論 文

An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment:
Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

Fuyuko Kato

要旨

英語の発音指導においては個別単語の音素やストレス（強勢）に課題の焦点を置く場合が多く，発音が，ストレスの位置も含め，辞書やテキスト通りに規則的にできるかどうかが問題にされる。しかし，辞書等に掲載されている音素やストレスはあくまでプロトタイプであり固定されており，ストレスそのものは意味を伝達しない。ストレスのある音節とない音節が交互に現れ英語のリズムが完成するストレスタイムリズム理論が採用され，ストレスのある音節が情報を運ぶと言われるが，指導において形式に話者の解釈は求められない。本小論では，ディスコースイ
ントネーションの考え方をもとに，形式と意味を関連づけ，イントネー
ションのメッセージ伝達機能の習得／指導に目標を設定する。ストレスとプロミネンス（際立つもの）を分け，同じ記号表現でも話者によって異なる意味を持つとき，プロミネンスが相手話者に意味の違いを伝える役割を担う。英語の言語構造や文法規則の制約は受けるが，その制約は盤石な制約ではなく，イントネーションは主観的でもあり，イントネー
ションによって話者間の共有と差異を示すことができる。前半では，ディスコースフレームワークの中でイントネーションを捉える場合の各要素の説明をストレスタイムリズム理論との比較の中で紹介し，後半においては，テキストブックにおけるイントネーションの扱いをディスコース
イントネーションとの比較で検証する。

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No. 15キーワード：explicit teaching（明示的指導），focus on form along with meaning（意味と形式との関連），awareness raising（意識化），learner-centered approach（学
習者主体のアプローチ），discourse-based framework（ディスコースフレー

ムワーク）

Introduction
This paper reviews a more traditional treatment of intonation in my adult beginnerlevel-class textbooks and suggests an alternative approach to intonation by raisingawareness of its message-conveying function and by focusing on the speakers’ selectionof intonation in context. In the ﬁrst half, the traditional approach to prosodic features
is referred, followed by the outline of the discourse intonation theory including thedescription of the key elements. The stress-timed rhythm theory is brieﬂy introduced
for later reference when reviewing the intonation in the textbooks, which is discussed
in the second half of the paper. The discourse-based framework is communicativeoriented, however, this paper does not encourage teachers to totally discard the explicit
way of teaching or the use of textbooks and tapes that are often regarded as nonnaturalistic. By utilizing the dialogues and recordings, an attempt is made to help
adult beginner-level learners deliberately draw their attention to the meaning andfunction of intonation and help them become aware of its communicative value.

Traditional Explicit Instruction by Presenting Rules
Unlike young learners or children who are generally considered capable of implicitly
perceiving the pronunciation and intonation of a foreign language, adult or maturelearners seem to need more or less explicit learning and practice. Learning experienceof information being given in previous classroom experience and their intellectual
maturity make them expect explicit explanations or instruction of the target language
system (Sharwood Smith 1981). This explanation seems plausible and the phenomenon
is a common reality for ELT practitioners in adult learners’ class.
What makes diﬀerence between explicit and implicit learning is the presence ofawareness: learning with or without awareness (DeKeyser 2005). Explicit instruction is― 38 ―An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment:
Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

usually adopted in grammar teaching context, and the grammar-translation method isthe embodiment of explicit instruction, in which learners learn the rules of grammar
and memorize vocabulary. They try labeling the elements as S, V, C, O, and arranging
them in a grammatically and structurally correct manner. The textbook presents a listof vocabulary and its translation. The method is still most widely used (Adamson 2005),
and a remark in the past that teachers as well as many learners view explicit explanations
as short-cuts (Sharwood Smith 1981) has even now currency. However, the exclusive
study of the form and structure of words and sentences will not complete the teaching
and learning of a language. In reality, a sentence cannot be fully analyzed without
closely looking at the context. Grammatical form and its function do not always
correspond, but work in harmony (McCarthy 1991).
The similar approach has been taken in teaching and learning the English soundsystem, as the rules are presented and correct pronunciation as suggested in a dictionary
is required. The English language has been treated to have stress-timed rhythm (Brown
1994; McDonough and Shaw 1993), which implies that stressed syllables tend to occur
at relatively regular intervals, falling on the main information-carrying items; weakforms often have reduced vowel sounds (McDonough and Shaw 1993). However, there
is no ﬁrm evidence (McCarthy 1991; Roach 1991). As for intonation, pitch movement
has also been traditionally treated as being ﬁxed in relation to the form of a sentence:
the wh- question has a falling tone, while the yes-no question has a rising tone. As
apparent in real interaction, however, the wh- question can have a rising tone, and afalling tone can be used for the yes-no question form.

Awareness on Form along with Meaning and Discourse Intonation Approach
What is necessary for passing and receiving the speaker’s message in interaction? It isneedless to mention of the ability to distinguish sound as a meaningful unit of aparticular language; words should be pronounced appropriately so that listeners will
be able to distinguish them as words of a particular language. Even though words are
distinguishable, there are cases that a message is not understandable. In order tounderstand a message, intention, or purpose of the speaker, not only the form but also
context that allows the listener to create imagination is necessary (Tsukimoto and Uehara2003). Also from the pedagogical point of view, an approach to pragmatics instruction― 39 ―

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No. 15is to raise learners’ awareness of a particular form, what is more important, in ameaningful way. The relation between form and function of prosodic features such as
stress and intonation should be treated in context, as a sentence in written text cannot
be fully analyzed without referring to the physical, social, and psychological world inwhich it takes place. The totality of all the above elements interacting is referred as
discourse (Cook 1989). In conversation, which is an excellent example of the interactive
and interpersonal nature of communication in spoken discourse (Brown 1994), thetime dimension should be taken into account for analysis, since participants jointly
contribute to the context of interaction. Discourse intonation (DI) theory supposes
intonation to play a crucial part in the pursuit of communicative purpose with regard
to communicative value (Brazil 1992). On-going real-time selection of intonation by
the speaker is given focus, by taking into consideration the common ground between
the speaker and the listener. The context of interaction includes the shared knowledge
between the speaker and the listener, not only limited to the shared awareness of what
has been said before between the participants or personal closed relationship at a
speciﬁc time and place between the participants, but also extended to a wider context
of the mutual understanding of their society.
The attempt in my class is to apply the discourse intonation concept-how
prosodic features are related to one another in discourse meaning-to beginner-levelclass, by referring to PALE (Pronunciation for Advanced Learners of English, 1994a,
1994b). The course is designed by Brazil for learners in written-text advanced level,takes an inductive approach and aims at raising awareness of how the intonation andpronunciation systems really work in communication; thereby, learners can haveinsight into how speech conveys messages. In my class, the intonation system is
explicitly provided, focusing on the meaningful selection of its form. For a rule ofmoderate level or a little above in diﬃculty, the role of explicit instruction will beeﬀective and more important (DeKeyser 2005). The rule diﬃculty is an individual andsubjective issue, though. It is also supposed that the availability of imagination helps
them link form and function.
The key elements of the design are ‘tone unit’, ‘prominent syllables’, ‘tone’, and‘key/termination’. The prominence ﬁxes the domain of the three variables of key,termination, and tone, all of which contribute to the communicative value of the tone
unit (Brazil 1997). Their description follows in the next section.
― 40 ―An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment:
Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

Tone Unit and Prominent Syllables
The basic meaningful block is deﬁned as ‘tone unit’: speech is a sequence of tone units,
not a sequence of words. Each tone unit has one or two ‘prominent syllables’. A deﬁnite
line should be drawn between the concept of ‘prominence’ and that of ‘stress’. Stressof a word is a citation form in a dictionary; therefore, it is ﬁxed. It does not havesigniﬁcance on its own. The allocation of prominence is variable and meaningful.
When words are combined to produce a meaningful phrase or clause, some syllables
become prominent to show signiﬁcance to the listener in interaction. There are casesthat the basic agreement according to the inherent rules of the English language systemdoes not allow prominence as in the example ‘He wanted to ﬁnd it’, in which ‘to’ willusually never be highlighted; however, on which syllable or word prominence is given
should be decided by the speaker according to the DI theory. In compound nouns, forexample, the most familiar type is the combination of two nouns, and the stress isnormally placed on the ﬁrst word. However, both patterns of either stress on ﬁrst or
second word are found (Roach 1991). In the DI approach, it is the speaker who makes
the meaningful choices of words to be contained in one tone unit to show special
signiﬁcance in a particular intonation in preference to another, keeping the listener inmind. ‘Speakers are constantly making assumptions about what will and what will not
amount to a selection in the here-and-now state of communicative understanding
they share with the hearer(s)’ (Brazil 1995: 57). If a particular word is fairly predictableby the listener, the speaker does not assign prominence to it. The following cases,
therefore, are possible: ‘bad-TEMpered’, ‘a BAD-tempered TEACHer’, ‘TEACHers
who are bad-TEMpered’, or ‘we HAVE a bad-tempered TEACHer ’ (prominent
syllables are indicated in upper-case letters. The last prominent syllable in a tone unit
is underlined as well).
Tone‘Tone’ is also the speaker’s selection based on whether the utterance to be made would
be common ground or news to the listener. While prominence is treated as an attributeof a word, tone attributes to the whole of a tone unit: it starts at the last prominent
syllable in a tone unit and continues to the end. Table 1 compares the meaning of tone
choices and their description. A referring tone is selected when there is an assumption― 41 ―

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No. 15that the meaning can be taken for granted by the listener, or in questions to make sure
about some information. A proclaiming tone is selected when the information is
imagined to be new, or an inquiry is made to the listener. These two tones have two
versions respectively. What makes the two versions meaningfully distinctive is the rolerelationships in the context of interaction. The dominant speaker may use a rising tone
and a rise-fall tone to show control over interaction. In informal ‘social’ conversations,however, the speaker sometimes prefers a fall-rise tone to reduce friction and to befriendly to the listener. In making inquiries beginning with ‘perhaps’ or ‘I wonder’, afalling tone is preferred to avoid an unpleasant atmosphere, not to sound as though
the speaker has already made an assumption about the reply (Brazil 1994a, 1994b).
Finally, selecting a level tone implies that the speaker is carefully selecting words andtaking time to put the language together, or is mentally preparing for the next step.
Therefore, a level tone tends to be followed by a pause.
Orientation
Direct(towards thelistener)

Meaning

Description
PALE (1994a, 1994b) DI code (1997)➚ (rising)
Referring(common ground) ➘➚ (fall-rise)
Proclaiming(news)

Oblique (towards
Opt out
the language)r+

OthersDominantr➘ (falling)p➚➘ (rise-fall)p+➙ (level)o

Dominant

Table 1. Five Tones and Their Meanings

Key and Termination
The pitch-level system also contributes to the description of intonation and projects
the relevant utterances made by participants. The pitch level can be realized by threekeys of ‘high’, ‘mid’, and ‘low’, which are indicated with an upward or downward
arrow; key height is relative, though. The description diﬀers depending on where thekey movement occurs. While the choice of pitch level on the ﬁrst prominent syllable
is called a choice of ‘key’, the choice of pitch level on the last syllable is called a choiceof ‘termination’. The same as tone selection, key selection attributes to a tone unit as awhole. There is distinction in meaning associated with them. While the key refers back― 42 ―An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment:
Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

to the preceding utterance, the termination usually refers forward to the utterance
assumed to come next in the discourse. The key selection of either ‘high’, ‘mid’, and‘low’ projects ‘contrasting, particularizing, or adjudicating’, ‘asserting or concurring’,and ‘equating’ implications of the speaker respectively under the context ofinteraction.
The second half of the paper discusses the treatment of intonation in the textbooks
used in my beginner-level and compares it with PALE’s accounts of intonational
meaning. Follow is a case study of applying PALE’s concept by utilizing some of the
textbook’s dialogues and tape recordings. While using textbooks is often criticizedfrom the perspective of authenticity, there is, on the other hand, a claim that the DI
theory does provide an answer to the problems caused by the practice of recorded
utterances (Cauldwell and Allan 1997).

Review of Textbooks Regarding Treatment of Intonation
The textbooks examined are East West Basics (Graves and Rice 1994) and New Person to
Person Student Book 1 and New Person to Person Student Book 2 (both Richards, Bycina,
and Aldcorn 1995) used in my beginner-level classes.
Textbooks
East West Basics

Treatment of Intonation
Pronunciation focus activity is provided. Students are suggested they
repeat after the tape.
Yes-no questions and wh- questions have rising and falling tones
respectively, and they are ﬁxed.
Word stress is ﬁxed. Handclapping is suggested on the stressedsyllable.
Sentences have the same rhythm. Rhythm has regular beats.
Unstressed syllables in multi-syllable words usually have reduced
sound.
Rise-fall and rising tones are introduced in questions, however,
without explanation.
Reply to a question (whichever, yes-no or wh- questions) is divided
into units, accompanied by a comma. They always have a fallingtone.
Speaking with the tape is suggested.

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No. 15

New Person to Person Pronunciation focus activity is provided.
Student Book 1
In compound nouns, the ﬁrst noun has heavier stress and a higher
pitch.
In normal speech, ‘to’, ‘and’, ‘are’, and ‘do’ are unstressed. The vowel
has reduced sound.
Words that carry stress usually have more important meaning thanthe other words in a sentence.
Wh- questions have a falling tone.
Stressed words in a sentence usually compose a regular beat.
Words that require attention are in italics.
New Person to Person Pronunciation focus activity is provided.
Student Book 2
Word stress is ﬁxed.
Words that carry stress usually have important meaning.
Listening practice to stressed and unstressed words in sentences andphrases is suggested.
‘can’ is usually unstressed. The vowel has reduced sound.
Words that require attention are in italics.

Table 2. Treatment of Pronunciation and Intonation

Their treatment, as it is obvious in Table 2, is rather a PPP (presentation, practice, andproduction) one. The textbooks do elicit learners’ attention to particular features ofintonation, however, none of them are given relative values according to context but
important meaning on stressed words. Mapping the form to meaning and function is
not provided either. They demonstrate the word stress (accented syllable) to be ﬁxed
and the English language speech has rhythm with a regular beat on stressed words.
Compound nouns in New Person to Person Student Book 1 have stress on the ﬁrst noun,
which is ﬁxed. The term ‘stress’ is used interchangeably between ‘an accented syllable’and ‘a prominent syllable’. The tone of wh- questions is given a conventional treatment,that is, the wh- question form has a falling tone. In one example with a question
starting with ‘which’, it is obvious from the context that the speaker’s intention is
conﬁrmation; the speaker already has some expectations about the reply. Under aparticular situation, the tone to be selected could be a referring one. Regarding theoutput side, repetition after the tape and handclapping to acquire the rhythm aresuggested.

― 44 ―An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment:
Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

Analysis in Discourse-based Framework and Suggestion of Applying PALE
Concept
The following extract is from the recording attached to the textbook. With an encoding,the selection of prominence, tone, and key is analytical described to draw learners’
attention to the meaning of intonation in communicative contexts (see Table 1 for themeaning of the codes). The pronunciation focus activity provided in the textbook would
give learners the impression that intonation is ﬁxed and makes a regular rhythmicalsound (see Table 2). However, some dialogue on the tape can show the diﬀerence of
intonation related to the meaning in context. The tape usually has the rather exaggerated
and slow recording, which may be suitable for deliberately drawing attention to
discourse intonation for beginner-level students (Cauldwell and Allan 1997).
East West Basics
TUESDAY(1) G: // ➘➚ THAT was FUN! //(2) B: // ➘➚ yes, it WAS.// // ➘➚ you’re very GOOD.//// ➘ how OFten do you PLAY ?//(3) G: // ➘ oh, about TWICE a WEEK.// // ➘ how about YOU?//(4) B: // ➘➚ about TWICE // ➚ a  YEAR!//The previous dialogue tells that the girl and the boy are talking about the tennis gamethey just played (refer to Appendix). In spite of the stress-timed rhythm theory that the
textbook presumably supports, the recording is rather diﬀerent (this itself gives
confusion). Replies (3) and (4) show easy examples of ‘selective’ prominence: thenumber of times and the time duration are selected among various choices. The
diﬀerence is the boy’s ‘high’ key selection on the prominent syllable. He is contrasting
what it is actually the case with what the girl might expect, by using the same word
pattern as the girl, but he emphasizes the contrast with the key. He also selects areferring tone. Under this situation, the tone selection implies about the game and theprevious utterances; the orientation directs to the girl’s previous comment. The
textbook clearly deﬁnes that replies to questions always have a falling tone, though.
Another example of selective prominence is for the subject of a sentence. There― 45 ―

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No. 15has been noticed in my experience with beginner-level learners that quite a few tend
to place stress on the subject of a sentence, such as ‘I’, ‘He’, or ‘She’ without any
purpose or reason. This may be by reason of their high concern of the correct
pronunciation of every word rather than the meaning of intonation. In real interaction,
however, the subject is not usually given prominence. It is because the subject is fairly
predictable and needless to be highlighted in comparison with other words, as you seein (2). On the contrary, as apparent in (1), the subject is purposefully highlighted forthe listener. The prominence projects the speaker’s decision on which word, or precisely
which accented syllable should be made signiﬁcant for the listener. Further, selectinga referring tone will not only tell the listener which object is denoted by the subject‘that’ but also conﬁrm the listener in sharing the feeling of having had ‘fun’.
The DI theory can explain the selection of a proclaiming tone for the interrogative
sentences in (2) and (3) that the speaker is asking for information that the listenerknows but the speaker does not have. If a referring tone was selected as ‘➘➚ how
OFten do you PLAY?’, the same utterance should be taken as having a checking
function. The textbook gives a notion that the interrogative-question form always has
a ﬁxed intonation of a falling tone; however, it is not the form that decides the tone
selection, but the speaker’ choice in communicative contexts.
The traditional approach focuses on distinguishing the form. The objective isobtaining the knowledge of the rules by mechanically describing and producing eachelement correctly. In class, however, the objective in class should be learning form formeaning, as a clause without meaning is no more than a formation of linguistic
symbols. The notion of stress does not coincide with that of prominence in the
discourse approach. Stress itself is a physically emphasized sound and is not provided
with meaning or interpretation; on the other hand, prominence in a clause provides a
distinctive quality compared to other sounds and shows the speaker’s subjective
viewpoint, which will be conveyed to the listener. Stress-timed rhythm theory has
nothing to do with discourse. A clause is no more than a formation of sounds with
ﬁxed, regular beats. Meaningful distinction in comparison with other sounds is notallowed under the theory. Since form and function work in harmony and form should
be selected meaningfully, the learning focus should be also given to the observation ofcontext that helps create imagination. The discourse approach is supposedly more
appropriate than the traditional approach in that perspective.
― 46 ―An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment:
Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

Most beginner-level students are busy with acquiring basic linguistic features.
Their ﬁrst concern is form rather than meaning; producing a sentence with correct
grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. They are more dependent on the written
text than listening to a story. When they refer to a textbook while listening, they
appear to be trying to match every word they hear to the word in the textbook. In alistening-focus activity, many students often refer to the transcript after listening toﬁnd out the words that they couldn’t catch. In either situation, most of their questions
are related to the correctness of pronunciation, the position of accented syllables, andconnected sound. Intonation is beneath their notice. It is therefore not surprising that
their awareness of its communicative value is very low. The evidence can also bedemonstrated on the output side when they read an article or do pair-work on a
dialogue: intonation is not distinctive, pauses are frequently inserted at meaninglessplaces, the subject of a sentence is usually highlighted. They apparently fail to associate
the form with its function or they lack understanding of the meaning of the complete
text and fail to ﬁt together bits of text coherently. The eﬀect of the traditional approachof focus-on-form-in-isolation is apparent. However, there is a valuable comment of a
student that she wants to have the meaning clear before practicing reading. Focus-onform-in-isolation can be eﬀective in teaching very young beginner-level learners
because of its simplicity and their cognitive development. In case of adult learners,
however, because of the availability of their imagination and analytical abilities, raisingawareness of form should be associated with meaning.

Conclusion
It is not, of course, claimed here that the teaching with conventional rhythm patternis of no use whatsoever. Rather, an interpretation of intonation in a discourse-based
framework is suggested for an alternative pronunciation focus activity: “in the
beginning is not the language form in isolation, but rather meaning.” On which
syllable stress is put in comparison with others or to show diﬀerence in communicativevalue should be voluntarily selected by the speaker. However, the textbooks used withmy students treat intonation as a discrete item in the language system. The students’awareness of the communicative value of intonation is low. Although the textbooks’
treatment of intonation is not that of the discourse approach, some recorded dialogues― 47 ―

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No. 15on the tape can be utilized to raise students’ awareness of how intonation works incommunication, regarding the context including the relationship between the speaker
and the listener. The DI theory proposed by Brazil (1994a, 1994b) considers thatsystematic treatment of intonation will be useful to those who have already achieved
an advanced level of proﬁciency in the written language, and PALE is designed withsuch students in mind. However, everyday speech interaction such as short verbal
responses usually doesn’t require advanced-level knowledge of grammar and vocabulary.
The discourse approach to intonation would encourage even beginner-level students
to see intonation from the point of view of how the speaker can convey their message
to the listener most meaningfully.
Note: The study contained in this paper was originally conducted in my beginner-levelclass at a language school. It is reedited for the submission for this bulletin.
Appendix
East West Basics (Graves and Rice 1994), Unit 6, Dialogue
SUNDAY
Julie: Wow! That was a great match. I really like tennis.
Chris: Me, too. I think tennis is exciting.
Julie: Do you play tennis?
Chris: Yes, but not very well. Do you play?
Julie: A little. How about a game on Tuesday afternoon?
Chris: Sure.
MONDAY
Andy: Were you at Sue’s party yesterday?
Julie: No. I was at a tennis match.
Andy: How was it?
Julie: It was lots of fun. Where were you yesterday?
Andy: At a rock concert.
Julie: Really? How was it?
Andy: Ugh! It was awful.

― 48 ―An Alternative Approach to Intonation Treatment:
Raising Awareness of Form in a Discourse-based Framework

TUESDAY
Julie: That was fun!
Chris: Yes, it was. You’re very good. How often do you play?
Julie: Oh, about twice a week. How about you?
Chris: About twice a year!

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