論 文

Cooperative Learning and Motivation

Folake Abass

要

旨

Cooperative learning（協同学習）とは学習者が小グループで，一緒に作業を通して，学習を深めるものだとJohnson et al（1998）は定義している。協力が必要な状況のなか，学習者1人ひとりは自分のためだ
けではなく，グループのメンバーの学習結果にも配慮することにつながる。協同学習という教授法を取り入れることによって，学習者がより積極的になり，やる気の向上もみられる。協同学習を成功させるにはグループによる学習時間が充分ではなければならない。また，教員はその学習を支援する態度が欠かせない。本稿では協同学習とやる気の関連を探り，授業への導入について提言する。
Keywords: cooperative learning, motivation, teaching method, self-esteem,
retention, interdependence, accountability

Abstract
Cooperative learning according to Johnson et al (1998) is the“instructional use of small groups so that students’ work together tomaximise their own and each other’s learning.” Within cooperative
situations, students seek outcomes that are beneficial not only tothemselves but also to the members of their group. By adopting a― 15 ―

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No. 18cooperative learning approach as a teaching method, teachers
encourage students to become actively involved in the learning
process and this enhances their motivation. To be motivated to learn,
students need ample opportunity to interact with each other as well
as steady encouragement and support of their learning efforts. This
article will explore the link between cooperative learning andmotivation and discuss ways that cooperative learning can beincorporated into your classroom practices.
Keywords: cooperative, learning, motivation, teaching method, self-esteem, retention,interdependence, accountability

Cooperative Learning and Motivation   There is an ever increasing need for interdependence in all levels of our society
today. Providing students with the tools to effectively work in a collaborative andcooperative environment should be our priority as teachers. Cooperative learning(CL) is one way to provide students with a well defined framework from which they
can learn from one another. Students work towards fulfilling academic and social
goals that are clearly stated. It is a team approach where the success of each group isdependent on each member actively contributing to the group activity. CL according
to Johnson et al (1998) is the “instructional use of small groups so that student’s work
together to maximise their own and each other’s learning”. Within cooperative
situations, students seek outcomes that are beneficial not only to themselves but also
to members of their group. By adopting a CL approach as a teaching method, teachers
encourage students to become actively involved in the learning process.
   It has been posited that students are either motivated or they are not (Biehler &Snowman 1997). However, Johnson and others have found that, as students become
more engaged in their learning, their motivation increases. To be motivated to learn,
students need ample opportunity to interact with each other as well as steadyencouragement and support of their learning efforts. By placing students in groups― 16 ―

Cooperative Learning and Motivationand giving them tasks that require interdependence, each member of the group
becomes accountable for achieving a shared goal. Students are then motivated by theteam effort as well as by seeing their own contributions accepted by the group. The
active exchange of ideas within small groups not only increases interest among thestudents but also promotes critical thinking (Johnson & Johnson 1989).

What is cooperative learning?
   CL is a method of teaching and learning in which students work together toexplore a significant question or create a meaningful project. In CL, students work
together in small groups on a structured activity in order to accomplish shared learning
goals. CL and working in a group are not one and the same coin but two very different
situations as Woolfolk (2001) points out:
The terms group learning and cooperative learning are often used as if they meant thesame. Actually, group work is simply several students working together—they may or
may not be cooperating. Cooperative learning is an arrangement in which students
work in mixed ability groups and are rewarded on the basis of the success of thegroup.

According to Johnson and Johnson (1986, p. 31), there is persuasive evidence thatcooperative teams achieve higher levels of thought and retain information longer thanstudents who work quietly as individuals. Thus the shared learning experience gives
students an opportunity to engage in discussion, take responsibility for their own
learning and as a result, become critical thinkers (Totten, Sills, Digby & Russ, 1991). In
order to create an environment in which CL can take place, three things are necessary.
First, students need to feel safe, but also challenged. Second, groups need to be smallenough that everyone can contribute. Third, the task students’ work together on must
be clearly defined. CL differs from traditional teaching approaches because students
work together rather than compete with each other individually. A group member’s
success in creating a presentation on injustice, for example, depends on both individual
effort and the efforts of other group members who contribute needed knowledge,
skills and resources. No one group member will posses all of the information, skills or― 17 ―

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resources necessary to create the best presentation.
   Since CL techniques revolve around the use of small groups (usually between 3
to 6 members), they can be used with almost any teaching strategy and can be easily
implemented into your classroom practices. Grouping is heterogeneous which allows
for different language levels as well as cultural backgrounds and so forth. CL can also
be incorporated using elements of constructivist teaching which deals with learners
investigating real-world problems by reflecting on their own experiences. This is anapproach I adopted in my use of CL and the details of which appear below.

Example of a lesson plan for a theme-based student centred lesson using CL.
This is a lesson plan for university students in years 3 and 4. There were 7 students inthis class (6 females and 1 male).
The overall theme of the class was the concept of injustice in terms of those who havesuffered from it, and those who have helped create it. Each week, students were asked
to do some research on injustice and share the information with the class and discuss
their findings. Students were asked to give their opinions based on the information
presented.
As a class project, we watched Gandhi which also deals with injustice on numerous
levels. After each viewing, various issues from the movie were highlighted anddiscussed. For individual projects, students were asked to compile a portfolio basedon all their research on injustice and provide comments and opinions based on theinformation they collected.
For the group project, the students were divided into 2 groups. One group had four
students and the other had 3. Students were assigned to their groups at the beginningof the semester and so they had 12 weeks to prepare for their presentation.
Objectives: The students were told that they had to give a presentation at the end of
the semester based on the theme of the class and it was to be delivered in English. The― 18 ―

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students were responsible for the format and content of their presentation as well as
how they chose to present it. They were given explicit instructions regarding the taskof the group and their various roles within it. Whilst the student roles within thegroup such as researcher, writer or illustrator where shared, they also worked
interdependently in achieving the groups goal. Even though the academic task is ofprimary importance in CL, students also had the opportunity to learn how to maintainharmony within the group as well as how to respect each others views.

Why use cooperative learning?
1. It promotes individual student learning. As a result, students learn how to thinkcritically as they work through the specific steps required to achieving a giventask.
2. It encourages greater effort among students as they are striving for the mutual
benefit of the group. Consequently, the students gain from each other’s efforts
and this creates greater productivity, long-term retention and intrinsic motivationin them. In addition, students can share their strengths and also develop their
weaker skills.
3. It helps students develop their oral skills. By interacting with each other, students
promote each others success by orally explaining how to solve problems, teaching
one’s knowledge to others and by discussing together the concepts being
learned.
4. It enhances students’ satisfaction with their learning experience. As students arelearning together, this process increases their retention and this helps to increase
their self-esteem and this ultimately motivates them.

What makes cooperative groups work?
It would be very misleading for teachers to think that well meaning instructions
such as “work together” or “be a team,” will be enough to create cooperative efforts
among students. As Johnson and Johnson (1989, p. 3) point out, “placing students ingroups and telling them to work together does not in and of itself result in cooperation.”
Not all groups are cooperative and as such, lessons need to be structured so that― 19 ―

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No. 18students do actually work cooperatively with each other. According to Johnson andJohnson (ibid), it is important that teachers are familiar with the components thatmake cooperation work and this will allow them to:
1. Take existing lessons, curricula and courses and structure them cooperatively.
2. Tailor cooperative learning lessons to meet the unique instructional circumstancesand needs of the curricula, subject area and students.
3. Diagnose the problems some students may have in working together andintervene to increase the effectiveness of the student learning groups.
   Johnson and Johnson (1999) developed the following elements of cooperation
which includes a five element criterion that define true cooperative learning groups.
Systematically structuring these basic elements into group learning situations helps
ensure cooperative efforts and enables the disciplined learning for long term success(Johnson et al 1993).
1. Positive Interdependence: Each group member has a unique contribution to
make and the success of the group is dependent on each member’s efforts. Group
members have to be aware that their efforts not only benefit themselvesindividually but the whole group. Doing so creates a commitment to the successof group members as well as one’s own and is the heart of cooperative learning.
If there is no positive interdependence, there is no cooperation.
2. Face-to-face Interaction: Students need to do real work together in which they
promote each other’s success by sharing resources and helping, supporting andencouraging each other’s efforts to achieve. Students are shown how to help
each other overcome problems and promote each other’s success.
3. Individual and Group accountability: Each member of the group has to make asignificant contribution to achieving the group’s goal. The group has to be clear
about its goals and what the members have to do to achieve them. Each memberof the group is responsible not only for learning but also for helping othermembers of the group to learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement.
4. Interpersonal Skills: students need to know how to interact with one anotherand as such, direct instruction in social skills and group communication skills― 20 ―

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are necessary. For example, assigning students with roles such as reporter orwriter so as to teach them leadership and decision skills.
5. Group Processing: Group members discuss the progress of their project and how
they are maintaining effective working relationships. How the group is working
out and other problems they might be facing can also be addressed. Group
members need to recognise that they all share the same fate and what affects one
member of a group affects them all.

The Group Processes   Tuckman (1969, quoted in Argyle, 1969) established that a group went throughfour stages from its formation and these have important implications in relation to the
dynamics of the classroom as well as the use of group activities when teaching.
1. Forming: At first there is some anxiety among the members of the group interms of how to communicate with one another. This might be the first timesome of the students have talked together. In addition, as they are dependent on
the teacher to provide them with direction in terms of the task to be performed
and what is or in not acceptable behaviour, this could be further cause forconcern.
2. Storming: There is conflict between sub-groups and some rebellion against theleader. Members of the group may resist their leader and the role relations
attending the function of the group can be questioned and/or challenged.
3. Norming: The group begins to develop some form of cohesion. Members of thegroup begin to support each other. At this stage, there is co-operation and an
open exchange of ideas and feelings about their roles in the group and eachother.
4. Performing: Most problems are now resolved and there is a great deal ofinterpersonal activity. Everyone is devoted to completing the tasks they havebeen assigned and there is a real sense of satisfaction within the group in termsof the progression of the task or activity.
As a general rule, almost every group goes through these four stages (sometimes more)― 21 ―

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until it reaches a state of uniformity.

Organising Learning Groups
The following criteria will help teachers facilitate CL into the classroom and get thebest from the group process.
1. Decide how the groups are to be formed: Some teachers prefer to randomly
assign students to groups to maximise their heterogeneity. That is, mixing maleand female, verbal and quiet students (Fiechtner and Davis, 1992; Smith, 1986).
Some teachers let students choose who they want to work with, although therisk with this is that students will socialise too much and also self segregate(Cooper, 1990). Still other teachers prefer to form the groups themselves, taking
into account students’ prior achievement, and levels of preparation, work habits,
ethnicity and gender (Connery, 1988). In the case of my class, as I had only sevenstudents and only one male student, trying to decide how to group them wasdifficult. There were four 3rd year students and three 4th year students, one ofwhich was a mature student. After much deliberation, I grouped two 3rd year
students together with a 4th year student and the other group included the maleand mature students. There were a couple of students who were friends and so
I put them in different groups as I felt that one of the students was stronger thanher friend and I did not want there to be a situation where students where notpulling their weight and so others would have to carry them. Essentially what I
did in my grouping was sprinkle the more able students evenly among the twogroups. Ultimately it will be up to the teacher to decide the best way to group
their students.
2. Be conscious of group size: In general, groups of four or five work best as larger
groups decrease each member’s opportunity to participate actively. Similarly, ina small group it is difficult to be passive. Every member of the group has to carry
their fair share. As mentioned above, I had one group of three students and oneof four. I had initially considered making the seven students one group as it wassuch a small class but I decided against it. The quiet and shy students would
have been left behind and would have had very little chance to make a positive― 22 ―

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contribution to the group.
3. Keep groups together: One of the main challenges faced in CL is group conflict.
Students need to work together even though it is not something that comesnaturally. When a group is not working well together, avoid breaking it up, even
if the group requests it. The addition of the floundering group’s members toongoing groups may throw off their group process, and the bailed out groupdoes not learn to cope with its unproductive interactions (Wolvoord, 1986). It is
crucial that group members learn to work together harmoniously and respect
each other. Any conflicts that exist within the group should try to be solved
amicably.
4. Help groups plan how to proceed: Ask each group to devise a plan of action.
How is the task to be executed? Who will be responsible for what and when?
5. Regularly check in with the groups: If the task spans several weeks, it is important
to maintain frequent checks with the groups. This gives the groups a chance totalk about their progress and talk to you about any concerns that they may have.
It also gives the teacher a chance to chart the progress of each group.
In addition to the above, it is imperative that students know how the groups will
operate and what there responsibilities are as members of a group. The objectives ofeach group must be clearly defined and some guidance about the participation ofmembers should also be clarified. Furthermore, students need to know how they will
be graded. If they are going to be graded as a group then members need to know theycannot let others do all they work while they sit back. Active participation within thegroup process provides a stimulating environment for our students and thus combats
boredom which is one of the cited reasons why students often lack motivation in theclassroom.

Motivation and Self Assessment (SA)   It is quite easy to assume that success in the classroom rests on the premise that a
student is “motivated”. For teachers teaching in an EFL classroom, it can be quite
challenging finding ways to motivate students. Consequently, teachers are underimmense pressure as they attempt various strategies to motivate their students on a
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No. 18continual basis. However, regardless of the motivation strategies employed by ateacher, motivation cannot operate in a vacuum and as such there are certain
preconditions that have to be met before any attempts to generate motivation can beeffective. Creating a pleasant and supportive classroom atmosphere as well a goodteacher and student rapport are some such conditions that can help to generate
motivation. As Dornyei (2001, p. 116) notes, “teacher skills in motivating learners
should be seen as central to teaching effectiveness.” As teachers we should spend moretime explaining why we teach what we teach and why the topic, approach or activity
is important, interesting or worthwhile for our students. A teacher’s enthusiasm forthe subject will be transmitted to the students which will make them more interested
in what they are being taught. Furthermore, student’s interaction with each other andthe promotion of group cohesiveness through CL will have a major effect on student’s
motivation. The feeling of satisfaction is also a significant factor in reinforcing
achievement behaviour, which renders satisfaction a major component of motivation.
CL also contributes to high levels of motivation through the pro-academic attitudes
that it fosters among group members. Many studies have found that CL students
spend significantly more time on task than do students working in a more controlledlearning environment (Johnson et al., 1995, Slavin, 1995). Researchers in CL found thatwhen students work together to accomplish a group goal, they come to express norms
in favour of doing whatever is necessary for the group to succeed (Slavin, 1995). Carrier
and Sales (1987) as cited in Sinhanayok and Hooper (1988) observed that “students
working cooperatively appeared to motivate each other to seek elective feedback totheir responses and to practice items during learner control.”   Students can become better language learners when they engage in deliberatethought about what they are learning and how they are learning it. In this kind ofreflection, students are able to step back from the learning process to think about theirlearning strategies and their progress as language learners. Such SA encourages students
to become independent learners and this can increase their motivation. When students
assess their own progress they learn about their strengths and weaknesses. They arethen able to build on the former while rectifying the latter. SA “mirrors and measures
students’ performance in ‘real-life’ tasks and situations” (Hart, 1995, p. 106) and assuch, students are in a better position to keep track of their efforts in a group and that― 24 ―

Cooperative Learning and Motivationof other group members. A copy of the group work assessment sheet can be seen inappendix A, and appendix B shows students assessment of their project and anevaluation of the overall outcome of their presentation. If each group sets a goal interms of what they hope to achieve from a given task, students will be able to evaluate
their progress more clearly when they have targets against which to measure theirperformance. Additionally, students’ motivation to learn increases when they haveself-defined and therefore relevant learning goals. This gives students more confidence
in their learning efforts and this creates a positive classroom experience which in turnenhances the dynamics of each group.

Conclusion
For CL to be effective, the teacher must view teaching as a process of developing
and enhancing students’ ability to learn. The teachers’ role is not to transmit
information, but to serve as a facilitator for learning. This involves creating andmanaging meaningful learning experiences and stimulating students’ thinking throughreal world problems. The positive effects of CL experiences often outlast the teams orgroups themselves and may extend to relationships outside of school. CL contributes
to both achievement and social harmony and can increase the participation of all
students (Slavin, 1995).

References
Argyle, M., 1969. Social Interaction. London: Tavistock Press.
Biehler, R., & Snowman, J., 1997. Psychology Applied to Teaching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co.
Connery, B. A., 1988. Group Work and Collaborative Writing. Teaching at Davis. 14 (1), 2–4.
(Publication of the Teaching resources Center, University of California at Davis.)
Cooper, J., 1990. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching: Tips from the Trenches. Teaching
Professor. 4 (5), 1–2.
Dornyei, Z., 2001. Teaching and Researching Motivation. England: Pearson Education Ltd.
Fiechtner, S. B., and Davis, E. A., 1992. Why Some Groups Fail: A Survey of Student’s Experienceswith Learning Groups. In A. Goodsell, M. Maher, V. Tinto, and Associates (eds.),
Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education. University Park: National― 25 ―

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No. 18Centre on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, Pennsylvania State
University.
Hart, D., 1994. Authentic Assessment: A Handbook for Educators. Menlo Park, CA: AddisonWesley Publishing Co.
Johnson, R. T., & Johnson, D. W. 1986. Action Research: Cooperative Learning in the Science
Classroom. Science and Children, 24, 31–32.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T., 1989. Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research.
Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, D., Johnson, R. & Holubec, E., 1993. Cooperation in the Classroom. Boston: Allyn &Bacon.
Sinhanayok, C., and Hooper, S., 1988. The Effects of Cooperative Learning and Learner Control
on Students’ Achievement, Options Selections and Attitudes. Educational Technology
Research and Development, 46(2), 17–32.
Slavin, R., 1995. Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research and Practice (2nd ed.). Boston: Allynand Bacon
Totten, S., Sills, T., Digby, A., & Russ, P., 1991. Cooperative Learning: A Guide to Research. New
York: Garland.
Woolfolk, A., 2001. Educational Psychology. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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