研究ノート

Motivating Teachers
Conrad BUCSIS
要旨

教師のモチベーションは，当の教師のみならず，生徒の教室での体験，教育制度全体の安定度や有効性にも影響を及ぼす。本論文では，教職を一生の仕事にしようと決めた人達はなぜそのような選択をしているか，またその教職を続けるまたは離職することにした人の決意には最終的にどのようなことが要因として影響しているかについて調査した結果を検討する。まず最初に予測値理論と自己決定理論について簡単に紹介し，それらを教師のモチベー
ションについての調査に関連づけて組み合わせたものを評価している。本研
究では教師になる動機について利他的動機と内発的動機があることを指摘する一方で，仕事量，安い月給，教室管理上の問題，行政支援の欠如などの要因が後に教職を離れる決心をすることになる重要な指標となっている。一部の研究者は，教師のモチベーションを国際的レベルで考察するよりもむしろ，教育義務に関する個々の任務についてモチベーションを分析することを提案してきた。このような特定の任務や業務分野についてのモチベーションを評価する目的で，「教師のワークタスク動機づけ尺度（WTMST）」が開発された。
本稿では，この研究の結果を一部提示し論じる。一般的な教師のモチベーションに関する影響について論じた後，教師の燃え尽き症候群の問題について，
環境要因と個人内要因の両面から検討する。次に，組織におけるリーダーシッ
プの役割と影響について取り上げる。リーダーシップ研究で提示される交流型リーダーシップ・スタイルの概念と，自己決定理論に裏付けられた自主性の尊重との関係に焦点を当て，組織におけるリーダーに必要な，研究にもとづく具体的な行為を提案する。最後に，意欲を引き出すレジリエンス（精神的回復力）を支援することを目的とした方策を提案する。このような方策には，
1）個人の資質を伸ばす，2）基本的な3つの心理的欲求，即ち，自律性への欲求，有能さへの欲求，および関係性への欲求の充足を支援することにより活力を高める，3）自然環境の中で毎日を過ごすと言ったことが含まれる。本稿末のまとめでは，教師のモチベーションを支援し高め，しかもその過程において学校文化全体を活性化させる学校環境創生へのアプローチについて明らかにしている。
Keywords: 教師のモチベーション，教師の燃え尽き症候群，自己決定理論，
予測値理論，教育リーダーシップ― 101 ―

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Abstract

Teacher motivation has implications not only for the teachers
themselves but also for the classroom experiences of students and theoverall stability and effectiveness of educational systems. This paper
examines research into why individuals choose to pursue teaching as acareer, and what factors ultimately inﬂuence the decision to stay or leave
the profession. Expectancy value theory and self determination theory are
brieﬂy introduced and their constructs evaluated in relation to studies onteacher motivation. Although research points to altruistic and intrinsic
motivations for becoming a teacher, factors such as workload, low salary,classroom management issues, and lack of administrative support become
important indicators for the decision to leave teaching later on. Some
researchers have proposed analyzing motivation with respect to particulartasks associated with teaching duties rather than looking at teacher
motivation globally. The Work Task Motivation Scale for Teachers has
been developed to evaluate such motivation with regard to speciﬁc tasks
or categories of tasks. Some results of this research are presented anddiscussed. Following the discussion about influences related to teacher
motivation in general, the issue of teacher burnout is examined withregard to both environmental and intraindividual factors. The role andimpact of institutional leadership is then addressed. The relationshipbetween the concept of transactional leadership styles as presented inleadership research and autonomy support from self determination theoryis highlighted, and speciﬁc, research-based actions for institutional leaders
are suggested. Finally, strategies designed to support motivational
resilience are suggested. These include developing individual authenticity;enhancing vitality through the support of the basic psychological needs ofautonomy, competence, and relatedness; and spending time each day innatural environments. The final summary highlights approaches forcreating school environments that support and enhance teacher motivation
and, in the process, revitalize school culture overall.
Keywords: teacher motivation, teacher burnout, self determination theory,
expectancy value theory, educational leadership― 102 ―

Motivating Teachers

Introduction
Since the start of mass schooling and with its spread across the world, public education
has been repeatedly burdened with the expectation that it can save society. Schools and theirteachers have been expected to save children from poverty and destitution; to rebuild
nationhood in the aftermath of war; to develop universal literacy as a platform for economic
survival; to create skilled workers even when there is little demand for them; to develop
tolerance amongst children in nations where adults are divided by religious and ethnic
conflict; to cultivate democratic sentiments in societies that bear the scars of
totalitarianism; to keep developed nations economically competitive and help developing
ones to become so; and, as the United States’ Goals 2000 for education proclaimed, the way
educators prepare the generations of the future should eliminate drug dependency, end
violence in schools and seemingly make restitution for all the sins of the present generation.
The Paradoxical Profession
The topic of teacher motivation deserves particular study because the role of theteacher is paramount both in the lives of individual students and in the greater society. As
reﬂected in the quote above, teachers are in a position of high expectations but often work inenvironments that are not conducive to meeting their basic psychological needs forautonomy, competence, and relatedness. This paper will explore some of the reasonsindividuals choose to become teachers, theories and research concerning motivation in
general, factors affecting motivation in the workplace, the condition of burnout, and how tomaintain motivation at work and in one’s personal life.
Why Choose Teaching?
As a graduate assistant, I taught for-credit study skills courses
individually and in groups. I saw students go from low grades to
excelling. One of them got a Hispanic scholarship to medical school.
I felt a calling to teach at a community college.1
1

Private correspondence.

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M. Wilson
Professor, Anthropology/Social Sciences
Research suggests that although teachers enter the profession for a variety of reasons,those reasons tend to be intrinsic and/or altruistic. An Australian study surveyed more than
1,600 students enrolled in teacher training programs to try to identify common themes in the
motivation to pursue teaching as a career (Richardson and Watt). The study included
participants in both undergraduate and graduate programs, and those enrolled in earlychildhood, elementary and secondary strands. Interestingly, the “highest rated motivations
for choosing teaching included perceived teaching abilities, the intrinsic value of teaching,
and the desire to make a social contribution, shape the future, and work with children/
adolescents” (44).
In another Australian study, 98 first-year students enrolled in teacher training weresurveyed about their reasons for choosing teaching as a career (Sinclair, Dowson &McInerney). “Participants reported strong motivations for teaching related to working withchildren, worth of teaching, intellectual stimulation, and helping others” (1149). Barmby’s
survey of 246 teachers in England and Wales also revealed that “altruistic, intrinsic andchildren-oriented motivations . . . were identiﬁed as more important for entering teaching.
This was as opposed to extrinsic reasons such as ‘Job security’, ‘Promotion prospects’ and‘Salary’ (Barmby 253).
Teachers who are already engaged in the teaching profession seem to be similarly
motivated. For example, a study of 107 EFL/ESL teachers in Egypt and Hawai’i (USA)“ranked ‘Really helping my students to learn English,’ [and] ‘Having a job in which I canperform to the best of my ability,’ . . . among the top ﬁve in importance” in value (Kassabgy
and Schmidt 217-18). What keeps teachers teaching will be discussed at greater length laterin this article.
Professor Wilson’s motivation for becoming a teacher (and remaining in the profession)reflects a common theme, then. The combined elements of helping others and perceived
teaching ability, with the resulting effectiveness of instruction, are highly motivating factors
for many teachers.
These tend to be intrinsic motivations—the desire to help others, the desire to make adifference in the world, the love of the subject matter—rather than extrinsic. Money andstatus are not strong motivators to become a teacher in most well-developed educational― 104 ―

Motivating Teacherssystems. However, these extrinsic factors can come into play when the realities of teaching
become apparent and the intrinsic motivations are not enough to keep some teachers going.
Motivation Theory
Much of the research on teacher motivation relies on self-efficacy and expectancy
value theory or on self determination theory. Although these constructs have different
theoretical backgrounds (Wigﬁeld and Eccles, “Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement
Motivation” 73), they are by no means mutually exclusive, and Wigﬁeld and Eccles haveincorporated aspects of self determination theory into their expectancy value studies (The
Development of Achievement Task Values: A Theoretical Analysis, 280).
As the name suggests, expectancy value theory is concerned with expectancies for
success and values, but also with beliefs about one’s abilities (Wigﬁeld, Tonks and Eccles,
Expectancy Value Theory In Cross-Cultural Perspective). Bandura's work on self-efﬁcacy
serves as an important foundation (Bandura 257-58). Bandura argues that beliefs about
one’s efﬁcacy inﬂuence choices, aspirations, effort, perseverance, and affective responses tostress.
The expectancy value model is complex and much of the research has involved
students rather than teachers. The basic tenets relevant to this discussion are that one’s
ability beliefs inﬂuence both expectations and the values attributed to tasks, and that these
expectations and values, in turn, influence choice, performance, effort, persistence, andachievement (Wigﬁeld and Eccles, Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation).
The connection with Bandura’s work is clear. But expectancy value theory more deeply
explores attainment values and assesses the relationship between values and self-efﬁcacy
beliefs. The Richardson and Watt study of education students, as well as their FIT-Choice(Factors Influencing Teaching Choice) instrument were constructed based on the
expectancy-value model (31).
The self determination theory of motivation, pioneered by Richard Ryan and Edward
Deci and widely researched around the world, posits three motivational states: intrinsic
motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Amotivation refers to an unwillingness toengage in a particular task or behavior (Ryan and Deci 61). Intrinsic motivation is inspiredby personal interests or deeply held values (Ryan and Deci 56, Deci). In contrast, extrinsic
motivation refers to motivation for behavior that is not necessarily interesting or perceived― 105 ―

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as relevant to one’s values, that is, the behavior is related to some particular, separable
outcome (Ryan and Deci 60). Thus, the impetus for such behavior typically comes fromsome external source or sources. Self determination theory further distinguishes between
types or degrees of extrinsic motivation (Ryan and Deci 61). This concept is expressed as acontinuum, although the motivation process need not necessarily proceed linearly throughall of the phases nor even include them all (Ryan and Deci 62-3). These degrees of extrinsic
motivation are labeled external regulation, introjection, identiﬁcation, and integration.
External regulation is the least autonomous form of external motivation and refers to
behaviors performed in response to an external demand or to avoid punishment or receive areward. This level of motivation reﬂects a perception of control outside of the individual(Ryan and Deci 62). In the introjected state, actions are performed in order to avoid guilt or
anxiety or to preserve self-esteem (Ryan and Deci 62). Introjected motivation is also
perceived as having an external locus of control. Identiﬁcation refers to motivation based onan understanding of the importance or value of a behavior, in spite of its lack of immediate
interest. Ryan and Deci offer the example of a student who memorizes spelling lists because
he recognizes the importance of spelling in writing when writing is an activity he values(62). The most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation described by the theory is
integrated regulation. In this case, the importance of a behavior or task has been fully
integrated and incorporated into an individual’s values and needs. Integration is very close
to intrinsic motivation, but they differ with respect to the fact that integration still refers to
behavior for a separable outcome in contrast to behavior for the sake of enjoyment or for its
inherent value.
From their research on ways to promote the autonomous regulation of extrinsicallymotivated behaviors, Ryan and Deci have identiﬁed three basic motivational needs. These
are autonomy (the freedom and ability to choose), competence (the ability to develop theskills to succeed), and a sense of relatedness (a feeling of connection to the community that
supports or encourages the behavior) (Ryan and Deci 64). They argue that regulation may
become introjected even in controlling situations if competence and relatedness aresupported, but that “to fully internalize a regulation, and thus to become autonomous withrespect to it, people must inwardly grasp its meaning and worth. It is these meanings that
become internalized and integrated in environments that provide supports for the needs ofcompetence, relatedness, and autonomy" (64). Thus, Deci emphasizes the importance ofproviding a meaningful rationale for extrinsically motivated behaviors.

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The concepts of ability beliefs in expectancy value theory and competence in self
determination theory, while not identical, can be viewed as similar ideas from slightly
different perspectives. Expectancy value theory says that one’s beliefs about one’s
competence and ability to succeed inﬂuence the perceived value of a behavior or activity,
while self determination theory posits that competence is a necessary component for
identification--extrinsic motivation which is, to some extent, self-determined andautonomous. Expectancy value theory predicts greater effort and persistence in those withgreater competency beliefs.
Factors Affecting Motivation
It is the recurring experiences of positive events emanating from theintrinsic rewards of teaching that help maintain teachers’ motivation.
What Makes Teachers Tick?
We have considered some of the research on the motivation to choose a teaching careerand enter a teacher education program. But what about those who are currently practicing
the profession? What are the factors involved in the decision to remain teaching or to change
to another career?
A study conducted in the Netherlands surveyed 1214 secondary teachers with the aimof detecting and categorizing teacher identity profiles (Canrinusa, Helms-Lorenz and
Beijaard). The study identified three distinct identity profiles (599). The study authors
referred to these identity profiles as 1) unsatisfied and demotivated, 2) motivated andaffectively committed, and 3) doubting competence (599-600). What is interesting for our
discussion is that those in the ﬁrst category, the unsatisﬁed and demotivated identity proﬁle,had the greatest change in their level of motivation for teaching from when they began andshowed a strong negative score in this area. In contrast, those in the second group, themotivated and affectively committed identity profile, showed a positive change in theirmotivation to teach as compared to when they ﬁrst began in the profession, although thispositive change was about half as great in degree as the negative change in the ﬁrst group.
The third group, those with the doubting competence identity proﬁle, showed only a slightnegative change in motivation.
While the study did not explore the reasons for the changes in motivation exhibited by― 107 ―

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愛知大学

the ﬁrst and second groups, it is sobering to note that almost 20% of those surveyed werecategorized as having the unsatisﬁed and demotivated identity proﬁle (605). Also notable isthe fact that the four highest ranking reasons for becoming a teacher for all three proﬁleswere•Working with children/adolescents•Love for subject matter•

Transfer of knowledge and skills•

Intrinsic career value (interest in teaching and long-term desire to become ateacher) (602)

The ranking order of these reasons was not identical for each proﬁle, but was similar.
This supports the ﬁndings reported earlier in this paper that people tend to choose teachingas a career for primarily altruistic and intrinsic reasons.
Interesting to note is that the proﬁles identiﬁed in this study were not associated with
the number of years of teaching experience (604); however, there was a strong relationshipbetween the type of appointment and the identity proﬁle (603). Those with the motivatedand affectively committed proﬁle were much more likely to have permanent appointments
than those in the other two profiles, while those in both the demotivated and motivatedcategories had larger contracts than those in the competence doubting category. It is
impossible to tell whether there is a causal relationship between these characteristics, but it
is interesting nonetheless.
A survey of 749 new primary school teachers in Ireland examined the relative effect ofpositive and negative experiences on teacher motivation (Morgan, Ludlow and Kitching).
Their research revealed an interesting ﬁnding. In their words, results of the survey “strongly
suggest the absence of positive experiences undermines commitment and efficacy rather
than the occurrence of negative events” [italics in the original] (1). Also signiﬁcant was theindication that the frequency of events was more crucial than their intensity (10). They
found that frequent, positively framed events that supported the intrinsic rewards which had
inspired these teachers to enter the profession had a greater impact on motivation than lessfrequent negatively framed experiences of greater intensity (11).
Research conducted with primary and secondary school teachers in Manchester (U.K.)
seems to support this notion (Brown, Ralph and Brember). Using an ‘illuminative’ approach,― 108 ―

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the authors conducted a series of focused interviews with teachers in order to describe someof the complexities involved in teacher stress (3-4). Again, the frequency of events was seen
to be more influential than their intensity, although in this study it was the frequency ofnegatively framed events that was identiﬁed as a source of stress. “It would seem to be theinsidious day-to-day classroom interactions as a source of stress with their cumulative effectand not the occasional intense sources of stress that teachers are most concerned about” (5).
Pupil behavior was dealing with the personal problems of pupils were identiﬁed as stressors
for these teachers—a common theme in the research on teacher motivation.
The teachers in the Manchester study also expressed frustration at the increasing
workload and non-teaching demands on their time which have diminished their ability to dotheir job well. This combined with higher and higher expectations from the greater society
has resulted in a situation in which these teachers ﬁnd it difﬁcult to cope (11).
Barmby’s survey, referred to in the previous section about why teachers enter the
profession, also asked an open-ended question about what extrinsic factors could havedissuaded the respondent from becoming a teacher. The two highest ranking responses wererelated to pupil behavior and workload, followed by the ﬁnancial considerations of salaryand cost of training (255). These factors were echoed in the responses to the question about
whether the teachers were considering leaving the profession within the next ten years. Of
the 246 teachers in the sample, 66 said they were considering leaving and 5 said they
weren’t sure (256). The top reason given was workload, followed by having a family, stress/
exhaustion, and pupil behavior (256). However, some of these respondents indicated thatthey might consider a return to teaching later.
When asked to rate possible suggestions to persuade teachers to remain in theprofession, Bramby’s respondents rated support for pupil discipline and reducing theworkload most highly, followed by better salary, reduction of class sizes, less administrative
work for teachers, reduced teacher stress, and improving school facilities (257).
Researchers have also been working on an instrument called the Work Task Motivation
Scale for Teachers (WTMST) (Fernet, Senecal, Guay, Marsh & Dowson). The authors
propose that rather than evaluating teacher motivation in a global way with respect toteaching, more accurate and valuable information may be gathered by evaluating motivation
with respect to particular work tasks associated with teaching (258-59). The study cited here
was designed to test the validity of the WTMST.
The WTMST is based on Deci and Ryan’s self determination theory (257). It is― 109 ―

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intended “to assess the constructs of intrinsic motivation, identiﬁed, introjected, and external
regulations, and amotivation toward six work tasks (i.e., class preparation, teaching,evaluation of students, class management, administrative tasks, and complementary tasks)”(274). By “complementary tasks” the authors mean such tasks as tutoring, involvement in
extracurricular activities, and other activities outside the classroom (259).
The authors of the WTMST instrument found that there was value in the multitask
approach. In their words, “the assessment of motivation at the multitask level opens animportant door to a deeper understanding of teachers’ motivational processes. In fact, someteachers’ motivational components do not seem to be limited to unifaceted and stable
representations such as a global contextualized motivational orientation but rather represent
important dynamic entities that may be operative and responsive to particular tasks” (275).
This may have implications for the design of interventions in situations where teachers are
struggling to stay motivated.
The next section will discuss the phenomenon of burnout, one manifestation of the lackof motivation, as it applies to the teaching profession.
Burnout
The effect of environmental demands is particularly detrimental toteachers’ psychological well-being when they perceive that their selfdetermination and efficacy are threatened.
Predicting Intraindividual Changes in
Teacher Burnout
Burnout syndrome as described by Maslach and Jackson is a condition frequently seenin those who are in people-centered professions (99). It is a reaction to ongoing stress that ischaracterized by three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a feelingof a lack of personal accomplishment. Maslach and Jackson devised the Maslach Burnout
Inventory in 1981 and it remains a standard tool for measuring burnout. As teaching is apeople-centered profession, it is not uncommon for teachers to experience the characteristics
of burnout.
Using an approach similar to their work with the WTMST, Fernet, Guay, and Senécal,along with Stéphanie Austin, have studied changes in burnout components over time. Their― 110 ―

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study, based on self determination theory, included 806 French-Canadian teachers inelementary and high schools. Just as their WTMST instrument seeks to enhance
understanding of motivation by breaking down global variables into tasks, this study focuseson intraindividual changes over time as well as on specific rather than global inferences
about the work environment (515). In addition, they wanted to understand the dynamic
nature of burnout in contrast to the view of burnout as an outcome of static predictors (515).
The study focused on classroom overload (too much work and not enough time to completeit), pupil behavior, autonomy in the classroom, and the principal’s leadership style (517) andconsidered the relationship between changes in intraindividual motivational factors as
related to changes in burnout components over time (518). The assessments were done at
two time points, at the beginning and the end of the school year.
While burnout has typically been studied in relation to factors in the school
environment, these authors argue that intraindividual motivational factors mediate therelationship between perceived environmental factors and burnout (523). Keeping in mind
their orientation toward self determination theory, here is an example provided in theirpaper:For instance, teachers who perceive that they have insufﬁcient time toaccomplish their work may feel exhausted, not only due to thedemands of their job, but also, and more particularly, due to a lack ofautonomous motivation. Similarly, teachers’ perceptions of students’
disruptive behavior may provoke burnout, because it erodes theirsense of effectiveness. (516)With regard to workload, this study showed that as the school year progressed, teachers
who felt less able to accomplish their classroom tasks while feeling ever greater pressure to
do so were more likely to feel exhaustion by the end of the year (522).
Although the authors admit that further research would be needed to delineate thismediation process more clearly, it seems a difﬁcult proposition in light of the interdependent
relationship between environmental factors and individual motivational factors. Also, acausal relationship cannot unequivocally be inferred by these relationships (523). Still, in
light of the combination of the research on burnout as related to environmental factors andthe research on autonomy, competence, and relatedness in motivational studies, it seems
worthwhile to consider how changes in leadership approaches, school climate and culture,and overall workload issues might affect the incidence of teacher burnout and its― 111 ―

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consequences.
The Role of Institutional Leadership
When bosses are more autonomy supportive, their subordinates
perform better at the job. They also are better adjusted in theworkplace, which has important implications in terms of absenteeism,
turnover, and so forth.2
Edward Deci
Ted-x Flour City
In recent years, the literature on leadership (mostly concerned with businessenvironments) has distinguished between two major leadership styles: transactional andtransformational (Bass). These terms are sometimes used in the research literature on
educational leadership as well (see Eyal and Roth, for example). The descriptive elementsof the transformational style share similarities with the autonomy supported environments
described by researchers of self determination theory, so this use is understandable.
The transactional style of leadership is a top-down approach that relies on rewards andpunishments, or sanctions, to ensure compliance. As Bass says, this type of leadership caters
to both the leader’s and the employees’ self-interest (9, 11). Transactional leadership results
in what self determination theory calls controlled motivation (Ryan and Deci, Deci).
Controlled motivation is extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation assumes and may
sometimes be productive in situations that are not intrinsically motivating. However,research suggests that such a style of controlled motivation may actually undermine intrinsic
motivation, reconfiguring what was once an inherently enjoyable activity such that it
becomes an activity oriented toward external rewards (see Lepper’s early work withchildren, for example). Might this have something to do with the reason that so manyteachers who begin their careers with intrinsic/altruistic motivations become disillusioned
and ultimately leave teaching? Could transactional leadership styles in educational settings
contribute to disengagement from those early ideals? When motivation becomes extrinsic,
rewards become more salient. Teachers leaving the profession often mention salary, for2YouTube.

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example, even though they typically know what to expect as a salary when they choose ateaching career. This is an area that could beneﬁt from focused research.
In contrast, the transformational leadership style relies more on inspiration, intellectual
stimulation and individualized consideration (Bass 11). The term charisma was used in early
research to describe the transformational leader, but this has been updated to idealized
influence or inspirational leadership (Bass, 11). Keeping in mind that these terms comefrom the world of business, their use may not be entirely appropriate in educational settings
in this author’s view. Autonomy supportive environments do not require the dramatic
leadership capabilities that these descriptive terms imply; ordinary people in many different
roles in schools--teachers, staff, administrators, and students--can contribute productively tocreating a school culture that supports autonomy. However, researchers in the self
determination theory arena have demonstrated the relationship between the transformational
leadership style and support of the basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness
in the workplace and this is relevant to our discussion of leadership roles (Hetland, Hetland
and Andreassen).
Looking again at the research on work-related stress in British teachers, “school
management and administration were reported as a major stressor by virtually every teacher
in our sample” (Brown, Ralph and Brember, 7). The authors continue:
They cited instances of the poor levels of communication and distancein perception between senior management teams and ordinary
members of staff. Lack of support and resources, physical, technicaland moral, was mentioned, and it would appear that hierarchicalmodels of management are still very much a feature of life in many of
the schools sampled, with little or no opportunity for many staff tocontribute to decision making at any meaningful level. (7)According to self determination theory, this could not be considered an autonomy
supportive environment. The teachers feel they have little if any input into decisions
affecting their work. Likewise, the need for competence identiﬁed by the theory is being
thwarted by a lack of support. In this study, teachers reported difficult relations withcolleagues, suggesting that their needs for relatedness were also going unmet in thisenvironment (5).
So, what does it mean in daily practice to foster autonomy supportive environmentsthat encourage relatedness and enhance competence? In an earlier paper by this author― 113 ―

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言語と文化 No. 33(“Motivation in Education”), an example is given from the book Born to Rise by Deborah
Kinney. In Born to Rise, Kinney recounts her experience in creating the Harlem Village
Academies. Motivated by a sincere desire to create a supportive learning environment forlearners, Kinney admits to her early reluctance to share leadership with the teachers (198212). This reluctance prevented the teachers from engaging fully with the vision of theschool and exercising autonomy. The affected the school culture as a whole. “When Kinney
began to share leadership of the schools with the teachers, the school culture began tochange and thrive; teachers took a more active role in designing the learning environment
and found innovative ways to support one another in developing competence in theclassroom” (Bucsis).
Sharing leadership does not mean abdicating responsibility for one’s leadership role.
One important role of a leader is to provide an appropriate structure to support autonomy
and growth (Dzubay 13-14). And autonomy does not mean isolated independence.
Autonomy means genuinely having a voice in the interdependent culture of teaching andlearning which exists in the school setting. Autonomy supportive leadership requires
excellent listening skills, a willingness to try new ideas, and a responsibility to provide
useful, non-threatening feedback in an environment built on trust. Just as may be within theclassroom, the transactional approach may be easier in the short run, but the investment oftime and care spent in creating a culture of mutual support and regard will pay long-term
dividends in increased well being and enthusiasm.
Complementary to fostering autonomy supportive environments, Blase and Blase’s
research highlights some features of effective staff development opportunities that can beseen as autonomy supportive.
We found that the hallmark of effective staff development is a philosophy of andsupport for lifelong learning about teaching and learning. We also discovered that staff
development, as a key aspect of effective instructional leadership, is consistently centeredon six elements: the study of teaching and learning, collaboration, coaching, action research,
resources, and adult development. (3)Their study also points to the effectiveness of staff development that addresses
emergent needs, is meaningful, includes teacher input in the content and design, in which
the leadership actively participates, and attendance at which is optional (3).
An excellent resource with practical, research-based ideas for supporting autonomy,competence, and relatedness is Dzubay’s Understanding Motivation and Supporting Teacher― 114 ―

Motivating Teachers

Renewal, referenced above.
Based on their research, Eyal and Roth submit that by providing an autonomy
supportive environments, school leaders can promote greater engagement and resilience inteachers (268). There will be more discussion about motivational resilience in the next
section.
Motivational Resilience
This above all: to thine own self be true.
William Shakespeare, Hamlet
So, how does a teacher cultivate motivational resilience? As much as possible, engage
in autonomy supportive behaviors for oneself. Develop competence, yes, but competencealone will not get you through the rough spots (Moe, Pazzaglia and Ronconi 1150).
Research has shown that competence must be combined with a positive affect in order topromote job satisfaction.
If the work environment is not autonomy supportive, discover whether there are ways
you can positively inﬂuence that environment. Express autonomy support for oneself andothers, including coworkers and students. Develop healthy relationships to foster relatedness
within the school community. Share research findings about autonomy support withcolleagues and school leaders. Suggest related topics for professional development inservice activities.
Here are some other research based aspects of well being to consider:
Authenticity
Richard Ryan and his associates have explored a concept that is similar toautonomy, that of authenticity (Ryan, LaGuardia and Rawsthorne). “Authentic
aspects of personality . . . are fully self-endorsed, volitionally enacted, andpersonally meaningful” (433). In their studies, increases in authenticity wereassociated with better mental health and lower perceived stress (444). Strive forauthenticity.

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Vitality
Ryan and Deci have conducted research that suggests the support of the basic
psychological needs identiﬁed by self determination theory also supports vitality(From Ego Depletion to Vitality). Not only is this important in work settings, butalso in other aspects of life. “The pursuit of meaningful activities, especially those
associated with intrinsic goals, maintains or enhances vitality. These activities do
not simply relax the self-regulatory muscle; rather, they can satisfy psychologicalneeds and thus rekindle the energies lost from the more depleting conditions thatare so pervasive in many people’s daily lives (713).
NatureRichard Ryan and his colleagues have also conducted studies that reveal the
positive effects of spending time in natural settings (Vitalizing Effects of Being
Outdoors and In Nature). Even images of nature can have a vitalizing effect (163).
If you have control over even a portion of your work environment, this vitalizing
effect may be something to keep in mind. Also, these studies reveal that spending
even twenty minutes per day outdoors, preferably in a natural environment or one
with natural elements, can increase vitality. One’s home space may also enhancevitality with the addition of natural elements.
Summary and Conclusions
Teachers are faced with great expectations. They typically enter the ﬁeld for altruistic
and intrinsic reasons, motivated by a desire to work with young people and to change theworld for the better. But the realities of many school environments tend to undermine these
intrinsic motivations while basic psychological needs go unmet. It is no wonder that many
countries are facing teacher shortages and the idealistic teachers of yesterday often become
the disillusioned career changers of today.
But there is plenty of research that demonstrates ways to change this situation for the
better. We can make school environments more autonomy supportive for teachers as well as― 116 ―

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for students. We can include teachers in the conversation about how to improve not only
outcomes but also well being and vitality at school. We can create an educational culturethat values experimentation, genuine collaboration, relevant professional development, andauthenticity. The results of such an approach can beneﬁt not only teachers but also students
today, and can affect lasting change in the greater society of tomorrow.
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