Written and Spoken English Grammar Usage in Communicative Language Teaching Materials

Written and Spoken English Grammar Usagein Communicative Language Teaching Materials

Ashley BARTHOLOMYᛵǽ஖
教師は，コミュニカティブ英語教科書のダイアログが，典型的な会話パターンを反映していないため，不自然に感じるかもしれない。書き言葉と話し言葉には多くの違いがある。話し言葉の文法は書き言葉の文法から派生したものではなく，学習者が書き言葉と話し言葉の両方に触れることは有益である。本稿では，教科書の対話文と YouTube 動画の会話文の分析に基づき，書き言葉と話し言葉の文法の違いを明らかにし，コミュニケー
ション英語の授業に両方の文法を取り入れる方法について提案する。コ
ミュニカティブ・ランゲージ・ティーチング（CLT）の授業のために作られた現代の教科書は，ダイアログやリスニング・アクティビティでさえも，一般的に書き言葉の文法形式を提示しているため，教師は可能な限り
本物のインタラクションを紹介する教材を補足することが重要である。
コースの目的がスピーキング能力の向上である場合，実際の会話パターンの例を盛り込み，生徒がスクリプト化された書き言葉だけでなく，すでに習得している形式を使ってコミュニケーションできるようにすることは有益である。

キーワード：話し言葉文法，書き言葉文法，コミュニケーション言語教育（CLT），英語教育，外国語教育

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No. 49Introduction
There are many differences between the way we speak and the way we write.

Spoken language is not derivative of the written form, as spoken language develops
before its writing system does. There are even some languages that exist today that still
do not have a written form. In the classroom, we tend to focus on the written form of alanguage. It can be challenging for language teachers to assess students when there are
multiple ways to express what they are thinking. Typical grammar instruction focuses on
structure and form and may not acknowledge the choices of language patterns that users
must make or encounter when they are confronted with using the language (Biber et al.,2002).
Language learners, and even fluent or “native” speakers may get confused anddiscouraged if they are always told to speak “properly” (i.e., the way they would write),
especially if they have heard speakers talk a certain way in movies, music, or if they have
had the chance to interact with speakers of the language they are learning in real life. The
importance of spoken grammar will depend on the course, the goals of the students, andtheir levels, but many language learners would benefit from exposure to the way people
naturally speak and interact. Having an awareness of the differences between spoken andwritten grammar can help teachers and learners recognize patterns of both and identify
when it is appropriate to use certain forms.
If the intended outcome is improving speaking skills, then spoken grammar
instruction may be necessary at times. This paper will discuss the differences between
written and spoken language regarding grammatical differences, the interactive purposeof spoken grammar, and compare written grammar to spoken grammar. It will also
address textbooks used in communicative language classrooms and their tendency
to utilize formal written grammar in example dialogues. This study will discuss towhat extent and in what circumstances spoken language rules could be taught and theimplementation of utilizing spoken and written grammar rules and patterns.

2 Literature Review
When teaching a writing course, instructors would probably focus on formal written
grammar. For a course that focuses on speaking output, it may not make sense to use the82Written and Spoken English Grammar Usage in Communicative Language Teaching Materials

same formal written grammar in speaking and listening activities (McCarthy & Carter,
1995). There are many differences between the way we speak and the way we write, fromthe way we interact to the forms we tend to use more often when speaking. The following
section will discuss some of the differences between written and spoken grammar.

2.1. Grammatical Differences Between Spoken and Written Grammar
There are various grammatical differences found in spoken grammar that are notfound as often in written grammar. Written excerpts of authentic spoken dialogue usuallyappear “untidy” and even “ungrammatical” to some (Willis, 2003: 191). This is due tospoken grammar having less structure (Brown & Yule, 1983) or being considered to haveits own structure (McCarthy & Carter, 1995).
When language is spoken casually, speakers often use incomplete sentences. Spoken
grammar uses situational ellipsis, where words are left out but are still understooddepending on the situation (McCarthy & Carter, 1995: 145). Pronouns and articles may
be dropped or barely uttered (e.g., “[I] Need to go to the store. [There]’s no milk or
bread.”). Certain points of conversation may not be said because what or who is beingreferred to is obvious to the speakers, whether it is a person, an object, or a past or present
situation. Speakers tend to omit certain words and simplify more when talking to others(Willis, 2003) if it can be easily understood by the person being spoken to (e.g., “Coffee?”[In this case it is understood from the situation that coffee is being offered to you]).
Another grammatical difference is the use of “and” and “but” at the beginningof a sentence. Putting “and” or “but” at the beginning of a sentence when there are
two coordinating clauses looks strange in written grammar (e.g., “Playing the piano isdifficult. But I enjoy it.”). However, when speaking, this may sound fine, as subordination
between sentence clauses is found less frequently (Brown & Yule, 1983). Speakers may
also use these connectors to add on to or contradict what someone has just said (e.g., “But
that’s not what I heard.”) Less variety of connective words are used in spoken grammar aswell (Brown & Yule, 1983). Whereas in writing writers try to vary up language by using
many different connectors, in speech speakers tend to utilize simple ones like “and”,“but” or “or”.
Passive voice is less often found in spoken grammar (e.g., “That was given to her by
her grandmother.”) and emphasizing the object of the sentence instead of the subject ismore often found in spoken grammar (e.g., “That’s mine.”) (Willis, 2003). Speakers may

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No. 49not use complete sentences, but rather coordinating sentence clauses (e.g., “It suddenly
started raining super hard – we didn’t have our umbrellas – we left them at the hotel –which was a 20-minute walk away…”) (Brown & Yule, 1983).
Written grammar uses typical subject/predicate forms more often (e.g., “The cat ispurring softly.”), but it is rare to find topic/comment forms (e.g., “The game last night– Unbelievable!”) (Willis, 2003). In spoken English speakers often state the topic andthen comment on it (e.g., “Remember that cheese I bought – I don’t like it.”), yet it is rare
to find this type of grammar in textbooks, even though it is often used when speaking(Willis, 2003). There are many differences grammatically between written and spoken
language, and both are valid for usage in language learning classrooms. In addition to
specific grammar differences, spoken grammar has interactive qualities that separate itfrom the written form.

2.1.1 Spoken Grammar is Interactive
There are several features of spoken language that occur less frequently or are rarely
found in written grammar. Speaking tends to be additive (Willis, 2003), as utterances incasual speech often add on to or build upon what someone previously said. When tellingsomeone a story, speakers often build the narrative as they go and give details as they
become important. This also helps the listener remember details about the story as it
continues (e.g., “So, my cousin, the one you met, remember? At that festival we went to?
Yeah, anyway, she’s getting married.”). Speakers also utilize orienting moves (McCarthy& Carter, 1995) where they establish common ground with the person they are talking to(e.g., “The one you met, remember?”).
Similarly, speakers tend to put the topic at the beginning of a sentence when
speaking (McCarthy & Carter, 1995) (e.g., “My mum, her friend, well, her friend’s
sister’s daughter, got into Harvard”). In written form this may look unorganized andcould possibly be difficult to comprehend, as if it is a list of people and not showing therelationship between each. Spoken grammar uses less complex noun phrases (Willis,
2003: 193). Writers are more likely to write something like, “My mother has a friend
whose sister’s daughter got into Harvard”.
Spoken grammar often sounds repetitive (Willis, 2003), which makes it easierfor the listener to grasp. Speakers often refine what they want to say as they continue
speaking (Brown & Yule, 1983). Written grammar is often well thought-out and edited

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to be succinct. If someone were to talk to a friend in a casual setting in an overly formal,
concise way, the friend may have trouble comprehending everything being said (Brown& Yule, 1983), and the formal speaker may risk coming across as cold or unfriendly.
Rather, spoken language tends to be as precise as needed depending on the situation(Willis, 2003).
Reported speech occurs more frequently in spoken grammar (McCarthy & Carter,
1995). Reporting verbs such as “tell” or “say” are more often found in spoken English,
being used in simple past tense, but are often found in past continuous as well (e.g., “Shewas saying we should drive instead of taking the train”). McCarthy and Carter (1995) say
this usage of “say” or “tell” using past continuous is not often found in grammar books,
even though it is frequently used when speaking.
Spoken dialogue is often vague (Willis, 2003) and indirect, and requires interpretationon the part of the listener. Willis says the word “vague” is also misleading as speakers
say what is necessary to be understood depending on the situation. Speakers may use
words or phrases like “stuff”, “kind of”, or “thing” when they know what they wantto say but cannot think of the word (Willis, 2003). The vocabulary of a language may
have different connotations that cannot always be described in a dictionary (Littlemore,2009). Conversations are often formulaic and routine (e.g., A: “Thank you so much!”
B: “Anytime!”). There are clearly many differences in spoken and written grammarthat should be addressed in communicative language teaching (CLT) classrooms. Yet,
many dialogues found in CLT textbooks utilize formal written grammar forms. The next
section will focus on the differences between written and spoken grammar in written
dialogues as well as dialogues used in textbooks.

3 Spoken Dialogue Versus Written Dialogue
There are four types of spoken dialogue: casual conversation, narratives, service
encounters, and “language-in-action” which is language used to perform tasks (McCarthy
and Carter, 1995: 144). Speeches and lectures fall somewhere between spoken and written
grammar (Willis, 2003), as they may be scripted or practiced for a formal purpose. To
illustrate the “messiness” of spoken grammar, Table 1 contains a transcribed excerpt
from a live stream recording of two American YouTubers (Safiya & Tyler, 2021) trying touse a popular cooking toy. This falls under a mix of casual conversation and “language-

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Table 1: Excerpt of spoken dialogue compared to an interpretation using “written grammar”
Transcription (Original Conversation)

Interpretation (Written Grammar)

T:

What now, what about the chee- what
about the frosting Safiya?

T:What should we do now? What should
we do about the cheese? Sorry, I meant
the frosting. Shall we start making thefrosting, Safiya?

S:

I know. We can make the frosting for the –S:

Yes, we should. We can make frosting for
one of the cakes, but I am not sure which one.

P:

And spread it on – that one?

P:

You can make the frosting and then spread
it on the layer of the cake that you havefinished baking.

1

2

S/T: Yeah!

S/T: Good idea!

T:

Look at us.

T:

We are doing a good job.

S:

Um, we are running low on containers.

S:

We are running low on containers.

T:Um, no, we have one, no, two.

T:

We have one container. Oh, we have twocontainers.

S:

We have two [T: We have two] containers left.

S:

I see. We have two containers left.

S:

But do we have any spoons left?

S:

Do we have any spoons?

S:Oh, we have one here.

S:

Here is a spoon.

T:

We have a spoon.

T:

You found a spoon.

S:

A spoon.

S:

There is only one spoon.

T:

We can double up the spoons for the
frostings though.

T:

We can use the spoon to stir more than one
frosting.

S:

That’s true.

S:

That’s a good point.

T:

Yeah! Come on!

T:

Yes, I think that would be fine. Let us continue!

S:

Alright, so we have to make now…
vanilla frosting and pink frosting.

S:

Next, we must make vanilla and pink
frosting.

T:

OK.

T:

OK.

S:

Alright. This is pink frosting. Vanilla
frosting mix for Tyler.

S:

I will make the pink frosting. Please makethe vanilla frosting, Tyler.

T:OK, so is one of them, uh, so what, what
flavor is the pink frosting?

T:

OK. I think there are a few flavors.
What flavor is the pink frosting?

S:

So, I think, based off the picture, the pink
frosting goes in the middle and the white
frosting goes on top.

S:

I am not sure. Based on the picture on thebox, the pink frosting goes in the middleof the two layers of cake and the white
frosting is to be put on top of the cake.

T:

Cool.

T:

I understand.

S:

Yeah…

S:

I believe that is what we are supposed todo. I just finished stirring up the white
frosting. Have a look.

T:

Nice. Look at that.

T:

It looks great.

S:

Wow.

S:

I think so, too.

3

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in-action”. To the right of the transcription is an interpretation of the spoken version using“written grammar” rules, but I have left some repetition in for comparison purposes, aswell as divided this continuous conversation into three sections for clarity.
Because it is a transcription of two people talking (see Table 1), the reader does nothave the benefit of viewing the video and understanding what is going on based on thesituational context, so some of the actions must be explained in the written grammarinterpretation. This may be one reason why written dialogues in communicative textbooks
seem “clunky” and unnatural (see section 3.1), because they must be easily understoodcontextually, while also sounding natural.
There are a lot of conversational elements that are hard to duplicate in textbooks inthe conversation shown in Table 1. There are short interactions in the original version(e.g., “OK.”, “Alright.”). The speakers give themselves time to think by saying “uh” or“um”, but also by elongating a sound in a word, such as when “S” says, “We can makethe frosting for the –”. Here she holds the long /i/ sound for a second until the next person
can help her finish her thought. Another way they give themselves time to think is bysaying the same word twice or changing how they want to express what they want to
say mid-sentence (e.g., “So what, what flavor…?”). Giving language learners the same
patience and tools to show that they are thinking or listening during conversations could
be beneficial during activities where spoken output is the focus.
There is a lot of repetition, with the two people repeating or confirming what theother has said. “Now”, “OK”, or “alright” is often used to move on to the next topic orthought. In the Table 1 conversation you can see an instance of overlapping (e.g., “We
have two.”). Textbooks are generally unable to duplicate our natural speaking tendency
towards overlapping and turn-taking (McCarthy, 1991). It may be hard to duplicate thesekinds of conversational attributes in the classroom without the assistance of videos andother kinds of realia to demonstrate authentic interactions.

3.1. Spoken Dialogue in Communicative Textbooks
The written grammar interpretation in Table 1 is reminiscent of conversations inmany communicative textbooks. Written and spoken dialogues in textbooks often aim toelicit and practice a specific grammar point, but they can feel stilted and unnatural. Table
2 has an excerpt from a textbook called Smart Choice 2 (2016) used in some high schools
in Japan. In the most recent edition of this textbook series (2020), this dialogue has been

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No. 49changed slightly, but this was a memorable dialogue to exemplify the points made inthis paper. The aim of the lesson where this dialogue was featured was learning movie
and music genre vocabulary, and describing movies and music by expressing likes anddislikes.
Table 2: Example textbook dialogue from Smart Choice 2 (2016)
Anita:

What’s that noise?

Kurt:

I’m watching a horror movie.

Anita:

Oh, I can’t stand those movies!

Kurt:

Why? They’re fun. And they’re really exciting!

Anita:

I disagree. I think they’re terrible.

Kurt:

So, what kinds of movies do you like?

Anita:

Well, I’m not really a movie fan. I prefer listening to music.

Kurt:

What kind of music?

Anita:

I love classical music. I think it’s very relaxing.

Kurt:

I don’t. I think it’s boring.

There are various reasons why this conversation sounds unnatural. This conversation
has an unnatural flow, describing horror movies with two similar adjectives (i.e., “fun”
and “really exciting”). It also has an odd opposing association between movies and music(e.g., “I’m not really a movie fan. I prefer listening to music.”). Most of the sentences arecomplete sentences, making it sound stiff and unfriendly. This dialogue can be a useful
tool to point out how forms are used but students may benefit from additional exposure
to real conversations and tasks where they can use the new vocabulary and forms.
Students may notice the unnaturalness of typical textbook dialogues, especially ifthey are returnees or have had chances to interact with speakers of the language they arelearning, or learners who enjoy music of other types of media that use the language being
studied. Students are more exposed than ever to content from other countries throughsocial networks and streaming services and they sometimes have questions about orwant to test out new words and phrases they have learned. Students are interested in real
spoken language, and as teachers we should take advantage of this interest. This means
we should rethink how we teach grammar, instead of relying on the written form.

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4 Teaching Spoken Grammar
There may not be enough data or resources to support teaching explicit spoken
grammar (McCarthy, 2017: video). One factor is that the way people speak varies widelyfrom place to place, and therefore it is impossible to record all the ways we speak andthe words we use. Written language is much easier to quantify and record (McCarthy &Carter, 1995), which may be a reason why written grammar forms are taught most often.
Trying to rectify the differences between the way we speak and the way we write in a
way that does not confuse students may not be straightforward.
One issue with teaching written grammar in lessons with a communicative aim
is highlighting forms that are more often found in written grammar as if they are nodifferent from the spoken variant. In a study by Fuyuno (2013), spoken data was analyzed
and compared to grammar found in secondary English textbooks in Japan, specifically
prepositions, to-infinitives, that clauses, and full-stops (e.g., “I was so surprised, and thenI…). Her results showed that even though English education in Japan aims to be morecommunicative (MEXT, 2013), many textbooks still lean more towards written grammar
forms. Teaching only the written form, which tends to be more formal and “complete”,
may discourage learners, because they may feel they have to speak with long, complete
sentences, when this is not necessarily how fluent speakers speak, nor is it normal
to expect perfect complete sentences from beginners. Exposure to how people speak
naturally is beneficial for this reason.
The way people interact often depends on their culture and language, and this willaffect instruction. For example, teachers teaching in mostly monolingual settings should
be aware of differences between the first and second language, from typical usage to
how people interact in their first language. For example, native Japanese speakers tend topause longer than English speakers (McCarthy, 1991). “Native” speakers of any language
tend to speak less “perfectly” (Brown and Yule, 1983). When fluent speakers speak
casually, there is often less structure, and they sometimes make mistakes while speaking
as they stumble over words trying to think of what to say. Teaching only written grammar
and teaching students to speak like they write ignores the way people communicate inreal life, as if the way people speak is somehow “wrong” (McCarthy & Carter, 1995: 142).
Language is not neutral, and the way we see the world will affect the way wedescribe things (Littlemore, 2009). A syllabus that gives students chances to make

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No. 49meaning of what they are learning would be beneficial, and teachers should be aware of
the process involved in learning new forms. Odlin (1994) cites Coppetiers (1987) whensuggesting that learners who can use another language successfully require ample time
to master difficult points. He also suggests that students who study language from an
instructor can “minimalize fossilization” compared to learners who learn on their own
without instruction. Therefore, proper instruction is still one of the best ways to improve
language skills, including speaking.
Didactic or applied grammar (spoken), as opposed to linguistic (written) grammar,
would be beneficial in communicative classrooms. There have been many studies about
which “grammar” should be taught (Römer, 2005). Approaches to teaching grammar
should be based on the frequency certain forms are found within a corpus of the language
to help with the selection of language items (Römer, 2005). This selection could help
determine the refinement of current teaching methods and approaches and how spoken
grammar should be taught to students.

4.1. Implementing CLT Instruction
Sakui (2004) conducted a study interviewing Japanese teachers of English about
the difficulties of implementing communicative language lessons as recommended by
the Ministry of Education. The result of her study concluded that more training isneeded for teachers, as putting communicative language teaching into practice presents
some challenges. She found that English classrooms still mostly focus on form, andcommunicative activities are only a small portion of the lessons for most of the teachers
she interviewed. In theory, communicative language teaching has a lot of merit, but inpractice, it can be hard for teachers to manage their classes or change their teaching style.
Teachers also must deal with the pressure of exams, as ultimately the goal of most juniorhigh and high schools is to pass entrance exams, where the need for more “natural”
sounding spoken English is not as important (Guest, 2000). Even spoken componentsof these tests, such as EIKEN (a widely used English testing program in Japan), use andexpect formal written grammar usage (based on personal experience).
Willis (2003) proposed that people learn in stages: recognition, system building,
exploration, and rehearsal. Students need to recognize what needs to be learnt, and withthe help of teachers, build a system to understand new concepts and assimilate them withprior knowledge (Willis, 2003). To build systems, teachers should combine focusing on

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form, focusing on meaning, and providing opportunities to use the language (Brown &Nation, 1997). Activities that allow students to explore making meaning on their own
and with others will result in students remembering what they have learned more easily(Willis, 2007). We can recreate “spontaneous” interactions in the classroom by creating
activities centered around topics of discussion that are interesting and creating tasks thatallow for this spontaneity.

4.2. How Much Spoken Grammar Instruction Is Needed?
The extent to which it is appropriate to teach spoken grammar will depend on theobjectives of the course. An understanding of how spoken and written grammar looks
and sounds is important, especially when the goal is communicative (McCarthy, 1991).
Communicative courses which aim to improve speaking would benefit from highlighting
and presenting authentic examples of spoken grammar. It would also depend on the level,
age, and motivation of the students. Input to younger learners or beginners should be
simpler so as not to overwhelm them (Willis, 2007), but teachers can find content thatsuits their ages and abilities.
When we teach spoken language, we should consider the following factors: ourstudents’ abilities, the familiarity of the activities we give, the ease and interest of the
topics we discuss, and how to give examples of spoken grammar (McCarthy, 2017).
Using approaches like task-based teaching to produce spoken language naturally may
be effective as learners develop their own way of making themselves understood bycompleting tasks while using what they are intended to be learning. Task-based learning
is one way to rectify teaching written and spoken grammar.
McCarthy and Carter (1995: 217) present an “Illustration-Interaction-Induction”
process to examine spoken language. “Illustration” is where students can examine
real spoken data. “Interaction” is where students are given chances to negotiate themeaning of the data through tasks, class discussions, and observations. “Induction” iswhere students are given chances to use and internalize what they have learned. Taskbased learning (TBL) allows students to use language they have already learned as they
progress through the task cycles. Giving them authentic examples of spoken language
and chances to use what they are learning is the most effective way for learners to retain
what they are learning.

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No. 494.3. Appropriate Circumstances for the Teaching of Spoken Grammar
The circumstances in which it is appropriate to teach spoken grammar will dependon the aims of the students and their levels. Learners are often “penalized” for using
grammar that could be considered normal spoken grammar (Ranta, 2009). Japaneselearners of English often respond in complete sentences based on written grammar rules(Guest, 1998). If spoken grammar is not taught, students risk coming across as possibly
rude or standoffish. For example, if they wanted to speak to someone, they may say, “I
want to talk to you.” Even though this is easy to understand, this could come across as
demanding or rude to a fluent speaker (Guest, 1998).
Overall, grammar instruction is likely more effective in classrooms where learners
are exposed to authentic samples of language, and where students are not assumed tohave learned a form just because it has been drilled. Spoken language is not an imitationof written language, therefore grammar patterns from both should be acknowledged(McCarthy, 1998). Students need opportunities to use language they have alreadyacquired and develop their own understanding, and over time encounter the target
language repeatedly (Nunan, 2001). This is an ideal learning environment to acquire
spoken language forms.

5 Conclusion
Understanding the differences between spoken and written grammar will greatly
influence how we view the language we are teaching and how we teach it. Whether
spoken grammar should be taught will depend on the teacher and on the level and interestof students. It would benefit communicative teaching environment to introduce realia andreal situations of communication and get students to notice differences and point out said
differences. It would also benefit students and teachers to recognize that when we speak,
it will never sound as “tidy” as when we write, and that the written form and spoken formof any language will have marked differences. We should avoid discouraging students
by allowing them to speak in short sentences or utterances, as this is how we naturally
speak. We should also encourage them to speak even if they make mistakes, as this ispart of how we process language and begin to understand it more deeply. We can makecorrections in a positive manner.
Textbooks have limits and may not always contain dialogues that represent natural

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spoken grammar forms, as the aim may be to emphasize a grammar point or show an
example of the grammar in use. If the goal of the lesson or course is improving speaking
and listening ability, it may be necessary for instructors to supplement videos, songs, orother authentic language sources. Giving learners the opportunity to communicate using
what they know without the expectation that they speak using scripted written grammar
forms can help them develop communicative confidence.
As teachers, we cannot control what students learn from our lessons, but we cancreate an environment where they are exposed to real language use and can learn more
efficiently than they would on their own. We can use effective teaching methods andapproaches to help students notice and understand new concepts. If the aim of a syllabus
is to improve speaking, then it is vital to expose students to the way speakers of thelanguage speak and give them ample opportunities to use the language to complete
speaking tasks.
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