interpretations, all compatible withthe decoded sentence meaning.
2. Not all these interpretations are equally accessible to the hearer (i.e. equally likely to cometo the hearer’s mind) on a given occasion.
3. Hearers are equipped with a single, very general criterion for evaluating interpretations
as they occur to them, and accepting or rejecting them as hypotheses about the speaker’s
meaning.
4. This criterion is powerful enough to exclude all but at most a single interpretation (or afew closely similar interpretations), so that the hearer is entitled to assume that the first
hypothesis that satisfies it (if any) is the only plausible one (Sperber & Wilson, 1986).
Sperber and Wilson argued that all of Grice’s maxims could be replaced by a single principle of
relevance ― that the speaker tries to be as relevant as possible in the circumstances (1986).
Davis (2005) argues that Sperber and Wilson’s theory suffers from some of the same problems― 32 ―

Implicature and the Cooperative Principle

as Grice’s, including:・overgeneralization of implicatures
・a clash with the principle of style・a clash with the principle of politenessConclusion
Grice provided an alternative to code-based interpretation of utterances. His cooperative
principle allowed an inferential-based system of utterance-interpretation to develop. It is clearthat the message people intend to convey is not wholly contained within the words they use, but
depends on hearers interpreting the message taking into account context and implicated meaning.

References
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Green, G. 1989, Implicature. In Pragmatics and natural language understanding (pp. 87―106) Hillsdale, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
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from: http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~smalamud/grice.pdf
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. 1986, Relevance: Communication and cognition. Blackwell, Oxford and Harvard UP,
Cambridge MA― 33 ―