FNCA

Forum for Nuclear Cooperation in Asia

FNCA Consolidated Reporton NORM and TENORM

March 2024

Radiation Safety andRadioactive Waste
Management Group,
Forum for Nuclear
Cooperation in Asia (FNCA)

Reproducing all or any part of the contents is prohibited without the author's permission.

Contents
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................... i
Framework of Regional Cooperation under FNCA ........................................................... iii
Part I General International Radiation Protection Concept for NORM .............................1
Part II Present status of NORM&TENORM in FNCA countries .......................................9
1 AUSTRALIA..............................................................................................................10
2 BANGLADESH .........................................................................................................27
3 CHINA ........................................................................................................................37
4 INDONESIA ..............................................................................................................44
5 JAPAN.........................................................................................................................54
6 KAZAKHSTAN .........................................................................................................97
7 MALAYSIA..............................................................................................................125
8 MONGOLIA ............................................................................................................144
9 THE PHILIPPINES .................................................................................................156
10 THAILAND..............................................................................................................166
11 VIETNAM ................................................................................................................178
RECENT ACTIVITIES .....................................................................................................193
CONTRIBUTORS .............................................................................................................194

PREFACE
Various radionuclides exist in nature, and materials containing them are called
naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM). Most natural radiation has been
excluded from regulation by the International Commission on Radiological Protection(ICRP) because it is impossible or difficult to control the source and exposure.
However, in 1990, ICRP Publ.60 Recommendation stated that even natural radiation
can be subject to radiation protection if exposure can be controlled. Among them, NORM
in which radioactivity or radiation levels have been artificially increased is called
TENORM (Technologically Enhanced NORM), and requires even higher monitoring.
According to ICRP, examples of exposure to artificially increased radiation include①cosmic radiation exposure from jet aircraft use, ②cosmic radiation exposure fromspaceflight, and ③radon exposure due to changes in housing structure and lifestyle, ④handling of materials containing significant amounts of natural radioactive materials(NORM) (phosphoric acid fertilizers, etc.) .
This project focused on NORM&TENORM, where radiation exposure is sometimes
a problem, and investigated and considered the current situation in each FNCA country.
In recent years, international standards regarding the regulation of naturally occurring
radioactive substances are being considered. Related information was also collected. This
report collects NORM&TENORM data and presents the discussed results based on task
group work in the Radioactive Waste Management (RWM) project within the frameworkof FNCA (Forum for Nuclear Cooperation in Asia).
This report has the following structure.
Preface
Framework of Regional Cooperation under FNCA
＜Part I General＞
1. International Radiation Protection Concept for NORM (ICRP, IAEA, etc.)＜Part II Present status of NORM&TENORM in FNCA countries＞(Australia, Bangladesh, ・・・)
2.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
2.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
2.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
2.4 Issues related to NORM&TENORMiSuch information exchange and discussion based on peer review through on-site factfinding observations between neighboring countries will support the strengthening ofefforts to formulate harmonious international agreements through the IAEA and otherorganizations.

March 1, 2024
Project Leader of JapanKOSAKO Toshiso(Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo)iiFramework of Regional Cooperation under FNCA
1. What is FNCA?
The 1st International Conference for Nuclear Cooperation in Asia (ICNCA) was heldby the Atomic Energy Commission in March 1990 to promote cooperation in the field of
nuclear energy with neighboring Asian countries more efficiently. Since then, the Atomic
Energy Commission of Japan has held many ICNCAs where the ministers in charge ofdevelopment and utilization of nuclear energy exchanged frank views on how to proceedwith regional cooperation, and has carried out practical cooperation on specified subjects
as well. At the 10th International Conference for Nuclear Cooperation in Asia held inMarch 1999, it was agreed to move to a new framework, "Forum for Nuclear Cooperationin Asia" (including Coordinator and Project Leader System) with a view and information
to shifting to more effective and organized cooperation activities. Under this framework,
view and information exchanges are made on the following fields: (1) Radiation
Utilization Development (Industrial Utilization/Environmental Utilization, andHealthcare Utilization), (2) Research Reactor Utilization Development, (3) Nuclear
Safety Strengthening, and (4) Nuclear Infrastructure Strengthening.
2. Participating Countries
Australia, Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, Japan, Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea,
Malaysia, Mongolia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam
3. Framework
The basic framework of cooperation consists of the following three (See the figure on
the next page). : Forum meeting
Discussion on cooperation measures and nuclear-energy policies.
Forum meeting is comprised of a ministerial level meeting and a senior official levelone.
 Coordinators meeting
Discussion on the introduction, revision and abolishment, adjustment, and evaluationof cooperation projects by an appointed coordinator from each country.
 Cooperation activities for each projectiii

4. FNCA Radiation Safety and Radioactive Waste Management ProjectThis project superseded Radioactive Waste Management Project and started in 2008
with the aims of sharing information and experiences in the area of Radiation Safety &Radioactive Waste Management (RS&RWM) processes and regulatory issues as well as
facilitating safety improvement and understanding of RS&RWM to public perception in
nuclear society.
In each member country, the use of radiation in industry, agriculture, medicaliv

treatment, and various other fields is rapidly increasing, and at the same time, several
countries are looking into introducing nuclear power plants. In consideration of suchtendency, member countries have been discussing how to promote the standardization(calibration) on personnel dosimeter, focusing on appropriate radiation exposure
management.
The accumulated results acquired through these activities over ten years were
published as a serried of FNCA Consolidated Report on RS&RWM. These reports areavailable on the FNCA Website.
[URL: https://www.fnca.mext.go.jp/english/rwm/e_projectreview.html]v

Part I General
International Radiation
Protection Concept for
NORM

1

1. International Radiation Protection Concept for NORM
International organizations have been worked on NORM&TENORM. Items in below areimportant actions for radiation protection from NORM&TENORM.
ICRP published Publication 142, ‘Radiological Protection from Naturally Occurring
Radioactive Material (NORM) in Industrial Processes1)’ in 2019. It was well summarized in
MAIN POINTS of this publication what this document describes, as below.












MAIN POINTS
Exposures resulting from industrial activities involving naturally occurring
radioactive material (NORM) are controllable, with protection achieved throughjustification of taking protective actions and optimisation of protection.
NORM presents no real prospect of a radiological emergency leading to tissue
reactions or immediate danger to life; actions to protect workers and the publicshould consider long-term external exposure, intake of radioactive material, andradon or thoron inhalation.
An integrated and graded approach is recommended for the protection of workers,
the public, and the environment, including characterisation of the exposure
situation, and optimisation of radiological protective actions to complement theprotection strategy already in place or planned to manage other hazards.
Reference levels (excluding exposure to radon and thoron) for the protection ofworkers should reflect the distribution of exposures and would, in the majority ofcases, be less than a few mSv annual effective dose. Very rarely would it be expectedthat a value exceeding 10 mSv annual effective dose would be necessary.
Reference levels for protection of the public should reflect the distribution of
exposures, and would generally be less than a few mSv annual effective dose.
Radon and thoron exposures should be managed using a graded approach, firstrelying on radon prevention and mitigation measures in the building, as
recommended in Publication 126 (ICRP, 2014b).
(Referred from ICRP Publication. 1421))

Paragraph 1.3 of ICRP Publ.1421) summarizes the contents of this publication itself.
1.3. Structure of this publication(20) Section 2 presents the characteristics of NORM exposure, an overview of theindustries and practices where NORM exposure can occur, and elements related to the
NORM cycle. Section 3 describes the Commission’s system of radiological protection2

applied to NORM exposure, including the type of exposure situation, the category of
exposure concerned, and the basic principles to be applied. Section 4 provides guidanceon implementation of the system of radiological protection using an integrated and gradedapproach for the various exposed workers, the public, and the environment. Conclusions
are provided in Section 5. Annex A provides more details about activities that may involve
NORM exposure.
(Referred from ICRP Publication. 1421))
IAEA held international conference ‘Management of naturally occurring radioactive
material (NORM) in industry’ in 2020. Proceedings2) was issued in 2022. Many actions madeby many countries ware introduces and discussed. It looks it contributed to make the specificsafety guide No. SSG-60 ‘Management of Residues containing naturally occurring radioactive
material from uranium production and other activities3)’ in 2021. It was based on the safety
report No.49 ‘Assessing the need for radiation protection measures in work involving minerals
and raw materials4)’ in 2006.
The structure of the IAEA specific safety guide No. SSG-603) is listed below.
Section 2; Overview of NORM activities and NORM residues
Section 3; Recommendations on the governmental, legal and regulatory framework forthe safe management of NORM residues
Section 4; Recommendations on the protection of people and the environment
Section 5; Recommendations on the regulatory control process
Section 6; Recommendations on strategies for NORM residue management
Section 7; Recommendations on the development of a safety case and supporting safetyassessment
Section 8; Full lifetime of facilities for the long term management of NORM residues
European Commission (EC) published documents for radiation protection from TENORM.
In 1999. EC established reference levels for regulatory control of work places effected withTENORM. In Radiation Protection 95 ‘Reference levels for workplaces processing materials
with enhanced levels of naturally occurring radionuclides5),’ classification of regulatory control
for radiation protection on NORM was introduced. (See. Fig.1) In Radiation Protection 107‘Establishment of reference levels for regulatory control of workplaces where materials areprocessed which contain enhanced levels of naturally-occurring radionuclides6),’ theclassification was sophisticated as five classes with detailed reference levels. (See Fig.2) It also
describes the methodology for evaluation of dose exposure from NORM to worker and publicusing normal and unlikely scenarios, exposure pathways and parameters.

3

Fig. 1. Radiation protection classes for NORM from Radiation protection No.95, EC5)

Fig.2. Radiation protection classes for NORM from Radiation protection No.107, EC6)EURATOM conducts RadoNorm7) project which aims at managing risk from radon and4

NORM exposures from 2020 to 2025. Scope of this project has 9 work packages, which
includes not only exposure, dosimetry, mitigation, management, but even social aspects,
education, and ethics. Current actions for radiation protection from NORM in EU region canbe observed.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) published information about
TENORM in USA in USEPA Radiation Protection information website8). They show the
introduction about TENORM and list the major TENORM industries and sources in USA.
Some actions for TENORM are also described.
World Nuclear Association (WNA) has a NORM information webpage9) in their website‘Information Library/ Safety and Security/ Radiation and Health.’ In this webpage, NORM
information around the world is summarized.
National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology (QST) of Japan
published NORM database website10). It contains NORM data related to Japanese trade. The
database also contains dose calculation tool for NORM in some typical situation.
The foundation of these actions are data from the science report of the Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation of United Nations (UNSCEAR). UNSCEAR consolidated
and periodically updated the world-wide data on NORM&TENORM from 1977. The reports
tagged with ‘NORM(TENORM)’ in UNSCEAR website are listed as below.












UNSCEAR 1972 Report Annex D: Miscellaneous sources of ionizing radiation11)
UNSCEAR 1977 Report Annex B: Natural sources of radiation12)
UNSCEAR 1977 Report Annex E: Doses from occupational exposure13)
UNSCEAR 1982 Report Annex C: Technologically modified exposures to naturalradiation14)
UNSCEAR 1982 Report Annex H: Occupational exposures15)
UNSCEAR 1988 Report Annex A: Exposures from natural sources of radiation16)
UNSCEAR 1993 Report Annex A: Exposures from natural sources of radiation17)
UNSCEAR 1993 Report Annex D: Occupational radiation exposures18)
UNSCEAR 2000 Report Annex B: Exposures from natural radiation sources19)
UNSCEAR 2000 Report Annex E: Occupational radiation exposures20)
UNSCEAR 2008 Report Annex B: Exposures of the public and workers fromvarious sources of radiation21)

References
1) ICRP, Radiological Protection from Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) in Industrial
Processes, ICRP Publication 142. Ann. ICRP 48(4) (2019)https://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP%20Publication%20142
2) IAEA, Management of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) in industry, Proceedings ofan International Conference Vienna, Austria, 18–30 October 2020, Proceeding Series, IAEA Vienna
5

(2022)https://www.iaea.org/publications/15085/management-of-naturally-occurring-radioactive-materialnorm-in-industry
3) IAEA, Management of Residues Containing Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material from
Uranium Production and Other Activities, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSG-60, Specific
Safety Guides, IAEA Vienna (2021)
https://www.iaea.org/publications/13515/management-of-residues-containing-naturally-occurringradioactive-material-from-uranium-production-and-other-activities
4) IAEA, Assessing the need for radiation protection measures in work involving minerals and raw
materials, Safety Reports Series No. 49, IAEA Vienna (2006)
https://www.iaea.org/publications/7520/assessing-the-need-for-radiation-protection-measures-inwork-involving-minerals-and-raw-materials5) EC, Reference levels for workplaces processing materials with enhanced levels of naturally occurring
radionuclides, Radiation Protection 95, EC Luxembourg (1999)
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/3b1d55f5-945c-49e3-bf2d6bcbe405b3cd/language-en/format-PDF/source-search
6) EC, Establishment of Reference Levels for Regulatory Control of Workplaces where Materials are
Processed which Contain Enhanced Levels of Naturally Occurring Radionuclides, Radiation
Protection 107, EC Luxembourg (1999)
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/bcc40eea-c4b2-4cbe-97e9-585f641bf24f
7) RadoNorm Website, https://www.radonorm.eu/
8) USEPA, TENORM Website,（Last updated on July 2022）

https://www.epa.gov/radiation/technologically-enhanced-naturally-occurring-radioactive-materialstenorm
9) WNA, Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM), (Updated April 2020)
https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/radiation-and-health/naturallyoccurring-radioactive-materials-norm.aspx10) QST, NORM Database (Last updated on Nov. 2015)
https://www.nirs.qst.go.jp/db/anzendb/NORMDB/ENG/index.php
11) UNSCEAR, Ionizing Radiation: Levels and Effects. Volume I: Levels. UNCSEAR, 1972 report to
the General Assembly, with annexes. Annex D. United Nations, New York, (1972).
https://css.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_1972_Annex-D.pdf
12) UNSCEAR, Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR 1977 report to the General
Assembly, with annexes. Annex B. United Nations, New York, (1977).
https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_1977_Annex-B.pdf
13) UNSCEAR, Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR 1977 report to the General
Assembly, with annexes. Annex E. United Nations, New York, (1977).
6https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_1977_Annex-E.pdf
14) UNSCEAR. Ionizing radiation: sources and biological effects. UNSCEAR 1982 report to theGeneral Assembly, with annexes. Annex. C. United Nations, New York, (1982)
https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_1982_Annex-C.pdf
15) UNSCEAR. Ionizing radiation: sources and biological effects. UNSCEAR 1982 report to theGeneral Assembly, with annexes. Annex. H. United Nations, New York, (1982)
https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_1982_Annex-H.pdf
16) UNSCEAR. Sources, effects and risks of ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR 1988 report to the General
Assembly, with annexes. Annex. A. United Nations, New York, (1988)
https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_1988_Annex-A.pdf
17) UNSCEAR. Sources, effects and risks of ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR 1993 report to the General
Assembly, with scientific annexes. Annex. A. United Nations, New York, (1994)
https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_1993_Annex-A.pdf
18) UNSCEAR. Sources, effects and risks of ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR 1993 report to the General
Assembly, with scientific annexes. Annex. D. United Nations, New York, (1994)
https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_1993_Annex-D.pdf
19) UNSCEAR. Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR 2000 report to the General
Assembly, with scientific annexes. Volume. I: Sources. Annex. B. United Nations, New York, (2000)
https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_2000_Annex-B.pdf
20) UNSCEAR. Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR 2000 report to the General
Assembly, with scientific annexes. Volume. I: Sources. Annex. E. United Nations, New York, (2000)
https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_2000_Annex-ECORR.pdf
21) UNSCEAR. Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR 2008 report to the General
Assembly, with scientific annexes. Volume. I: Sources. Annex. B. United Nations, New York, (2008)https://www.unscear.org/unscear/uploads/documents/publications/UNSCEAR_2008_Annex-BCORR2.pdf

7

8

Part II Present status of
NORM&TENORM in FNCA
countries

9Australia

1 AUSTRALIA
1.1 Introduction
Australia is a very large and very resource rich country. There are mineral deposits of every
type and these are exploited to supply domestic and international demands for the minerals.
The mining industry is 11% of Australia's revenue, (about 50% of international trade) and theindustry is valued at $220,000,000,000 per annum.
With all this mining, milling and refining inAustralia comes the associated challenge ofmanaging the naturally occurring radioactive
material (NORM) that is found in the ore. Only
material which is modified by humans isregulated within Australia, and these areregulated by the local authorities (9 radiation
protection regulators, plus other specialised
regulators such Oil and Gas regulator,
Environmental Protection Agencies).
In the mining and refining process thematerial is well controlled, however when the
Figure 1. Australian industry (from industry.gov.au)
NORM is separated from the product special
controls need to be put in place. NORMs aremanaged by setting an exemption criteria, typically around 1 Bq/g, with material above thatmonitored by regulators.

1.2 Sources of NORM&TENORM
Mining and processing of minerals result in increased concentrations of naturally occurring
radioactive materials (NORM) in products and/or process wastes. This phenomenon oftechnologically enhanced NORM (TENORM) may bring the majority of the minerals industry
operations into the limelight of regulatory focus worldwide. Technologically enhanced
naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM) arise in many industries. TENORM isthe enhancement of the possibility of exposure to people or to the environment from naturally
occurring radioactivity, when material containing naturally occurring radioactivity is disturbed,
handled or processed. The process can be as simple as the transport of ore to the surface
resulting in the mobilisation of contained radioactivity or the dispersal associated with a dust
10Australia

problem. TENORM does not necessarily imply concentration of radionuclides, but that thematerials are in a condition where there is potentially an increased dose to the workforce or
public through one or more pathways.
The awareness of TENORM in relation to the non-uranium industry is increasing inAustralia, where the issue is predominantly seen as belonging to the mining industry. Many ofthe mining products potentially contain radioactivity due to the presence of uranium andthorium and their progeny in the ore. In the petroleum production and processing industry andthe heavy minerals industry, this awareness has progressed to the drafting of new guidelines
and regulations in regard to the disposal of wastes containing NORM. However, in otherindustries, the awareness is principally related to limitations placed on the level of radioactivity
in exported products. In recent times the mining industry has become more conscious of
TENORM in its own waste products. These might be solids, liquid or gaseous emissions.
TENORM is now widely recognised in Australia in the heavy minerals, petroleum, base(primarily Cu) and precious metals, refractory metals (Ta/Nb), tin, alumina and many otherindustries. A major driver for a better understanding of TENORM in mining industry
processing has been the adverse effect the presence of radioactivity has on the marketability of
products on the international market. Australia has consequently become a world leader inprocess development for the removal of radioactivity during mineral processing and extractive
metallurgy. The other major driver is the risk associated with the presence of NORM and thefear of litigation due to excessive exposure of the workforce or public.
The occupational health issue of specific relevance to the mineral sands industry is radiation.
Western Australian mineral sands deposits contain up to 10% heavy minerals, of which 1-3%
is monazite. This in turn typically contains 5-7% of radioactive thorium and 0.1 - 0.3% ofuranium, which is barely radioactive.
In ore, or general heavy mineral concentrate, the radiation levels are too low for radioactiveclassifications. However, when the radioactive material is concentrated in the process of
separation and production of monazite the radiation levels are increased, creating the need forspecial controls to protect some "designated" employees in dry separation plants.
In the past, occupational exposure to radiation levels of 50 mSv/yr, then the limit, were notuncommon.
Dust control is the most important objective in radiation safety for the titanium minerals
industry. The most significant potential radiation problem is inhaled thorium in mineral sands
dust.
This contrasts with other industries where the focus for radiation protection has been direct
gamma radiation from materials in rock. Exposure to gamma radiation still needs to be
11

Australia

controlled in the mineral sands industry, due principally to uranium and thorium in zircon.
However, safety programs are targeting alpha radiation arising from airborne dust which may
be inhaled.
The more precise identification of airborne radiation in mineral sands dry separation plants
led to the introduction of voluntary codes of practice in 1980. These codes were incorporated
into protective legislation in 1982. The method of calculating permissible exposure levels waschanged in 1984 and again in 1986. The result was an effective six-fold reduction in radiation
exposure limits.
The industry responded with two major initiatives:• Engineering programs to reduce airborne dust in the dry separation plant.
• Research programs to improve industry and community knowledge about airborne
radiation.
This paper focuses on the problems in dealing with TENORM waste. The amount of
TENORM waste varies from small quantities of higher radioactivity content to very large
quantities of very low concentration of radioactivity. The complexity of the deportment ofradioactivity through industrial plants means that there are diverse waste streams, whichcontain significant amounts of TENORM.

Types of TENORM Occurring in Australia
Uranium
The largest source of TENORM waste arises from uranium mining. In Australia, over 10
million tonnes of uranium mill tailings are produced each year.

12Australia

Figure 2. Australian Uranium Industry (from industry.gov.au report)
The tailings from a uranium mill contain over 99 percent of the ore mass and about 70% of
the radioactivity originally present in the ore. The tailings from milling 0.2% U3O8 ore
typically contain 21 Bq/g 226Ra, 84 Bq/g beta-activity and 130 Bq/g alpha-activity (including
226Ra and 222Rn progeny). As well as tailings, many other waste streams at uranium mines
contain TENORM. For example, the scale in process water lines can contain significant
amounts of radioactivity.
Iron and steel
The presence of small concentrations of uranium in the feedstocks (iron ore, coke etc) toiron making can result [BHP 2000] in enhanced levels of 210Po and 210Pb in recirculated
sinter plant off-gas cleaning dust. The concentrations of these radionuclides in the collected
dust can be such that any bleed-off dust is difficult to dispose of in normal waste disposal
facilities. The other uranium progeny occur at lower concentrations (as they do not accumulate)in blast furnace slags and gas cleaning sludges. Although the concentrations in the slags are
low, they may be a TENORM issue if such products are subsequently used by other industries,
such as in cement manufacture, if the workforce is exposed to a dusty workplace.
Heavy minerals
Australia is a major world producer of heavy minerals, which frequently contain elevatedconcentrations of thorium and uranium. Some of the radioactivity is separated and disposed ofas part of mineral processing to produce the heavy mineral concentrates. These TENORM
wastes, frequently including monazite, must be managed in accordance with local licence13

Australia

conditions [Western Australian Chamber of Minerals and Energy 2000]. The mineral
concentrates ilmenite, rutile and zircon can contain radioactivity. Zircon is mostly used without
further processing and its use must be accompanied by practices, which minimise the potential
to inhale dusts. The further processing of zircon or ilmenite to either remove a portion of thecontained radioactivity to meet specified concentrations or to produce higher gradeintermediates, such as synthetic rutile and TiO2 pigment, and at the same time remove someradioactivity, can result in enhanced levels of radioactivity in fumes from thermal processing
and/or wastes that are enhanced in radioactivity. The appropriate disposal of refractories
manufactured using zircon is an issue in Australia. [Hartley et al 1991]
CopperSome operations in Australia either mine uranium in association with copper minerals[Thomas 1996] or have to manage low concentrations of uranium and its decay progeny intheir copper treatment processes. The copper metal product can be contaminated withradioactivity. By-products such as gold and silver in slimes may contain elevated levels ofradioactivity, and there can be 210Po and 210Pb in smelter off-gases. Dust in sulphur dioxide
off-gases from these operations can contain TENORM. There is now considerable experiencein the appropriate management of these issues.
Phosphate
Uranium and thorium frequently occur in phosphate deposits. Although the presence ofradioactivity in the fertiliser products is normally not an issue, the radium, or more specificallythe emanating radon, in the phosphogypsum product must be taken into consideration in
operation and in designing the method of closure of such facilities.
Tantalum, niobium and tin
These generally have TENORM associated with them and again, there can be TENORM
issues in the end use and disposal of slags.
Oil and Gas processing
Processing of oil and gas in Australia generates scales containing elevated concentrationsof 226Ra. Radium is brought to the surface in formation water and can precipitate out in sludges
and as scale on internal surfaces of oil and gas production facilities. The scale from pipework
can require disposal as a radioactive material. Some of this material has been disposed of at the
Mt Walton East Intractable Waste Facility in Western Australia and disposal at sea is permitted
on a case by case evaluation basis [Western Australian Department of Minerals and Energy2000].
When natural gas and oil are processed, radon tends to concentrate in ethane and propane
fractions, due to the fact that the boiling point of 222Rn is between those of ethane and propane.
14

Australia

While radon is virtually non-reactive, its short-lived progeny are chemically active and subject
to deposition on internal surfaces of processing equipment. The short-lived progeny, in turn,quickly decay to 210Pb, which has a half-life of 22.6 years.
Coal combustion
Coal fired power stations are the major source of electricity in Australia and produce fineashes containing TENORM [Zahorowski et al 1994]. Issues are dust in emissions and storageof dusts/ashes without mobilisation of pollutants including radionuclides.

1.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
Australia has a federal system of government and the regulation of TENORM radioactive
waste management and disposal comes under both Commonwealth (Federal) andState/Territory regulation. There are nine jurisdictions within Australia.
Nuclear activities of the Commonwealth Government are regulated by the Australian
Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA). However, most TENORM
issues arise from industrial or mining activities and the regulation of these industries is mainly
a state responsibility. Uranium mining and milling is a special case, involving both state
regulators and approval by commonwealth agencies.
In the States and Territories, the use of radiation and radioactivity are regulated byEnvironmental Protection Authorities and Health Departments in each state. In addition, mines
are also regulated by Departments of Mines or equivalent in States and territories. In Australia
TENORM is regulated either under mining regulation or under radiation health regulations. In
general, TENORM arising from mining and milling activities is managed at mine sites as partof the site environmental management plan.
There is a large degree of inconsistency in the definitions of clearance and exemption levels
in regulations in the different States in Australia. These inconsistencies include the actual levels
and also how these are specified. There is a national effort lead by ARPANSA to develop
consistency through the National Directory for Radiation Protection. For the nuclear industry
and radioactivity used in industry, research and medicine, the IAEA GSR Part 3 exemption
values for both exemption and clearance of 1 Bq/g is used. However, there is still discussion
about applying a graded approach to regulation, particularly when it is not being released forunrestricted use, but is destined for a specified use or disposal method. At present in Australia,
the TENORM waste is dealt with on a case-by-case basis.
・Guidance
Every regulator issues guidance on how to meet the expectations in the documents that aresupplied. Guidance from ARPANSA (Commonwealth); Western Australia Department ofMines, Industry, Regulation and Safety; NSW Resources Regulator; and the Queensland
15

Australia

Department of Natural Resources and Mines were used in the writing of this report, and arelisted in the references at the end of the document.

1.4 Management of NORM&TENORM
Management on site
The majority of NORM facilities in Australia are part of the extraction industries – mining
and oil and gas industries. For all facilities which have a NORM hazard require a Safety Caseto Construct and Operate the facility. These are supplied to the regulator and is what is used by
the regulator in their inspections through the life of the facility. The Safety Case is a suite of
documents which describe all the safety systems and what is required. In general, the following
documents are expected:•

Safety Management Plano This is a requirement of all facilities and describes how work health and safety
will be managed at the facility. This includes in Australia psychosocial hazards(psychological and social hazards like bullying, exclusion, work demands andothers) and the expectation is that all the various ways to keep things safe arepart of the one holistic implementation plan.

•

NORM Management Plano See more detail below.

•

Radiation Protection Plano This is the plan for how radiation exposure and contamination will beminimised and monitored. This is the same template as used for the IAEA in
general.

•Radioactive Waste Management Plano The plan which describes how radioactive material will be managed when it is
no longer useful. This covers airborne, liquid and solid wastes and may
involve disposal if that option is available.

•

Environmental Monitoring Plano The plan which describes how the facility will be monitored during the
production phase; what will be monitored, how often and how it will bereported.

•

Decommissioning Plano The plan which details what actions are being taken to reduce radiation
exposure and optimise safety when the facility is being decontaminated anddismantled. The expectation is that this plan is continually revised during thelife of the facility and gets more detailed as the years go by.
16Australia•••

Rehabilitation Plano See more detail below.

Quality Plano The plan which demonstrates that the organisation can keep producing thesame material reliably and repeatedly. There are ways to report matters which
can be used to identify problems and rectify or mitigate the issue. This
includes calibrations, maintenance, documentation of procedures (which canbe videos) and reporting systems.
Security Plano The plan which details how members of the public are protected from
accidental access to radioactive material, and how the organisation protects the
NORM from intentional access.

All of these plans are graded based on the level of hazard and risk present at the site. There
has to be a risk assessment which is conducted covering all safety and environmental aspects
which forms the basis for all the plans above. The outcome of the risk assessment will be usedby the regulator to determine the level of information which is required for a site (gradedapproach). For a site with a small amount of NORM, the regulator may decide that the NORM
management plan can be used to cover both the radiation protection plan, environmental
protection plan, quality plan and the radioactive waste plan.
NORM Management Plan
The NORM management plan is a document based on a risk assessment which sets out
how the company will manage the NORM hazard on the site. It will have the following
sections:
Description of the NORM and level of potential radiation
This section identifies the type of NORM hazards at the site, and identify the physical,
chemical and radiological characterisation of the materials all through the processing facility.
The risk to people will be identified and the justification for why the activity is taking place.
Scope of activities
This section describes what the actual site to be licenced actually does and what it will not
do. It will include a brief description of the site, the major equipment and how people willinteract with the NORM hazard.
Organisational arrangements for managing NORM
This section is to demonstrate to the regulator that the company / organisation which isapplying for the licence has the capacity and resources to do the work properly. There aresufficient numbers of people employed in defined positions – using an organisation chart
showing chains of command and including safety positions – to ensure that the work is donesafely. The organisation has the financial capacity to fund all the facilities, tasks and processes
17Australia

described so that the people and environment are safe, including rehabilitation anddecommissioning of the facility. The organisation can comply with all regulatory expectations
and can maintain effective control of the hazard.
Workforce arrangements
This section includes how the workforce will be managed and arranged to ensure thateveryone is safe. This includes the psychosocial hazards such as boredom, fatigue, work stressand loud or cramped working environments. The roster arrangements (hours on shift, howmany people on shift, how many teams) and total hours per year are to be supplied to assist thedose assessment.
Routes and risk of exposure to radiation
This section discusses the sources and magnitude of NORM; including the possible modesof exposure (inhalation, absorption, invasion and ingestion); and the identification of transfer
or storage areas for NORM (stockpiles and hoppers).
Engineering control of radiation
This section lists the engineering controls, for all routes and identified areas of exposure,
implemented to reduce exposure to an acceptable level. Some examples of engineering controls
which can be claimed are:•••Mine and process plant designo Examples are having the control rooms a safe distance from the planto Building the site to minimise dust spread by the prevailing winds and raino Having access paths (on the surface and below the surface) in areas with lower
levels of NORM
o Minimising stockpiles on the site
Dust suppression and extractiono Effective dust suppression and extraction will reduce exposure to alphaemitters through inhalation. It is important to identify all areas of dust
generation and some controls which can be used areo watering roads, stockpiles, faces and points that generate dusto controlling spillage and cleaning up as soon as practicableo installing dust suppression on crushing, screening and conveyor systems at
appropriate locationso enclosed local extraction ventilation containment systems fitted to control dust
generated during operations
Ventilationo Ventilation is the primary control for managing alpha-emitting dust and radonin an underground mine. It has to be assessed in processing facilities forworker and environmental safety reasons.
18

Australia•

Enclosed operator cabinso Enclosed cabins may provide protection to operators inside the cabin from
NORM.

•

Maintenanceo An effective maintenance strategy can reduce the type and amount of NORM
exposure. Exposure of maintenance personnel to NORM should be consideredwhen risk assessing maintenance activities.

•

Separation of workers from NORM
o Separation distance will directly affect the exposure to gamma radiation. Somestrategies include using remote operated or autonomous equipmento locating non-critical plant and infrastructure such as administration in areas oflow background exposure
o locating control rooms outside of the process plant•

Shielding and sealing surfaceso storing known ‘hot’ core in the middle of other core sample trays and pallets
of coreo concrete walled bunkers may provide some protection for stockpileso coating underground development with an appropriate thickness of shotcrete
may reduce gamma shine

Administrative control of radiation
In addition to the engineering controls there are also administrative controls which can beused. Some of these controls are:•pre-start checks to ensure that the dust control, suppression, extraction and ventilation
systems are operating and effective

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

hygiene standards, rules and practices
clean-in/clean-out facilities and procedureshousekeeping standards
decontamination of equipment prior to leaving site or being maintained
capturing exposure history completely and accurately
exclusion or limiting work time of persons from high dose areas
sample handling, transfer and storage procedures
product storage and transport practices and procedures
waste management procedures
removing muck from drives and development headings as soon as possible

Education, training and competency
The most important administrative control is the training of staff. The organisation has an
obligation to train workers so that they are competent to perform their duties where there are
19

Australia

risks from NORM. This will include both appropriate induction training with periodic
assessment of knowledge of risk management for NORM and any other relevant andappropriate training with periodic assessment required to effectively and safety do the tasks
required. This training will include a matrix showing which workers need which training andwhy that training is required.
The training must cover radiation terminology, hazards, risks, exposure pathways andmonitoring. The worker must understand the controls and how to use the equipment andcontrols which are there to make them safe.
Radiation monitoring program
In the context of NORM, monitoring may include:• the use of TLD badges• personal exposure dust monitoring• environmental dust monitoring• radon measurement• gamma shine measurements• surface contamination monitoring• ensuring there is compliance with work procedures and work practices.
Results of the monitoring program must be reported regularly to the workers and others as
required.
Dose assessment
This should include the calculations (based on the NORM source term in the first section,
the exposure times in the workforce section and any credit from the engineering controls) todemonstrate that the facility has an acceptable level of exposure to workers. All assumptions
need to be listed and explanations of how information from the monitoring program is used in
the assumptions.
Monitoring records and reporting
In this section it will describe the records kept, how they are reported and what happens
when there is a variance from the expected results. Overviews of previous years results will
also be included here are part of the regular reviews.
Management of product (if NORM)
Describe how a NORM product will be managed, including all temporary storage, transportand handling in addition to the process. This includes packaging and labelling.
Management of waste
Details of the handling, storage and disposal methods of NORM waste including residues
on siteEmergency response plan interaction
As the facility should have an emergency response plan, this section is an explanation of
20

Australia

the impact NORM may have on the mine’s emergency response procedures and capabilities. It
is not meant to be the only emergency plan.
Review and audit
Procedures for periodic review, audit and continuous improvement of the NORM
management plan.
Rehabilitation plan
When the site, or a section of the site, is to be no longer used or processed, the organisationmust make good on the site and return the area to a state where it can be used for other activities.
The owner can sell the land to others and it can be used for another unforeseen site. In general(with mines) the land is returned to a semi-natural state with soil and plants covering the site
to allow it to return to the same environment that it was before the mine was built.
Operational History
This section has a summary of significant surface disturbing activities, including mining
operations, ancillary mining activities and exploration, carried out on the mining area. Describe
if there have been rehabilitation activities undertaken since commencement of mining
operations including decommissioning or demolition of built infrastructure. This section must
include a history of the ownership of the land, the companies involved and the regulatory
approvals on the site.
Final Land use Options and Analysis
This section describes what options were considered, the consultation process employed,
the stakeholders consulted and the outcomes of the consultation. The final land use option
should be identified with consideration of the surrounding environment and land uses in thearea (will it be farmland, native vegetation of an industrial site).
Areas which must be analysed include: soils and materials; fauna; flora; overburden (mined
waste rock) placement; waste management; geology and geochemistry; erosion and sedimentcontrol; biological resources (grasses, trees, bushes); mine subsidence and management of
cultural and heritage issues.
Rehabilitation Risk Assessment and Objectives
A specific risk assessment has to be conducted for the rehabilitation phase of the site. This
will be informed on the Final Land use option. The outcomes of this risk assessment are to belisted here including the controls which are to be put into place. This section must include thecriteria for determining when the Final Land use option has been reached, and what monitoring
will be used to assist in that decision.
Rehabilitation Implementation Plan
This section will outline the schedule, activities and monitoring of the rehabilitation project.
It will reference detailed drawings of the final site and important milestones. The general
methodologies for rehabilitation will be outlined and a clear link to the risk assessment
21

Australia

identified. The phases of the rehabilitation from active site to abandoned site will be includedin the schedule.
Decommissioning activities are included in this section.
Quality Assurance ProgramThis section must describe how the rehabilitation quality assurance process will be formally
integrated into the day-to-day mine planning process, including:•••

the responsibilities for implementation
how the process will be formally documented and recorded (e.g. inspection test plans)
how the process will be reviewed and refined over time to promote continuous
improvement.

Monitoring Program
The company / organisation should select the most appropriate indicators and monitoring
methods that:•align the monitoring program with the rehabilitation objectives and rehabilitation
completion criteria••

are relatively simple to measure and are reproducible
are effective for tracking rehabilitation progress, or regression and potential risks

The frequency of monitoring will depend on site-specific circumstances and the selected
monitoring methodology. As a guide, the frequency of monitoring will be more intense
immediately following rehabilitation until such time that there is adequate ground cover or
adequate species establishment.
Research, models and trials
The company should proactively seek to improve rehabilitation methodologies using a
range of resources including:••rehabilitation trials at existing rehabilitation areas
undertaking literature reviews to assess the suitability of various rehabilitation
techniques and identify industry best practices•

partnering with research institutions to undertake research programs that address
specific knowledge gaps•

undertaking modelling to improve rehabilitation methodologies (e.g. landform
evolution modelling to address any long-term erosion and stability risks).

Review and revisionThis section must describe the triggers for reviewing and revising the rehabilitation
management plan and the process for document management. Triggers may be regulatory (froman inspection); incidents which cause a change (e.g. drought, fire, flood, company or land
having new owners); as the project moves into a different phase of rehabilitation; or be time22Australia

based.

Disposal
There are reuse and recycling options of NORMs which include:•

soil conditioning additive in agriculture, with particular reference to phosphatebinding;•

substitute for clay, or as a clay additive, in the manufacture of construction materials
such as bricks and tiles;• road base construction material;• substitute for natural gypsum in the manufacture of plaster wall board;• filler in the production of rubbers and PVC.
The disposal options for NORMs include:••••

into the ocean in the case of offshore facilities at a dilute level
Landfill for slags and other processing wastes
Placed back into the mine when the extraction has completed
Capping tailings dams

The Sandy Ridge Facility for the disposal of hazardous waste will be used as an example.
This facility is a clay mine which will also be used for the disposal of hazardous waste whenthe mine is complete.

Figure 2. Tellus site (from website)
The NORM Management Plan for Sandy Ridge had to describe the waste, including natureof material (chemical, physical and radiological), contaminants, and quantities and rate ofproduction. They also had to describe the environment into which the waste will be disposed,
including the social and cultural heritage; and present and potential land use. The system for
waste management including the facilities and procedures involved in the handling, treatment,
23

Australia

storage and disposal of radioactive waste and the resultant predictions of environmental
concentrations of radionuclides and radiation doses to the public.

NORM Management Plan for disposal
As discussed above, there is a requirement for NORM management plan and there are someslight differences for a disposal facility to an operational facility. Differences from the above
are outlined below with the sections above being referenced below.
1. An outline of the processes generating waste.
2. A description of waste including nature ofmaterial (chemical, physical and radiological),contaminants, and quantities and rate ofproduction.
3. A description of the environment into which thewaste will be discharged or disposed (climate,terrain, soils, vegetation, hydrology), including
the baseline radiological characteristics.
4. Heritage (social and cultural) and land use(present and potential).
5. A description of the proposed system for waste Figure 3. Tellus operations (from website)management including the facilities andprocedures involved in the handling, treatment, storage and disposal of radioactive waste.
6. Predictions of environmental concentrations of radionuclides and radiation doses to the
public from the proposed waste management practice, including demonstration that thestatutory radiation protection requirements will be met both now and in the future.
7. A program for monitoring the concentration of radionuclides in the environment andassessment of radiation doses to members of the public arising from the waste management
practices.
8. Contingency plans for dealing with accidental releases and the circumstances which mightlead to uncontrolled releases of radioactive waste in the environment.
9. Contingency plan to cover cases of early shutdown or temporary suspension of operations.
10. A schedule for reporting on the waste disposal operation and results of monitoring andassessments.
11. A plan for the decommissioning of the operation and associated waste management
facilities, and for the rehabilitation of the site.
12. A system of periodic assessment and review of the adequacy and effectiveness of theRadioactive Waste Management Plan to take account of potential improvements consistent
with best practicable technology
24Australia

The NORM management plant had to include a program for monitoring the concentrationof radionuclides in the environment and assessment of radiation doses to members of the public.
Contingency plans were developed for dealing with accidental releases of radioactive waste in
the environment, or early shutdown of operations. There had to be regular reporting on thewaste disposal operation and results of monitoring and assessments. It also has to include aplan for the decommissioning of the operation and associated waste management facilities, andfor the rehabilitation of the site.
During the operational stage, the appropriate authority must be notified of any changes tothe operation which may alter the nature or quantity of waste generated; any proposal to change
the waste containment system; and any unanticipated circumstances that may lead to a variationin performance of the approved Radioactive Waste Management Plan.
By following all the requirements Sandy Ridge was given an approval to operate anddispose of NORM.
Sandy Ridge NORM Operations
Immobilisation treatment involves locking the waste into a cementitious matrix and/or
adsorbing it into a suitable material.
NORM wastes that do not require immobilisation, such as contaminated equipment, will
be disposed according to the appropriate procedure, which may include grouting of any void
spaces in equipment pieces (e.g. pipes)
Monitoring during Operations
During operations the regulator and other stakeholders are provided reports on themonitoring of the site. This report includes details of:•

The level of effluent control achieved and the extent to which environmental pollution
and degradation are prevented in similar mining and mineral processing operations
elsewhere in the world.

•

The total cost of the application or adoption of the technology relative to theenvironmental protection to be achieved by its application or adoption.

•

Evidence of detriment, or lack of detriment, to the environment after thecommencement of the waste management/disposal operation.

••

The physical location of the operation.
The age of equipment and facilities and their relative effectiveness in reducing
environmental pollution and degradation.

25

Australia

Rehabilitation Plan
As described above there will need to be a rehabilitation
plan for the site, with the difference here being the intention
to have more NORM and other hazardous wastes stored in
the facility than were there before. This changes the scale andtype of risk assessment which is the basis for all the otherrehabilitation plans.
The condition of the site to be rehabilitated, including thefacilities and waste to be rehabilitated, levels ofcontamination, and quantities of waste are a primary focus of
the plan. This includes the Waste Acceptance Criteria which
was used during the facility operations, the packaging andbarriers emplaced to contain the material and geology
encapsulating the disposed material. This is the source term
and barriers in the environmental safety case.
The rehabilitation will also include:

Figure 4. Tellus final state (from website)•••

Details of rehabilitation measures to be undertaken.
Management of waste generated during rehabilitation.
The anticipated final state of the site after rehabilitation, including estimates of thelevels of residual contamination.

•

Details on ongoing monitoring and surveillance that will be required after
rehabilitation.

•

Contingency plans and plans for remediation of any defects in the rehabilitation that
may become apparent.

References
https://publications.industry.gov.au/publications/resourcesandenergyquarterlyjune2019/index.
html
https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BriefingBook43p/mineralssector
https://www.radproaustralia.com/projects/ (photos)
https://tellusholdings.com/projects/sandy-ridge-facility/
rps9.pdf (arpansa.gov.au) (Radiation Protection Series #9)
https://www.resourcesregulator.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/form-and-wayrehabilitation-management-plan-for-large-mines.pdf
https://www.resources.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/240336/qgl1-guideline.pdf
https://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/Documents/Safety/MSH_GL_ManagNORM.pdf
26

Bangladesh

2 BANGLADESH
2.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
Bangladesh has not comprehensive nation-wide investigation/survey data on NORM&TENORM inventory. The locations and extents of the NORM&TENORM have never beenstudied and this should be one of national problems on controlling of NORM&TENORM. Mostof the ongoing activities for NORM in the country is research based and deals with natural
background radiation.
The probable NORM&TENORM industry/sources in Bangladesh
NORM&TENORM industry/sources

Number of
facilities

Remarks

28

Till now, 8 gas field do not comeinto operation

Natural gas field-- product/by-products are: crudeoil, condensate, HSD, MS, NGL,
produced waters, sludge, scale etc.
Oil and Gas Exploration

3

In operation.
Major waste: Sludge, scale,sediment, produced waters etc.

Water treatment and purification plant

4

In operation.
Major waste: Sludge, scale, spent
reign, spent filter media, spent
membrane, concentrate, backwash
water, rinse water, brine etc.

Coal mines

2

1 is in operation
1 decision pending
Major waste: rock, slag, coaltailings, waste material, rock bank,27

Bangladesh

culm, boney, or gob, heavy metals
etc.
Coal fired power plant

2

1 plant is in operation.
1 plant is in trial for operation.
Major waste: Fly ash, bottom ash,produced water, boiler slags etc.

Beach sand deposits

18 deposits

Product/by-products: heavy
minerals,

Hard rock1

Major waste: Waste rock, tailings,
slag, wash slimes etc.

Fertilizer (natural) industry
particularly phosphate10

2 is phosphate based
Product/by-products:
Phosphogypsum, Phosphate slag,
liquid and solid effluents,
produced water, etc.

Cement production

43

Product/by-products: Cement kiln
dust, debris, sludge, lignite fly ash,etc.

Ship breaking and metal recycling

179

Major waste: Sludge, scale, muck& debris, scrap, effluent, oil,grease and other refuses from
ships

These industries may produce Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Material (TENORM) at different radioactivity levels.

2.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
In Bangladesh, NORMs/TENORMs subject to human driven technological processing are
yet to come under proper regulations to guide or enforce the industrial facilities generating
NORM&TENORM. However, they are under occasional monitoring. Some case study withregards to NORM&TENORM are discussed below:
28

Bangladesh

Case-1. NORM management of a scrap ship of ship breaking and metal recycling yard
End-of-life ship (dead) that was used as an oil and gas floating production storage andoffloading (FPSO) vessel at an offshore oil field in the North Sea was imported and beached at
the ship breaking and metal recycling yard. As per the reports of different national andinternational media, the vessel is likely to contain large amounts of residues that arecontaminated by NORM and sulphur in addition to the various other hazardous materials in its
structure and tanks. Therefore, radiation monitoring/survey was conducted for possible
contamination and detection of radioactive materials present in the ship. High level of gamma
doses was measured in the sludge filled oil pipes and collected sludges (Table 1). During theinspection, 226Ra was detected by isotope identifier at the dismantle pipes storage area (sludge),
indicating the presence of NORM in the sludges of pipe. The gamma analysis of the collected
samples indicates that only naturally occurring radionuclides (238U and 232Th decay series andnon-series 40K) were present in the sludge samples with high activity (Table 2). Al the Sludge
filled cargo oil pipes (also other pipes) were segregated from the ship, the open ends of eachpipe were closed by metal jackets and transported on the yard with crane. Sludge filled cargo
oil pipes were clean-up and stored in heavy duty plastic drum. 320 kilograms of sludges werestored in two drums and radiation levels were measured (Table 3). The clothing materials (e.g.,masks, PPE, gloves, plastics, polyethylene etc.) were stored (30 kg)) in separate drum. Again,
radiation levels were measured on the cleaned pipes as well as other pipes, oil tanks anddifferent areas on the ship (Table 1).
Table 1. Dose rate and surface activity.
Dose rate (µSv/hr.)

Surface activity (Bq/cm2)

Different areas on the Ship

0.01−0.16

0.07−0.43

Sludge filled cargo oil pipes before
cleaning the sludge

0.1−8.54

0.32−3.88

Cargo oil pipes after cleaning the sludge

0.02−0.15

0.22−0.66

Cargo oil pipes without having sludge(water pipe)

0.03−0.23

0.17−0.59

Oil tank (vessel)

0.10 - 0.17

Sludge filled pipe cleaning area on the
shipping yard.

0.03 – 0.07

0.17−0.54
0.16-0.25

Location

Table2. Activity concentration of the radionuclides present in the sludge samples of scrap shipSampling
location

Sample ID

Activity concentration (Bq kg−1)
226

29

Ra (238U)

232

Th

40

K

Bangladesh

Concentrated
sludgeCS-1 (Sludge)

10860.73±0.241460.33±0.30

145.25±1.60

CS-2 (Sludge)

15845.10±0.242510.94±0.30

321.01±1.60

Oil pipe

OPS-3 (Sludge)

14975.62±0.24

1933.70±0.30

OPS -4 (Sludge)

15283.45±0.24

1960.54±0.30

OTS-5 (Sludge))

2497.38±0.24305.63±0.30

OTS -6 (Sludge)

414.08±0.24

67.37±0.12

OTS -7 (Sludge)

244.62±0.2525.59±0.14

OTS -8 (Sludge)

1326±0.24

166.95±0.39

OTS -9 (Sludge)

2588.45±0.24285.84±0.31

OTS -10 (Sludge)

34.61±0.29

23.76±0.16

OTS -11 (Sludge)

16.71±0.29

3.18±0.19

Oil tank

72.89±1.59

Table 3. Dose rate and surface activity of sludge filled drum.
Drum – 1
Weight = 120 kg

Drum – 2
Weight = 200 kg

Drum –3 (CW)
Weight = 30 kg

Reading position

Dose rate

Surface activity(Bq/cm2)

Top(µSv/hr.)
1.07

Middle2.80

4.30

Bottom3.30

4.25

1 meter distance

0.22

0.50

Top

2.90

2.90

Middle3.70

4.05

Bottom2.85

3.50

1 meter distance

0.40

0.90

Top

0.11

0.34

Middle0.32

0.39

Bottom0.59

0.50

1 meter distance

0.12

0.27

0.76

The sludge and clothing materials filled drums were sealed and temporarily stored in aroom on the ship breaking yard and also sealed the room. Radiation levels of the sludge storage
room was recorded (Table 4).
Table 4. Dose rate and surface activity of temporary storage room of sludge.
Reading place

Reading position

Dose rate(µSv/hr.)
0.13

Closed door of the Top
storage room
Middle0.13
30

Surface activity(Bq/cm2)
0.33
0.52

Bangladesh

Bottom

0.15

0.31

50 cm

0.11

0.30

1 meter distance

0.08

0.28

0.06

0.18

Entry boundary of thestorage room

After ending the cleaning work, radiation/contamination levels (dose rate and surface
activity) of all the areas of the ship, such as ship base, side walls, oil tanks, oil pipes, scrap
materials, cleaning areas, ship yard etc. were measured due to NORM contamination. The
measured dose rate and surface activity are ranging from 0.01 – 0.17 µSv/h and 0.07 – 0.66
Bq/Cm2, respectively which is comparable to the background level. The results show that all
the monitored areas of the ship are considered free of NORM contamination and do not pose
external radiation hazard to the people and the environment.
Case-2. NORM management of scraps of stainless steel
A container containing scraps of stainless-steel including steel pipes (being exported)
was seized by custom authority of sea port due to radiation alarm in their detection
system.
 Therefore, radiation survey/monitoring around the detained container was performed.
 The maximum radiation dose rate of the suspected container was measured as 9.0µSv/hr, which confirm the presence of radioactive material inside it.
 The scraps were unloaded and checked for dose and contamination levels.
 A total of 20 pieces of contaminated (with scale and sludge) steel pipes were recovered.
 The maximum dose and surface activity levels on the surface of the recovered materials
were measured as 21.90 µSv/hr and 31.03 Bq/cm2, respectively.
 The radioisotope identifier identified the presence of NORM (226Ra and 232Th).
The recovered contaminated (with scale and sludge) steel pipes were sealed in a box withproper shielding and transported to Central Radioactive Waste Processing and Storage Facility(CWPSF) for interim storage and further processing (Cleaning, characterization etc.).


1. NORM&TENORM characterization of some NORM producing industries/sources
The gamma analysis of raw materials, final products, by-products, solid and liquid waste
generated from some NORM industries/sources indicate the presence of naturally occurring
radionuclides (NORM) of 238U(226Ra) and 232Th decay series and non-series 40K with arelatively high activity in some cases (Table 5). Radioactivity may be concentrated andenriched in products, by-products, or wastes during the processing cycle of NORM industries.
31

Bangladesh

Table 5. Activity concentrations of radionuclides in raw material, final product, by-product andother wastes generated from some NORM industries/sources.
NORM
industry/sources
Coal-fired
power plant

Type of sample

Activity concentration (Bq kg−1)
238
232
40
U (226Ra)
Th
K

Raw (bulk/core) coal32.3 - 103.7

16.4 - 95.8

13.9 - 544.0

Fly ash203.9 - 329.5

231.2 - 263.7

260.2 - 277.8

Bottom ash

149.3 - 190.2

157.7 - 188.1

183.9 - 187.0

Pond ash

158.8

167.7

253.4

33.0–118.0

43.0–182.0

318.3–743.4

Phosphate rock772.78 - 906.60

9.33 - 36.13

29.60 - 99.79

Phosphate fertilizer

197.52 - 221.70

35.05 - 47.48

ND

Phosphogypsum

271 – 328

45.09 – 94.74

248.83 – 341.90

Liquid waste

4.82 – 7.67

6.93 – 12.78

ND

Waste-mixed river water

3.26 – 4.16

3.77 – 6.44

ND

Soil

4.45 - 12.55

38.60 - 75.09

619.88 - 787.00

2400-2500

3300 - 4300

80 - 260

7500-63300

14700-152,000

640-6200

Zircon sand

6900–11700

1400 –19400

210–920

Cement41.0-82.8

58.8-75.4

915.4-1033.3

Clinker

46.4-52.7

68.8-81.5

833.7-871.8

Gypsum53.9-63.8

89.6-93.9

1087.8-1113.9

Brick41.4-74.4

64.9–87.6

986.5–1156.8

White sand33.3 –63.3

60.8–82.5

832.4–1046.1

Red sand46.0–70.6

65.6–94.6

889.3–1136.2

Tiles

7.23–65.04

67.12–75.72

969.64–1051.71

Limestone

55.85 – 60.2

60.8 – 70.41

668.77– 928

Lime powder

68.0 - 101.69

00.74 - 107

1012.83-1660

Mosaic stone

36.32-73.44

48.01-61.49

893.52-1127.01

Granite37.05–93.18

50.40–120.06

891.70–1239.90

Soil
TripleSuperphosphate(TSP) fertilizer
factory

Beach sandmineraldeposits
Building
materials

Raw sandFractionated(processed)

sand

32

Bangladesh

2.3 Legal and regulatory framework
The Legal basis for the safe management of radioactive wastes is Bangladesh Atomic
Energy Regulatory Authority (BAERA) Act-2012, Nuclear Safety and Radiation Control(NSRC) Rules-1997 and National Policy for the Management of Radioactive Waste and Spent
Nuclear Fuel-2019 (NPMRW&SNF-2019) based closely on the BSS apply to regulate
activities that involve sources of ionizing radiation and management of radioactive waste.
These rules and regulation cover the requirements for the inventory, storage and disposal ofwastes arising from the usage of radioactive materials/sources and nuclear installation. But, inthese rules and acts, there is no appropriate regulations to guide, control or enforce theindustrial facilities generating NORM&TENORM.
National organization for radioactive waste management

Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC), a statutory body, was formed by the
Presidential Order No. 15 of 1973 and worked as an operator in all radiological and nuclear
activities in the country. To continue the functions of the Bangladesh Atomic Energy
Commission established under the Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission Order, 1973 (P.O.
No. 15 of 1973 and re-enact the Act in updated form for the peaceful use, Research &development and promotion of atomic energy in Bangladesh, and execution of development
projects involving nuclear power stations according to the international rules and regulations,
nuclear and radioactive waste management and for matter incidental thereto; Bangladesh
Atomic Energy Commission Act 2017 was formulated.
According to Bangladesh Atomic Energy Regulatory Act-2012 (BAER Act 2012) chapterV and section no. 38 (Management of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel), the originator of theradioactive waste shall be responsible for the safe management of radioactive waste andsecurity from its generation prior to their receipt at the radioactive waste management facility.
The authorized person or facility shall ensure the availability of qualified staff and adequate
33

Bangladesh

financial resources. The details concerning regulatory requirements for management ofradioactive waste, provide guidance, formulation of necessary regulations is the responsibilityof regulatory authority.
The operator is responsible for the development of management procedures of waste, allactivities involved in the handling, transportation, pre-treatment, treatment, conditioning,storage and disposal of radioactive waste in accordance with national strategy, in compliancewith the regulatory requirements and within the legal and regulatory infrastructure. According
to BAER Act 2012 chapter-V and section no. 38, radioactive waste shall be managed in thefollowing way:(a) to maintain sub-criticality;(b) to ensure removal of residual heat;(c) to reduce the effects of ionizing radiation on the radiation worker, people and theenvironment;(d) to take into account properties influencing nuclear safety such as toxicity, flammability,
explosiveness, and other hazardous properties.
NSRC rules 1997 describe the general requirements for radioactive waste management.
The applicable standards, code and guide for Radioactive Waste Management program are
IAEA Safety series nos. 53, 63, 79, 11-SF, 111-S1, 111-G1.1, G3.1 and other IAEA RADWASS
publication. According to NSRC rules 1997, chapter-X and article. 87 (radioactive Waste
Management), the licensee (1) shall comply with the following requirements for radioactive waste management: the requirements of the applicable safety series published under the IAEA RADWASS
Program.
activity and volume of any radioactive waste that results they are responsible be kept tothe minimum practicable.
the waste be collected, transported, stored and disposed of in accordance with therequirements of the applicable standards.
segregate, and treat separately if appropriate, different types of radioactive waste were
warranted by differences in factor, such as radionuclide content, half-life, concentration,
volume and physical and chemical properties, taking into account the available options
for waste disposal.

(2) shall not dispose of licensed material without the approval of the regulatory authority.
According to the NSRC rules 1997 (Schedule-II), exemption level of NORM radionuclides
activity concentration is as follows:34

BangladeshRadionuclides

Activity concentrations (Bq g−1)

Activity (Bq)

238

U

1×101

1×104

235

U

1×101

1×104

226

Ra

1×101

1×104

232

Th

1×100

1×103

1×102

1×106

40

K

Recently, National Policy for the Management of Radioactive Waste and Spent Nuclear
Fuel-2019 has been approved by the government to support a sustainable and successful
implementation of nuclear energy program in Bangladesh. The purpose of this policy relates toall types of radioactive wastes (RW) including Disused Sealed Radioactive Sources (DSRS),
Spent Nuclear Fuel (SNF) and Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) generatedin Bangladesh at present as well as to be generated in future. The main objective of this National
Policy is to set up the goals and requirements for the safe and efficient management of RW,
SNF, DSRS and NORM in a manner that protects human health and the environment now andin the future.
According to the national policy-2019, article 5.4 of section 5.0, disposal of RW in
dedicated facilities duly licensed will be the ultimate end-point for the safe and sustainable
management of any type of RW with the exception of exempted waste as per BAERA Act,
2012, NSRC RULES-1997, international laws, rules and regulations.
According to this national policy-2019, article 7.6.1 of section 7.6, a Waste Management
Company (RWMC) will be established under Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission(BAEC). Until a separate WMC is formed “BAEC” will be responsible for the management of
RW generated from activities other than operation and maintenance of NPP.
As per article 13.1 of Section 13.0 (Management of NORM) and article 5.5 of section 5.0(National obligations), NORM shall not be addressed as RW if otherwise not specified by the
BAERA/Government and in-situ (on site) disposition will be the final option for NORM
management in the country.

2.4 Issues related to NORM&TENORM
There is yet issues and challenges particularly in establishing national inventories anddefining strategies to manage NORM wastes and residues including sampling &characterization and remediation (clean up) of the contaminated sites. The NORM industry has
35

Bangladesh

still not been defined. The regulatory area is not clear i.e., which industries should be regulated.
One crucial problem in this area is the lack of consensus among the NORM industries, workers
and the public with regards to radiation protection and safety. NORM wastes, and their
management still proceed like those of ordinary production wastes. The technologies for
disposal, recycling, and reuse of NORM&TENORM wastes and residues need to be developed.

36China

3 CHINA
3.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
In China, NORM mine refers to non-uranium mines containing relatively highconcentrations of natural radionuclides (e.g. rare earth mines and phosphate mines, etc.).
Radioactivity will probably be concentrated and enriched in products, by-products or wastes in
the process of processing, smelting and utilizing of NORM mines.
NORM&TENORM ubiquitous existing in rare earth, phosphate and non-ferrous
metal industries has been paid attention for long term in China. Some regulatory requirements
have been established and enacted.
“List of Radiation Environment Supervision and Management for the Exploitation andUtilization of Mineral Resources” (Announcement No. 54 of the Ministry of Ecology andEnvironment 2020) lists the types of minerals and corresponding industrial activities that need tobe supervised and managed by radiation environment (see Table 1).
Table 1. List of radiation environment supervision and management for the exploitation andutilization of mineral resources
SerialnumberMineral category

Industrial activity

1

Rare earth

Mining, mineral processing andsmelting of various rare earth minerals(including cerium fluoride, yttrium
phosphorite and ionic rare earth ore);
Mineral processing and smelting ofmonazite2

Zirconium and zirconia,
niobium/tantalum, Tin,
aluminum, lead/zinc, copper,
iron, vanadium,molybdenum, nickel,
germanium, titanium, gold

Mining, mineral processing andsmelting

3

phosphates

4

coal

Mining, beneficiation and processing
activities directly from phosphate ore
Mining，beneficiation

37

China3.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
Since the 1970s, China began to pay attention to the radiation environment management of
NORM industrial activities, mainly focusing on the management of associated radioactive minetailings and waste residues. Since the 1980s, under the leadership of the National Environmental
Protection Department, several large-scale investigation activities have been carried out, including
NORM waste. These include the national survey of natural radioactivity levels conducted from1983 to 1990, the first national survey of pollution sources conducted from 2006 to 2009, and thesecond national survey of pollution sources conducted from 2017 to 2019. In addition, in the pastten years, with the support of the nuclear and radiation safety supervision project of the Ministryof Ecology and Environment, some scientific research institutions and universities have carried out
radiation level investigations and impact assessments of some typical NORM enterprises. Amongthem, the second national survey of pollution sources has the most recent time and the mostextensive coverage, screening nearly 29,700 enterprises in 15 categories of industries across thecountry, and determining a total of 464 NORM enterprises. The monitoring items for solid waste
in the second national survey of pollution sources included the activity concentrations of 238U, 226Ra
and 232Th in tailings and waste residues.
The results of the second national survey of pollution sources on the radioactive level of mineral
resources development and utilization industry show that by the end of 2017, the cumulative
storage capacity of NORM waste (more than 1 Bq/g) is about 2 billion tons, of which the solid
waste with a radioactive activity concentration of more than 10 Bq/g is mainly rare earth,niobium/tantalum, zircon and zirconia, lead/zinc, germanium/titanium, iron and other minerals.
The total amount is about 2.25 million tons. The industry with the largest cumulative storage
volume of NORM solid waste is the iron and steel industry, accounting for more than 99%, andother minerals with large storage volumes include coal, aluminum, rare earth and so on. The
radioactive levels of rare earth, niobium/tantalum, lead/zinc, zircon, zirconia, germanium/titanium,
tin and other NORM solid wastes are high. Among them, the average activity concentration of 238U
in niobium/tantalum solid waste is the largest, about 19 Bq/g, followed by phosphate, copper andrare earth, about 3-4 Bq/g. The average activity concentration of 232Th in rare earth NORM solid
waste is the highest, which is about 50 Bq/g. The average activity concentration of 226Ra in
niobium/tantalum solid waste is the highest, about 20 Bq/g.
At present, China's NORM waste management focuses on storage and disposal, and the mostconcerned waste types are all kinds of tailings and smelting waste. The main management methods
include tailings wet storage, underground discharge, temporary storage in storage, near-surface
landfill disposal, rock cave disposal, and so on.
In addition to a very small part of the tailings is used, most of the tailings are stored in thetailings pond. According to statistics, there are more than 10,000 tailings ponds in China, of which
38

China80% are metallurgical and non-ferrous metal industries. Wet storage of metal mine tailings is themain disposal method at present.
In all kinds of industries involving NORM, due to the high level of radioactivity in rare earth
mines, more attention has been paid to radiation regulation in the early stage. In China, the waste
rock and tailings generated by Baiyun Ebo bastnaesite-monazite mine are mainly used to backfill
the gob, and the monazite concentrate that is expected to recover rare earth or thorium is
temporarily stored in the form of tailing ponds/tailings DAMS, and certain covering measures areusually taken. The Baiyun Ebo bastnaesite-monazite mine has tried to carry out recycling methods
such as using blast furnace slag for making building materials and recovering iron.
Temporary storage, as part of NORM waste management, provides time for radionuclides todecay until approved for recycling, reuse, or clearance.
A small percentage of NORM waste is currently recycled or reused after treatment. This may
involve waste from some industries being used as raw materials in other industries, such as formaking new products such as building materials. This practice helps to reduce the amount of waste
while creating some economic value; However, in some cases, it may also lead to radiation effects
on workers, the public and the environment.
The main purpose of NORM waste recycling is to recover the metals in it. This is because thetailings or waste residues usually contain a certain amount of target metals or other metals, among
which iron is the most common, as well as copper, aluminum, zinc, vanadium, thorium, rare earth
elements, scattered metals, etc. When these metals reach a certain grade, they have the value offurther recovery. In addition to metals, it is possible to recover other useful ingredients such as salt
and sodium sulfide. Common processes are leaching, oxidation, reduction, electrolysis and so on.
At present, the common way of NORM waste reuse is to make basic building materials or
super-performance building materials, such as cement additives, roadbed materials, tailings
composite ceramics, etc. It is also expected that it may be used as special functional materials, suchas glass-ceramics, snow melting agents, passivating agents for repairing contaminated soil, etc.

3.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
Currently, China still has not specific regulation directly control of NORM&TENORM but
NORM&TENORM management has been involved in other legislative documents.
Legislation system in nuclear safety and radiation safety composed of 5 hierarchy, i.e. law,regulation, department rule, standard and technical guideline.
a) Law
39

China“Law on the Prevention and Control of Radioactive Contamination” went into force on
2003-10-01 is the first law on radioactive waste management. This law set up specific chapter
for NORM&TENORM, i.e. Chapter V: Prevention and control of radioactive contamination
during the operation of uranium, thorium mines and mines accompanying natural occurring
radioactivity material (NORM).
The law states:·units exploiting and utilizing mines with NORM shall, before applying for a mining license,
draw up an environmental impact report and report to the competent environmental protection
administration department of the people’s government at provincial level and higher for
examination and approval;·radioactive contamination prevention and control facilities integrated with structural units
at uranium, thorium and NORM mines shall be designed, constructed and put into operation at
the same time as the main part of the project;·radioactive contamination prevention and control facilities shall be checked and acceptedat the same time as the main part of the project; only after checking and accepting that thestandards have been met the main part of the project be put into production or operation; and·tailing repositories shall be constructed for the storage and disposal of tailings produced
during the operation of uranium, thorium and NORM mines; tailing repositories
shall conform to radioactive contamination prevention and control requirements.
b) Department Rule
In “List of Radiation Environment Supervision and Management for the Exploitation andUtilization of Mineral Resources” (Announcement No. 54 of the Ministry of Ecology andEnvironment 2020), the construction enterprises related to mineral resource development andutilization activities listed by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment are required to give a
conclusion on whether the activity concentration of uranium (thorium) series single nuclide in raw
ore, intermediate products, tailings, tailing slags or other residues exceeds 1 Bq/g in theenvironmental impact statement (list). For more than 1 Bq/g, the construction unit shall organize
the preparation of radiation environmental impact assessment, and incorporate the environmental
impact statement (list) for approval; When the construction unit completes the acceptance ofenvironmental protection, it shall organize the acceptance of the radiation environmental
protection facilities built in support of the construction, organize the preparation of radiation
environmental protection acceptance monitoring reports and incorporate them into the acceptancemonitoring reports.The above requirements correspond to the regulatory documents "Measures forEnvironmental Radiation Monitoring and Information Disclosure of Enterprises Engaged in the
Exploitation and Utilization of Associated Radioactive Mines (Trial Implementation)" (2018) and40

China"Format and Content of Special Paper on Environmental Impact Assessment of Radiation in the
Exploitation and Utilization of Mineral Resources (Trial implementation)" (2015).
c) Standard and Technical Guideline
Due to the large number of NORM industries, our country has not set up a special standard
widely used in the regulation of NORM industry radioactivity, and there are some national
standards and industry standards related to NORM management.
“Basic standards for protection against ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation
sources”(GB 18871-2002) provides radiation dose limits and corresponding nuclide exemption
levels.
The “Regulations on Radioactive Waste Management (GB 14500-2002)” is thecomprehensive standard on radioactive waste. The specific chapter on NORM&TENORM is set
up in the standard. The standard stipulates basic requirements on NORM&TENORM waste
management, which can be summarized as the followings: waste generators are responsible fortaking effective measurements to manage NORM&TENORM waste; necessary facilities for waste
management shall be set up;discharging of gaseous and liquid effluents should not exceed thelimitation approved by regulatory bodies; environmental impact assessment files should besubmitted and approved before constructing disposal facilities of NORM&TENORM solid waste;
for NORM&TENORM solid waste or residues already existed, remediation measurements
should betaken; status of radioactivity in the environment should be assessed before closure anddecommissioning of waste generating facilities; and reuse and recycle of NORM&TENORM
waste shall be reviewed and approved by regulatory bodies.
“Activity concentration for material not requiring radiological regulation”(GB 277422011) stipulates that activities involving natural radionuclides in materials with an activity
concentration of less than or equal to 1Bq/g are generally not subject to radiation protection
regulation, provided that the legitimacy of the declared activity is confirmed.
In March 2020, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment issued the “Technical specificationsof radiation environmental protection for other radioactive material’s storage and solid waste’s
landfill (Trial)”(HJ 1114-2020). To specify the radiation environmental protection principles andgeneral technical requirements to be observed by the waste landfills of rare earth,niobium/tantalum, zirconium and zirconia, tin, lead/zinc, copper and other NORM industrial
activities. Among them, for the disposal of uranium (thorium) series single nuclide activity
concentration greater than 400 Bq/g NORM waste, more stringent environmental protection
measures should be taken according to the actual situation.
Other standards include “Format and content of acceptane monitoring report of radiation
environmental protection for completion of development and utilization project of other41

Chinaradioactive mines”(HJ1148-2020), “Limit standards for 226Ra in phosphate fertilizer and its
compound fertilizer”(GB8921-2011), “Emission standards of pollutants from rare earths
industry”(GB26451-2011), “Limits of radionuclides in building materials”(GB6566-2010), and“Limitation concentration of natural radioactivity in non-ferrous metal ores and concentrates
products”(GB20664-2006).

3.4 Issues related to NORM&TENORM
Although China has been concerned about the radiation effects of NORM activities andNORM waste for nearly 40 years, and has carried out the investigation of radioactivity levels andthe construction of regulations and standards, there are still various issues that need to be addressed,
mainly including:(1) The source item of waste is unclear, and there are difficulties in classification of storage
and disposal. Because NORM waste involves many industries, a wide range, and the compositionand level of nuclide are not fixed, although China has carried out a large number of investigations,
including the first national survey of pollution sources, the second national survey of pollution
sources and other special investigations, but at present, it is not completely accurate and clear tograsp the key indicators of waste distribution, quantity, type, and level of nuclide, which causes
difficulties in management. Due to the large amount of NORM waste and the extremely long halflife of the major nuclides it contains, disposal policies and technologies are still in the research
stage. The cost of sending radioactive solid waste disposal sites is high, and the waste is difficult
to dispose in time. At present, the main outlet of NORM waste is: return to the raw material,disposal in the tailings pond or pile up, open stacking, etc., there are great security risks.
(2) Lack of risk assessment method, hierarchical management system has not been established.
NORM waste mainly contains natural radionuclides, considering its inherent safety, poor
accessibility to personnel, and predictable way and frequency of exposure to the public, according
to international requirements and practices, such waste disposal should be implemented on a riskbased level management. Hierarchical management can be applied to the level of detail inradiation regulation methods, disposal routes and safety assessments. From the perspective ofregulatory methods, it is divided into exemption, notification, filing and licensing. From theperspective of disposal route, it can be divided into exemption, unconditional clearance, landfill
disposal of general waste, NORM waste special disposal facility, radioactive waste disposal
facility, etc. From the point of view of safety evaluation, generally, modular parameters, scenariosand models can be used to carry out evaluation, and the complexity of evaluation methods shouldmatch the degree of risks. At present, the technical foundation of radioactive waste disposal risk
assessment in China is weak, the lack of relevant practice and consensus, the hierarchicalmanagement system can not be established, it is difficult to improve the economy of disposal on42Chinathe premise of ensuring safety, and the timely disposal of NORM waste has brought adverse
effects.

43

Indonesia

4 INDONESIA
4.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
All minerals and raw materials contain radionuclides of natural origin (decay series of U238, Th-232, and K-40). Material giving rise to significantly enhanced exposures has become
known as naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM).
Indonesia has 2 terms related to the NORM, i.e., NORM and TENORM. NORM comesfrom nature without technology, and TENORM (Technologically Enhanced Naturally
Occurring Radioactive Materials) comes from industrial activities.
In this report, we present the current status of TENORM in Indonesia.
Some sources of TENORM in Indonesia are coming from :a. Metal Extraction and Processing: Tin (No. 2 in the world), Nickel (No.2 in theworld), Copper (No. 4 in the world)b. Oil and Gas Industryc. Coal Electricity Generationd. The phosphate industry
e. Water Treatment
f. Geothermal Energy Generation
g. Iron and Steel Production
h. Scrap Metal Recyclingi. Alumina Production
j. The zircon and zirconia industries
The TENORM data are primarily from metal extraction and processing, the oil and gas
industry, and coal electricity generation. The Tin industry of Indonesia is the second largest
production of tin in the world.
Table 1. TENORM inventory of �n industry in Bangka Island.
No.

Material
Name

Estimated
Production

Radionuclide concentration (Bq/kg)(tons/year)

Ra-226

Th-232K-40

1.

Refined tin

64,000

< LLD

< LLD

< LLD

2.

Slag

31,5003,364 – 6,123

1,585 – 16,431

3,602 – 8,714

3.

Zircon17,0004,675 – 12,641

1,280 – 12,958

101 – 942

4.

Ilmenite

67,0004,450 – 5,629

3,313 – 15,513

220 – 570

44

Indonesia

5.

Monazite

17,00014,568 – 31,027

23,214 – 152,639

1,705 – 9,687

6.

Waste of tin

33,0003,390 – 6,004

5,451 – 10,144

390 – 663

tailing
industry

From the inventory, it concluded that the TENORM concentration in tin mining/processing
is very high (>> 1 Bg/g)

Figure 1. Elements concentra�on of TENORM residue from post-�n mining/processing
The elements concentration of post-tin mining/processing as TENORM residue in the formof monazite and tin slag contains uranium, thorium, and critical elements, which are still ofhigh value (Figure 1). The content of elements that have economic value is still in the effort as
research material for their extraction to achieve a circular economy.

45

Indonesia

Figure 2. Pilot Plant of Separa�on Uranium, Thorium and Rare Earth (BRIN) and RE
concentrate product (insert)
The development of monazite processing technology using the alkaline method has been
carried out on a pilot scale with the establishment of a pilot plant for processing monazite into
REE hydroxide at KST GA Siwabessy – BRIN, Lebak Bulus, South Jakarta (Figure 2). Thispilot plant has a processing capacity of 50 kg monazite/batch. A series of experiments can
produce REE hydroxide/carbonate products with a content of 80% and a radioactive content ofless than 100 ppm.
To downstream monazite processing results, REE hydroxide concentrate processing
technology has also been developed to separate REE elements. R&D activities carried out at
KSE Baiquni – BRIN Babarsari, Yogyakarta, have produced summary process technology forthe elements cerium (Ce), Lanthanum (La), and Neodymium (Nd). The summary technology
for the three REE elements has also been carried out on a pilot scale with a processing capacityof 10 kg REE hydroxide/batch. The products produced are cerium oxide (CeO2) 96%,
lanthanum oxide (La2O3) 96%, and Nd hydroxide concentrate (Nd(OH)3) 58%.

4.2 Management of TENORM
The procedures of TENORM Management in Indonesia, in general, the company generated
TENORM should conduct a radiological study to know what kind of radiation protection
should be applied. If there are any contaminated sites, they will ask to make a clean-up forthese sites. The TENORM residues/wastes would be stored at their interim storage.
4.2.1 Radiological Assessment

46

Indonesia

Oil and gas companies that have been surveyed for TENORM in Indonesia are commonlyin the big island of Indonesia archipelago such as Sumatera Island, Java Island, Borneo Island
and Papua Island. The oil and gas companies that have been surveyed are domestic companies
and also foreign companies. A map of the locations of oil and gas companies that have beensurveyed for TENORM can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Oil and gas companies that have been surveyed for TENORM.
A radiological assessment is then carried out in the surveyed area by measuring the total
level of radiation dose, both internal and external. An example of estimated total dose fromexternal and internal radiation at one oil and gas company is presented in the Table 2.
Table 2. Total Eﬀec�ve Dose
No.

Site

Area

Location

Total Effective
Dose (μSv/a)

1.

CPU

PWT

Tank T-5310, T-5320, T-5330

2.

CPU

BunkerBunker 1

883

3.

CPA

PWT

Tank T-760

59 – 235

4.

HandilHTS

External cleaning box

943 – 1887

5.

HandilPWT

Front Mushola Tank T-2, T-3, T-5

255 – 1050

6.

BSP

TPA

Decreasing boot Around V-2700

197 – 1181

7.

BSP

TLA

Tank T-960, T-970, T-980, T-990,

498 – 4609

T-207047

371 – 1901

Indonesia

Decision making then conducted after the radiological assessment. The company makedecision to clean up the site according to the international regulation on the management of
TENORM.
Below is the map of the Coal Power Plant (CPP) surveyed by TENORM for a site cleanup.

Figure 4. Coal Power Plant (CPP) that have been surveyed TENORM.
After radiological mapping was carried out, the TENORM concentration content wasmeasured. TENORM concentration in fly ash are presented in the Table 3.
Table 3. TENORM concentra�on in ﬂy ash.
Sources

Concentration (Bq/kg)
Ra-226

Th-232

U-238

PLN, Paiton, East Java

42.62 ± 4.32

38.62 ± 3.92

17.14 ± 1.80

PLN, South Sulawesi

75.61 ± 7.86

44.28 ± 4.99

<1.00

PLN, North Sumatera

88.25 ± 8.95

88.39 ± 8.95

30.56 ± 3.55

PLN, Tj. Jati, Central Java

51.31 ± 5.12

56.83 ± 5.61

30.22 ± 3.24

KPC, East Kalimantan

50.11 ± 5.33

46.02 ± 4.90

21.72 ± 2.18

Radiological Assessment of Tin Industry: Radiological assessment at TIMAH Inc. and KOBATIN Inc.; Radiological assessment at some tin smelters;
 Radiological assessment in conventional Mining and industries;
48

Indonesia

 TENORM characterization at tin sand, tin residue, monazite, zircon, ilmenite, tin slag,
and waste.
Radiological assessment in other industries: TENORM characterization and radiological assessment at phosphate industry in Gresik,
East Java; TENORM characterization and radiological assessment at incandescent gas mantle(Welsbach mantle) industry in Tangerang TENORM Characterization in the Drinking Water Industry
 TENORM Characterization in Geothermal Energy Generation
4.2.2 Clean Up / Remediation
Clean up / remediation for the contaminated area in Indonesia:
•
•
•
•
•

Clean Up of TENORM contaminated area at incandescent gas mantle (Welsbach
mantle) factory at Tangerang, Java Island.
Clean Up of TENORM contaminated area at Chevron oil and gas company at Jambi
Area, Sumatera Island.
Clean Up of TENORM contaminated area at Total Indonesie oil and gas company at
Senipah Area, East Kalimantan.
Clean Up of TENORM contaminated area at Phosphate Industry at Gresik, East Java.
Clean Up of TENORM at Pertamina ONWJ, Java Sea

Experience in the clean up in the oil and gas company•••

Stripping areas around Tank T-2070. TENORM may come from the sandblasting
activities to cleaning the tank as it used upper slag. The upper slag has a higher
radioactive content.
Found some sacks containing TENORM. Some sacks are still intact, and they are
already destroyed.
There is a TENORM depth of more than 75 cm.

49

Indonesia

Figure 5. Clean up ac�vi�es in the contaminate site of the oil and gas company.

(a)

(b)

Figure 6. Radiological map of the clean-up site. (a) before clean up; (b) a�er clean up.
4.2.3 Management of TENORM Residue
1) TENORM Residue from the incandescent gas mantle (Welsbach mantle) has been put
at Interim Storage in the Center for Radioactive Waste Technology – BATAN
2) TENORM Residue from remediation at Total Indonesie Oil and Gas Company has
been put in Interim Storage.
3) TENORM Residue from remediation at Chevron Jambi has been put in the BATAN
area as the TENORM laboratory.
4) TENORM-contaminated pipes have been put in field storage with Radiation Sign.
50

Indonesia5) TENORM Residue from the Phosphate Industry has been put in Interim Storage in theCenter for Radioactive Waste Technology – BATAN.
6) The Tin Industry has residues with high radionuclide concentrations. Sometechnologies have separated the residues to get Monazite, Zircon, Ilmenite, etc. Zircon
and ilmenite could be sold in the market, and monazite with high concentrations ofthorium, uranium, and rare earth elements (REE) becomes the strategy materials.
BATAN (now BRIN) has the facility to separate thorium, uranium, and rare earth
concentrate (RE hidroxide/carbonate). RE concentrate would be separated into elements such
as Lanthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium, Neodymium, etc., in different pilot plant.
4.2.4 Management of TENORM Waste
Based on Indonesian government regulations related to TENORM waste management,
TENORM waste is included in the hazardous waste category which contains radioactivity. The
final management for this waste is landfill or disposal and a minimum of landfill class II.
BATAN (now BRIN) is currently researching the prospective sites and design for TENORM
waste disposal in Bangka and Belitung Island.

Figure 7. A poten�al area for Tenorm landﬁll in Bangka Island.

51

Indonesia

4.3 Regulatory Base or Framework

Figure 8. Hierarchy of TENORM legisla�on in Indonesia.

o Interventional Level in Indonesia could be expressed in terms of:a. The amount or quantity of TENORM is at least 2 tons andb. Contamination level equal to or more than 1 Bq / cm2; and /or activity concentrationof:• 1 Bq/gr for each radionuclide in the uranium and thorium series or• 10 Bq/gr for potassium.
o The TENORM producer should perform a radiation safety analysis of TENORM.
o The radiation safety analysis for TENORM includes at least the following:a. types and processes of activities carried out;b. TENORM quantity;
c. types and concentration levels of radionuclides; andd. Highest radiation exposure and/or contamination on the TENORM surface.
o Radiation safety analysis would be assessed by the Regulatory Body (BAPETEN). If theassessment shows the Intervention Level is exceeded, the TENORM Producer should
implement the interventional measures.

4.4

Issues related to TENORM

The issues related to TENORM in Indonesia are:52

Indonesia

1) Regulation. Due to the conflicting and inconsistent norms in some regulations inIndonesia, coordination among authorities is necessary to establish the national system of
TENORM management in Indonesia. Moreover, the considerable amount of TENORM
that comes from activities in the past and the national geographical location of Indonesia
as an archipelagic country also give more challenges to control the TENORM. Besides
that, new regulations on TENORM should be based on a graded approach;2) Radiation Protection. Workers in industry-generated TENORM still have low knowledgeof radiation protection;3) Decontamination. Techniques for decontamination of TENORM-contaminated goods orequipment;4) Circular Economy. Circular economy of TENORM residues;
5) Interim Storage. Interim storage of TENORM residue/waste has a minimal area with poor
quality;6) Disposal. Indonesia has no final disposal for TENORM waste.

53

Japan5 JAPAN
5.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
The information in this chapter is extracted from the document "Exemption from regulationof natural radioactive substances" [Radiation Council MEXT Japan, 2003], which is related to
NORM sources.
5.1.1 Overview
The UNSCEAR 2000 Report and RP-122 provide information on radioactivity levels forminerals and other materials containing natural radioactive materials.
According to RP-122, it has been shown that not only those with originally highradioactivity levels that may exceed the BSS exemption level, but also those with low
radioactivity levels may unintentionally increase the ratio of uranium and thorium in theresidues and by-products produced in the process of extracting useful materials, resulting inconcentrations that exceed the BSS exemption level. It is believed that the resulting
concentrations may exceed the BSS exemption levels. In addition, many of these minerals andother materials are present in the living environment as general consumer goods (products)
after being chemically and physically processed.
Therefore, a survey was conducted by the Nuclear Safety Division (Nuclear Regulation
Office and Radiation Regulation Office) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Scienceand Technology (MEXT) on operations and general consumer goods that handle materials
containing naturally radioactive materials. This survey was conducted for the purpose of
preparing basic data for considering policies for regulatory exemptions.
5.1.2 Industrial use(1)

Overview

Japan is dependent on imports from overseas for raw materials used in its industrial
activities, with the largest imports amounting to over 100 million tons per year. These industrial
activities have a long history. The survey covered monazite, phosphate, titanium ore,bastnaesite, and zircon, which are considered to have relatively high concentrations of naturalradioactive materials among the ores used in industry, as well as coal, which is imported inlarge quantities, and samarium oxide, whose concentration as a single metal exceeds the BSS
exemption level.
Air radiation dose rates were measured using a NaI(Tl) scintillation survey meter . The
radioactivity concentrations of uranium, thorium, and samarium in the collected samples were54

Japanmeasured using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS), and the specificactivities of U-238, Th-232, and Sm-147 were determined by multiplying the specific activityof each nuclide. The doses from those containing uranium and thorium were calculated fromthe air radiation dose rate, etc., and those containing samarium were calculated from theradioactivity concentration in the air, etc.
(2)

Results of the survey

As a result of the investigation, if 1 Bq/g, which is the BSS exemption level for Th-232
series nuclides and U-238 series nuclides (as Th-232 and U-238, respectively) and 0.5 Bq/g for
RP-122 are assumed as reference values for the radioactivity concentration of raw ore, thoseexceeding these values were found in monazite, phosphate ore, zircon and samples collectedfrom the Bastnesite plant. Only samples from Jordan and Morocco exceeded the reference
value for phosphate. This indicates that there are differences in radioactivity concentrations
depending on the producing country. Monazite, zircon, and bastnaesite are not chemicallytreated, so the chemical composition of the raw materials remains unchanged, or they are mixed
with other substances and sold as products on the market. The waste generated in the processof each ore is treated as industrial waste, but none of the waste was found to exceed theguideline values due to dilution in the process.
As a result of the measurement of the air radiation dose rate, even if the radioactivity
concentration of the raw ore was low, there were cases where the radiation dose rate wasrelatively high, such as several μSv/h at a distance of 1 m from the object due to the adhesionof can stones (scale)f during the process. However, the maximum annual external radiationdose to workers is about 0.40 mSv/year at the product storage area at the Bastone site,
considering the actual working hours. It is estimated that the inhalation of dust is small because
workers wear masks for dust control when handling powdered materials such as raw material
powder. In addition, the air radiation dose rate at the site boundary is equivalent to the national
natural radiation dose rate of 0.004 to 0.11 μSv/h (excluding cosmic rays), and is not considered
to pose a particular safety problem to the general public.
Samarium oxide is imported from China, France, and other countries at a rate of about 100
tons per year. Some of it is processed into ceramics materials, and the remainder is metallized
to form alloys with cobalt and other materials to be used as raw materials for magnets. Magnets
are used in various fields. Samarium contains Sm-147, a naturally occurring radionuclide thatemits only alpha rays, so internal exposure must be considered. During the production processof alloys and magnets, there are processes that generate dust, such as crushing and sintering.
Therefore, the airborne concentration in the work area in each process was measured and theeffective dose due to samarium was calculated. As a result, the annual effective dose due tosamarium was about 10-380 μSv when the particle size of the dust was between 1-50 μm,
55Japanassuming a breathing rate of 1.2 m3/hour and an annual work time of 2,000 hours. This iscalculated based on conservative assumptions, and the dose would be even lower if anassessment is made taking into account the wearing of masks (protection factor of masks: andactual working hours, etc. For these reasons, it is unlikely that the annual dose will exceed 1
mSv.
Table 1 shows the results of the survey on the actual utilization of ores containing uranium
and thorium. The monazite listed in this table is regulated as a nuclear raw material by the Law
Concerning Regulation of Nuclear Source Material, Nuclear Fuel Material and Reactors(hereinafter referred to as “Nuclear Reactor Regulation Law”). The monazite listed in this table
is subject to regulation under the Law Concerning Regulation of Nuclear Source Materials,
Nuclear Fuel Materials and Reactors (hereinafter referred to as “Nuclear Reactor RegulationLaw”). Table 2 shows the actual usage of samarium and the results of exposure assessment.
Although some of the plants had experience in conducting nuclide analysis of raw materials,
etc. in the past, with the exception of titanium ore, no facility response or continuous analysis
based on the assumption that naturally radioactive materials are contained has been conducted.

MineralsMonazite

Phosphateore

Titaniumore

Bastnesite

ZirconAnnualimports(producing
country)
10 t c.a.
(Vietnam,
Malaysia)

0.9 Mt c.a.
(China,Morocco,Jordan,South
Africa, etc.)

Table 1. Results of a survey on the actual utilization of ores
containing uranium and thorium
Monazite
warehouse

0.3(at productmanufacturing
site)(annualworking hours:
360 h c.a.,dose rate*4 atworkplace: 0.75
μSv/h)
0.3(at phosphate
ore warehouse)(annualworking hours:
1600 h c.a.,dose rate*4 atworkplace: 0.18
μSv/h)

Nuclideanalysis *1
Samples

Spa bathelements,
paints

Sandy monazite
is crushed andprocessed, andused as raw
material for
health products,
paints and spa
bath elements

MonaziteAmmonium
phosphate(gypsum,
fluorite,sodiumsilicofluoride)

Phosphate ore isdecomposed withsulfuric acid toobtainphosphoric acidand gypsum.
Ammonia isreacted with thisphosphoric acidto produce
ammonium
phosphate.

Phosphateore (Jordan)
Phosphateore (Morocco)
Phosphateore (China)

0.74

0.00781.2

0.00840.10

0.0019Concentrated
phosphoric
acid

0.8

0.0038Ammonium
phosphate
Titanium ore(South Africa)

0.73

0.0044

0.074
～
0.44

0.13
～0.16

Product
warehouse
Raw ore yard
(South Africa)

Titanium
dioxideproducts
Industrial
waste

0.018

0.0013

Static tank

0.21

0.23

Industrial
waste yard

Surface：0.30
1m：0.15

Bastnesite
raw material
Separated
solids fromfiltration
Abrasive
products

1.1

5.8

1.0

4.9

Raw material
storage area
Raw material
hopper

Surface：1.9
1m：0.6
Surface：2.0
1m：0.101.4

7.1

Product
storage area

Surface：3.6
1m：0.88

Raw material(zircon sand)

4.2

0.77

Raw material
yard (zircon
flour forSurface：2.7
1m：1.0Titanium
dioxide(Gypsum, ironoxide)

2-3 kt c.a.
(USA)

Abrasivematerials

70 kt c.a.
(SouthAfrica,Exposure dose
assessment(mSv/y)Processes

0.4 Mt c.a.
(SouthAfrica,India,
Vietnam,
Australia,
Canada,etc.)

Refractory

Titanium ore isdecomposed byadding sulfuric
acid. After this,titanium dioxide
is produced
throughprocesses suchas standing,filtration,
calcination, anddrying.
Bastnesite iscrushed in a wet
grinder, thenfiltered, dried,
roasted, crushed,
and classified to
produce theabrasive.
Zircon isweighed,kneaded,Concentrations（Bq/g）
UTh238
232
40
300*3
c.a.
c.a.

Ambient dose rate*2(μSv/h)

Product(by-product)

Product
manufacturing
site

56

Phosphate ore
warehouse

Phosphate ore
storage
Phosphateliquid factorytanks

Surface: 100(Th 7%
concentration)
1 m: 0.8

Surface：0.32-0.46
1 m:
0.19-0.22
Floor surface:
0.26
1 m: 0.17
Surface: 4.6

Surface：0.05
1 m: 0.05
Surface：0.20～0.40
1m：
0.15～0.25
Surface：0.30
1m：0.150.27(at raw oreyard) (annual
working hours:
1400 h c.a.,dose rate*4 atworkplace: 0.19
μSv/h)

0.40(at productstorage area)(annualworking hours:
480 h c.a.,dose rate*4 atworkplace: 0.84
μSv/h)
0.14(at productstorage area)

JapanAustralia,
etc.)

Coal

0.155 Gt
c.a.
(Australia,
China,
Indonesia,
Canada,etc.)

molded, dried,
and fired to
producerefractory bricks

Fly ash,clinker

Coal is burned ina boiler andclinker isrecovered fromthe bottom of theboiler and fly ash
from the dust
collector.

Refractory
bricks (100%zircon)Dustcollection for
temporary
waste storage
Coal (China)

refractory
bricks)Zircon content
80% refractory

3.5

0.81

Surface：1.8
1m：1.2

0.17

0.037

Temporary
waste storagearea

1m：0.15

0.015

0.018

Coal storage
area
Clinker
warehouse
Ash dumpingarea

Surface：0.03
1m：0.03
Surface：0.15
1m：0.15
Surface：0.15
1m：0.10(annualworking hours:
120 h c.a.,dose rate*4 atworkplace: 1.13
μSv/h)

0.13(at clinker
warehouse)
Clinker
0.097
0.072(annualworking hours:
Fly ash0.095
0.091
1100 h c.a.,dose rate*4 atworkplace: 0.12
μSv/h)(Survey by the Nuclear Regulation Office, Nuclear Safety Division, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2003)*1: Samples with relatively high radioactivity concentrations in the ore-by-ore survey are listed as representative.
*2: The locations where relatively high air radiation dose rates were measured in the ore-by-ore survey were represented. The "1 m" indicates the air radiation dose rate at
a distance of 1 m from the object.
*3: The concentration of thorium exceeds 370 Bq/g and the quantity exceeds 900 g, and is therefore subject to the regulation.
*4: The value obtained by subtracting the background (measured value at the site boundary) from the air radiation dose rate at a distance of 1 m from the object.

Table 2. Samarium usage and exposure assessment results
Substance

Importquantity(Countryof origin）

Products

Samarium

100 t c.a.
(China,France）

Magnets,
ceramics

Process

Airborne concentration

Internal exposure assessment (μSv/y)Particle size 1μm
Particle size
50μm
Without
With
Without
With
mask
mask
mask
mask
67
6.7
10
1.0

Samarium is used to
Alloy
Airborne
produce ceramic
production site
concentration：materials from
3.1×10-9
samarium oxide andBq/cm3to make alloys withmagnetAirborne
380
5.9
59
cobalt and othermanufacturingconcentration：-8
metals fromsite
1.7×10samarium metal to
Bq/cm3produce magnets(Survey by the Nuclear Regulation Office, Nuclear Safety Division, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2003)

5.1.3 General consumer goods(1) Overview
Minerals containing naturally radioactive materials are chemically or physically processed
and used in many living environments as general consumer goodsg. Their uses are diverse,
ranging from those that we do not come into contact with in our daily lives, such as ship-bottom
paints and catalysts for automobile mufflers, to those that we come into physical contact within our daily lives, such as clothing and bedding. In terms of external exposure, there are items
such as wallpapers and paints, which have a high radioactivity concentration per unit weight
but a low dose per unit area when applied to walls, etc., and items such as decorative items,
which have a low radioactivity concentration but local exposure should be considered.
Therefore, a sample analysis survey was conducted for the main items among these general
consumer goods, and exposure assessments under normal use were conducted for some of them.
(2) Results of the survey
The radioactivity concentrations of Th-232 and U-238 were determined by measuring theuranium and thorium content of the samples using an inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometer (ICP-MS) and multiplying by the specific activity of each nuclide. As a result of
the analytical investigation, some general consumer goods were found to exceed the BSS
exemption level. The external doses for the users were calculated using a calculation code57

Japanbased on a model of the normal conditions of use of the consumer goods, the time of use, andthe sources.
As a result of the exposure assessment, the external exposure doses for users are 110
μSv/year for radon hot spring bath elements, 220 μSv/year for underwear, 90 μSv/year forbedding, and 10 μSv/year for wallpaper, and the external exposure doses for users are notconsidered to exceed or to be close to 1 mSv/year. However, if a user uses several general
consumer goods at the same time, the user may receive a dose of several hundred μSv/year.
The results of the analysis of radioactivity concentrations in general consumer goods areshown in Table 3.
Table 3. Analysis results of radioactivity concentration in general consumer goods
Samples

Analysis results（radioactivity concentrations :Bq/g）
U-238

Th-232

34

270

12

81

10

81

1.7-8.8

12-71

5.4

34

2.9-3.5

0.49-0.57

3.3

210

1

8.8

0.011-0.94

0.093-8.5

Deodorant paint

0.4-0.82

2.9-5.5

Socks (kneaded into fiber)

0.7

6.2

0.67

5.4

0.085-0.42

0.63-6.2

0.043-0.26

0.01-2.3

0.2

0.7

Radon Hot Spring BathElement A
Ship Bottom Paint
Radon hot spring bathelement B
Bracelets and necklaces(ceramic)
Health appliances(powdered)Refractory materials,
refractory bricks
Muffler catalyst
Clothing(kneaded into fiber)
Supporters, wristbands(kneaded into fibers)

Sheets(kneaded into fibers)
Shoe insoles(powder incorporated)
Bedding(kneaded into fiber)
Abrasives

58

JapanPhosphate fertilizer

0.038-0.073

0.0014-0.0015

Sinter0.00084-0.012

0.00081-0.029(Survey by Nuclear Safety Technology Center and others, 2002)

5.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
The information in this chapter is extracted from the document " Guideline for Ensuring
Safety of Raw Materials and Products Containing Uranium or Thorium” [MEXT, 2009], whichis related to NORM management.
5.2.1 Position and outline of guidelines(1) Purpose of guidelines
To reduce the health risk of getting exposed to unnecessary radiation at the time of handlingraw materials and products that contain uranium or thorium, the manufacturers and importers
who are required to conduct self management and measures to be taken by them are specified
concerning the following matters:(i) Ensure safety by reducing unnecessary radiation exposure of workers at production
establishments and residents living in the vicinity.
(ii) Ensure safety by reducing unnecessary radiation exposure of users from consumer
goods.
(2) Self management by manufacturers and importers
MEXT’s Subcommittee on Safety Regulations for Research Reactors, etc. madediscussions about a desirable safety management concerning the use of NORM in the future,
and a report was prepared by the Subcommittee concerning “Desirable Safety Regulations for
Test and Research Reactor Facilities, etc.” in January 2005. The report suggested, concerning
the safety management involved in the use of NORM, that it should be appropriate to develop
guidelines with reference to the General Administrative Group Report and opinions ofknowledgeable persons, rather than immediately introducing regulation under the law, and thento require manufacturers and importers who handle NORM to conduct self management basedon the guidelines.
For these reasons, those companies and industries that handle raw materials and productsthat contain uranium or thorium, among NORM, are expected to make effective use of theguidelines for ensuring safety, including reduction in exposure to unnecessary radiation.
(3) Description of guidelines

59

JapanThe guidelines are composed of the six steps mentioned below, including theidentification of targeted manufacturers and importers, provision of information andrecording (see Table 4).
Description (1) presents the measures to be taken by targeted manufacturers engaged in
the manufacturing industry, and Description (2) presents the measures to be taken by targeted
manufacturers and importers of consumer goods. The details of respective descriptions are
mentioned in sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.3. The manufacturers that produce consumer goods are
required to take the measures prescribed in both Description (1) and Description (2).
Moreover, among those who have permission to use nuclear fuel materials and those who
made notification to use nuclear raw materials, the manufacturers that produce consumer
goods or industrial products are subject to the guidelines, and they are required to take themeasures prescribed in Description (1) or Description (2), in addition to the obligationsprescribed by the Reactor Regulation Law.
Table 4. Respective steps mentioned in the guidelines

PurposeStep 1

Description (1)Description (2)Measures to be taken by targeted manufacturers

Measures to be taken by targeted manufacturers

engaged in the manufacturing industry

and importers of consumer goods(See 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 for further details)(See 2.2.2 and 2.2.4 for further details)

Ensure safety by reducing unnecessary radiation

Ensure safety by reducing unnecessary radiation

exposure of workers at production establishments

exposure of users at the time of use of consumer

and residents living in the vicinity.

goods (excluding interim products, etc.).

[Identification of targeted manufacturers][Identification of targeted manufacturers and

Identify targeted manufacturers based on theimporters]

information about the types of raw materials to be

Identify targeted manufacturers and importers

used in processing and the radioactivity

based on the information about the types of raw

concentration of uranium or thorium.

materials contained in products and theradioactivity concentration and quantity of uraniumor thorium, and on how products are used.

Step 2

Step 3[Measurement of radiation dose rate][Measurement of radiation dose rate]

The targeted manufacturers identified by Step 1

The targeted manufacturers and importers

should measure radiation dose rates of their work

identified by Step 1 should measure the radiation

environments (raw materials, wastes, products,

dose rates of consumer goods by using surveyetc.) by using survey meters.

meters.

[Evaluation of exposure dose][Evaluation of exposure dose]

Calculate the exposure doses of workers andCalculate the exposure doses of users based onresidents in the vicinity based on the results of

the results of measurement of radiation dose rates

measurement of radiation dose rates as prescribedas prescribed in Step 2.

in Step 2.
Step 4[Measures to reduce radiation exposure][Measures to reduce radiation exposure]60

JapanStep 5

Step 6

Take necessary measures to reduce exposure

Take necessary measures to reduce exposure

doses if radiation exposure is estimated to exceed

doses if radiation exposure is estimated to exceed

1 mSv/year.

1 mSv/year.

[Provision of information][Provision of information]

Provide information to the destination to which

Provide and present information to consumer

interim products, etc. are shipped.

goods users.

[Production of records and education][Production of records]

Produce and save necessary records and conduct

Produce and save necessary records.

necessary education programs.

5.2.2 Manufacturers and importers subject to guidelines
Of the details of the guidelines as mentioned in 2.2 1(3) “Description of guidelines”, Step
1 “Identification of targeted manufacturers and importers” in Table 4 is explained in thissection. The flow chart to identify targeted manufacturers and importers is shown in Figs. 2
and 3.
It should be noted, however, that the concentration and quantity of radioactivity mentioned
in this section serve as indicative values to guarantee that exposure doses are kept at 1
mSv/year8 or lower and strict application thereof is not necessarily required.
(1) Targeted manufacturers engaged in the manufacturing industry
The targeted manufacturers engaged in the manufacturing industry should be thosemanufacturers (including individuals) who possess the production establishments that satisfy
Conditions 1 and 2 as described below:
Condition 1: Production establishments where specified raw materials are used as raw
materials and processed into interim products, etc. or consumer goods, orwhere interim products, etc. that are processed by using specified raw materials
are used as raw materials and processed into other interim products, etc. or
consumer goods
Condition 2: Production establishments where specified raw materials or interim products,
etc., of which the radioactivity concentration of natural uranium or thorium
may exceed 1 Bq/g or that of refined uranium or thorium may exceed 10 Bq/g,
are used as raw materials and processed* “Specified raw materials” are defined in (5) of section 2.4 “Definition of terms andcommentary”, “interim products, etc.” are defined in (8) of the same section,and “consumer goods” are defined in (9) of the same section.
(i) Condition 1
61

JapanThe typical flows of specified raw materials and interim products, etc. are shown in
Fig. 1.
Those manufacturers who process specified raw materials and interim products, etc.
process specified raw materials themselves as raw materials (primary processing) in one
case and process interim products, etc. that are processed by using specified raw materials
as raw materials (n-th processing) in other case. The guidelines cover both of the twocases.
Interim products, etc. should include those that are recycled from wastes produced at
the time of processing and reused for other processing. Manufacturers who process
imported specified raw materials and imported interim products, etc. are, of course,
subject to the guidelines.
(ii) Condition 2
As mentioned in (8) of section 2.4 “Definition of terms and commentary”, thespecified raw materials and interim products, etc., which contain natural uranium or
thorium and of which the radioactivity concentration of uranium or thorium is 1 Bq/g orlower, and which contain refined uranium or thorium and of which the radioactivity
concentration is 10 Bq/g or lower, are not subject to the guidelines.
It is desirable for each of the industrial associations concerned to specify the raw
materials that are used in respective industries concerned and have a possibility ofexceeding these radioactivity concentrations, and provide such information to theirmember companies.
(iii) Others
Those manufacturers who use the materials that contain uranium or thorium, of
which the radioactivity concentration and quantity require notification and permission
under the Reactor Regulation Law, become subject to the Act, and are required to takemeasures based on laws and regulations as a necessary premise. Those manufacturers
subject to the Act are also required to implement the matters mentioned in the guidelines
together with the measures based on laws and regulations.

62

JapanImporterSpecified raw
materials

Roughly less than
1 mSv/y is confirmed

Primary
processing

N thprocessing

Interimproducts, etc.

WastesN thprocessing

Final disposal
Recycled
products

Interimproducts, etc.

ImporterConsumer
goods

General consumers

The mentioned with in double-lined
section are subject to the guidelines.

Fig. 1. Flow of specified raw materials and interim products, etc. (pattern diagram)
5.2.3 Targeted manufacturers and importers of consumer goods
The targeted manufacturers and importers of consumer goods (excluding interim products,etc.) are those (including individuals) who manufacture or import those consumer goods thatsatisfy Conditions 1 and 2 as described below:
Condition 1: Those consumer goods that are manufactured from specified raw materials orinterim products, etc. that are processed by using specified raw materials or thatare imported, and that are used in contact with or close (within one meter) tohuman bodies
Condition 2: In the case of consumer goods that contain natural uranium or thorium, those
consumer goods whose radioactivity concentration of uranium or thorium may
exceed 1 Bq/g and whose quantity thereof may exceed 8,000 Bq. In the case of
consumer goods that contain refined uranium or thorium, those consumer goods
whose radioactivity concentration may exceed 10 Bq/g and whose quantity
thereof may exceed 80,000 Bq.

63

Japan* “Specified raw materials” are defined in (5) of section 2.4 “Definition of terms andcommentary”, “interim products, etc.” aredefined in (8) of section 2.4, and “consumer goods” are defined in (9) of section 2.4.
(i) Condition 1
As for consumer goods, as there is almost no possibility of radiation exposure of morethan 1 mSv/year, except for the case where such goods are used in contact with or close tohuman bodies, only those consumer goods that are used in contact with or close to humanbodies are made subject to the guidelines.
(ii) Condition 2
The quantity of uranium or thorium contained in consumer goods is much smaller thanthat of specified raw materials and interim products, etc. handled in large quantities on anindustrial scale. Therefore, if it is obvious that the quantity of uranium or thorium is less thana certain quantity, it is considered reasonable to make such consumer goods not subject to theguidelines.
For consumer goods, therefore, the standards for the quantity of radioactivity should be
stipulated, as is the case with (1) of this section, in addition to the standards for radioactivity
concentration.
The concentration and quantity of radioactivity of consumer goods should be measured
and analyzed in the shapes they are used in ordinary households.
(iii) Others
Those consumer goods that contain uranium or thorium, of which the radioactivity
concentration and quantity require notification and permission under the Reactor Regulation
Law, become subject to the Act, and measures based on laws and regulations should be taken
as a necessary premise. Even in the case of consumer goods subject to the Act, the matters
mentioned in the guidelines should be implemented together with the measures based on laws
and regulations.

64

Japan[Specified raw materials](1) Ores and mineral sandMonazite, bastnaesite, zircon, tantalite,
phosphate ore, titanium ore (rutile andilmenite), uranium ore, thorium ore, andcoal ash(2) Metals, glass and others added withrefined uranium and thorium

Yes

Do you manufacture products from
specified raw materials as raw
materials?

Do you manufacture products frominterim products, etc. that areprocessed from specified raw
materials as raw materials?

Radioactivity concentrations(1 Bq/g and 10 Bq/g) are indicative values.

(1)

No

(2)

(1)

Is it possible for theNoradioactivity concentrationof uranium or thorium
contained in the specified
raw material to exceed
10 Bq/g?

No

Subject to the guidelines.
Take appropriate measures with reference to
2.2.3.

Which is the specified raw
material contained in interim
products, etc., (1) or (2)?

Is it possible for theradioactivity concentrationof uranium or thorium
contained in the specified
raw material to exceed
1 Bq/g?

Yes

Yes

Not subject tothe guidelines.

No

Yes

Which is your specified
raw material, (1) or (2)?

Is it possible for theradioactivity concentrationof uranium or thorium
contained in the specified
raw material to exceed
1 Bq/g?

No

Is it possible for theradioactivity concentrationof uranium or thorium
contained in the specified
raw material to exceed
10 Bq/g?

Yes
Not subject tothe guidelines.

(2)

Yes

Subject to the guidelines.
Take appropriate measures with reference to
2.2.3.

No
Not subject tothe guidelines.

Go to Fig. 3, if you manufacture consumer goods

Fig. 2. Flow chart to identify targeted manufacturers engaged in the manufacturing industryYes

Do you manufacture products from
specified raw materials as raw
materials?

Radioactivity concentrations (1 Bq/g
and 10 Bq/g) and radioactivity quantities(8,000 Bq and 80,000 Bq) are indicativevalues.

Do you manufacture products frominterim products, etc. that areprocessed from specified raw
materials as raw materials?

Are the consumer goods used incontact with or close to humanbodies?

Are the consumer goods used incontact with or close to humanbodies?

No

No

No

Yes

(1)

Which is your specified
raw material, (1) or (2)?

Is it possible for theradioactivity concentrationof uranium or thorium
contained in the consumer
goods to exceed 1 Bq/g
and for the radioactivity
quantity thereof to exceed
8,000 Bq?

No
Not subject tothe guidelines.

Yes

(2)

(1)

Is it possible for theNoradioactivity concentrationof uranium or thorium
contained in the consumer
goods to exceed 10 Bq/g
and for the radioactivity
quantity thereof to exceed
80,000 Bq?

No

Is it possible for theradioactivity concentrationof uranium or thorium
contained in the consumer
goods to exceed 1 Bq/g
and for the radioactivity
quantity thereof to exceed
8,000 Bq?

Yes

Yes

Subject to the guidelines.
Take appropriate measures with reference to
2.2.4.

Which is the specified raw
material contained in interim
products, etc., (1) or (2)?

Not subject tothe guidelines.

(2)

Is it possible for theradioactivity concentrationof uranium or thorium
contained in the consumer
goods to exceed 10 Bq/g
and for the radioactivity
quantity thereof to exceed
80,000 Bq?

Yes

Subject to the guidelines.
Take appropriate measures with reference to
2.2.4.

No
Not subject tothe guidelines.

Fig. 3. Flow chart to identify targeted manufacturers and importers of consumer goods

65

Japan5.2.4 Measurement of radiation dose rates at production establishments,
exposure doses and measures for improvement

evaluation ofThis section explains the measurement of radiation dose rates which is conducted by thetargeted manufacturers engaged in the manufacturing industry outside the boarders of
production establishments that handle specified raw materials or interim products, etc. that areprocessed by using specified raw materials (hereinafter referred to as “specified raw materials
and others” in this section and the following sections), as well as evaluation of exposure doses
and necessary measures for improvement.
Specified materials and others should be handled at places where sufficient ventilation canbe provided. Particularly in the case where dust can be generated, such measures as wearing
appropriate protective equipment such as masks and gloves should be taken.
(1) Measurement of radiation dose rates and evaluation of exposure doses(Step 2 and Step 3 in Table 4)
Targeted manufactures should conduct the measurement of radiation dose rates andevaluation of exposure doses with reference to “Appendix 1: Measurement method of radiationdose rates” and “Appendix 2: Evaluation of exposure doses.”(i) Evaluation of exposure doses of workers at production establishments
Conduct the measurement of radiation dose rates at workplaces (including waste storage
places) and calculate one-year exposure doses of workers in consideration of theirworking hours.
(ii) Evaluation of exposure doses of residents living in the vicinities of production
Establishments
Conduct the measurement of radiation dose rates on the borders of production
establishments and calculate one-year exposure doses of residents living in the vicinities
thereof.
(iii) Frequency of measurement of radiation dose rates and evaluation of exposure doses
The frequency of measurement is once a year in principle. In the following cases,
however, unscheduled measurement should be additionally conducted because of a
possibility of increase in exposure doses:
A) Increase in the total amount of specified raw materials and others

66

JapanB) Change in types, places of origin and suppliers of specified raw materials andothersC) Change in processes and specifications of equipment or productsD) Change in operating hours, workplaces or storage places of specified raw materials
and othersE) Change in borders of production establishments
F) Changes in method of handling wastes, including specified raw materials andothers(2) Measures for improvement to reduce exposure doses(Step 4 in Table 4)
In response to the results of evaluation of exposure doses as prescribed in (1) of this section,
the targeted manufacturers should take the following measures to reduce exposure doses:(i) In the case where the exposure doses of workers are estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year, thefollowing measures should be taken to keep their exposure doses at 1 mSv/year or lower:A) Reduce the amount of specified raw materials and others or products in storageB) Store wastes at several places rather than at one placeC) Shorten the time of being engaged in works
D) Build shields(ii) In the case where the exposure doses of residents living in and around the borders of
production establishments are estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year, the following measures
should be taken to keep their exposure doses at 1 mSv/year or lower:A) Reduce the amount of specified raw materials and others or products in storageat production establishmentsB) Keep places of storage or use away from the borders of production establishments
C) Build shields(3) Provision of information(Step 5 in Table 4)(i) The targeted manufacturers should provide the destinations to which interim products,
etc. are shipped with the following pieces of information about uranium or thorium
contained in the interim products, etc. for evaluation of exposure doses and safe
handling:A) Names of products and manufacturers
67

JapanB) Types of specified raw materials and others and places of origin (or places ofprocessing)C) Concentration and quantity of radioactivity of uranium or thorium contained in
productsD) Physicochemical properties of uranium or thoriumE) Cautions about handling and storage
F) Other necessary matters(ii) When the targeted manufacturers deliver wastes under their control to third parties todispose of them in landfills (including the case where wastes go through intermediate
treatment), they should confirm that the exposure doses at such third parties do not
exceed roughly 1 mSv/year9. In the case where the exposure doses at such third parties
are estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year or cannot be evaluated, wastes should not bedelivered to them.
(3) As for the time that is used to evaluate exposure doses, it is allowed to set a realistic accesstime and the period of 8,760 hours (24 hours x 365 days) does not need to be used at all time.
(4) Production of records and education(Step 6 in Table 4)
The targeted manufacturers should produce the following records and save them:(i) Records of measurement and evaluation
The records of measurement and evaluation should be saved with written information
about the date of measurement, name of the person who made the measurement, resultsof measurement, and the method and results of evaluation. The records should be saved
for five years.
(ii) Records of education
In the case where the exposure doses of workers are estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year
and the measures prescribed in (2) of this section are taken, the education programs
should be provided concerning the conditions of individual exposure, methods of
reduction in exposure and the handling of matters that contain uranium or thorium, andthe records of education should be saved. The records should be saved for three years.
5.2.5 Measurement of radiation dose rates at the time of use of consumer goods,
evaluation of exposure doses and measures for improvement

68JapanThis section discusses the measurement of radiation dose rates at the time of use of
consumer goods (excluding interim products, etc.), evaluation of exposure doses, and necessary
measures for improvement, which are conducted by the targeted manufacturers and importers.
(1) Measurement of radiation dose rates and evaluation of exposure doses(Step 2 and Step 3 in Table 4)(i) Evaluation of exposure doses of users
The targeted manufacturers and importers measure radiation dose rates at the positions
where consumer goods are used and calculate one-year exposure doses of users inconsideration of duration of use of consumer goods in a year. If radioactivity analysis
values are available, exposure doses may be evaluated by using the results of suchanalysis.
If consumer goods are in the form of powder and there is a possibility that such powder
be inhaled, the exposure doses of inhaled powder should also be evaluated.
As for the specific methods of measurement of radiation dose rates and evaluation of
exposure doses.
(ii) Frequency of measurement of radiation dose rates and evaluation of exposure doses
In the following cases, however, unscheduled measurement should be
additionally conducted because of possible increase in exposure doses:
A) Change in types of specified raw materials and others used as raw materials,
andplaces of origin and suppliers thereofB) Change in composition of specified raw materials and othersC) Change in utilization methods of consumer goods(2) Measures for improvement to reduce exposure doses(Step 4 in Table 4)
In the case where the result of evaluation of exposure doses of consumer goods users are
estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year in normal usage, the targeted manufacturers and importers
should take the following measures to reduce exposure doses of consumer goods and keep
exposure doses at 1 mSv/year or lower in normal usage. Even if exposure doses do not exceed

69

Japan

1 mSv/year, it is recommended to take such measures, when exposure doses can be reasonably
and easily reduced.
(i) Reduce the amount of specified raw materials and others that are used per unit ofconsumer goods(ii) Make improvements to limit the usage of consumer goods not to allow them to be
used in contact with or close to human bodies for a long period of time.
(3) Provision of information(Step 5 in Table 4)
In the case where the results of evaluation of exposure doses of consumer goods users are
estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year because of inappropriate usage such as the use thereof in excess
of appropriate time, the cautions and other information prescribed below should be indicatedon or attached to consumer goods. Attentions should be paid not to allow such indications tobe dropped off or unreadable at the time of use. However, as for those consumer goods forwhich such cautions cannot be indicated, information should be appropriately known by othermethods.
(i) The fact that consumer goods contain uranium or thorium(ii) The exposure dose per hour of use(iii) Cautions about handling to reduce exposure doses of users, etc. (duration of use,
distance between user and product, etc.)(iv) Name of manufacturer, contact information, etc.
(4) Production of records(Step 6 in Table 4)
The targeted manufacturers and importers should produce records of measurement ofradiation dose rates and evaluation of exposure doses and save them. The records ofmeasurement and evaluation should be saved with written information about the date ofmeasurement, name of the person who made the measurement, results of measurement, and themethod and results of evaluation. The records should be saved for the period until the use oftargeted consumer goods is assumed to be ceased.

5.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
The materials that contain uranium or thorium are now regulated by the Reactor Regulation
Law in Japan concerning the concentration of radioactivity of radionuclide and the quantity70

Japanthereof. Specifically, as for the regulatory values of uranium and thorium which are subject toutilization notification of nuclear raw materials, as shown in Table 6, the concentration ofradioactivity of uranium or thorium is set at 74 Bq/g (370 Bq/g for nuclear raw materials insolid state), and the quantity thereof is provided for that the “total of the three times the amountof uranium plus amount of thorium” is more than 900 g. The quantity of nuclear fuel materials
which are subject to utilization permission is set at more than 300 g for natural uranium or
depleted uranium and more than 900 g for thorium. It is provided for that the use of enricheduranium requires permission regardless of quantity.
Therefore, raw materials, industrial products and consumer goods, which contain uraniumor thorium of radioactivity concentration and quantity less than the values mentioned above,
are not subject to the Reactor Regulation Law.
Table 6 Notification and permission of nuclear raw materials and nuclear fuel materials
Nuclear raw materials subject to utilization notification
In the case where both the concentration and quantity of uranium or thorium exceed thefollowing values:
・ Radioactivity concentration 74 Bq/g (Solid state: 370 Bq/g)・ Quantity Amount of uranium × 3 + amount of thorium = 900 g

Nuclear fuel materials subject to utilization permission:・ Natural and depleted uranium and compounds thereof Quantity in excess of 300 g
・ Enriched uranium Fully subject to regulation
・ Thorium and compounds thereof Quantity in excess of 900 g

5.4 Issues and results of recent researches
5.4.1 Results of recent researches
This report is based on the guidelines published in 2003 and 2009, however updated datafrom recent surveys were reported at Radiation in the Living Environment (Calculation of
National Doses), 3rd Edition, published in Nov. 2020, by Editorial Board of Radiation in the
Living Environment on NUCLEAR SAFETY RESEARCH ASSOCIATION [Yonehara et al,2020].
In this report national dose of Japan were evaluated with surveying doses exposed toJapanese citizens in their living environment during the five-year period from 2014 to 2019.
71

JapanThe doses exposed to the Japanese public were evaluated and aggregated in the following twoways.
(i) Average doses exposed to the general Japanese public in their living environment.
(ii) The collective dose exposed to all Japanese citizens from all sources and the average
dose in the exposed population
This report was also surveyed the NORM exposure in the survey results was not likely to
exceed 1 mSv/year. Consumer exposure due to NORM and occupational exposure of NORM
workers were also measured and were 0.00005 mSv/a and 0.022 mSv/a, respectively.
These values were lower than those of the public or occupational exposures from almost
other sources in this national dose survey in Japan. The survey results are presented in Table
5.1-5.5.

72

JapanTable 5.1 Radioactivity concentration of general consumer goods containing U, Th series
nuclidesAnalysis results (Radioactivity
concentration: Bq/g)

Samples

238U

232Th

•

Radon hot spring bath element

10~34

81~270•Bracelets, necklaces (ceramic)

1.7~8.8

12~71•

Health appliances (with powder)

5.4

34

•

Refractories, refractory bricks

2.9~3.5

0.49~0.57•

Muffler catalyst

3.3

210

•

Clothing (kneaded into fibers)

1

8.8

•

Supporters, wristbands (kneaded
into fibers)

0.011~0.94

0.093~8.5•

Deodorant paint

0.4~0.82

2.9~5.5•

Socks (kneaded into fibers)

0.7

6.2

•

Sheets (kneaded into fibers)

0.67

5.4

•

Shoe insoles (powder
incorporated)

0.085~0.42

0.63~6.2•

Bedding (kneaded into fiber)

0.043~0.26

0.01~2.3•

Yu-no-hana (bath additives madefrom hot spring mineral deposits)

0.00084~0.0012

0.00081~0.029•

Cosmetics (gel)

15

44

•

Cosmetics (powdered white
powder)13

68•

Phosphate fertilizer

0.038~0.073

0.0014~0.0015

73

JapanTable 5.2 Example of measuring exposure doses from the use of general consumer goods
including NORM
Generalproducts
NORM

Annualconsumer dose inincluding case of
use
μSv/a

References

M. Yoshida et al., Atomic Energy Soc. of Japan, 4(3);213-218, (2005) (in Japanese)• Beddings

110• Underwear

220• Spa equipment110• Wallpaper

10• Fueleconomyenhancer for cars

< 10

E. Furuta, Japanese Society of Radiation Safety
Management, 6(1); 31-36, (2007)• Cosmetics< 1000E. Furuta et al., Health Physics Society, 43(4); 341-348,(2008)• Accessories< 1000E Furuta, Health Physics Society, 45(3); 253-261, (2010).

Average annual dose due to NORM per person in Japan
0.00005 mSv/a
Dose from various radiation sources due to general consumer goods(products containing NORM, as well as luminous watches, smoke detectors, electric welding machines, glow lamps, etc.)

Table 5.3 Occupational Exposure of Enhanced Natural Radiation
Number of Average doseCollective dose
peopleper person(person*mSv)(mSv/a)Aircrew(Average of pilots and flightattendants)
NORM workers(Zircon, monazite, general
consumer goods, metal resources,
coal and oil handlers)

18,0002

36,000

268.6

0.022

5,910

74

JapanTable 5.4 Contribution of occupational exposure to population dose and national dose
Categories ofType of exposure

NumberAverageCollective dose

Exposure(source and path)of people

dose per(person*mSv)

Occupational•

Exposure

Radiation workers at nuclear

55,091

person(Contribution of(mSv/a)national dose %)0.15

facilities (excluding workers at

8.26(0.0013%)

Fukushima Daiichi NPP)•

Radiation workers at•

Decontamination workers

20,730

5.04

104.5

36,046

0.46

16.58

Fukushima Daiichi NPP(0.017%)

related to the accident at(0.003%)

Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear
Power Station•

Radiation workers at medical

352,601

0.37

facilities•(0.021%)

Dental care facility radiation

23,5050.03

workers•

Veterinary medical facility•

General industrial radiation

15,217

0.03

0.457

68,2180.06

4.09(0.0001%)

workers(0.0007%)

Non-destructive inspection

3,662

0.42

radiation workers•

1.54(0.0002%)

Research and educational

66,7840.02

facility radiation workers•

0.705(0.0001%)

radiation workers

•

130.5

1.34
(0.0002%)

Aircrew (information in 2007)

18,0002

36(0.006%)•

NORM handling workers

268,600

0.022

5.91
(0.001%)•

Occupational exposure total

309.8(0.05%)

75

JapanTable 5.5 Contribution of public exposure from Natural Radiation Sources to populationdose and national dose
Categories

Type of exposure

Number of

AverageCollectiveof Exposure(source and path)peopledose perdose

person(person*mSv)(mSv/a)(Contributionof nationaldose %)

Public•Exposure

Exposure to cosmic radiation on the

126,706,000

0.3

ground•38,012(6.12%)

Exposure to earth radiation

126,706,000

0.33

41,813(6.74%)•

Exposure by inhalation of radon/tron in

126,706,000

0.60

the air•

Exposure by oral intake of food, drinking

126,706,000

0.99

water, etc.
•

Exposure from hot springs,•

Exposure due to use of airplanes

76,277(12.29%)125,945(20.3%)

126,706,000

0.005

126,706,000

0.008

underground environment, etc.

634
(0.10%)
1,014(0.16%)•

Subtotal of exposure from natural radiation sources

283,695(45.7%)•

Exposure due to general consumer
goods (products containing NORM, aswell as luminous watches, smoke
detectors, electric welding machines,
glow lamps, etc.) and use of
miscellaneous radiation sources

76

126,706,000

0.00005

6.34(0.001%)

Japan5.4.2 Issues
Based on the above survey results, workers handling NORM and general consumer goods
containing NORM are not a major source of exposure in Japan, however, it was pointed out by
Yonehara, the chairman of the Editorial Board of Radiation in Living Environments, that asurvey based on an up-to-date, good quality, measurement sufficient in number to make aproper inference is the most important issue concerning NORM in Japan.
He commented in the introductive paper of this recent survey report [Yonehara, 2022], asfollows;
Information on the public dose is an important material used for risk communication, but
this other information, such as radon in dwellings that are not currently regulated and worker
exposure from NORMs, is becoming increasingly important from the perspective of radiation
protection-related administration. However, in considering this revision, we were keenly awarethat there is a great lack of data to assess the current exposure status of the public. As one
example, a nationwide survey of radon concentrations in dwellings has not been conducted formore than 20 years. It is possible that radon concentrations have changed during this time due
to various factors such as climate change and construction methods, but this information cannot
be obtained without conducting a large-scale survey. Thus, general progress in environmental
radioactivity research is needed in the future.
The "Comprehensive Survey on Exposure to Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials(NORM)" (hereinafter referred to as "NORM Survey Project"), a project funded by the
Ministry of the Environment for Strategic Promotion of Radiation Safety Regulation Research(Comprehensive Survey on Exposure Due to Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials(NORM)), was adopted in FY2021 as a feasibility study project for addressing medium- tolong-term issues related to radiation protection under the Strategic Promotion of Radiation
Safety Regulation Research. The purpose of this NORM survey project is to investigate theeffects of radiation exposure by NORM in Japan. The purpose of this NORM research projectis to obtain basic data for examining the ideal form of domestic regulations, and to explore newissues that will lead to domestic regulations.
According to Iwaoka, the principal investigator of the FY2021 project result report, thefollowing issues are listed as the next issues to be examined [National Institute of Quantum
Science and Technology, 2022]。
Some of the substances related to rare earths and rare metals and fossil fuels are likely to
exceed 1 Bq/g and may be outside the domestic management system (outside the NORM
guidelines).
77

JapanRegarding rare earths and rare metals, there are many substances whose domestic use has
been confirmed but whose radioactivity concentration is unknown. Therefore, as a next
step, a survey on radioactivity concentration is expected to be conducted.
For fossil fuels, a relatively large amount of information on the concentrations of related
substances has been gathered. Therefore, as a next step, exposure surveys are expected tobe conducted in accordance with the actual conditions of use, referring to theseconcentration data.

It is expected that these surveys will be conducted by considering feasible surveys (e.g.,literature review, scenario calculation, etc.) based on the current status of coronal disasters.
For substances other than those mentioned above, such as those used domestically but
unlikely to exceed 1 Bq/g (or whose concentration is unknown), it is also important to show"low concentration" as data from the perspective of risk communication, so surveys should be
conducted as necessary while taking into account the needs of society It is expected that thefollowing will be conducted as necessary based on the needs of society.

78

Japan5.5 Definition of terms
Major terms used in the guidelines are defined as follows:(1) Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM)
Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) mean the generic name of earth-origin
radioactive nuclides and cosmic-ray-produced nuclides, which exist in the natural world, in a
general sense or in a broad sense. It is known that many nuclides other than uranium andthorium exist as NORM such as potassium-40.
(2) Natural uranium and thorium
As for uranium and thorium, several nuclides of different mass numbers exist. In theguidelines, nuclide composition is not limited unless otherwise particularly mentioned.
Many of them emit radiation and change to other elements (daughter nuclides). In manycases, these daughter nuclides are also radioactive (and create more daughter nuclides).
Therefore, those that contain natural (not refined) uranium and thorium coexist withdaughter nuclides.
(3) Refined uranium and thorium
Refined uranium and thorium contain almost no daughter nuclides. When refined uraniumor thorium is handled, many manufacturers have permission to use nuclear fuel materials andmade notification to use nuclear raw materials. However, those products, of which theconcentration and quantity are less than the values prescribed by the Reactor Regulation Law
as they are mixed with other materials in the process of utilization, are not subject to statutory
regulations. The guidelines are prepared because it is desirable to give consideration toradiation exposure even in such case that above-mentioned products are not subject to laws andregulations.
(4) Those who are protected from radiation exposure
Under the guidelines, workers at production establishments where raw materials andproducts that contain uranium or thorium are handled, residents in the vicinity, and consumer
goods users should be protected from radiation exposure.
(5) Specified raw materials
Under the guidelines, the specified raw materials mean the following materials that containuranium or thorium:(i) Ores and mineral sandMonazite, bastnaesite, zircon, tantalite, phosphate ore, uranium ore, thorium ore, titaniumore (rutile, ilmenite, etc.) and coal ash.
79

Japan(ii) Metals, glass and others added with refined uranium and thorium.
(6) Standards for radioactivity concentration (unit: Bq/g (Becquerel per gram))
Those materials that contain natural uranium and thorium coexist with daughter nuclides.
If such materials are refined and coexisting daughter nuclides are removed, theirradioactivity decreases to about one-tenth in the case where natural uranium and thorium werein the state of radioactive equilibrium. Under the guidelines, therefore, as the indicative values
to guarantee that exposure doses due to raw materials, products and others are kept at 1
mSv/year or lower, 1 Bq/g is applied to those materials that contain natural uranium or thoriumthat can be considered being in the state of radioactive equilibrium with daughter nuclides, and10 Bq/g to those materials that contain uranium or thorium that are refined and daughter
nuclides are removed from them, and those materials that exceeds the indicative values are
made subject to the guidelines.
For reference, the mass of targeted material, which is used as the denominator to calculate
the concentration, should basically be the mass of raw material. In the case of consumer goods,
however, each product used is applied. In the case of products composed of several parts, parts
that can be roughly removed should be applied.
(7) Standards for quantity of radioactivity of consumer goods (Unit: Bq (Becquerel))
Under the guidelines, as the indicative values to guarantee that exposure doses due to theuse of consumer goods are kept at 1 mSv/year or lower, the quantity of radioactivity of uraniumor thorium contained in consumer goods that are used in contact with or close (within one
meter) to human bodies is set at 8,000 Bq for those materials that contain natural uranium or
thorium, and at 80,000 Bq for those materials that contain refined uranium or thorium, andthose materials that exceeds the indicative values are made subject to the guidelines.
(8) Interim products, etc.
Under the guidelines, interim products, etc. mean primary products, semi-finished products,
industrial products and by-products other than consumer goods that are processed by using
specified raw materials. In the case where defective products produced in the manufacturing
process are to be reused and wastes are to be recycled to manufacture other products, suchproducts should be handled in the same manner as interim products, etc. In the case where
those products that are not raw materials themselves like welding electrodes but are used in
manufacturing processes, such products should also be handled in the same manner as interim
products, etc.
In the case where interim products, etc. are used as raw materials in other manufacturingindustries, such products may cause radiation exposure of workers at production establishments
where they are processed. Therefore, the case where interim products, etc. are processed as raw
materials is also made subject to the guidelines.
(i) See Commentary 3 “Regarding the standards for radioactivity concentration.”(ii) Unit that represents the quantity of radioactivity contained per gram80

Japan(iii) For example, as for thoriated electrodes that are used for electric-discharge lamps, theweight of electrode is applied in the assembly process. As for finished products, theweight of electric-discharge lamp is applied.
(iv) See Commentary 4 “Regarding the standards for the quantity of radioactivity of
consumer goods.”(v) Unit that represents the quantity of radioactivity(9) Consumer goods
Those products that are processed from specified raw materials or interim products, etc.
that are processed by using specified raw materials and that are used by ordinary households
and are not further processed or not used for industrial applications should be defined asconsumer goods. In addition, those products that are used for business purposes should also be
defined as consumer goods. For example, home spa machines, ornaments and stone tiles usedin stone spa facilities should also be regarded as consumer goods.
(10) Wastes subject to evaluation
Wastes that are produced in manufacturing process and stored within production
establishments or wastes that are scheduled for final disposal as being valueless are madesubject to evaluation.
(11) Radiation dose rate
Radiation dose rates should be represented by the quantity of radiation (Sv (sievert))
irradiated for a certain period of time (one hour in general) from materials that discharge
radiation.

81

JapanReferences
Editorial Board of Radiation in the Living Environment on NUCLEAR SAFETY RESEARCHASSOCIATION. (2020). Radiation in the Living Environment (Calculation of National
Doses), 3rd Edition.
MEXT. (2009). Guideline for Ensuring Safety of Raw Materials and Products Containing
Uranium or Thorium.
National Institute of Quantum Science and Technology. (2022). Funds for Strategic Promotionof Research on Radiation Safety Regulations (Comprehensive Survey of Exposure to
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM)) FY2021 Project Result Report.
Radiation Council MEXT Japan. (2003). Exemption from regulation of natural radioactive
substances.
YoneharaE. (2022). Introduction of Radiation in the Living Environment (Calculation of
National Doses), 3rd Edition. FBNews No.547.

82

JapanAppendix[Appendix 1] Method of measurement of radiation dose rates(1) As for the equipment that is used for measurement of radiation dose rates, a calibrated
energy-compensation-type Nal (TI) scintillation survey meter (detection limit is 0.01 μSv/h orlower) or gamma-ray measurement equipment that has equivalent performance should beselected.
(2) Measuring instruments should be read when their instrument readings become stable. It is
desirable to select the largest time constant in the case of measuring instruments whose time
constants (seconds) can be changed, and read values after a lapse of time more than three times
as long as the time constant.
(3) Measurements should be made twice or more (three times as a reference) at regular intervals
for background and in each place of measurement, and measured values and average values
thereof should be recorded. Background means a natural radiation dose rate in the place ofmeasurement (radiation from those other than raw materials and products that contain uraniumor thorium which is subject to measurement). Therefore, measurements should be made in a
sufficiently distant place, where there is no effect of raw materials and products that containuranium or thorium, from the place to measure radiation dose rates.
(4) Places for measurement should be selected in consideration of the conditions ofarrangement of specified raw materials and interim products, etc. (hereinafter referred to as“specified raw materials and others”), the line of flow and access time of workers, distance andother factors.
(5) As for measurements at respective workplaces in production establishments, radiation dose
rates should be measured at the positions where workers conduct their operations, if such
positions are decided, or at the positions one meter distant from specified raw materials andothers, manufacturing equipment, products and wastes and at the height of one meter from thefloor face. Measurements should be made when operations are actually conducted in respective
processes and specified raw materials and others are stored in the maximum amount of theamount slated to be used per year.
(6) As for measurements on the borders of business establishments, radiation dose rates shouldbe measured roughly along the borders of business establishments (or places inside or outside
the fences of the site where radiation dose rates can be easily measured) and at each of themeasuring points set at regular intervals in proportion to the length of border at the height ofone meter from the ground surface. In this case, those who make measurements should try tofind the maximum value of radiation dose rate.
(7) Radiation dose rates of consumer goods should be measured at the positions where they areusually used.
(8) Net radiation dose rates should be calculated by subtracting background dose rates fromrespective measured values. As for those consumer goods that are used in contact with the skin,
net radiation dose rates should be calculated by subtracting background dose rates from thevalues that are calculated by doubling the measured values (in the case the values of radiationdose rate become negative, they are treated as zero) to take into account β ray.
83

Japan(9) Those who measure radiation dose rates are not required to have any particular qualification.

84

Japan[Appendix 2] Evaluation method of exposure doses
1.

Evaluation of exposure doses of workers at production establishments(1) Calculate net radiation dose rates at respective workplaces based on Appendix 1.
(2) Confirm working hours of workers in a year at respective workplaces (including waste
storage areas).
(3) Calculate exposure doses of workers in a year by multiplying the radiation dose rates
calculated in (1) above by the working hours confirmed in (2) above (if the same worker
conducts his or her operations at two or more workplaces, his or her exposure doses should
be totaled).
(4) If the exposure doses calculated in (3) above are estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year, themeasures prescribed in “2.2.4 (2) Measures for improvement to reduce exposure doses” inthe guidelines should be taken.

2.

Evaluation of exposure doses of residents living in the vicinities of production
establishments(1) Calculate net radiation dose rates on the borders of production establishments based on
Appendix 1.
(2) Calculate one-year exposure doses by multiplying the radiation dose rates calculated in(1) above by a realistic access time10.
(3) If the exposure doses calculated in (2) above are estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year, themeasures prescribed in “2.2.4 (2) Measures for improvement to reduce exposure doses” inthe guidelines should be taken.

3.

Evaluation of exposure doses of consumer goods users

The methods to evaluate exposure doses are shown below. Those who evaluate internal
exposure doses should consult with specialized agencies.
(1) Method to evaluate exposure doses based on radiation dose rates
A) Calculate net radiation dose rates at the positions where consumer goods are usedbased on Appendix 1.
B) Estimate the duration of use of consumer goods in a year. However, the maximum
duration of use in normal usage should be adopted to avoid underestimation.
C) Calculate one-year exposure doses by multiplying the radiation dose rates calculated
in 1 above by the duration of use estimated in B) above.

85

Japan(2) Method to evaluate exposure doses based on the values of radioactivity analyses ofconsumer goods
If the values of radioactivity analyses of consumer goods are available (results of analyses
by specialized agencies, etc.), it is allowed to evaluate exposure doses by using thefollowing equations.
In the case of those consumer goods whose radioactivity concentrations can hardly beanalyzed, it is allowed to estimate their radioactivity concentrations by calculation.
However, the details of estimation should be recorded.
[Exposure dose of consumer goods used not in contact with the skin (effective dose)(Dose I)]
Dose I (mSv/a) ＝ DEX [mSv/h/(Bq/m2)] x C(Bq/g) x M(g) x T(h/a) ÷[D(m)]2[Exposure dose of consumer goods used in contact with the skin (effective dose) (DoseII)]
Dose II (mSv/a) ＝ DSKIN [mSv/h/(Bq)] x C(Bq/g) x M(g) x T(h/a)
Where,
DEX: Conversion factor into
exposure dose (effective dose) per Bq at a place one
meter away [mSv/a/ (Bq/m2)]
DSKIN: Conversion factor into exposure dose (effective dose) per Bq (mSv/h/Bq)
C: Radioactivity concentration in consumer goods (Bq/g)
M: Weight of consumer goods (g)T: Assumed duration of use (h/a)
D: Distance between consumer goods and user (m)Table 6. Conversion factor into exposure dose (effective dose)
Name of
DEX
DSKIN
radioactive
material
Thorium
1.8E-10
9.6E-09
Uranium
2.7E-10
1.3E-08(Conversion factors derived from European Commission; Radiation Protection
65(1993))(3) If the exposure doses calculated in (1) or (2) above are estimated to exceed 1 mSv/year
in normal usage, the measures prescribed in “2.2.5 (2) Measures for improvement to
reduce exposure doses” in the guidelines should be taken.
86JapanCommentary
Commentary 1 Background of guideline preparation
In February 2003, the exemption from regulation for naturally occurring radioactive materials(NORM) was reviewed by the General Administrative Group of the Radiation Review Council,
and the Group reviewed the exemption from regulation for NORM in relation to theintroduction of “International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiationand for the Safety of Radiation Sources” (hereinafter referred to as “BSS”) of the International
Atomic Energy Agency (hereinafter referred to as “IAEA”) and compiled a report on“Exemption of NORM from regulations” (hereinafter referred to as “General Administrative
Group Report”) in October 2003.
The General Administrative Group Report concluded, as a result of surveys that were madefrom various angles such as evaluation of radiation exposure based on the recommendations of
the International Commission on Radiological Protection (hereinafter referred to as “ICRP”)
and the ideas presented in the European Commission’s report (RP-122 Part 2) concerning theregulations on NORM and in consideration of the trends in other countries and the realities ofuse of NORM in Japan, that it was appropriate to clarify the measures for classifications by thestate of materials and regulations appropriate to such classifications, and to apply the
exemption from regulation pursuant to the characteristics of each classification.
The indicative values and reference values of doses to cope with radiation exposure due to coalash (fly ash), etc. generated by using those raw materials whose radioactivity concentrations
are lower than the BSS exemption levels are clearly stated in the General Administrative Group
Report as the matters to be discussed in the future.
In consideration of these points, MEXT’s Subcommittee on Safety Regulations for
Research Reactors, etc. made discussions about a desirable safety management in the future in
relation to the use of NORM, and put together a report on “Desirable Safety Regulations for
Test and Research Reactor Facilities, etc.” (hereinafter referred to as “Review Meeting
Report”) in January 2005 with focus on those materials that contain thorium-232 series nuclides
and uranium-238 series nuclides, which exceed exemption levels in BSS.
As the measures to be taken for the present, the Review Meeting Report concluded, taking it
into consideration that regulations are applied in other countries pursuant to their situations andthat management systems operated by industrial associations are considered effectively
working, that it is appropriate to prepare guidelines with reference to the General
Administrative Group Report and opinions of knowledgeable persons, rather than immediately
introducing regulation under the law, and then to require manufacturers and importers who
handle NORM to conduct self management based on the guidelines.
Based on the Review Meeting Report, moreover, the Subcommittee on Safety Regulations for
Research Reactors, etc. developed the “guidelines for measurement of and measures for
exposure doses at the time of use of matters that contain naturally occurring radioactive
materials” (hereinafter referred to as “Proposed NORM Guidelines”) in February 2006.
However, in the process of promoting discussions about Proposed NORM Guidelines, various
inputs were received from relevant organizations. As effective operation of the guidelines was
87

Japanfound to be difficult, the Subcommittee on Safety Regulations for Research Reactors, etc.
decided in July 2008 to review the contents of Proposed NORM Guidelines.
Based on the reports mentioned above and review by knowledgeable persons, the guidelines
organized the specific matters for manufacturers and importers to voluntarily evaluate doses
and take measures for improvements, in order to prevent workers who handle raw materials
and products that contain uranium or thorium, among those that contain NORM, and residents
living in the vicinities and consumer goods users that contain uranium or thorium fromradiation exposure of a certain level or higher.

88

JapanCommentary 2 Concept of radiation exposure of the general public(1) Dose limits and others specified by law
In the Reactor Regulation Law, dose limits on workers and the general public are specified,
respectively, concerning exposure dose limits on radiation exposure of human beings. In theReactor Regulation Law, “dose limits on occupationally exposed persons” and “dose limits onplaces other than supervised areas” are specified. The dose limits on occupationally exposed
persons are set at “100 mSv for five years and 50 mSv for one year,” and the dose limits onplaces other than supervised areas are usually interpreted as “dose limits on the general public”
and set at “1 mSv for one year.”
As for these dose limits, other countries have also introduced nearly the same regulations into
their domestic laws based on the reports of ICRP and IAEA. Even in the case of lower thandose limits, doses must be reduced to the extent reasonably achievable in principle.
However, even in the case that it is higher than the dose limit (1 mSv/year), clinical findings
have not been confirmed with radiation doses of lower than 100-200 mSv. In other words, thisdose limit is one-hundredth or lower than the level where clinical findings can be confirmed,
meaning the level to conduct risk management by radiation.
(2) Radiation exposure due to natural radiation
The exposure dose due to natural radiation is estimated at 2.4 mSv/year on average in the world(see Daily Life and Radiation as Reference Material).
This is the total of external exposure, which is caused by cosmic radiation that falls down fromouter space onto the earth and terrestrial radiation and others from radioactive materials
contained in soils and rocks on the ground surface, and internal exposure which is caused byrespiration of radon gas in the air and ingestion of potassium-40 contained in foods.
The exposure dose standard of 1 mSv/year, which is adopted by the guidelines, is equivalent
to about half of the world average of 2.4 mSv/year as exposure dose from natural radiation.
(3) Position of 1 mSv/year in the guidelines
In recent years, the following direction is presented in Japan and other countries concerning
protection from NORM:
A) The General Administrative Group Report insisted that targeted exposure dosestandards should be examined between 10μSv/year as the dose standard for exemption
for acts and 1 mSv/year as the standard for exemption for intervention.
B) The exemption standard for intervention of products in ICRP Publication 82 is set at
about 1 mSv/year.
C) In the chairman’s summary of NORM Symposium V (2007) hosted by IAEA, it ismentioned that “The order of 1 mSv/year, rather than 10μSv/year, is desirable as thelevel of exemption from regulation for NORM from the viewpoint of effective
utilization of regulated resources and is also generally used as the standard value for
NORM.”
89

JapanIn consideration of the above-mentioned circumstances in Japan and other countries, theguidelines adopted 1 mSv/year as the standard for exposure dose.
Commentary 3 Regarding the standards for radioactivity concentrations
IAEA’s BSS has proposed a regulatory exemption value equivalent to 10μSv/year for materials
up to one-ton order. The value for natural uranium or thorium is set at 1 Bq/g.
IAEA’s Safety Guide No. RS-G-1.7 has proposed 1 Bq/g for natural uranium and thorium as
the regulatory exemption value for materials of one-ton order or larger. This value was reported
in the report for 2000 of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation (UNSCEAR) as the result of survey on worldwide distribution of radioactivity
concentrations of uranium and thorium in soil, and 1 Bq/g as the upper limit thereof was
proposed in RS-G-1.7 as the value that needs to be reviewed for regulation of radiation
protection. Moreover, it is considered unlikely for this radioactivity concentration of 1 Bq/g toexceed 1 mSv/year, except for exposure to radon.
While taking the above-mentioned international trends into consideration, the guidelines haveadopted 1 Bq/g as the standard for the radioactivity concentrations of natural uranium or
thorium.
For information, this value is applied to uranium series and thorium series in the state ofradiation equilibrium, and represents the radioactivity concentrations (1 Bq/g) of parent
nuclides of the series, i.e., uranium-238 in uranium series and thorium-232 in thorium series.
As for exposure dose, the effect of daughter nuclide generated by the disintegration of parent
nuclide is also taken into consideration.
As for refined uranium or thorium, on the other hand, exposure is limited to uranium or thorium
only because the daughter nuclides that contribute to radiation exposure are removed, andexposure doses drastically decrease. As the standard for radioactivity concentration of refined
uranium or thorium, 10 Bq/g was adopted by using the ratio of natural uranium or thorium,
which is used by international organizations such as BSS, and the ratio of refined uranium or
thorium (1/10).

90JapanSource: Proceedings of the 5th international symposium on naturally occurring radioactive material.
IAEA. 2007

Fig. 4. Data as the grounds for radioactivity concentration of 1 Bq/g

91

JapanCommentary 4 Regarding the standards for quantity of radioactivity of consumer
goods
The quantities of uranium and thorium contained in consumer goods are much smaller thanthat of raw materials, which are handled in large quantities on an industrial scale. Therefore, if
it is obvious that the quantity of uranium or thorium in consumer goods is less than a certain
value, it is considered reasonable to make such consumer goods not subject to the guidelines.
The General Administrative Group Report also states that it is appropriate to make those
consumer goods, whose concentrations and quantities of radioactivity exceed certain values,
subject to the guidelines.
Therefore, the standard for the quantity of radioactivity contained in consumer goods wascalculated based on the following ideas.
By using the equation for evaluation of exposure dose in Appendix 2 of the guidelines, thequantity of radioactivity equivalent to 1 mSv/year as the standard for the exposure dose of theguidelines was calculated. The maximum value of 8,760 hours was adopted as the duration ofuse on the safety side.
The results of calculation are shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
(1) Results of calculation in the case that the distance between user and product is one meter
The quantity of radioactivity that reaches 1 mSv/year for the duration of use of 8,760 hours in
the distance of one meter is about 630,000 Bq for natural thorium and about 420,000 Bq for
natural uranium, according to Dose I equation. Divided by the statutory radioactivity
concentration of 370 Bq/g (solid), the mass of natural thorium and that of natural uranium areabout 1.7 kg and about 1.1 kg, respectively. Such consumer goods that have such a large
quantity and heavy mass of radioactivity and are used at a place within one meter for many
hours can hardly be assumed.
Table 7. Quantity of radioactivity that reaches 1 mSv/year in the distance of one meter(2) Results of calculation in the case of use in contact with human bodies
According to the results of calculation by Dose II equation in the case of use in contact withhuman bodies, the quantity of radioactivity that reaches 1 mSv/year for the duration of use of
8,760 hours is 11,891 Bq for natural thorium and 8,781 Bq for natural uranium.
92

JapanTable 8. Quantity of radioactivity that reaches 1 mSv/year in the case of use in contact with

(3) Conclusion
Judging from the results of two calculations above, there is no possibility of exposure to
consumer goods, which exceeds 1 mSv/year, except for those consumer goods that are used incontact with or close to human bodies.
Therefore, those consumer goods that are used in contact with or close to human bodies andwhose quantity of radioactivity of natural uranium or thorium exceeds 8,000 Bq are madesubject to the guidelines.
In the case of refined uranium or thorium that contains no daughter nuclide, those consumer
goods whose quantity of radioactivity is more than ten times as much or 80,000 Bq for thereasons of Commentary 3.

93

JapanCommentary 5 Handling of refined uranium or thorium
Metals, glass and others with refined uranium or thorium added to them are included in thedefinition of “specified raw materials” in the guidelines.
Refined uranium and thorium are nuclear fuel materials, and the handling of more than a certain
quantity of them is subject to legal control.
As many of the processes to add refined uranium or thorium to metals and glass use a large
quantity and need permission, they are subject to statutory regulations. On the other hand, inthe case where the concentrations and quantities of radioactive materials contained in products
manufactured under statutory regulations are less than the regulatory values of concentrationor quantity, such products may not be subject to statutory regulations. Even in such case,however, if the concentration of refined uranium or thorium is higher than 10 Bq/g, it is decided
to make them subject to the guidelines.
Uranium and thorium under statutory regulations are handled in controlled areas, and sufficientconsideration is given to radiation exposure control of workers. However, those products
whose values of concentration or quantity of radioactive materials are less than statutory
regulations (such as thoriated tungsten, uranium glass, etc.) are handled in the same way as
ordinary goods, and it is not recognized that radioactive materials are contained in them.
In the case where those that contain uranium or thorium are handled continuously inside andoutside a controlled area, it is possible to conduct the management required by the guidelines
by sharing available measuring instruments and measurement data of radiation.
On the other hand, in the case where those products whose values are less than statutory
regulations are shipped to other companies, necessary information should be provided to help
the evaluation of exposure doses and safe handling at the destinations.
Commentary 6 Evaluation of dose exposure from wastes
Rather than disposing of all wastes, recycling them as raw materials or for other applications
leads to reduction in consumption of natural resources and environmental loads. Recycling ofwastes has become increasingly important.
Under the guidelines, those who produce wastes should be responsible for the evaluation ofwastes in storage. When wastes are delivered to other companies for recycling, necessary
information for evaluation of exposure doses is required to be provided to the companies towhich the wastes are delivered. When wastes are delivered with an aim to landfill disposal as
industrial waste (including the case where wastes go through intermediate treatment), as those
who produce wastes confirm that exposure doses does not exceed roughly 1 mSv/year, those
who dispose of industrial wastes are not subject to the guidelines and, therefore, are not obliged
to evaluate exposure doses.

94

JapanCommentary 7 Conditions of use of specified raw materials
Many of the specified raw materials stipulated in (5) of section 2.4 are used as raw materialsof various products as the materials inherently have the characteristics of valuable resources.
As a result, radioactive materials are contained in some of them. On the other hand, radioactive
materials are contained intentionally to use radiation or used as-is in some cases.
The forms of utilization of specified raw materials are as follows:
Table 9. Form of utilization of specified raw materials

95Japan[Fig. 5: Daily Life and Radiation]

96

Kazakhstan

6 KAZAKHSTAN
6.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
Radioactive waste in RK represented by the waste of uranium mining, oil&gas production,and metallurgical industry in a form of dump piles and tail pits, contaminated soils, pipes,
equipment, liquid and solid waste of decommissioning BN-350 NPP, operating research
reactors in Alatau town and in Kurchatov town, sealed sources, used in different industry,
medicine and agriculture, which are not used anymore and should be disposed, and territories
and equipment, contaminated in the result of nuclear testing in RK.
At the present time RK has comparatively comprehensive and centralized information forspent sealed sources (logged by CAESC ME RK), operational and decommissioning waste ofreactors (logged by the operators, submitted to CAESC ME RK), uranium mining andprocessing industry (logged by the enterprises, submitted to CAESC ME RK).
Information on the waste, produced in the result of nuclear and “dirty bombs” testing andfrom mining, coal, and oil industry is not complete and requires implementing additional
investigations and developing of RW Inventory Cadastre.
Attempts to gather information from regions and to create national radioactive wastecadastre were made several times. The first and the most comprehensive inventory ofradioactive waste storage and disposal sites were carried out in 1993. In the course of thisactivity, 529 sites of radioactive waste storage and disposal were identified, including:•

127 related to uranium mining and production industry•

76 related to non-uranium industry•

16 related to nuclear testing•

5 related to reactors•

301 related to enterprises using sealed sources of different type.

Radioactive waste identification and classification criteria
In accordance with the RK Law “On the atomic energy use” radioactive waste isdetermined as radioactive substances, nuclear materials or radionuclide sources withradionuclide content above the exemption level the further use of which is not provided for.
The exemption levels are established in Hygienic Standards “Sanitary requirements forradiation safety”.
RK Ecology Code (chapter 44, article 307) gives more detailed definition of radioactive
waste and its classification:
97

Kazakhstan

1. Radioactive waste is the following radioactive substances in any aggregative state, which
are not a subject for the further use:•
Materials, items, equipment, objects of biological origin, with radionuclides
content, exceeding the levels, established by RK legislation;•

Spent nuclear fuel, which is not a subject for the following reprocessing;•Spent and failed radionuclide sources;•

Extracted from subsoil and placed into dump piles and tail pits rocks, ores
and waste of ore enrichment and extraction, with radionuclides content,
exceeding the levels, established by RK legislation.

2. The basis for radioactive waste classification is its aggregative state, origin, activity level,
half decay period.
3. By aggregative state radioactive waste is divided on liquid and solid ones. Non-organic
solutions, filtering materials sludge, organic liquids are related to liquid radioactive waste.
Items, components of machines and mechanisms, materials, biological objects, spentradiation sources are related to solid radioactive waste.
4. The waste is considered as radioactive waste if specific activity of containing radionuclides
is more than the values, established by the Hygienic Standards “Sanitary requirements forradiation safety”, and if radionuclide composition is not known, if its specific activity is morethan:•
One hundred kilo Becquerel per kilogram – for beta-emitting nuclides;•

Ten kilo Becquerel per kilogram– for alpha emitting nuclides (excludingtransuranium);•

One kilo Becquerel per kilogram – for transuranium nuclides.

5. By the origin radioactive waste is classified as follows:•
Metal mining industry waste;•
Waste of research and commercial nuclear facilities;•

Waste of nuclear explosions;•

Disused and spent radioactive sources.

6. By the activity level, the solid radioactive waste is classified as follows:•
Low level waste – a waste with specific activity (kilo Becquerel per
kilogram): less than one thousand – for beta-emitting nuclides, less than one
hundred – for alpha emitting nuclides (excluding transuranium), less thanten – for transuranium nuclides; Intermediate waste– a waste with specificactivity (kilo Becquerel per kilogram): from one thousand to ten million –for beta-emitting nuclides, from one hundred to one million – for alpha98

Kazakhstan•emitting nuclides (excluding transuranium), for ten to one hundred
thousand – for transuranium nuclides;
High level waste – a waste with specific activity (kilo Becquerel per
kilogram): more than ten million – for beta-emitting nuclides, more than
one million – for alpha emitting nuclides (excluding transuranium), morethan one hundred thousand – for transuranium nuclides.

Spent Nuclear Fuel and Radioactive Waste
At the territory of Republic of Kazakhstan there are 5 reactors, one BN-350 NPP in Aktau,
three research reactors at territory of former Semipalatinsk Testing Site in Kurchatov and one
research reactor near Almaty (Alatau settl.).
BN-350 Nuclear Power Reactor
Currently in the Republic of Kazakhstan there is only one decommissioning facility – fast
breeder reactor of the BN-350 NPP located near Aktau city.
The BN-350spent fuel was packed into dual use metal concrete casks and transported to
specially constructed long-term storage site of open type located at “Baikal-1” the branch of
IAE NNC RK near Kurchatov City for long-term storage.
There are the following facilities for RW management at the BN-350:• Storage facility for low level and medium level solid radioactive waste(according to internal enterprise classification). SRW with dose rate from
0.1 to 30 mR/h (0,001-0.3 mSv/h) and from 30 to 1000 mR/h (0.3-10
mSv/h) and for high level waste with dose rate more than 1000 mR/h (10mSv/h).
•

Reactor equipment storage cooling facility.

•

BN-350 Hot Cell vault.

•

Facility for liquid waste collection and storage.

•

Sodium processing facility (SPF).

The Kazakhstan Government adopted Resolution № 456 on BN-350 decommissioning. This
Resolution determined the concept of the reactor facility decommissioning. This concept
provides the decommissioning in three main stages:
Stage 1. Bringing the BN-350 reactor plant into a state of long-term safe storage.
Stage completion criteria are:•the fuel is unloaded from the RF and placed for a long-term storage;•

liquid metal coolant is removed from the RF, processed, radioactive
processing products are placed for a long-term storage;99

Kazakhstan•

RW are processed and placed for a long-term storage;•RF, buffer area and control area radiation monitoring is provided;•

The composition of remaining under operation, dismantled and mothballed
equipment is determined, and the required work is performed.

Stage 2. Long-term safe storage.
Stage completion criteria are:•the 50-year long storage period term is being completed;•the decision to commence work on final dismantling is made.

Stage 3. Partial or complete dismantling of equipment, buildings and structures, anddisposal of. Criteria for completion of the third main stage:•
partial or complete dismantling of equipment, buildings and structures isperformed;•

complete decontamination and rehabilitation of the territory is performed;•

RW are placed for a long-term storage or disposed of.

In cooperation with organizations of the Russian Federation, a feasibility study for thedecommissioning project of the BN-350 RP has been developed and is undergoing approval,
which, after approval, will serve as the basis for allocating funding, developing individual
projects for construction phases and their implementation.
It is necessary to note that a lot of radioactive waste will be produced during its dismantling.
According to estimations, total amount of conditioned and packaged waste produced after the
BN-350 decommissioning will be around 62300 m3.

WWR-K Reactor
Since 2016, WWR-KN fuel assemblies have been used as fuel at the WWR-K reactor.
The fuel composition is uranium dioxide dispersed in an aluminum matrix (UO2-Al). Fuelenrichment by uranium-235: 19.7%, uranium density: 2.8 g/cm3. The maximum permissible
burnup is 60% for uranium-235.
In the WWR-K reactor core, two types of WWR-KN fuel assemblies are used: eight-pipe(type 1 fuel assemblies) and five-pipe (type 2 fuel assemblies). The rate of spent fuel productionof the WWR-KN type averages 9-10 fuel assemblies per year, the total activity at the moment
is 134230 TBq.
The spent nuclear fuel (SNF) storage system of the research reactor WWR-K is intended
for temporary water storage of spent fuel assemblies (SFAs) removed from the WWR-K core.
100Kazakhstan

The storage system consists of two storage areas: wet storage and storage tank. Both storage
facilities are located in the central hall of the reactor.
During the first four years after being removed from the core, spent fuel assemblies are
stored in a wet storage facility, and then they are transferred to a storage pool. The minimum
total storage time of spent fuel assemblies is determined by the need to reduce the residualenergy release to a value that allows safe transportation from the reactor site to the processing
facility in a special container of the processing organization.
Radioactive waste generation at the averages: liquid radioactive waste (LRW) from 6 to 24
m per year, with activity up to 3GBq, low active and intermediate active solid radioactive
waste (SRW) from 50 to 500 kg per year with the activity up to 14GBq. There is a facility for
simultaneous cementation of SRW and LRW. Disposal facility is intended for disposal of lowand intermediate activity liquid waste. The design capacity of the DF makes 2375 m3 andpercentage of DF occupation for today makes 80% for low activity and 15-20% forintermediate activity waste. The design capacity in terms of activity makes 40000 Ci, and theactual activity makes 8500 Ci.
3

IGR Reactor
The rate of accumulation of spent fuel at the IGR is determined by the amount of fuel inthe experimental devices tested (irradiated) in the IGR reactor. Defueling is not performed
since 1968.
Experimental devices with fuel tested in IGR reactor are placed in the nuclear materials
storage facility in premise 0101 of building 1 for aging (3...5 months) and then transported to
the radiation-protective chamber (RPC) on "Baikal-1" for the post-reactor examination. After
research activities, the fuel is placed for long-term storage. Amount of spent fuel accumulated
in 24 experimental devices of IGR reactor makes 94.8 kg of uranium. The total activity is 7450
GBq.
Two storage facilities are used at IGR for storing the spent fuel (located on the IGR reactorsite). Radioactive wastes generated at IGR reactor are transported in the prescribed order to thelong-term storage facility at "Baikal-1".
IVG.1M Reactor
During the period of operation of IVG.1M reactor (1990 -2023) thirty-three fuel assemblies
were unloaded from the reactor core: one fuel assembly in 2004, two – in 2017 and thirty – in
2021. During the period from 2017 to 2019 two LEU fuel assemblies were loaded, tested and101

Kazakhstan

unloaded from the reactor. In 2021, two fuel assemblies (which were unloaded in 2017) werereturned into IVG.1M reactor.
Thirty-three fuel assemblies are placed for a long term storage into IVG reactor storage
facility. Amount of spent fuel accumulated in the assemblies is 5870 grams of uranium. The
total activity is 17310 GBq.
The average rate of radioactive waste formation at reactor complexes is as follows:• Solidwaste-300 ... 400kg/year;• Liquidwaste-2.0 ...3.0 m3/year.
The amount of solid radioactive waste at RRC "Baikal-1" assigned to the enterprise’s own
accumulations, makes 184 716 kg with a total activity of 4929 GBq.
Total quantity of the wastes placed in "Baikal-1" long-term storage facility with the accountof radioactive waste received by NNC RK externally (enterprises, organizations, orphan) is 2
820 194 kg with a total activity of 7658 GBq.
RA reactor
In 1998, in accordance with intergovernmental agreements fuel from the reactor was
unloaded and transported to Russia. RA reactor is shut down, but formally reactor is inoperation (extended shutdown mode).
Facilities for Management of Waste from Uranium Mining and Production Industry
and Oil-extraction Industry
There are the following facilities to handle the waste of uranium mining and productionindustry in the Republic of Kazakhstan:• Tail pit of Stepnogorsk ore&chemical enterprise is located in 25 km from Stepnogorsk
town and 160 km from Astana city. Hydro-metallurgical plant of the enterpriseprocesses not only uranium ore, but also concentrates of natural uranium for theenterprises of JSC “Kazatomprom”. The enterprise discharge waters are withdrawn
into the tail pit, which consists of three ponds with the surface area around 757
hectares (Pond #1 – 162 hectares, evaporation pond – 270 hectares and sludge lines –22 hectares) and total fine dispersed sludge amount 49.1 million tons. Environmental
management system guarantees the safety of the object provided the stable operationof the plant. As a result of upgrading the performance of the plant exceeded the rated
capacity and is currently 4000 t of uranium oxide per year. Molybdenum ore
processing concentrator is installed and put into operation on available capacity LLP“Stepnogorskore&chemical enterprise” (SOCE) in order to cover uranium tails by102

Kazakhstan

low-toxic solid waste of copper and molybdenum production. Currently the tail pits
store 41979 cubic meters (49116 thousand tons) of low-level radioactive waste withtotal activity 7100 TBq.
• Liquid low-level waste are located in 5-evaporative ponds of mine Shantobe
belonging to LLP "SMCC" at 450 km from Stepnogorsk town and 420 km apart from
Astana city with total area of 6.5 hectares. Currently, the mine has181.4 thousand tons
(178 thousand cubic meters) of liquid radioactive waste with a total activity of 1.752
GBq.
• Tail pit Kashkar-Ata of former Caspian mining&smelting enterprise near Aktau city.
Kashkar-Ata contains 120000000 m3 of radioactive waste. Since 2006 the tail pit isin rehabilitation process.
• Tail pits (ponds) of Ulba Metallurgical Plant (UMP). Storage of UMP radioactive
waste is realized at the “Tailing Site” Storage (TSS). Liquid waste ponds are of open
type and store the waste of discharges and sludge from all the production lines. As ofthe beginning of 2014 total amount of RW is 6411667.7 m3 with total activity 194.33
GBq.
• Two near surface RW disposal facilities at production sections PV-1 and PV-2with
10000 m3 and 16 m3 designed capacity belonging Joint Enterprize Inkay
Kazatomprom (RK) and Cameco Corporation (Canada), located in 10 km from
Taykonyur settlement in Suzak area of South Kazakhstan oblast.
• Near surface RW disposal facility at Kanzhugan deposit, designed capacity 7200 m3
belonging to TaukentOre&Chemical Enterprise in Suzak area of South Kazakhstanoblast.
• Near surface RW disposal facility with designed capacity 10000 m3 belonging to“RU-6” Ltd, located in 90 km from Sheeli settlement of Kyzylorda oblast.
• Near surface RW disposal facility with designed capacity 80000 m3 belonging
to“Stepnoye Rudoupravlenie” Ltd, Kyzemshek settlement, Sozak area, South
Kazakhstan oblast. It was commissioned in 2007.
For RW of oil-extraction industry management:• Facility for deactivation of pipes and metal equipment of oil fields in Mangistau oblast.
Sites for cleaning and deactivation of pipes and equipment are constructed at the oil
deposits Kalamkas and Zhetybay in Mangistau oblast. Storage facilities forradioactive waste are constructed and commissioned in Zhana-Ozen (100 000 tons)
and Zhetybay (70 000 tons) deposits.

103

Kazakhstan

6.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
Spent Fuel Management Policy
Decision has not been made yet in the Republic of Kazakhstan if a spent nuclear fuel is thevaluable resource or waste.
Spent fuel (SF) management in the Republic of Kazakhstan is represented currently by
long-term storage under surveillance at the specialized sites (storages), in compliance withgovernment decisions in this area.
Nevertheless, the long-term storage is not considered as an “end point” in spent fuelmanagement, it is only temporary decision. The real “end point” may be spent fuel utilization(processing) or disposal, that is the actions excluding possibility for further spent fuelmanagement. In order to realize it, it is planned to develop a strategy of future spent fuelmanagement at the example of BN-350 nuclear power plant hereinafter referred to as BN-350
NPP and research reactor spent fuel, which allows achieving the end point. To develop thisstrategy, RK will consider all the possible management options of further usage aimed tochoose the optimal variant meeting different criteria, such as political acceptance, technical andeconomical feasibility, etc.
Spent Fuel Management Practices
Spent Fuel of BN-350 NPP
The only commercial power reactor in the Republic of Kazakhstan – fast breeder reactor
BN-350 NPP, was in operation from 1973 to 1999. During the reactor operation spent fuel was
routinely transported to Russian Federation for reprocessing. After the collapse of the Soviet
Union in 1991 all the remaining spent fuel was stored in the reactor on-site pool-type storage.
Since 1995 the BN-350 NPP is under IAEA safeguards in accordance with "Agreement of
26 July 1994 Between the Republic of Kazakhstan and the International Atomic Energy Agency
for the Application of Safeguards in Connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons”. To comply with the Agreement requirements, computerized system of
nuclear materials accounting and control was established at the BN-350 NPP to allow nuclear
materials accounting and control. The system allows realizing control and accounting of
nuclear materials on the reactor from the IAEA’s point of view and lead accounting of nuclear
material quantity in each recorded unit.
In the area of spent fuel management the Republic of Kazakhstan has recently performed a104

Kazakhstan

number of several very important and practical steps.
In the field of spent fuel management, the Republic of Kazakhstan has taken a number ofimportant practical steps in recent years. During the operation of the BN-350 reactor plant, theunloaded spent fuel was stored under water in the spent fuel pools, and then was sent to Russia
for reprocessing. After the collapse of the USSR, the transportation of spent fuel ceased, andthe remaining fuel continued to be stored in the spent fuel pools. Then, with financial andtechnical support from the United States, the spent fuel was packaged in sealed stainless steel
canisters. After that, all the fuel was loaded into specially made two-purpose metal-concrete
containers (transportation and long-term storage) and transported to the Baikal-1 site, locatedon the territory of the former Semipalatinsk test site, where the spent fuel is currently placed
for long-term storage under IAEA guarantees. The storage is equipped with all the necessary
physical protection systems. The estimated service life of the storage containers is 50 years,
taking into account certification every 5 years of storage. Before the expiration of the storage
period, it is necessary to make a decision on the final option for management of this fuel.
Spent Fuel of Research Reactors
In the Republic of Kazakhstan there are four research reactors (RR): RA, IVG-1M, andIGR reactors of the Institute of Atomic Energy of National Nuclear Center RK (IAE NNC RK),and WWR-K reactor of the Institute of Nuclear Physics (INP). The first three are located within
the territory of former Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site near Kurchatov, and WWR-K reactor is
located near Alatau settlement, close to Almaty.
Current strategy of RR spent fuel management consists of its unloading from the reactor,
transportation into on-site storage and long-term storage under surveillance. The spent fuel of
WWR-K reactor has been sent for reprocessing to Russian Federation with further return ofhigh active processing wastes to the Republic of Kazakhstan. Return of high active wastes to
RK is planned for 2028-2029, so a decision should be made for selection of disposal site bythis time.

Radioactive Waste Management Policy
According to Article 17 of RK Law “On the Use of Atomic Energy”, the policy forradioactive waste management in RK is the following:• Radioactive waste generated on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan should
be disposed in such a way as to ensure radiation protection of the population and the105Kazakhstan

environment for the entire period of time during which they may pose a potential
hazard.
• The individuals and legal entities realizing the activities in the field of atomic energyuse, which resulted in radioactive waste generation, shall take measures to minimize
the wastes.
• The safe placement of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive wastes shall be provided
for by design and operational documentation as an obligatory stage of any activity
leading to the formation of radioactive waste.
• Only legal entities are allowed to handle SNF.
• The activities related to the management of radioactive waste and SNF are carriedout on the basis of a license.
• Management of radioactive waste and (or) SNF should ensure compliance with therequirements of nuclear, radiation and nuclear physical security in accordance withthe legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of nuclear energy use, as
well as international treaties ratified by the Republic of Kazakhstan.
• Management of radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel shall be realized withcompliance to the requirements established by the Environmental Code of the
Republic of Kazakhstan.
• A complete list of regulatory and legal acts currently in force in the Republic of
Kazakhstan applicable to the regulation of the atomic energy use, including thesafety of spent fuel and radioactive waste management, is given in Appendix E tothis Report.
Radioactive Waste Management Practices
An approach to radioactive waste management of nuclear reactors, commercial andresearch ones, includes long-term storage in the SRW storage facilities of research reactor
complex “Baikal-1” site (for SRW of IGR, IVG.1M and RA research reactors, IAE NNC RK).
For the BN-350 NPP reactor, being decommissioned, SRW is also stored in-site and LRWvolume is minimized by evaporation followed by on-site storage. Reduction of liquid and solidradioactive waste share and construction of facilities for their conditioning is the main task forthe forthcoming years. At the WWR-K research reactor of the Institute of Nuclear Physics,
low- and intermediate solid and solidified wastes are cemented and disposed together in theon-site RW storage facility.
Waste of enterprises that use the isotope products such as sealed IRS with the expired
lifetime, or if found to be defective shall be placed for the long-term storage in specialized
106

Kazakhstan

facilities
Waste of former and operating uranium mining and production enterprises in a form ofdump piles, sludge of tail pits, contaminated equipment, located in Mangistau (Caspian mining
and smelting complex), North Kazakhstan, Akmolinsk (Stepnogorsk mining and smelting
complex), Karaganda, Zhambyl, South Kazakhstan, Kyzyl-Orda regions (mine administrationof former Kyrgyz mining and smelting complex), and Esat Kazakhstan region (Ulba
metallurgical Plant and Irtysh chemical& Metallurgical Plant) are mothballed in accordancewith the budget program “Conservation of uranium mining enterprises and elimination ofconsequences of uranium mining for 2001-2010. Local executive bodies (regions, cities ofrepublican significance, the capital) determine the organization (enterprise) responsible for the
implementation of radiation control and maintenance of the mothballed objects in a safe state.
The mothballing of uranium mining waste, contaminated soil and equipment isaccomplished. RW was disposed into four available disposal facilities: Joint Enterprise Inkay,
Taukent Ore&Chemical Enterprise, “RU-6” Ltd, and “Stepnoe mining administration” Ltd.
The practice of RW management at the territory of former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site(STS) after destruction of nuclear testing infrastructure consists of thorough bordering of areas
with radioactive contamination and improvement of barriers created in 1995-2000 on thetrilateral basis (RK-RF-USA) to prevent unauthorized access to the nuclear testing waste andcontaminated areas. To bring the legal framework in line with the works to be carried out at theSTS, a Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On the Semipalatinsk nuclear safety zone” hasbeen developed.
Non-uranium mining and processing industry radioactive waste is represented by coal,polymetal, rare earth and phosphorites deposits, some of them contain uranium contamination,
which is stored after extraction as dump piles and tail pits. Only small part of them is now
rehabilitated as RW. Upper oxidized layers of coal beds are also contaminated with uranium,
which is stored as RW up to the moment. Currently the designs of uranium contaminated coal
extraction, provide for a storage and following disposal of RW.
At the oil deposits of West Kazakhstan there are storages of radioactive scrap metal, sludge
and oil contaminated soils. At present in Zhanaozen area the facilities were constructed forequipment deactivation using the technologies of high pressure water cleaning, sandblasting,vibration one and melting with removal of radioactive slag. At oil deposits of Zhetybay and
Zhanaozen in
Mangystau region, the storage facilities were commissioned into operation to store thewaste of pipe and equipment cleaning.

107

Kazakhstan

Reprocessing of spent fuelCurrently, the Republic of Kazakhstan does not have the capacities to reprocess spent fuel.
All the spent fuel from the WWR-K research reactor was moved for reprocessing to the RussianFederation due to a change in the design of the fuel elements; in exchange, fresh fuel was
supplied in the new design assemblies. The spent fuel of the BN-350 reactor, which is being
decommissioned, was transported to a specialized container storage outside the site. Fuel fromother research reactors is stored in on-site storage facilities.
Radioactive waste which contains only naturally occurring radionuclides
Republic of Kazakhstan declares that the waste which contains only naturally occurredradionuclides and does not originate from nuclear fuel cycle is considered as radioactive waste.
Radioactive waste produced within military or defense programs
Republic of Kazakhstan declares that radioactive waste produced within military or defense
programs transferred finally to civilian programs and is considered as radioactive waste.

6.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
The entering into force of the Law RK “On Ratification of the Joint Convention on the
Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management” (No.
246-IV, of February 3, 2010) means that the existing legislation of RK does substantially allow
implementing the obligations of the Republic of Kazakhstan resulting from the Joint
Convention provisions. Adoption of this law on ratification made the provisions of theConvention to be obligatory for all the executive authorities and the organizations involved inmanagement of spent fuel and radioactive wastes.
The Republic of Kazakhstan is developing, and will seek to develop a national strategy forthe safe management of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste.
Legislative and Regulatory System
Functions specific to the nuclear regulator in terms of the Convention are currently assigned
to the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan (ME RK), which responsibilities in
the field of atomic energy use were previously assigned to the Ministry of Industry and New
Technologies of the Republic of Kazakhstan (MINT RK). Committee for Atomic and Energy
Supervision and Control of ME RK (CAESC ME RK) (former Committee for Atomic Energy
MINT RK), is the competent authority carrying out regulatory supervision and realization
functions in the field of atomic energy use within the competence of the ME RK. Department
108

Kazakhstanof Atomic Energy and Industry, as a part of Ministry of Energy structure, concurrently is
responsible for promotion of nuclear energy.
Regulatory functions in the field of the atomic energy use in the Republic of Kazakhstan
are also carried out by the Committee for Environmental Regulation and Control of the
Ministry of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan (CERC
MEGNR RK), which performs the functions of environmental protection, Committee of
Quality Control and Safety of Goods and Services of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of
Kazakhstan (CQCSGS MH RK) in the sphere of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the
population, the Ministry of Internal Affairs RK, carrying out permit functions and facilities
security, the Committee for Industrial Development and Industrial Safety of the Ministry ofIndustry and Infrastructure Development of the Republic of Kazakhstan (CIDIS MIID RK),
performs control and supervision in the field of industrial safety, and the Committee ofEmergency Situations of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (CES MIA RK) performing thefunctions for liquidation of man-caused accidents.
The State regulation authorities are independent from each other, as well as fromorganizations whose activities are related to the use of atomic energy.
Legislative and Regulatory framework of safety assurance
The legal basis for regulating nuclear and radiation safety of personnel, population andenvironment while using the atomic energy in the Republic of Kazakhstan includes the Law
RK “On Atomic Energy Use”, the Law RK “On Radiation Safety of Population” and“Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan”.
Regulation of safety of spent fuel and radioactive waste management is also realized inaccordance with other delegated regulations of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of
atomic energy use, the departmental technological regulations and safety instructions.
Constituent Parts of Legislative and Regulatory Framework
National Radiation Safety Requirements
Article 4 of the Law “On Atomic Energy Use” specifies that one of the main principles ofthe state policy in the field of the atomic energy use is the effective protection of people's lifeand health, their property, environmental protection, maintenance of nuclear, radiation safety
and nuclear physical security, and nuclear weapons nonproliferation regime while using atomic
energy.
109

Kazakhstan

The Law "On Radiation Safety of the Population" establishes the basic principles of
ensuring radiation safety, requirements and regulating provisions for radiation safety.
Section 39 "Environmental Requirements for the Use of Radiation Materials, Atomic
Energy and Ensuring Radiation Safety" of the Environmental Code of the Republic of
Kazakhstan contains requirements for radiation safety from an environmental point of view.
Licensing of the Spent Nuclear Fuel and Radioactive Waste Management Activities
Article 9 of the Law RK “On Atomic Energy Use” establishes that the activities associatedwith the use of atomic energy shall be subject to compulsory licensing with a procedure
established in of the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On Atomic Energy Use” andlegislation of Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of permissions and notifications.
In accordance with the Law “On permissions and notifications”, the following activities or
actions in the field of the atomic energy use are subject to licensing:• work related to the life cycle stages of the objects using atomic energy;• management of nuclear materials;• management of radioactive substances, devices and installations containing
radioactive substances;• management of devices and installations generating ionizing radiation;• management of radioactive wastes;• transportation, including transit, of nuclear materials, radioactive substances,
radioisotope sources of ionizing radiation, radioactive waste within the territory of the
Republic of Kazakhstan.
Prohibition of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste management without license
Activities related to the nuclear energy use are subject to mandatory licensing in accordancewith the procedure established by the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan on permits andnotifications.
Any activity related to the use of nuclear energy is carried out under the condition of
ensuring the protection of public health and the environment, the protection of property of
individuals and legal entities from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation. Nuclear andradiation safety is provided by the operating organization in accordance with established norms
and rules.
Article 8 of the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On Atomic Energy Use" establishes
that individuals and legal entities that carry out activities in the field of the atomic energy use
110

Kazakhstan

are required to have a license for the relevant type of activity in the sphere of the atomic energy
use.
System of Institutional and Regulatory Control, Documentation and Reporting
Nuclear and radiation safety is provided by the operating organization in accordance withthe established rules and regulations.
Terms and conditions of the licenses issued by a state authority for safety regulation
stipulate that the operating organization shall take appropriate measures in order for the control,
inspection and testing of the equipment and systems important to safety to be carried out inaccordance with the established procedures and schedules.
Regulatory control
CAESC ME RK controls the maintenance of a high level of nuclear and radiation safety at
the controlled facilities. State control and supervision in the field of atomic energy use is carriedout in the form of inspection and preventive control and supervision.
Inspection of the entities carrying out the activities with nuclear facilities and installationsof categories I and II of potential radiation hazard (hereinafter referred to as the supervisionsubjects) is carried out by the competent authority on a periodic basis, but not more often thanonce a quarter, or may be unscheduled ones.
Periodic inspection is an inspection appointed by the competent authority in relation to thesupervision subject in order to prevent and (or) eliminate an immediate threat to human lifeand health, the environment, the legitimate interests of individuals and legal entities, the state.
An unscheduled inspection is appointed by the competent authority due to specific facts
and circumstances that served as the basis for the appointment of an inspection in relation to a
specific supervision subject, in order to prevent and (or) eliminate an immediate threat tohuman life and health, the environment, the legitimate interests of individuals and legal entities,
state.
Inspection of the entities carrying out activities with the facilities of III and IV categoriesof potential radiation hazard, with the exception of nuclear facilities, is carried out inaccordance with the Entrepreneurial Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Preventive control and supervision with visits to the entities carrying out activities with
objects of I, II, III and IV categories of potential radiation hazard are carried out in accordancewith the Entrepreneurial Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
111

Kazakhstan

Preventive control and supervision without visits to the entities carrying out activities withfacilities of I, II, III and IV categories of potential radiation hazard are carried out in accordancewith the Entrepreneurial Code of the Republic.
Based on the results of state control and supervision, depending on the establishedviolations of the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of
atomic energy use, officials issue the following acts:• Act on the Inspection Results is a document issued by an official exercising state
control and supervision in the field of atomic energy use and based on the results of an auditof the entity for its compliance with the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of
Kazakhstan in the field of atomic energy use;
• an order to eliminate the violation of the requirements of the legislation of the
Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of atomic energy use;
• an order to suspend or prohibit certain types of activities;• recommendation based on the results of preventive control and supervision without
visiting the performer (target) of control and supervision.
Preventive control and supervision without visiting the subject (object) of control andsupervision are of a preventive and routine nature.
Preventive control and supervision without visiting the subject (object) of control andsupervision in the field of atomic energy use is carried out by analyzing:• the information and reports submitted by individuals and legal entities in accordancewith the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of atomic
energy use;
• information received at the request of the competent authority on compliance withthe legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of atomic energy use within its
competence – if there is information about legislation’s violation;• information received from third parties regarding compliance with the legislation of
the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of atomic energy use.
If violations are revealed based on the results of preventive control and supervision
without visiting the subject (object) of control and supervision in the actions (inaction) of thesubject of control and supervision, the competent authority draws up and sends a
recommendation no later than five working days from the date of detection of violations.
A recommendation sent in one of the following ways is considered delivered in thefollowing cases:• courier delivery – with a note of receipt;• by mail – by sending a registered letter with notification;• electronically – the competent authority sends a letter to the email address of thesubject of control and supervision, which is specified in the documents previously submitted112

Kazakhstan

by the subject of control and supervision to the competent authority.
The deadline for the implementation of the recommendation to eliminate violations
identified as a result of preventive control and supervision without visiting the subject (object)of control and supervision should be at least ten working days from the day following the dayof its delivery.
The subject of control and supervision, in case of disagreement with the violations specified
in the recommendation, has the right to send an objection to the competent authority that sent
the recommendation within five working days from the day following the day of delivery of
the recommendation.
Failure to comply with the recommendation on the elimination of violations identified as aresult of preventive control and supervision without visiting the subject (object) of control andsupervision in due time, entails the inclusion of the subject (object) of control and supervisionin the six-month schedule of special procedure inspections.
The frequency of preventive control and supervisions without visiting the subject (object)of control and supervision is determined as necessary, but not more often than the frequency ofproviding the information.
Documentation and Reporting
The regulations and rules establish the requirements that the operating organization shallprepare and submit the periodic reports on the safety status of nuclear facilities and storage
facilities to the state bodies for safety regulation and state public authorities.
The operating organization shall provide for filing of design documentation, executive
documentation for construction, maintenance and repair of the safety systems (components)
and the elements important for safety, as well as the materials of the investigations of operation
violations throughout the lifetime of a nuclear facility and storage facility.
The operating organization shall ensure the transfer of information on violations at anuclear facility and storage facility to the state body for safety regulation in accordance withthe established requirements.
Measures Taken to Implement Existing Regulations and License Conditions
CAESC realizes the state control over compliance of a licensee with the license conditionsin the field of nuclear and radiation safety and applies sanctions within its competence in caseof licensee’s failure to do so.
113

Kazakhstan“Code on Administrative Offenses of the Republic of Kazakhstan” on June 5, 2017,
stipulates for the imposition of administrative fines and withdrawal of the licenses for violationof the established rules and regulations for management of nuclear materials and radioactive
substances.
Division of Responsibilities of the Bodies Involved at Different Stages of Spent Nuclear
Fuel and Radioactive Waste Management
Functions specific to the nuclear regulator in terms of the Convention are currently assigned
to the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan (ME RK), which responsibilities in
the field of atomic energy use were assigned to the Ministry of Industry and New Technologiesof the Republic of Kazakhstan. Committee for Atomic and Energy Supervision and Control of
Ministry of Energy RK (CAESC ME RK) (former CAE MINT RK) is the agency carrying out
control and realization functions in the field of atomic energy and electric energy use within
the competence of the ME RK. Hereinafter referred to as the CAESC ME RK in theperformance of its tasks within the competence of the ME RK is referred to as the "competentauthority" in accordance with the legal definitions of the legislation of the Republic of
Kazakhstan.
According to the Provisions on the CAESC ME RK the main tasks of the Committee under
the authority of the Ministry are:• implementation of the state policy in the field of electric energy and atomic energyuse;• realization of other tasks within the competence of the Committee.
In accordance with its tasks the CAESC ME RK, as prescribed by the legislation
performs the following functions in the field of atomic energy use:
• provides for the implementation of state policy in the field of electric energy andatomic energy use;
• carries out the regulatory, realization and control-supervision functions andparticipates in the implementation of the strategic functions of the central executive bodywithin its competence;• approves legal acts on the matters within its competence and if it has directcompetence for their approval in the ministries acts, with the exception of the normative legal
acts concerning human and civil rights and freedoms;• exercise control and supervision of the activities of individuals and legal entities
within its competence;• carries out control and supervisory functions over the activities of local executive
bodies on the matters relating to the responsibilities of Committee;
114

Kazakhstan• implement international cooperation within its competence;• performs a permissive control;• conducts inspections related to the execution of its responsibilities in the field of
atomic energy;• realizes state control in the field of atomic energy use;
• monitors compliance with the norms and rules of radiation safety and license
conditions;• carries out the state control in the field of radiation safety of the population;• exercise control over the export, import, movement, transit and placement of nuclear
materials and other ionizing radiation sources;• exercise control over exports in the field of atomic energy use;
• performs state accounting and control of nuclear materials;• performs state accounting and control of ionizing radiation sources;• coordinates the issuance of a license from the authorized state body exercising state
regulation in the field of export control for the export and import of nuclear and special nonnuclear materials, equipment, installations, technologies, ionizing radiation sources,
equipment and related dual-use (purpose) goods and technologies, works, services related totheir production;• carries out licensing in the field of atomic energy use and permit control inaccordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan about the permissions andnotifications;• makes a decision on state registration or removal from state registration of nuclear
materials, ionizing radiation sources;• agree on calculation methods related to ensuring nuclear, radiation and nuclear
physical safety and security presented by an expert organization;• approves the designs of transport packaging sets, and also extends the validity of
their certificates-permits, approved by the authorized bodies of other countries, on the
territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan;• organizes research on nuclear, radiation and nuclear physical safety and security,
ensuring the nuclear non-proliferation regime and monitoring of nuclear tests;• develops and approves methodological recommendations for individuals and legal
entities carrying out activities in the field of atomic energy use, regarding methods andoptions of confirming the compliance of a facility involved in atomic energy use with therequirements of nuclear, radiation, nuclear physical safety and security established by thelegislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of atomic energy use;
• sets the values of the threshold activity for various radioisotopes;• analyzes and verifies the information received on the presence, location andmovement of ionizing radiation sources and enters it into the register of ionizing radiation
115

Kazakhstansources;• carries out certification of personnel employed at nuclear facilities;• conducts accreditation of organizations carrying out expertise of nuclear, radiationand nuclear physical safety and security;• maintains a register of accredited organizations carrying out expertise of nuclear,radiation and nuclear physical safety and security;• develops, coordinates and approves, within its competence, normative technical actsof the Republic of Kazakhstan, instructions, guidelines in the field of electric power industry
and the atomic energy use;
• within the competence, participates in the development, implementation of strategic
and program documents, proposals for the Strategic and Operational Plans of the Ministry ofEnergy of the Republic of Kazakhstan;• exercises other rights provided by the laws of the Republic of Kazakhstan, acts of
the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Government of the Republic of
Kazakhstan.
CAESC ME RK realizes the state control of licensee’s compliance with license
conditions and in case of failure, it imposes sanctions within its competence.
“Code on Administrative Offences of the Republic of Kazakhstan” provides
administrative fines imposition and license denial for violation of established rules andregulations while handling the nuclear materials and radioactive substances.
Ministry of Ecology, Geology and Natural Resources, which replaced Committee of
Ecological Regulation and Control of Ministry of Energy Republic of Kazakhstan, provides
for environmental protection functions, including the field of atomic energy use. Main goalsof the Ministry:• provides for the implementation of state policy within its competence;• carries out the regulatory, realization and control-supervision functions andparticipates in the implementation of the strategic functions of the central executive bodywithin its competence;• approves legal acts on the matters within its competence and if it has directcompetence for their approval in the ministries acts, with the exception of the normative legal
acts concerning human and civil rights and freedoms;• exercise control and supervision of the activities of individuals and legal entities
within its competence;• carries out control and supervisory functions over the activities of local executive
bodies on the matters relating to the responsibilities of Ministry;• implement international cooperation within its competence;• performs licensing and permissive procedures within its competence;• performs a permissive control;116

Kazakhstan• carries out state environmental examination within its competence, and coordinates
the implementation of environmental impact assessment in the Republic of Kazakhstan andcarries out its methodological guidance;• maintain the State Register of natural resources users and sources of environmental
pollution;• provides access to environmental information within their competence in accordancewith the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan;• carries out state ecological control over the observance of environmental legislationof the Republic of Kazakhstan, environmental quality standards and environmental
requirements, including:- compliance with the environmental legislation of the Republic of
Kazakhstan;- mitigation of consequences of environmental pollution;- conservation and liquidation of subsoil use facilities;- disposal of harmful substances, radioactive waste and discharge of waste
water into the subsoil;- compliance with the rules of use, storage, transportation, disposal, recycling
or other treatment of radioactive and other environmentally hazardous substances interms of environmental requirements for the prevention of environmental pollution;- compliance with environmental requirements for sanitary-protection areas offacilities with stationary sources of emissions, discharges of pollutants and storing the
production and consumption wastes;- radiation situation on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan, theimplementation of design solutions for the prevention of pollution of environment byradioactive substances;- compliance with the requirements on the mandatory state environmental
review and the implementation of its conditions;- performs other functions in accordance with the laws of the Republic of
Kazakhstan, Acts of the President and Government of Republic of Kazakhstan.
Committee of Quality Control and Safety of Goods and Services of the Ministry of
Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan (functions of state authority in the sphere of sanitaryand epidemiological welfare of the population) replaced the Committee for Public HealthProtection of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan. It performs the following
functions:• issuance of the sanitary-epidemiological conclusions on the basis of test results, andother forms of control and sanitary-epidemiological examination, in accordance with thelegislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan;• inspections of vehicles within its competence on compliance with legal and117

Kazakhstan

regulatory documentation in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the
population, which are used for the transportation of passengers, food products, food raw
materials, technical and drinking water, radioactive, hazardous, chemical and toxic
substances, conditions of carriage passengers and cargo;• development of hygienic standards and sanitary regulations regulating the radiation
safety of the population, the organization of sanitation and educational activities aimed at theprotection of public health;• implementation of the unified state accounting and control of individual andcollective doses of the citizens of the Republic of Kazakhstan;• implementation of state supervision and control within their competence on the
territory of the State in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan;• approval of the import of X-ray equipment, devices and equipment using radioactive
substances and isotopes;• control within its competence in the form of inspections and other forms of control
in accordance with the current legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan;• implementation of radiation monitoring in the field of sanitary and epidemiologicalwelfare of the population on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan;• the suspension of certain types of work, operation of existing, new or renovatedfacilities to eliminate violations of normative legal acts in the field of sanitary andepidemiological welfare of the population and hygienic standards in accordance with thelegislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan on administrative violations;• establishing and changing of the size of the sanitary protection zones.
Committee for Industrial Development and Industrial Safety of the Ministry ofIndustry and Infrastructure Development of the Republic of Kazakhstan performs control andsupervision in the field of industrial safety and is responsible for compliance with thestatements of the Law # 188-V “On Civil Protection” dated on April 11, 2014. In accordancewith Article 70 of the Law the dangerous industrial objects are the facilities, which produce,use, process, generate, store, transport, or eliminate the radioactive and (or) ionizing radiation
sources.
Industrial safety is ensured by:• establishment and implementation of the requirements of industrial safety, which aremandatory with exceptions established by the legislation of Republic of Kazakhstan;• approval to use technology, technical devices and materials at hazardous production
facilities that comply with appropriate requirements of industrial safety;• approval for use at the territory of Republic of Kazakhstan of dangerous technicaldevices, which meet the industrial safety requirements;• declaration of industrial safety of hazardous production facilities;• state supervision, as well as industrial control in the field of industrial safety;
118

Kazakhstan• examination of industrial safety;• certification of legal entities to have a right for performing the works in the field ofindustrial safety;• monitoring of industrial safety;• service of dangerous industrial facilities by professional emergency services andformations.
In the period until 1996, the procedure for issuing permits for the disposal ofradioactive waste in the Republic of Kazakhstan was regulated by the rules in effect in the
USSR. Beginning 1996, the distribution of responsibilities of state bodies for disposal ofradioactive waste was determined by the Decree of the Government of the Republic of
Kazakhstan "Regulations on the disposal of radioactive wastes in the Republic of
Kazakhstan" of October 18, 1996, No. 1283, according to which permits for disposal were
issued by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water resources in coordination withother authorized bodies.
In 2011, by Decree of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated April 2,2011 No. 347 "On Approval of the Rules for the Disposal of Harmful Substances,
Radioactive Wastes and Wastewater Discharges into the Subsoil", these powers weretransferred to the authorized body for study and use of mineral resources (the Committee of
Geology of the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan). During the validity periodof these Rules, only a few permits were issued and in 2012 they were no longer valid. In the
period until 2016, the disposal of radioactive waste in the Republic of Kazakhstan was
carried out within the framework of approved draft emission standards in coordination withlocal authorities and environmental departments of Ministry of Ecology and Water
Resources.
At the moment, when handling radioactive waste, the Rules for the organization,collection and disposal of radioactive waste are in force, which were enacted by the Order ofthe Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 39 of February 8, 2016.
Regulatory Body
The Chairman of the Committee directs and is personally responsible for the
implementation of the tasks assigned to the Committee and for the performance of its functions;and within the limits of the authority presents the Committee in state bodies and otherorganizations.
Interaction of CAESC ME RK with other state executive bodies, as well as with theorganizations responsible for the atomic energy use is conducted in accordance with applicablelaws and other normative legal acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
The competent authority of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of atomic energy use is119Kazakhstan

provided with human, financial and technical resources to allow performing its functions.

6.4 Issues related to NORM&TENORM
Minimization of radioactive waste generation
A general approach to spent fuel and radioactive waste management includes efforts to
reduce the amount of generated waste by all available means and methods. A great attention ispaid to this at all the stages of nuclear fuel cycle, from the time of the initial design till a fulldecommissioning completion and site closure.
Minimization of radioactive waste generation and its reliable isolation from population andthe biosphere for the duration of waste’s potential hazards is one of the basic safety measuresat all stages of spent fuel management.
In accordance with Technical Regulations “Nuclear and Radiation Safety”, when choosing
a process technology one should prefer continuous processes and safe handling of radioactive
materials, as well as minimal, practically achievable: number of technological operations,emissions and discharges, formation of explosive and flammable concentrations of substances,quantities of generated radioactive waste.
Interdependencies among the different steps in spent fuel management
At the present the storage of the spent fuel is realized in two options:• The spent fuel of BN-350 reactor is stored in double-purpose steel concrete
containers on the specially designed site for a long-term storage, on the earth surface.
• The spent fuel of the research reactors is on the supervised storage in special nearreactor depositories.
The system existing in RK that regulates design, construction, operation, maintenance andrepair, inspection and testing of the facilities for spent fuel management, as well as accounting
and review of irregularities in their work, ensures the continuity of safety of spent fuelmanagement at all stages, taking into account the interdependence of these stages. Regulatory
bodies are responsible for safety implementation of these activities at all stages of the life cycleof nuclear installations.
IRS in RK
CAESC ME RK created and maintains the Register of radionuclide sources on the basis ofprocessing of reports of organizations, data on export-import operations, as well as the resultsof the inventory of radiation sources.
Using the information from licensed organizations, which they submit in their annual
120Kazakhstan

reports CAESC RK verifies its database on the used radiation sources
CAESC RK maintains a database on radionuclide sources that have served their service life
and are placed for long-term storage in specialized storage facilities. There are 5 storage
facilities for long-term storage of sources of ionizing radiation (IRS) in the Republic of
Kazakhstan:
1. The IRS storage facility located at "Baikal-1" RRC site near Kurchatov city, in the
branch of the IAE RSE NNC RK (IAE NNC RK).
2. IRS storage facility located in Ala-Tau settlement near Almaty of the Institute of
Nuclear Physics (RSE INP).
3. IRS storage facilities located in several buildings and premises of BN-350 RP,
MAEC-Kazatomprom (NAC-Kazatomprom).
4. IRS storage facility belonging to Ulba Metallurgical Plant (UMP), (NAKKazatomprom).
5. Storage facility of “Kazphosphate” LLP, located in Taraz city. Currently, the issueof moving a part of the sources to other storages at territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan isbeing considered.
Radioactive waste of the non-uranium industry
A number of deposit occurrences of complex ores, rare-earth metals and phosphorites in
Kazakhstan contain uranium mineralization, which is extracted together with the main ore
during ore production. Part of radioactive mineralization goes to damps and tailings; part stays
in the main product (especially in phosphate fertilizers). As a result of aero-gammaspectrometry there were registered radioactive waste of metallurgical, chemical and metal
mining enterprises within the limits of established sanitary-protective zones in Semey, Taraz,
Shymkent and Akmola region.
Top oxidized parts of coal beds at some coal deposits are accompanied with uranium
mineralization as well. This coal is not realized as a fuel and subject to stockpiling as RW.
The storage sites for bulk radioactive waste in non-uranium mining and processing plants,
have generally not been designed so far. Currently, coal mining projects with oxidized parts
provide for the storage and subsequent disposal of radioactive waste.
Contaminated (mainly Ra-226 and Th-232) soils, oil-slimes, equipment, pipes wererevealed when surveying oil-gas fields. It relates to long-term exposure of oil water enrichedwith natural radionuclide. Overwhelming part of the waste (98%) is generated at oil fields.
Currently, RW of this group is gaining more and more importance due to intensive developmentof Mangyshlak-Caspian oil fields and mass inclusion into development of small deposits ofbrown coals characterized by increased content of natural radionuclide. 57 from 76 registered
121

Kazakhstan

storing places relate to contaminated equipment and soils at oil-gas fields.
The strata water of oil fields contains the maximum number of radionuclide in comparison
with all known strata water, except water of uranium deposits. For example, permissible
content of radium was determined the hundreds of times and thorium in 20-30 times exceeding
as a result of sample analysis from the wells of Uzen, Zhetybai fields. There were revealed 1.3
mln.m3 of radioactive waste and 650 ha of contaminated territory with surface radiation over
1mcSv/h only as a result of conducted surveys on the territory of Mangistau and Atyrau regions.
The plans for the development of new fields provide for measures to ensure radiation safety,
but the normalization of the situation at old and already used facilities is proceeding slowly. To
date, at the Kalamkas and Zhetybai oil fields in the Mangistau region, sections have beencreated for the decontamination of equipment and pipes. At the Zhetybai and Zhana-Ozen oil
fields, radioactive waste storage facilities were commissioned for 100 thousand tons (ZhanaOzen) and 70 thousand tons (Zhetybai).
According to some estimations, the volume of radioactive waste of non-uranium industry
is 2.3 mln tons with the activity of 4921 GBq.
Territories contaminated with radionuclides as a result of nuclear tests
Nuclear explosions on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan were during the period
from 1949 to 1989, on Semipalatinsk test-site, Azgyr and Lira test-sites. Since 1965 to 1987
on the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan there were 39 underground nuclear explosions
for national economy needs, 17 of them with explosion yield of 584 TNT equivalent on the
territory of the Azgyr test-site, where in salt domes there were created 9 cavities with initial
volume around 1,2 mln. m3, at this in the generated cavities there were deposited radionuclide
with total activity of 0,7×1016 Bq. Two cavities were used for disposal of radioactive soil andcontaminated metal construction and mechanism units. Totally, in the Azgyr undergroundcavities there are disposed solid RW with volume of 200 m3 and activity of 18.5 GBq. Daylightsurfaces of all the sites were subject to decontamination and remediation in 1989-1994 by
VNIIEF.
The Semipalatinsk test site (SIP) covers an area of 18,500 km2. 456 explosions were tested
at territory of the Semipalatinsk test site. Of these, 86 are air, 30 are ground and 340 are
underground.
Among all the ground-based nuclear tests carried out at the Semipalatinsk test site, sometests can be distinguished, which, in general, determined the scale of radioactive contaminationof the environment in the test site and adjacent regions. These are ground nuclear tests
conducted on the site “Opytnoe pole” on 29.08.49 (yield ~ 22 kt), 24.09.51 (yield ~ 38 kt),
122

Kazakhstan

12.08.53 (yield ~ 400 kt), 24.08.56 (yield ~ 26,5 kt), 07.08.62 (yield ~ 9,9 kt), and undergroundtests with soil burst conducted on the test-site “Balapan” (15.01.65) and “Sary-Uzen”(14.10.65). The radioactive tracks, as a rule, were generated on the territory of the test-site after
other ground explosions characterized by low and, basically, ultra-low yield.
Until now, radioactive fallout traces from ground tests carried out on 24.09.51 and 12.08.53
and underground tests carried out on 15.01.65 and 14.10.65 are well detected on the ground byradiometric methods, and laboratory analyzes of selected samples of natural environments
confirm the presence of technogenic radionuclides 137Cs, 90Sr and 239,240Pu in quantities ofhundreds and thousands of Bq/kg.
Thus, radioactive fallout after ground nuclear tests formed radionuclide contamination of
the area in the form of extended traces and separate spots, both on the territory of the test site
territory and outside its limits.
The exposure dose rate in air on the site "Experimental field" due to the presence of gammaemitting radionuclides Cs-137, Eu-152, Co-60, is very high and in extreme points reaches 80100 mSv/h or more (natural background 0 10-0,25 mSv/h) and on the site Balapan - up to 10.5
mSv/h. In areas of above-ground nuclear explosions the plutonium isotope concentrations
reach 28000 Bq/kg, in the areas of excavation explosions –up to 3222000 Bq/kg; there isexcessive concentration in communities outside of the Test site. In 1953-57, on STS there were
implemented programs on testing of the radiological warfare agents (RWA). RWA tests wereconducted on the sites "4" and "4a" located to the north and to the west from “Opytnoe pole”.
RWA spreading was carried out by blasting of individual shells, bombing of areas by mortarshells, release of bombs by bombers or dispersion of RWA by aircraft. The basic contaminantis radionuclide 90Sr, at the same time there are present other radionuclide (137Cs,
241Am,60Co, Pu and Eu isotopes). The specific activity of radionuclide 90Sr reaches
5x108Bq/kg in soil covering on separate areas. The areas of contamination vary from hundreds
up to hundred thousand square meters and the extent of some of them reaches several
kilometers. The radionuclide content in soil-vegetable covering can be classified as RW.
During the period from 1995 to 2000, work was carried out on elimination of infrastructure
for conducting nuclear tests. The facilities intended for underground testing, 181 tunnels of the
Degelen mountain massif and 13 unused wells at the Balapan site were brought to a state that
did not allow their use for testing nuclear weapons (closing of tunnel portals, liquidation ofwells).
Less known are the tests carried out for peaceful purpose in other places in Kazakhstan.
These are the objects "Lira" (6 explosions), "Sai-Utes" (3 explosions), as well as explosions
within the framework of the programs "Meridian" (3 explosions), "Region" (2 explosions),“Batolit” (1 explosion) for the study of the geological structure of the earth's crust.
123

Kazakhstan

At the Lira test site, at a depth of 700-900 m, 6 cavities with a volume of about 50 thousand
m3 were created, designed to store gas condensate from the Karachaganak field.
According to survey data for 2006, the total amount of radioactive waste from nuclear tests
is 237,200 thousand tons with an activity of 570 million GBq. Including high-activity 0.5
thousand tons with activity 70 million GBq, intermediate-activity 6,500 thousand tons withactivity 488 million GBq, low-activity 230,700 thousand tons with activity 11.1 million GBq.

124

Malaysia

7 MALAYSIA
7.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
Currently in Malaysia, the main activities contributing to generating radioactive waste areindustry, medicine, research, and education. The most common activities related to thetechnological enhancement of natural radioactive materials (TENORM) are industrial activities
related to mining and subsequent processing, such as tin mining and smelting, processing ofminerals, and the oil and gas industry. The major volume of radioactive waste comes fromindustrial activities related to mineral processing and oil and gas production.
NORM waste has low specific activity but contains long-lived alpha emitters and is present
in huge volumes compared to other types of radioactive waste. Normally, NORM waste in
Malaysia containing concentrations of U-238 and Th-232 radioactivity is slightly higher than
1.0 Bq/g, the clearance limit for naturally occurring radionuclides from series of uranium andthorium, as stipulated in the Atomic Energy Licensing (Low Activity Radioactive Material)(Exemption) Order 2020.
7.1.1 Tin Mining and Smelting Industry
At the end of the 19th Century, Malaya was the world’s largest tin producer. Due
to NORM co-existing with the tin ore or cassiterite in the ground, certain minerals of
tin-mining by-product or tin tailing, such as amang (heavy mineral sand), monazite,
ilmenite, zircon, or xenotime also contain NORM. Tin tailing (monazite) containing
328Bq/g of Th-232.
After the total collapse of the world tin industry in October 1985 when the price oftin fell by more than 50%, most of the companies stopped their operation but at thesame time, most of them decided to store their tin tailing at the site as a stockpile forreprocessing in the future when it’s economic to be reprocessed. At the same time, tinsmelting companies also ceased their operation and left tin slag as their legacy waste.
Tin slag is a TENORM and is classified as radioactive waste according to Malaysian
regulations. Lately, the intention to reprocess tin tailing reprocessing is increasing due
to the increasing demand for rare earth elements (REE). There are a few studies onreused of tin slag reported but neither one successfully come to commercialize until
now. Figure 1 and 2 shows tin tailing (monazite) and tin slag respectively.

125

Malaysia

Figure 1. Tin tailing(Monazite) containing 328
Bq/g Th-232

Figure 2. Tin slag containing 1.1
Bq/g U-238 and 0.8 Bq/g Th232

7.1.2 Mineral Processing
Since the 1980s, the mineral processing industry caused arising of public andpolitical issues because the activity generates a huge amount of TENORM waste.
Mineral processing in Malaysia initially starts with down-stream processing of tin
tailing, such as ilmenite, zircon and monazite, to produce end products such as titaniumoxide, zirconium and rare earth elements, and at the same time generate waste or byproduct containing NORM. In the mineral extraction process, these radioactive
elements become more concentrated and need proper management.
The first monazite cracking plant for rare earth elements which started operation in
the 1980s was closed operation due to public issues. A near-surface repository was
specifically built to solve the problem arising from its NORM. Malaysia has closed
repository in 2014 which was previously built specifically for disposal of legacy
thorium oxide waste from the rare earth extraction plant. Figure 3 shows the nearsurface repository for thorium hydroxide waste disposal.

126

Malaysia

Figure 3. Near surface repository for thorium oxide waste completely closed in 2014.
In 2010s, another monazite cracking plant started operation to produce concentrated
rare earth elements and gypsum containing thorium as the main byproduct. The gypsum
byproduct contains 6 Bq/g of thorium and is classified as very low-level radioactive
waste. Public and political issues arose related to the management of a huge amount of
gypsum byproduct since the construction phase of the plant. The gypsum byproduct isstored onsite in an engineered landfill or temporary storage facility that is designed andconstructed to meet standards for a permanent disposal facility. Figure 4 shows theonsite landfill for storage gypsum residue.

127

Malaysia

Figure 4. Onsite landﬁll for gypsum temporary storage.
The company's proposal to reuse the gypsum byproduct as a soil conditioner andbackfill material was rejected by the government. A site was proposed for near-surface
disposal but was not approved by the regulator due to the site is considered a water
catchment area. Until now, the plant is still in operation and the management of gypsum
byproduct is still unresolved.
In titanium production industries, cracking of ilmenite to produce titanium dioxide
pigment also produces very low-level TENORM waste in the form of red gypsum.
However, the replacement of local ilmenite with export ilmenite reduced the NORM
contained in the by-product red gypsum to below the exemption limit. The red gypsum
was reported containing 52 ± 30 Bg/kg of Ra-226, 100 ± 41 Bq/kg of Ra-228, 0.006 –0.019 Bq/kg of U-238 and 0.064 – 0.125 Bq/kg. In 2003, the red gypsum residue was
exempted in accordance to Act 304 after monitoring results continuously showing thatthe activity concentrations of natural radionuclides were less than exemption limit 1.0
Bq/g. Figure 5 shows red gypsum residue is transferred into the landfill using a
conveyor.

128

Malaysia

Figure 5. The red gypsum residue is transferred into the landﬁll using a conveyor.
Currently the residue is classified as schedule waste in accordance withEnvironmental Quality (Schedule Waste) Regulations 2005. With a generation rate of
30,000 to 50,000 metric tons per month, a huge volume of red gypsum is stored onsite
in a landfill licensed by the Department of Environmental (DOE). Figure 6 shows the
red gypsum residue dumping in a landfill.

129

Malaysia

Figure 6. Red gypsum residue dumping in a landﬁll.

For closure, the landfill will be covered with 60 cm compacted clay and a layer ofsoil for vegetation to prevent erosion and the red gypsum can be retrieved easily in the
future. Research on red gypsum started a few decades ago, but until now a very small
amount of red gypsum is reused in cement production.
7.1.3. Oil and gas industries
Another important source of TENORM is from the oil and gas industry - in this casemostly from the oil sludge and scales from oil well production and oil refinery. The
most dominant radionuclide in oil sludge is Ra-226 and Ra-228, whereas U and Th
contribution is very small compared to other minerals such as ilmenite zircon etc. The
total activity in oil sludge/scale ranged from 0.2 -13.0 Bq/g. Oil sludge/scales contained
0.3 Bg/kg Ra-226 and 0.3 Bq/kg Ra-228.
At the oil and gas production facilities, sludge accumulates in the processing vessels
whereas scales are deposited on the interior surface of the production components when
there is a temperature or pressure drop. The highest mean Ra-226 and Ra-226
concentrations of 114 and 130 Bq/g, respectively, were measured in scales. However,the volume of the scales generated is much smaller as compared to the sludge. And with
the introduction of scale inhibitors, less scale is accumulated. Figure 7 and 8 show scaleand sludge from oil and gas industry.

130Malaysia

Figure 7. Scale contained 1.1 U-238 and 0.8 Th-232

Figure 8. Oil sludge contained 0.3 Bq/g Ra-228 and 0.3 Bq/g Ra-226.
131

Malaysia

The volume of sludge generated is substantial. The treatment of sludge generates
secondary residues such as matured sludge from sludge farming, chemical extraction
residues and incineration ash. Overall, about 75 % of the waste, mostly untreated sludge
and residues from chemical extraction of sludge has radioactivity levels similar to thenormal soils of Malaysia. Oil sludge was exempted and classified as scheduled waste.

7.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
The Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 (or Act 304) empowers the Atomic Energy
Licensing Board (AELB) to ensure that the user obtains an appropriate license for activities
dealing with NORM waste management and to take appropriate actions to rectify thesituation which deemed unsafe. The board will consider the issuance of the license after
scrutinizing the applicant's capability. In the case of NORM, a person intending to conduct
the following activities should apply for a license under Class G, which is:(a) To dispose of NORM or their wastes,(b) To store NORM or their wastes prior to their disposal, or(c) To decommission a milling installation and waste treatment facility involving NORM.

7.2.1 Disposal
The scales and sludge collected shall not be accumulated or disposed of without
prior approval by the AELB. For disposal purpose, a Radiological Impact Assessment(RIA) shall be carried out to demonstrate that no member of the public will be exposed
to more than 1 mSv/year from all activities.
The waste classification scheme reflects the general principle that the higher theactivity concentration, the greater the need to contain the waste and isolate it from thebiosphere. In terms of the proposed classification scheme, NORM waste, which
generally contains radionuclides with very long half-lives, would generally beclassified as low-level waste (LLW), very low-level waste (VLLW) or exempt waste.
On this basis, non-exempt NORM waste could therefore be expected to be disposed ofin surface or near-surface disposal facilities.

7.2.1.1 Very Low-Level Waste (VLLW)NORM waste with an activity concentration of each radionuclide in the uranium
decay chain or the thorium decay chain, which is above the clearance levels, but less132

Malaysia

than 100 Bq/g is classified as VLLW. VLLW does not need a high level of containment
and isolation and, therefore, is suitable for disposal in engineered surface landfill-type
facilities with limited regulatory control.
This is the usual practice for waste from some mining operations, minerals
processing and other activities. The designs of such disposal facilities range from
simple covers to more complex disposal systems and, in general, such disposal systems
require active and passive institutional controls. The period for which institutional
controls are exercised will be sufficient to provide confidence that there will becompliance with the safety criteria for the disposal of the waste.
The engineered near surface landfill type facilities for the disposal of NORM waste
classified as VLLW shall consist of at least two (2) layers of impermeable liner and beequipped with an under-liner leak detection system (ULLD). The dual liner can be madefrom high-density polyethylene (HDPE) material and clay layer.
The engineered near-surface landfill-type facilities shall be equipped with a leachatecollection system at the bottom layer to prevent the accumulation of leachate and theleachate shall be channeled into a wastewater treatment plant. For closure, the landfill
shall be capped with impermeable liners to reduce the water infiltration into the landfill.
Figure 9 shows an example illustration of a landfill disposal type facility withengineered features.

Figure 9. Example illustra�on of landﬁll disposal type facility with engineeredfeatures.

7.2.1.2 Low Level Waste (LLW)
NORM waste with the activity concentration of each radionuclide in the uraniumor the thorium decays chain which is greater than 100 Bq/g up to 400 Bq/g is classified
as LLW. Such waste requires robust isolation and containment for periods of up to a133Malaysia

few hundred years and is suitable for disposal in engineered near-surface facilities. This
class covers a very broad range of waste. LLW may include short-lived radionuclides
at higher levels of activity concentration, and also long-lived radionuclides, but only at
relatively low levels of activity concentration. LLW is suitable for near-surface disposal.
There are various design options for near-surface disposal facilities. These design
options may range from simple to more complex engineered facilities and may involve
disposal at varying depths, typically from the surface down to 30 meters. They will
depend on safety assessments and national practices and are subject to approval by theappropriate authorities.
The near surface disposal facility shall consist at least two (2) layers of impermeable
liner, for example, the HDPE polymer layer and geosynthetic layer as shown in Figure
10.

Figure 10. Example illustra�on of near-surface disposal facility

For closure, the near-surface disposal facility shall be capped with layers of HDPE
liner or equivalent material, sand, bio-barrier layer consisting of rocks, soil layer and
top with fertile soil layer to promote grass growth as vegetation can play an importantrole in the performance of a capping system, specifically in reducing erosion.
The environmental and radiological monitoring shall be conducted as determinedby the Board (based on risk) according to a graded approach or for at least six (6)months prior to construction to get the baseline data. The monitoring also shall be
conducted after the completion of closure of the disposal facility, to ensure that dose to
the public is below 1 mSv/ year.

134Malaysia

An applicant who would like to develop and operate a disposal facility for NORM
waste should apply for license Class A and Class G, which they need to submit these
documents:a) Radiological Impact Assessment (RIA)b) Safety Case for the Radioactive Waste Management Facilityc) Radioactive Waste Management Pland) Decommissioning Plane) Emergency Response Planf) Criteria For Siting of Disposal Facility for Wastes Containing NORMg) Site approval for the repository from State Government/Local Government
Radiological Impact Assessment (RIA) should demonstrate that the dose limits tothe workers, members of the public and the environment do not exceed those stipulated
in the Atomic Energy Licensing Act 304 and the Regulations.

7.2.1.3 Siting for NORM Disposal Facility
Siting is a fundamentally important activity in the disposal of radioactive waste.
The safety case and supporting safety assessment must demonstrate that there isadequate geological, geomorphological or topographical stability (as appropriate to thetype of facility) and features as well as processes that contribute to safety. It also must
demonstrate that other features, events and processes do not undermine the safety case.
Siting process for a radioactive waste disposal facility can be recognized asconceptual and planning stage, area survey stage, site investigation stage and site
confirmation stage. At the start of a siting process, a selection is made of one or more
preferred sites on the basis of geological setting and with account taken of other factors.
Sociopolitical factors are an important consideration in any site selection process (e.g.,demographic conditions, transport infrastructure and existing land use). The siting
process shall also refer to other relevant acts and regulations for the site selection
methodology. All criteria that must avoid during siting are listed as Exclusion Criteria.

7.2.2 Storage of NORM&TENORM
Storage of NORM should have a valid license. Licensees are required to submit adetailed location plan, design of the store, engineered design, dimension, andcalculation of the dose outside of the store (including safety features facilities to preventthe resulting exposure from radioactive materials). Info of the NORM to be stored and135

Malaysia

certificate radioactivity analysis of the NORM (U-238 and Th-232) should be submitted
together during application.
The NORM waste generated by the milling activities under a Class A (Milling)
license is stored temporarily at the licensee’s premises. However, if the licensee intends
to dispose of the NORM waste at a proposed disposal facility, the Class G license for
disposal is required.

7.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
7.3.1. Act
The Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984 (Act 304) was gazette on the 24th of June
1984 and enforced on the 1st of February 1985. The Atomic Energy Licensing Act 1984
(Act. 304) provides the regulation and control of atomic energy and all activities related
to it. The main objective of the Act is to ensure the safety of radiation workers, membersof the public and the environment from radiation hazards because of activities related
to atomic energy.
Sections 26-31 of Act 304 empower the Atomic Energy Licensing Board (AELB)
to ensure users (licensees) obtain appropriate licenses prior to dealing (accumulating,transport or disposing) with radioactive waste and to take appropriate actions to rectify
situations which deemed unsafe.
Act 304 provides the provision for the exclusion of the activity of prospecting or
mining for any radioactive materials, nuclear materials or prescribed sub-stance. These
activities shall be governed by the relevant laws relating to mining. Nevertheless, any
person who, in carrying out either of the activities of prospecting or mining or both,
encounters, discovers or comes into possession of any radioactive materials, nuclear
materials or prescribed substance shall immediately report such fact to AELB in writing
and shall comply with all directions that the AELB may give in the matter, being
directions not inconsistent with the relevant laws related to mining.

7.3.2. Regulations
Atomic Energy Licensing (Radioactive Waste Management) Regulations 2011
came into operation on 16 August 2011 which apply to all aspects of radioactive waste.
Disposing of or cause to be disposed of radioactive waste requires a valid license. This136

Malaysia

regulation stated the responsibilities of the licensee, appointment and responsibilities
of a radioactive waste management officer, discharge limit, etc.
Radioactive waste to be discharged shall not be more than 1 cubic meter and inaccordance with the clearance level. Radioactive waste to be released, discharged, or
disposed of to the environment shall comply with all other laws concerning nonradiological properties. For NORM containing a mixture of radionuclides, thefollowing calculation method shall be used:𝑛𝑛�
Where,

𝑖𝑖=1

𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖
≤1
(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)𝑖𝑖

𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 is the activity concentration (Bq/g) of the ith radionuclide in theradioactive waste.
(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)𝑖𝑖 is the value of activity concentration (Bq/g) for
the radionuclide 𝑖𝑖 as in the Second Schedule in the regulations.
𝑛𝑛 is the number of radionuclides present in the radioactive waste.

According to Atomic Energy Licensing (Radioactive Waste Management)
Regulations 2011, for discharging, releasing or disposing of more than 1 cubic meter,
the proposed release, discharge or disposal requires approval from the regulator. Since
there are many questions about the control limit especially for NORM in consumer
products, in October 2020, Atomic Energy Licensing (Low Activity Radioactive
Material) (Exemption) Order 2020 was implemented. The exempted Low Activity
Radioactive Material under provisions of this Order will be exempted from allprovisions of Act 304. Residues containing NORM less than clearance or exemption
limits are regulated under the Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Act 127).
The licensee shall ensure all radioactive waste discharges are as low as reasonably
achievable below the authorized limits; and monitor and record with sufficient detailand accuracy to demonstrate compliance with the authorized limits and to provide
estimation of the public exposure. If radioactive waste is not suitable for release,discharge, or disposal to the environment within one year of its creation or any greater
time as the regulator approves, the licensee shall submit a proposal, obtain approval
from the regulator, and then comply with any requirement made by the regulator.
For any disposal activity of NORM&TENORM, the license is required to submit aRadiological Impact Assessment (RIA) to the Regulator, demonstrating that the dose137

Malaysia

limits to the workers and members of the public do not exceed those stipulated in the
Atomic Energy Licensing Act 304 and the Regulations. The transportation of
NORM&TENORM shall be in accordance with the requirements of Radiation
Protection (Transport) Regulations 1989.

7.3.3 Order
Currently, there are two orders that have been gazette and still in effect for
NORM&TENORM that is:(a) Atomic Energy Licensing (Radioactive Materials Low Activity) (Exemption) Order
2020; and(b) Atomic Energy Licensing (Small Amang Factory) (Exemption) (Revocation) Order
2021).
Atomic Energy Licensing (Radioactive Materials Low Activity) (Exemption) Order2020 came into effect on October 1, 2020. The Order provides an exemption from all
the provisions of Act 304 to any person in his possession or dealing with any lowactivity radioactive material. Exemption levels in relation to substance low activity
radioactivity from natural sources whose amount is more than one tone are 10 Bg/g for
K-40 and 1 Bq/g for any radionuclides in the uranium or thorium decay chain. The
applicant must submit a copy of the Certificate of Analysis (CoA) of raw materials andresidue/waste [including activity concentration analysis for radionuclide U-238, Th232 and K-40 (ppm units or Bq/g)] issued by laboratories recognized by the Regulator.
The Atomic Energy Licensing (Small Amang Factory) (Exemption) (Revocation)
Order 2021 comes into operation on 1 June 2022 to increase the control on small amang
factory activity after increasing intention to reprocess amang and related minerals forrare earth element recoveries.

7.3.4 Guides
Guides are important documents for licensees to refer to. All requirements to be
fulfilled by the licensee including requirements stated in regulations and orders areclarified in the guide. Guides, codes, and standards are provided by the regulator toensure all licenses comply with requirements and the goals imposed in regulations areachieved.

138

Malaysia

LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 3 is a document issued by AELB at the end of 2016, regarding
guidelines on radiological monitoring for oil and gas facilities operations associatedwith TENORM. The external radiation shall not exceed 1.0 mSv a year. [Atomic Energy
Licensing (Basic Safety Radiation Protection) Regulations 2010]. The surface will beconsidered to be contaminated if for alpha emitters it exceeds 0.04 Bq cm-2 and others
0.4 Bq cm-2. [Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations 1989]. When and where
the limits are exceeded, the operators shall inform the Regulator for negotiation of thenecessary regulatory requirements.
Equipment contaminated with TENORM must be sent for decontamination prior to
its 'disposal'. These guidelines govern the transportation of equipment fordecontamination. They apply to all equipment contaminated with radioactive scale orsludge which has a surface contamination greater than 0.04 Bq cm-2. In this context'disposal' means equipment, which may later be resold, reused or scrapped.
Any solid lumps of TENORM released during the decontamination job should becollected and placed in a container. The lumps should then be broken up and disposedof in accordance with the conditions of the disposal license [Radiation Protection(Licensing) Regulations 1986 Part 11 Classification of License Section 3(G) and also
Part IV Application for Amendment and Renewal of License, Section 13 (l)]. The
representative samples of the radiological contamination encountered in the vessel aretaken and sent for content and specific activity (Bq g-1) analysis.
Once the existence of scales is established, it is essential that regular monitoring of
the overall production system is performed to establish the extent of deposition. Scales
and sludge collected from any work shall be sampled and analyzed for its radioactivity
content. Routine monitoring is recommended to be conducted at a suitable frequency
for at least once a year for normal operation and should include parameters stated inthis Guide. Similar monitoring shall also be conducted prior to and after shutdown,
workover, and descaling and related equipment maintenance.
The transportation of any scales, sludges, contaminated tubing or any equipment shallbe in accordance with the requirements of Radiation Protection (Transport) Regulations
1989. TENORM. Under the transport regulations, NORM&TENORM is addressed
under low specific activity materials (LSA) or surface contaminated objects (SCO).
LEM/TEK/30 SEM I is a document issued by the AELB in early 1996, regarding
guidelines on handling and radiological monitoring of TENORM from oil and gas
industry. This document was superseded by a revised edition, LEM/TEK/30 SEM 2, in
September 1996. Among others, it addresses the requirement and format forradiological impact assessment for the management of oil sludge containing TENORM.
139

Malaysia

Under the transport regulations, NORM&TENORM is addressed under low specificactivity materials (LSA) or surface contaminated objects (SCO).
LEM/TEK/74 Sem. 1 Pin. 2 is a guideline for licensing decision activity related to
NORM under Act 304. This document guides whether the activity related to NORM,
raw material processing and generation of residue containing NORM is subject to theregulations under the provision of Act 304. Activity concentration for U-238, Th-232
and K-40 in raw materials and residue/waste must be analysed by the Regulator’srecognized laboratory. The result must be compared with exemption limits stipulated in
Atomic Energy Licensing (Low Activity Radioactive Material) (Exemption) Order2020. A copy of the analysis certificate should be submitted together with theapplication for Regulator consideration.
LEM/TEK/76 Sem. 1 Pind. 1 is criteria for siting of disposal facility for waste
containing naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM). This document isprepared to provide guidance for the applicant of Class G license who intends to disposeof waste containing Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) at a disposal
facility. This document addresses the safety requirements and procedures that should
be followed and complied with for the siting of a disposal facility with regard to landfill
disposal which is known as an engineered surface landfill type facility or near surface
disposal facility (NSDF) for waste-containing NORM. This guidance material isintended to address both radiological and non-radiological hazards associated with thedisposal facility. However, this document emphasizes the radiological hazard as its
control falls under the purview of the Department of Atomic Energy Malaysia. The
licensees shall comply with other standards, guidelines and regulatory requirements formore detailed requirements and procedures of non-radiological hazard controls for thesiting of the disposal facility.

7.4 Issues related to NORM&TENORM
The waste associated with TENORM account for a significant number of the radioactive
waste management problem in Malaysia. TENORM waste characteristics are the presence oflong-lived alpha radionuclides and present in very large volumes compared to other types ofradioactive waste. A large area disposal site is required for the disposal of TENORM waste.
Most of the flat areas have been developed for residences and plantations. The hilly area iscovered by forest which some gazette as a permanently reserved forest. The hilly terrain also
received heavy rainfall making the valley as a water catchment area for the river which is used
as water resources for the public. Permanently reserved forest and water catchment areas areclassified as exclusion criteria for disposal sites. All these factors make site selection for
140

Malaysia

TENORM waste disposal very challenging. Figure 11 shows a proposed site for disposal of
gypsum residue.

Figure 11. A proposed site for disposal of gypsum residue.
The proposed site of about 202 hectares has received the 'green light' from the State
Government. The Regulatory body approves the proposal to establish the site, however subject
to the results of Radioactive Impact Assessment (RIA), Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA), and other requirements deemed necessary by the relevant local authorities. In Jan 2021,
EIA report for proposed development of a dedicated permanent disposal facility was rejectedby DOE due to the area being classified as a water catchment area based on the existing of riverand streams. Figure 12 shows the river and streams at the proposed site.

141Malaysia

Figure 12. River and streams ﬂow through the proposed site.

References
Action plan for WLP residue management (2018). A report by Lynas (M) Sdn. Bhd.
Atomic Energy Licensing (Low Activity Radioactive Materials) (Exemption) Order 2020.
Atomic Energy Licensing (Radioactive Waste Management) Regulation 2011.
Atomic Energy Licensing (Small Amang Factory) (Exemption)(Revocation) Order 2021.
Hamadi HASSAN. Status on the Regulatory Aspects in NORM&TENORM Activities and Waste in
Malaysia. Jpn. J. Health Phys., 40(1), 87-91 (2005).
LEM/TEK/30 Sem. 3, 24 November 2016 Guidelines On Radiological Monitoring for Oil and Gas
Facilities Operations Associated with Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Materials (TENORM)
LEM/TEK/76 Sem. 1 Pind. 1. Criteria for Siting of Disposal Facility for Waste Containing Naturally
Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM).
LEM/TEK/74 Sem.1 Pin.1 23 Disember 2022 - Panduan Penentuan Pelesenan Aktiviti Melibatkan
Bahan Radioaktif Semula Jadi (Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material, NORM) Di Bawah Akta
Perlesenan Tenaga Atom 1984 [Akta 304].
LEM-SS-13 kelas A. Senarai semak – Kelas A (Penjual bahan mineral NORM&TENORM).
LEM-SS-17 kelas A. Senarai Semak – Kelas A (Aktiviti AKTIVITI NORM&TENORM).
142

Malaysia

Yap Keam Min. Tin Mining in Malaysia- Is There any Revival? Feature. JURUTERA, 18 December
2007.
ReturnLynasradioactive

waste

to

Australia.

Sahabat

Alam

Malaysia.

https://foe-malaysia.org/articles/return-lynas-radioactive-waste-to-australia/
Teng Iyu Lin. Regulatory Control of Milling of Minerals Containing Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Materials (NORM) In Malaysia. http://www.aelb.gov.my/
Zalina Laili and Suhana Jalil. Pengurusan Residu dan Sisa NORM di Malaysia. Dewan Kosmik, 1 - 13,
Bil. 9, 2022.

143

Mongolia

8 MONGOLIA
Mongolia is a non-nuclear country since there are no nuclear power plants and research
reactors. Mongolia is known for its significant mineral wealth, and the country has abundantdeposits of various minerals. Some of the key minerals found in Mongolia include: gold, copper,coal, uranium and iron.
Mongolia has substantial copper and gold deposits, and the oyu tolgoi mine is one of thelargest copper-gold mines globally. Mongolia possesses vast coal reserves, with the tavan
tolgoi coal deposit being one of the largest untapped coal reserves in the world. The country
has significant iron ore deposits, with the tumurtei iron ore mine being one of the notable
examples. Mongolia has uranium deposits, and the country has explored the possibility ofdeveloping its uranium resources.
It's important to note that while Mongolia is rich in mineral resources, the development andutilization of these resources come with both opportunities and challenges. The mining industry
has been a significant contributor to Mongolia’s economic growth, but it has also raised
environmental and social concerns. Sustainable and responsible mining practices are crucial tobalancing economic development with environmental and social considerations.

8.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
Mongolia, like many countries, has natural deposits of radioactive materials in its soil androcks. The presence of naturally occurring radioactive materials (norm) can have implications
for various activities, particularly in industries that involve the extraction and processing ofminerals. Here are some aspects related to norm activities in Mongolia:
NORM Actives:• Coal-fired power plants and maintenance of boilers• Cement production, maintenance of clinker ovens• Production of oil and gas• Primary iron production• Mining of ores other than uranium ore• Ground water filtration facilities
NORM Planning:• Processing of rare earth minerals• Production of phosphate fertilizers• Processing of niobium/tantalum ore• Phosphoric acid production
144

Mongolia•

Tin/lead/copper smelting

8.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
Many coals of North-central Mongolia are exceptionally radioactive and listed uriniferous
coals in Soviet achieves in the Mongolian state geological fund.
Thermal power plants are used for generating electricity by burning raw coal. Currently,
304 organizations have special licenses for coal mining, and 13 thermal power plants burn raw
coal from these mines. These power plants play a crucial role in meeting the country's energy
needs.
The issue of mining coal in Mongolia and using the resulting waste ash to produce building
materials, which may contain elevated levels of radiation, is of greater concern when comparedto other activities associated with the norm.
Researching the activity of radioactive heavy elements in Mongolian coal, as well as thelevels of radioactive substances in coal waste ash, and construction materials derived from it,is crucial for ensuring public and environmental safety. Additionally, studying neutralization
technologies for managing these radioactive elements is essential to mitigate potential risks
associated with their presence.
This table provides information on the uranium-238 activity and uranium concentration invarious lignite deposits of Mongolia.
The table showing the specific activity of some lignite deposits, including the U-238
activity (in Becquerels per kilogram, Bq/kg) and uranium concentration (in grams per ton, g/t).
This information is obtained from the 2013 NEC project report on coal and TPP ashes. Here's
a summary of the data:

Table 1. Specific activity of some lignite deposits (coal)

Deposit name/sample/U-238 activity Bq/kg

U concentration g/t

Shivee Ovoo /30/

10.2- 62.6

0.5 - 4.5

Bayanteeg /10/

18.4 - 91.4

1.5 - 7.4

Aduunchuluun /16/

69.0 -1008.0

21.6 – 81.6

Khushuut /13/

19.2 – 30.3

1.9 -2.5

145

Mongolia

Maanit /13/

32.4 – 91.1

2.2 – 7.4

Bayantsagaan /6/

16.5 – 86.4

1.9 -7.5

Shariin gol /16/

21.6 – 45.9

1.8 – 3.6

Baganuur /35/

4.8 - 47.9

2.0- 3.7

Mogoin gol /9/

25.4-215.7

14.9 - 17.5

Alal Tolgoi /9/66.0 – 202.5

5.0 – 16.4

SOURCE: 2013 NEC project report on coal and TPP ashes

Following table provided the composition to ash ponds at thermal power plants in
Ulaanbaatar and Choibalsan city. This table outlines the average concentration of uranium (U)and thorium (Th) in ash, measured in grams per ton (g/tn).
Table 2. Ash pond of TPP no 3 and 4 of UB city
Thermal power

DepositAverage concentration in ash g/tn

plant

TPP UB city
TPP Choibalsan cityU

Th

Baganuur

53,4

12,4

Aduun chuluun

207

n/a

This type of information is essential for understanding the composition of ash ponds, which
can be crucial for environmental impact assessments and management strategies associatedwith thermal power plant activities.
Researching the activity of radioactive heavy elements in Mongolian coal, as well as thelevels of radioactive substances in coal waste ash, and construction materials derived from it,is crucial for ensuring public and environmental safety. Additionally, studying neutralization
technologies for managing these radioactive elements is essential to mitigate potential risks
associated with their presence.
Mongolia has not established a formal indoor radon program. The NRA (Nuclear
Regulatory Authority) is establishing a radon survey of exposure to radon at workplaces andpublic buildings. A special guidance for measuring radon in air since 1991 as National Standard.
There was an urgent need for continuing indoor radon measurements due to the extensive useof coal ash as a building material.
146

Mongolia

Uranium Resources in Mongolia:
Mongolia has a total uranium resource estimated at 143,500 tons, ranking 11th globally.
As of October 2023, there are 13 entities holding a total of 14 exploration licenses and 8 mining
licenses for uranium-related activities in Mongolia. Planning for uranium production isunderway, involving two entities and targeting seven deposits.
In 2021, Badrakh Energy initiated the In-Situ Recovery (ISR) Pilot Test at the Zuuvch Ovoosite. The estimated low radioactive waste from Badrakh Energy projects is reported to be 260
tons per year.
According to the nuclear energy law of Mongolia, the state-owned company "MonAtom" LLC is responsible for ensuring Mongolia's equity and controlling the activities of joint
venture companies involved in uranium projects.

Regulatory body
The Nuclear Energy Commission (NEC) of the Government of Mongolia wasestablished in 1962. NEC is responsible for the development of national policy for the activities
relating to development of nuclear research and technology, use of radiation sources, and toensure radiation protection. The Member of the government in charge of science issues is achairman of the Nuclear Energy Commission.
The Nuclear and Radiation Safety Inspection Department under the Ministry of
Education and Science is tasked with the responsibility of ensuring the adherence to nuclear
and radiation safety regulations concerning the exploration and exploitation of radioactive
minerals and the use of radiation sources, as stipulated in the Nuclear Energy Law.
Key responsibilities include:•

Legislative Compliance: Ensuring compliance with Mongolian legislation,international conventions, contracts, agreements, and standards.

•••

Inspections: Implementing inspections to verify compliance with safety regulations.
Licensing: Issuing licenses for the use of radioactive sources.
Environmental and Public Exposure Monitoring: Overseeing environmental andpublic exposure to radiation from norm activities.

•

Occupational Exposure Monitoring: Monitoring and regulating the occupational
exposure of radiation workers.
147

Mongolia

In accordance with The Nuclear Energy Law, the department collaborates with relevant
professional bodies to conduct inspections and analyze radiation levels in the environment,
consumer goods, materials, food, and drinking water. The objective is to assess potential
negative impacts on human health and ensure measures for quality assurance.
Additionally, the department is involved in:• Monitoring personal occupational doses of radiation workers.
• Conducting workplace radiation level assessments.
• Controlling clinical jaundice.
• Developing a database of professional experience for radiation workers.
• Establishing methods, standards, and norms for evaluating professional qualifications.
Regarding the general population, the department is responsible for:• Regular monitoring of radiation levels in the external environment.
• Monitoring radiation levels in food products and drinking water.
• Radon monitoring in residential areas.
• Assessing radiation levels in construction materials, mining, and minerals.
• Establishing a database for population demographics.
• Evaluating jaundice prevalence in the population.
The Nuclear and Radiation Safety Inspection Department plays a vital role in ensuring the safeuse of nuclear and radiation technologies in Mongolia.
Here is a table of the norm monitoring program conducted by the nuclear andradiation inspection departments in Mongolia for the period 2015–2023:
Table.3. Radiation monitoring program
Type
Food productRadon

Results of analysis(scope 2015–2023)
86 samples of domestic food 13 samples/0.7-5.7 Бк/кг/products
698 samples of imported
food products
Sources of drinking water 61 samples(total of 360 samples)/102 – 691 Bq/l/Airofschools, 11 building
kindergartens,
libraries, 206-483 Bq/m3
archive buildings, andstructures (total of 183
buildings)
Explanation

148

Reference level
Radiation safety norm
100 Bq/kg

MNS: 900 – 2018
100 Bq/l
Radiation safety norm
200 Bq/m3

Mongolia

Building
materials factory

Environmental
monitorRaw materials: 135 samplesof ash pond from 34
Thermal power plants.
Final product/total of 286
product samples
35 measurement points intheDepartmentofMeteorologicalandEnvironmental Analysis
Mining sector: 178 samples
from 123 mines
Soil of Mongolia (total of
173 samples)210-1002 Bq/kg
The requirements were Radiation safety norm
met.
370 Bq/kg<0.2 μSv/h

6 minesRadiation safety norm
/1003-4730 Бк/кг//U-1000 Bq/kg/
139 samples Cs-137
isotope/0.3-29.7 Bq/kg/

These monitoring activities aim to ensure radiation safety standards in various aspects of theenvironment and food supply chain in Mongolia. Regular assessments are conducted, and theresults are compared against established reference levels to safeguard public health and theenvironment.
 Environmental dose rate measurement• The continuous radiation monitoring is conducted with (Berthold) devices at 2 stations(Ulaanbaatar) and Bayanulgii province (near the Kazakhstan border) and the data arecollected with on-line network system.
• In addition at more than 23 places of meteorological station (see Fig.1), the dose rates
are measured 3 times a day with portable dose rate meter and transmitted to themeteorological center in Ulaanbaatar twice a week.
 Soil monitoring
Soil-grass-animal pathway is considered as a most important radionuclides transport
pathway to population of Mongolia because meat and milk etc. produced by the pastured
animals is the staple food in Mongolia. Soil monitoring activity can be improved using insitu gamma spectrometry system. To obtain the background level of radionuclide activity
in soil the samples are taken at 173 sampling points (covering all the country every 2-3
years. A gamma spectrometer with HPGe detector is used to analyze radionuclides in soil
samples.
 Mining and milling
Radiation source practices in Mongolia are not of the type that would ordinarily require
environmental monitoring, but capability is needed in case of accidents resulting incontamination. Environmental radiation measurements are made by Radiation Laboratory of
NRA of the SSIA around uranium and other open pit mines and electrical power stations. Thereis no additional environmental security provided for the tailings pile at the standby uranium
mine.
149

Mongolia

In Gurvanbulag uranium deposit, the activity concentrations of Ra-226, Th-232 and K-40
varied in the range of 10.1-180.2 (ave.37.1), 14.1-64.0 (ave.29) and 523.1-1225.1 (ave.939)
Bq/kg, respectively. The Cs-137 activities in the soil samples vary from 0-55.6 Bq/kg andaveraged value is 17.7 Bq/kg.
Radon in dwellings
Main populations in Mongolia live in Ger (traditional house). The construction of the Ger
impermissible accumulates radon. But the indoor radon measurements need in houses and flats,
which are made of bricks and concrete. Although such housing is normally well ventilated
sometimes there may be possibilities of accumulation of radon indoors, emanating frombuilding materials, particularly during the winter season. On a personal level somemeasurements of Radon (Rn-222) and Thoron (Rn-220) in some flats of Ulaanbaatar city werecarried out in 1995 and 1996 using a passive SSNTD with assistance from Dr. S. Kobayashi,
Dr. K. Fujimoto and Dr. M. Doi from National Institute of Radiation Science of Japan.
Measurements were carried out for radon and thoron and the concentrations for radon varied
from 6 Bq/m3 to 63 Bq/m3 and thoron from 3 Bq/m3 to 110 Bq/m3. The maximum indoor 222Rn
and 220Rn concentration were 62.8±6.8 Bq/m3 and 110±49 Bq/m3, respectively.
NATURAL RADIATION MEASUREMENT
The Applied Nuclear Physics Studies are established and carried out at the Nuclear
Research Laboratory of National University of Mongolian since 1970 and at the Department
of Applied Physics of the Institute Physics and Technology, Academy of Sciences from 1990
until now at the new Nuclear Research Center. The studies have been initiated for developing
the applications of Nuclear and Related Analytical Techniques (NAT), Utilization ofRadioisotopes and Radiation in Industry, increasing the natural resources exploration andEnvironmental Research and Monitoring. The natural radioactivity and radionuclides
determined using gamma spectrometry systems. Our center has been participated in Regional
Intercomparison Program for Radioactivity analysis and measurement for Environmental
samples.
Radiation Laboratory of Nuclear Regulatory Authority is routinely carried out
environmental radiation measurements including air, soil, water, food and vegetation for
natural and artificial radionuclides using environmental monitoring network of the Ministry ofEnvironment (Fig.1). Basic facilities are available for alpha, beta and gamma monitoring using
a variety of equipment, including high-resolution gamma spectrometry.

150

Mongolia

Fig.1. Environmental Radiation Monitoring Network of Mongolia

RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT
Mongolia has no disposal facilities. A detailed inventory exists of all sources stored or
buried at the facility. Mongolia does not produce the radioactive material. Amount of theradioactive waste respectively low and mostly it is generated from the spent sources of medical
and industrial practices
At present, the generation of unsealed radioactive waste material is not considered to be a
problem, but the situation could change with the development of new phosphate, oil, gas anduranium industries.
The NEC has a dedicated secured and fenced-off long-term storage facility about 20 km
from Ulaanbaatar. The facility consists of a large building with several storage pits. Scatteredaround the compound are other concrete pits with concrete lids for storing disused or orphanedsources. The compound also has a small burial area where contaminated material from a 90Sr
incident has been buried.

8.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
The Nuclear Energy Law of Mongolia is enacted on 16 July 2009,
The purpose of Nuclear Energy law shall be to regulate relations pertaining to exploitationof radioactive minerals and nuclear energy on the territory of Mongolia for peaceful purposes,
151

Mongolia

ensuring nuclear and radiation safety, and protecting population, society and environment fromnegative impact of ionizing radiation. Functions and powers of Regulatory Authority have been
described in the Nuclear Energy law.
The legislative basis for NORM in Mongolia is the relevant articles 111.1.8 of Nuclear
Energy Law. Mongolia hasn`t got specific laws and regulation for NORM. Law of Mongolia
on Disaster Protection was enacted on 20 June 2003 and amended on 13 January 2005.
Law of Mongolia on the Nuclear-Weapon-Free Status was enacted on 3 February 2000
Purpose: to establish safety standards and limits for permissible annual radiation doses
for the population and radiation workers should be determined in accordance with relevantinternational recommendations, permissible levels of radiation in food, permissible levels ofradon in workplaces, apartments, and dormitories, and possible levels of surface radiation
contamination. First approved in 1983 and updated in 2015.
It is a basic document that sets out the basic dose limits, the permissible levels of ionizing
radiation, and other requirements for limiting ionizing radiation exposure to radiation workers
and the general public.
Table.3. Regulations for nuclear and radiation safety
Regulation
Basic safety standards

2015

Radiation
safety department
radiation-related activities

ofan organization engaged in

Security of radiation sources
Radiation
safetyradioactive mineralYearregulation

2015
2015

for

exploration and research of

2015

Radiation safety regulation on mining and processingof radioactive mineral

2015

Management of radioactive waste from mining and milling of ores

2015

Radiation protection and safety

2016

Safe transport of radioactive material

2019

152

Mongolia

Procedures for licensing activities related to nuclear material

2019

Rules on Nuclear material accountancy and control

2020

Technical regulations for underground acid leaching

2015

Safety regulation for Radioactive waste generate from
Nuclear installation and radiation

2022

Regulations and Standards:
National Standards

Year

Radiation protection. Permissible concentration of Rn indoors.

MNS 5627:2006

Ceramic bricks and stones. Technical requirements

MNS 0138:2010

Concrete bricks. Technical requirements

MNS 5610:2014

Determination of Radioactive elements content in building materials,
soil and earth crust by Gamma spectrometer method

MNS 5072:2001

Radiation protection. Charcoal canister method for
determination of radon concentration in indoors

MNS 5625:2006

Radiation protection. Nuclear track solid state detector method for
determination of radon concentration in water.

MNS 5629-2006

Gamma spectrometry method for determination of radon
concentration in water

MNS 5632-2006

Water quality. Maximum limit of substance contaminating the
groundwater

MNS 6148:2010

Thermal power plant fly ashes for concrete. Technicalrequirements

MNS 6469:2014

Thermal power plant fly ashes for building materials. Technicalrequirements

MNS 3927:2015

Drinking water. Method for determination of uranium

MNS 3893: 86

Drinking water. Method for determination of Ra-226

MNS 3895:86

Drinking water. Hygienically requirements, assessment of thequality and safety

MNS 0900 :
2005

153

Mongolia

Water quality. Determination of the activity concentration ofradionuclides by high-resolution gamma ray spectrometry

МNS ISO
10703:2002

These standards and regulations play a crucial role in ensuring the safety of various
elements, including building materials, water, and the environment, by setting permissible
limits, technical requirements, and methods for determination of specific substances.
Adherence to these standards is essential for safeguarding public health and maintaining
environmental quality in Mongolia.

8.4 Issues related to NORM&TENORM
1. Project Development:•

Reduced Investment: Due to an unstable political situation, economic crises, andthe impact of events like the COVID-19 pandemic, there is reduced investment inprojects related to NORM&TENORM.

Detailed Information for Investors: Providing detailed information data toinvestors becomes challenging in such uncertain economic and politicalconditions.
2. Legislation and Regulatory Framework:•

Lack of Long-term Implementation: The absence of a long-term implementation
plan, including specific actions like a RADON action plan, national radon survey,
calibration laboratories, and facility standards. Additionally, the lack of legislationsuch as a Landfill law adds to regulatory challenges.
3. Human Resource:••

Insufficiency of Professionally Qualified Personnel: There is a shortage of
qualified professionals to manage NORM&TENORM-related activities, including
waste management.

Self-Management by Operators: Operators independently managing their NORM
wastes may result in inadequate or inconsistent practices without proper expertise.
4. Safety, Health, and Environment:••

Monitoring Issues: Challenges related to monitoring, including heavy metal andchemical components transport, can lead to environmental contamination.

•

Water Resource and Underground Water Recovery: Concerns related to theimpact of NORM on water resources, including underground water recovery, needattention.

Baseline Study: Conducting a baseline study is crucial to understanding the initialenvironmental conditions before NORM-related activities begin.
5. Public License:•154

Mongolia•

Lack of Public Perception and Acceptance: There is a lack of public
understanding and acceptance of NORM&TENORM activities.

•

No General Program and Policy: The absence of a comprehensive program andpolicy for enhancing public understanding contributes to the challenges in
obtaining public approval.

Addressing these issues requires a multidisciplinary approach, involving government
bodies, regulatory agencies, industry stakeholders, and the public. Developing andimplementing clear regulations, investing in education and training, and fostering transparent
communication are crucial steps to mitigate the challenges associated with NORM&TENORM
activities.

155

The Philippines

9 THE PHILIPPINES
9.1 Sources of NORM&TENORM
Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) have been investigated in thePhilippines. For instance, geochemical surveys have been performed since the 1950s tocharacterize the uranium distribution in various provinces and delineate areas with elevateduranium concentrations. Stream sediments and heavy mineral concentrates were collected frombodies of water. Nuclear analytical techniques, such as delayed neutron activation analysis,
fluorimetry, radiometric, gamma metric, and other techniques, were performed to determine
the uranium concentration in the samples. The results of some of these research undertakings
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Results of selected uranium geochemical surveys (minimum – maximum)
SampleUranium
concentration

Oriental
MindoroStream sediments

0.2 – 1.6 ppm

Heavy metal concentrates

0.1 – 14.6 ppm

Leyte Island

Stream sediments

0.3 – 0.8 ppm

Location

Zamboanga
Stream sediments
Del Norte –MisamisHeavy metal concentrates
Occidental
Pangasinan
Bohol Island

Reference
Santos et al., 1981
Santos et al., 1982

0.5 – 2.4 ppm
0.1 – 1.4 ppm

Stream sediments

0.1 – 1.4 ppm

Heavy metal concentrates

0.1 – 23.2 ppm

Stream sediments

0.33 – 0.96 ppm

Heavy metal concentrates

0.69 – 3.44 ppm

Santos et al., 1983

Santos et al., 1984
Hernandez et al., 1988

No significant uranium deposits were found after studying and exploring almost 70% of
the country. According to Reyes (2014), there is a generalization that the Philippines’s
geological features lack the similarity from uranium-producing countries.
Research for unconventional sources of uranium was also undertaken based on the
preliminary studies on uranium exploration. Radiometric surveys performed on the beaches ofnorthern Palawan have determined major rare earth elements (REE) and thorium (Th),
including minor uranium (U) areas. The Larap-Paracale mineralized districts are anotheridentified unconventional source of uranium investigated in the Camarines Norte province
156

The Philippines(Reyes, 2014). Several radiometric or car-borne surveys have also been conducted in Batanes
and Marinduque island provinces to determine the area’s baseline data on natural backgroundradiation (Reyes et al., 2005). The results of these surveys, summarized in Table 2, indicate
potential areas of uranium sources and exposure to NORM.
Table 2. Results of uranium surveys
Location

REE
concentration

K
concentration

Th
concentration

U
concentration

Ombo sitea

5.64 %

ND

0.14 %

0.015 %

Erawan siteb

4.63 %

ND

0.09 %

0.006 %

Larap-Paracalec

ND

ND

ND

93.8 – 225 ppm

Batanes Islandd

ND

0.025 – 1.84 %3.28 – 22.45 ppm

0.18 – 5.62 ppm

MarinduqueIslandd

ND

1.25 ± 0.62%

1.17 ± 1.00 ppm

3.16 ± 4.54 ppm

aestimated reserve of 30,450 t of REE, 750 t of Th, and 80 t of U contained in about
540,000 t of beach sand.
bestimated reserve of 2,200 t of Th, 113,430 t of REE, and 150 t U contained in 2,450,00
t of beach sand.
cdrill core samples from a copper-molybdenum-uranium assemblage.
dcar-borne surveys.
Aside from uranium, radon was also investigated in water samples, ambient air, andbuilding materials since it is a major NORM that must be addressed. Radon monitoring was
conducted from 1992 – 1995, with data collected from 2,626 houses nationwide. It was foundthat the average radon concentration in the Philippines is 21.4 Bq/m3, with a maximum of 25.1
Bq/m3 and a minimum of 1.4 Bq/m3 from the Western Visayas and Western Mindanao regions,
respectively. The findings were below the standard that was adopted during the conduct of thestudy (Dela Cruz et al., 2012). Since then, no subsequent monitoring has been performed forindoor environments. In the same period, nine non-uranium underground mines (coal, chromite,silver, gold, and copper) had an average radon concentration ranging from 30 – 347 Bq/m3.
The results show that the radon concentration does not exceed the action limit prescribed duringthat time, which does not pose any health risks to workers and may be affected by improved
ventilation of the mines and low uranium concentration in the area (Garcia et al., 2011).
157

The Philippines

On the other hand, radon was also investigated inside a fertilizer production facility. The
highest radon concentration in the facility was found at the storage of phosphate rocks at 77
Bq/m3. In contrast, radon in phosphogypsum storage, a by-product of fertilizer production, wasfound to be 23.6 Bq/m3. These values were also below the recommended safety limit for radon
exposure (Duran et al., 1993). A recent study about radon exposure inside tourist caves in
Bohol Island was investigated, and it was found that the elevated radon levels, ranging from
127 to 1,829 Bq/m3, may pose significant risks to cave workers and tour guides (Panlaqui etal., 2023).
Data on various industries in the Philippines for 2021 is presented in Table 3. The tableprovides an insightful overview of key production and import figures, including coal, oil,natural gas, geothermal power, phosphate rocks, diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer, andthe mining sector. These industries are significant contributors to the Philippine economy andare recognized as potential sources of NORM and TENORM (IAEA, 2006; 2013).
Table 3. Results of uranium surveys from non-conventional sources
Industry

Relevant information

Coal

14.4 million metric tons
producedOil632.29 million barrels produced

Natural gas

121.089 million MMSCF

Geothermal power

10,681 GWh of electricity
generated

Fertilizer
a. Phosphate rocks
b. Diammonium
phosphate (DAP)
fertilizer
Mininga. 1.97 million metric tons
imported / year
b. 1.17 million metric tons
produced / year
PHP 282.20 billion contributed(2022)

Reference

Department of Energy,
2021

Haneklaus et al., 2015

Mines and Geosciences
Bureau, 2023

Naturally occurring radioactive elements within some of these resources and theirassociated waste materials necessitate rigorous monitoring and management to ensure radiation
safety and environmental protection. Several studies have delved into this subject matter,
shedding light on the source characterization, risk assessment, and environmental implicationsof NORM and TENORM. The study by Socrates et al. (2007) found that the activity
concentrations of 226Ra in the phosphogypsum ponds near Isabel, Leyte, ranged from 91.5
158

The Philippines

Bq/kg to 935 Bq/kg. Leaching experiments revealed low 226Ra leaching percentages, indicatinga strong binding of the radionuclide to the phosphogypsum matrix. Laboratory simulations
demonstrated that the local soil could effectively sequester and hinder the mobility of 226Ra,
preventing its migration into the groundwater. This study concluded that, regarding 226Ra,
phosphogypsum ponds did not lead to groundwater contamination. Sahoo et al. (2011)
measured the specific activity of 238U in coal and fly ash from coal-fired thermal power plants
in the Philippines. The study revealed a good correlation between uranium measurements using
high-resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry(ICP-MS). The highest uranium concentration was found in fly ash (268.0 ± 10.7 Bq/kg), which
was expected due to its proximity to phosphogypsum. Uranium isotopic composition was
analyzed, providing insights into its behavior and sources in the environment. Garcia et al.
(2013) conducted a radiological assessment near the PHILPHOS Fertilizer Plant in Isabel,
Leyte. The results of gamma dose rate measurements were within the background radiationlevels and range of values observed in the Philippines. The concentrations of radioactivity insamples of 40K (120.85 ± 1.56 Bq/kg), 238U (135.85 ± 2.18 Bq/kg), and 232Th (6.70 ± 0.22
Bq/kg) were generally consistent with nationwide levels, except for 238U activity in the soil,
which was relatively higher near the phosphogypsum pond. Notably, the 226Ra activity
concentration (0.017 Bq/L) in groundwater samples was below the maximum contaminantlevel (MCL) set by the US EPA, indicating no significant health implications. Another study
by Palad et al. (2019) focused on ambient gamma dose rates in and around industrial facilities
in Leyte. The study found that the ambient gamma dose rates were within the range of the
background ambient gamma dose rates in the Philippines, ranging from 21 to 124 nSv/h.
Workers in the phosphate rock storage and phosphogypsum pond areas received the highest
annual effective external dose of 0.76 mSv. The study indicated that industrial activities related
to geothermal energy generation did not significantly affect gamma radioactivity levels in theregion.
These studies provide valuable insights into the radiological safety of workers and the
public and offer guidance for the responsible handling of radioactive materials and waste
generated by these industries. The summary and details of the data gathered in these studies
are summarized in Table 4.

159

The Philippines

Table 4. Average concentrations of NORM&TENORM in multiple samples from various
industries
Industry(sample type)Radionuclide

Activity Concentration(minimum – maximum )Reference

Fertilizer Industry(groundwater)

226 Ra0.001 – 0.093 Bq/L

Garcia et al., 2013

40 K
238 U
232 Th0.0 – 328.7 Bq/kg
87.8 – 1684.8 Bq/kg
1.6 – 36.0 Bq/kg

Diwa et al., 2022

226 Ra228 Ra665 – 1020 Bq/kg< 1 – 6 Bq/kg

Palad et al., 2019

Coal-fired thermal(Fly ash)

226 Ra228 Ra40 K

51 – 181 Bq/kg
65 – 140 Bq/kg
252 – 414 Bq/kg

Coal-fired thermal(Bottom ash)

226 Ra228 Ra40 K

30 – 158 Bq/kg
36 – 67 Bq/kg
180 – 638 Bq/kg

Minerals (soil andsediments)

40 K
238 U
232 Th3 – 2,723 Bq/kg
18.5 – 2,910 Bq/kg
4.1 – 2,216 Bq/kg

Fertilizer Industry(Phosphogypsum)

Palad et al., 2019

Samaniego et al.,2021

9.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
The Philippines currently lacks a formalized system for managing NORM and TENORM.
This absence of a structured management framework is primarily attributed to the absence ofspecific and comprehensive regulations that delineate the responsibilities, procedures, andprotocols required for effectively overseeing these radioactive materials within various
industries. This regulatory void has, in turn, impeded the development and implementation ofcoherent management strategies to address NORM and TENORM.
This absence of management can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, the inherently
complex and dynamic nature of NORM and TENORM, coupled with the unique characteristics
of each industry where these materials are present, presents a challenge in crafting uniform
regulations adaptable to diverse contexts. Furthermore, there may be limited public awarenessand political prioritization surrounding the issue, contributing to the absence of regulatory
attention.
Despite the absence of a formal management system, various industries that handle
potential sources of NORM and TENORM may, to varying degrees, adopt individualized and160

The Philippines

ad hoc approaches to address radiological safety concerns. However, these ad-hoc measuresoften lack the comprehensive nature and regulatory oversight to ensure a consistent andeffective approach to NORM and TENORM management.
Considering these challenges, there is a growing recognition of the need to establish arobust regulatory framework that addresses the management of NORM and TENORM. Suchregulations would serve as the cornerstone for developing comprehensive and standardized
management strategies that safeguard public health and the environment while ensuring the
responsible handling of these naturally occurring radioactive materials.

9.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
Generally, the Philippines does not have specific rules and regulations for managing
NORM and TENORM. However, existing laws may support the craftmanship of such
regulations in the future. For instance, the Science Act of 1958 (Republic Act No. 2067)
provides a framework for promoting and developing scientific research and technologicaladvancement. Moreover, the Act created the National Science and Development Board(NSDB) and other agencies, including the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). In
connection to PAEC’s establishment, the Atomic Energy Regulatory and Liability Act of 1968
(Republic Act No. 5207) mandated it to license and regulate atomic energy facilities. This law
primarily regulates and controls the country’s development, use, and handling of atomic energy
and radioactive materials. It addresses issues related to nuclear safety, radiation protection, andliability in cases of nuclear accidents. While R.A. No. 2067 and R.A. No. 5207 do not
specifically mention NORM and TENORM, their overarching principles of regulation, safety,
radiation protection, and scientific research can be applied to these naturally occurring
radioactive materials (CPR Part 0, 2020).
Government reorganization has led to PEAC being reassigned under the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) and renamed the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute(PNRI). Its Nuclear Regulatory Division (NRD) performs the regulatory function of PNRI as
mandated and develops standards related to the use of nuclear science and technology in the
country. These standards are known as the Code of PNRI Regulations (CPR). CPR Part 3
describes the basic standards for protecting people, radiation workers, and the environment
against the harmful effects of ionizing radiation resulting from activities licensed in the country.
In addition, the exempt concentration of bulk materials is also presented in this regulation.
However, it does not specify that these limits exclude NORM and TENORM sources (CPR
Part 3, 2021).
On the other hand, the requirements for licensing a land disposal facility for radioactive
waste are described in CPR Part 23. However, it only highlights the inclusion of contaminated161The Philippines

plant materials and equipment that may contain NORM and does not directly address the waste
management aspect of NORM and TENORM. Lastly, the predisposal management ofradioactive waste and the requirements needed for its licensing are outlined in CPR Part 28 but
do not have direct instructions for NORM and TENORM management (CPR Part 23, 2005 and
CPR Part 28, 2021). The existing regulations do not directly address the regulatory
requirements or limits for exposure due to NORM and TENORM in various industries andtheir corresponding waste management strategies.

9.4 Issues related to NORM&TENORM
Issues related to NORM and TENORM become particularly complex and challenging when
specific regulations are absent. It can result in inconsistent radiological safety standards,
potentially exposing workers and the public to varying radiation levels. Without clear
guidelines, ensuring that safety measures are uniformly implemented across different industries
and activities involving NORM and TENORM becomes challenging. Furthermore, themanagement and disposal of waste materials containing NORM and TENORM can beinsufficiently controlled. It may lead to environmental contamination, affecting ecosystems,
groundwater, and soil quality. The absence of regulatory guidance can hinder the responsible
handling of radioactive waste materials.
Additionally, effective monitoring of radiation levels and reporting incidents related to
NORM and TENORM might not be standardized, making it difficult to identify and address
potential issues promptly. Regulations often serve as tools for raising public awareness ofpotential radiological risks. In its absence, there may be limited awareness among the generalpublic and even industry stakeholders about the presence of NORM and TENORM and theirassociated risks. On the other hand, industries that handle NORM and TENORM materials
might adopt varying practices without specific guidelines. Some may prioritize safety andenvironmental responsibility, while others may not. It can lead to inconsistencies in industry
practices and raise concerns about potential health and environmental impacts.
Addressing these issues without specific regulations necessitates a proactive andresponsible approach by industries, government bodies, and relevant stakeholders. Establishingindustry-specific standards, promoting research, and fostering international cooperation canhelp mitigate the challenges related to NORM and TENORM management when specificregulations are not in place. Nevertheless, developing comprehensive regulations remains
essential to ensure consistent and effective management, safeguarding public health and theenvironment.

162

The Philippines

References
Dela Cruz, F. M., Garcia, T. Y., Palad, L. J., Cobar, M. L. C., & Duran, E. B. (2012).
National Indoor Radon Survey in Filipino Homes. Philippine Nuclear Journal, 17(2), 9–16.
Department of Energy. (2021). Key Energy Statistics (KES) 2021.
http://doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/energy_statistics/doe-key-energy-statistics-2021pocket-size.pdf
Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (2023). The Philippine MineralIndustry at a Glance. https://mgb.gov.ph/images/Mineral_Statistics/MINERALSINDUSTRY-AT-A-GLANCE-Updated-02-Aug-2023.pdf
Diwa, R. R., Tabora, E. U., Palattao, B. L., et al. (2022). Evaluating radiation risks andresource opportunities associated with phosphogypsum in the Philippines. Journal ofRadioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 331(3-4), 967–974. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967021-08142-8
Garcia, T. Y., Dela Cruz, F. M., Enriquez, E. B., Margate, D. E., & Duran, E. B. (2011).
Occupational Exposure to Radon in Non-Uranium Underground Mines in the Philippines.
Philippine Nuclear Journal, 16(1), 1–6.
Haneklaus, N., et al. (2015). Energy-neutral phosphate fertilizer production using hightemperature reactors: A Philippines case study. Philippine Journal of Science, 44(1), 69–79.
Hernandez, E. C., Magsambol, W. N., Reyes, R. Y., Ramos, A. F., & Bernido, C. C.
(1988). Reconnaissance geochemical survey for uranium in Bohol, Philippines. International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): IAEA.
International Atomic Energy Agency. (2006). Assessing the Need for Radiation
Protection Measures in Work Involving Minerals and Raw Materials, Safety Report Series No.
49. IAEA, Vienna.
International Atomic Energy Agency. (2013). Management of NORM Residues, IAEATECDOC-1712. IAEA, Vienna.
Palad, L. J., Mendoza, C., Dela Cruz, F., Olivares, J., Cruz, P. T., & Iwaoka, K. (2019).
Measurement of Ambient Gamma Dose Rates Along Two Industrial Facilities in Leyte Island,
Philippines.
Radiation
Protection
Dosimetry,
184(3-4),
351–354.
https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncz092
Panlaqui, A., & Ballesteros, F. C. Jr. (2023). Radon Levels Inside the Caves of Bohol
Island, Philippines. In 18th International Conference on Environmental Science andTechnology [Paper presentation]. Athens, Greece.

163

The Philippines

Code of PNRI Regulations. (2020). Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) as
the Regulatory Authority for Atomic Energy Facilities and Radioactive/Nuclear Materials inthePhilippines,
Rev.1,CPR
Part
0.
Retrievedfromhttps://www.pnri.dost.gov.ph/images/safetyregulatorydocs/CPR/CPR_Part_0__PNRI_as_the_Regulatory_Authority.pdf
Code of PNRI Regulations. (2021). Standards for Protection Against Radiation, Rev.02,
CPR
Part
3.
Retrievedfromhttps://www.pnri.dost.gov.ph/images/safetyregulatorydocs/CPR/2022_RG/CPR-Part3.Standards-for-Protection-Against-Radiation.pdf
Code of PNRI Regulations. (2005). Licensing Requirement for Land Disposal ofRadioactive
Waste,CPR
Part
23.
Retrievedfromhttps://www.pnri.dost.gov.ph/images/safetyregulatorydocs/CPR/CPR_Part_23LICENSING_REQUIREMENT_FOR_LAND_DISPOSAL_OF_RADIOACTIVE_WASTE_
rev.0.pdf
Code of PNRI Regulations. (2021). Licensing Requirement for Predisposal
Management of Radioactive Waste Facilities and Activities, CPR Part 28. Retrieved fromhttps://www.pnri.dost.gov.ph/images/safetyregulatorydocs/CPR/CPR_PART_28_Predisposal_Management_of_Radioactive_Waste_Facilities_and_Activities.pdf
Reyes, R. (2014). Philippines targeting unconventional sources for uranium. In
International Symposium on Uranium Raw Material for the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Exploration,
Mining, Production, Supply and Demand, Economics and Environmental Issues [Paper
presentation]. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
Reyes, R. Y., Tabora, E. U., & Garcia, T. Y. (2005). Regional exploration for uranium
by a combined carborne and footborne gamma-ray spectrometric technique in MarinduqueIsland, the Philippines. In International Symposium on Uranium Production and Raw
Materials for the Nuclear Fuel Cycle - Supply and Demand, Economics, the Environment, andEnergy Security [Paper presentation]. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
Reyes, Rolando Y. (2005). An approach in determining the baseline data on the natural
background radioactivity of Batanes province, its implications to national security. Available
from INIS: http://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:39063298; Also available fromPNRI library.
Samaniego, J., Gibaga, C. R., Tanciongco, A., & Rastrullo, R. (2021). Assessment ofTrace Elements in Soils and Sediments in the Abandoned Mercury Mine Site in Puerto Princesa
City, Philippines. ASEAN Journal on Science & Technology for Development, 38(2).
https://doi.org/10.29037/ajstd.682.

164

The Philippines

Santos, G. Jr., Fernandez, L. G., Villamater, D. T., Seguis, J. E., Ibe, M. G., Miranda,
F. E., Ronan, J., Baura, C. Jr., & Crisologo, J. (1981). Notes on the geochemical survey for
uranium in Mindoro Island, Philippines (PAEC(C)IB--81002). Philippines.
Santos, G. Jr., Samonte, C., Almeda, R., Ranes, R., Salvado, J., & Rovillas, P. Jr. (1982).
Notes on the radiometric and geochemical survey of Leyte Island (PAEC(C)IC--82001).
Philippines.
Santos, G. Jr., Seguis, J. E., Carino, L., Escalada, P., & Antonio, L. (1983). Notes on
the geochemical survey in Zamboanga del Norte - Misamis Occidental, Mindanao, Philippines(PAEC(A)IB--83008). Philippines.
Santos, G. Jr., Magsambol, W., Seguis, J., Castillo, M., Ortile, H., & Fernandez, L.
(1984). Preliminary uranium geochemical survey of Pangasinan province, Luzon, Philippines(PAEC(B)IB--84001). Philippines.

165

Thailand

10 THAILAND
10.1

Sources of NORM&TENORM

The study on NORM/TENORM in Thailand remains incomprehensive to acquire data onradiation baseline levels to be utilized in the development of national NORM regulatory
programs. In 2002, the NORM: “Radionuclides Analysis Research Project”, also known as the
NORM project, was initiated in order to assist such development [1, 2]. The project is under
the collaboration between Thailand (i.e., academic institutions, regulator, and public healthorganizations, relevant industries), Japan (i.e., National Institute of Radiological Sciences,
Hirosaki University, and Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology), andthe United States of America (i.e., Florida State University). The project intends to obtain new
data regarding the characteristics of NORM from the industries that joined voluntarily.
Table 1. Industrial sectors that potentially produce NORM/TENORM [3].
11 Industrial sector
16 Oil and gas exploration

12 Estimated waste volume

14 Activity concentration

13 (ton/y)15 (Bq/g)

17

3.4×103 13.3, for Ra-226 in scales.

and production
18 Tantalum and niobium 2.07, for Ra-226 in sludge.
19 9,612

20 Not known

22 Not known 1.59, for U-238.

extraction
21 Tin production

 0.7, for Th-232.
23 Rare earth production

24 16

25 Not known

26 Cement production

27 Not known

28 Not known

29 Steel refinery

30 Not known

31 Not known

32 Water treatment

33 Not known

34 Not known

35 Coal and coal power

36

1.49×106

37 0.14, for Ra-226

production
38 Chemical fertilizer

39 Not known 0.41-1.3, for Ra-226 in
Phosphogypsum.
 0.74-1.85, for U and Th in phosphateslag.
 0.15-1.5, for Ra-226 in phosphateslag.

40 Residues from past

41 Not known

42 Not known

activities
166

Thailand

Currently, information on NORM types, quantities, and sources remains scarce. In 2005,
there was an investigation on TENORM generated from industries in Thailand [3]. The
estimates of the TENORM waste volumes were performed and the activity concentrations ofcertain waste were reported as shown in Table 1.
The activities performed for the NORM project led to the acquisition of the valuable
NORM information and NORM measurement methods. There was the development of thesystematic approach for measuring natural radiation exposure and characterizing NORM [1].
These two studies [1, 2] also examined natural radionuclide (i.e., Ra-226, and Ra-228) contents
in various materials in the mineral industries and the results are shown in Table 2. The sampling
locations of the samples were given in [2]. It is clearly shown that the radionuclide
concentrations in these investigated materials were found to be enhanced (i.e., TENORM),
especially in the precipitate/waste from the tantalum processing.
Table 2. The Ra-226 and Ra-228 contents in product, by-product, waste, soil andplants/vegetable from the industries and nearby locations [1].

43 NORM materials

45 Concentration (Bq/g)

44 Numberof samples

46 Ra-226

47 Ra-228

48 Mean

49 Range

50 Mean

51 Range

52 Metal ore dressing

53

54

55

56

57

58 Concentration ore (raw59 2

60 0.161 0.5–1.7

62 0.963 0.6–0.8

64 First by-product65 3

66 2.6

67 1.1–3.3

68 6.369 2.8–8.4

70 Second by-product

71 2

72 1.673 1–2.2

74 4.775 1.3–8

76 Discard by-product77 1

78 3.179 3.180 8.581 8.582 Local soil

83 13

84 0.094

85 0.013–

86 0.287 0.003–0.5

91

92

93

material)

0.38
88 Mineral sands dressing

89

90

94 Ore (raw material)

95 1

96 2.597 2.598 10.3

99 10.3

100 Rutile

101 1

102 0.9103

0.9

104 0.4

105 0.4

106 Eucoxene

107 1

108 1

109 1

110 2.2

111 2.2

112 Monazite

113 1

114 28.6

115 28.6

116 260

117 260

118 Zircon

119 1

120 3.8

121 3.8

122 1.9

123 1.9

124 Tailing

125 1

126 0.1

127 0.1

128 0.2

129 0.2

167

Thailand

43 NORM materials
130 Local soil

45 Concentration (Bq/g)

44 Numberof samples
131 3

46 Ra-226

47 Ra-228

48 Mean

49 Range

50 Mean

51 Range

132 0.046

133 0.02–

134 0.073

135 0.034–0.1

140

141

0.067
136 Tantalum

137

138

139

142 Scale143 2

144 370

145 195–544

146<2×10-

147 <2×10-55

148 Precipitate/waste

149 2

150 4405

151 1820–

152 213

153 89–337

6990
154 Local soil

155 1

156 0.08

157 0.08

158 0.06

159 0.06

160 Phosphate

161

162

163

164

165

169 0.004

170 <7×10-

171 <7×10-4

166 Phosphate ore

167 1

168 0.004

4

172 Phosphogypsum

173 1

174 0.75

175 0.75

176 <7×10-

177 <7×10-4

4178 Local soil

179 1

180 0.08

181 0.08

182 0.06

183 0.06

184 Petroleum (oil and gas)

185

186

187

188

189

190 Produced water (onshore)

191 32

192 0.97

193 0.08–

194 1.05

195 0.03–2.4

200 3.1

201 0.01–12.8

206 50207 0.016–

3)

4.02

(kBq/m196 Scale (onshore)

197 16

198 10.13

199 0.009–
18.3

202 Cutting (onshore)

203 21204 0.03

205 0.009–
0.063

208 Sludge (onshore)

209 5

210 0.18

211 0.004–

0.102
212 0.187

0.4
214 Produced water (offshore)

215 33

216 0.89(kBq/m3)
220 Sludge (offshore)

217 0.09–

213 0.002–
0.463

218 0.72

219 0.15–2.11

224 0.029

225 0.013–

2.12
221 15

222 0.09

223 0.015–1

0.044
226 Local soil

227 83228 0.09

229 0.014–

230 0.075

0.107

231 0.009–
0.169

232 Old ore-dressing plant

233

234

235

236

237

238 Ore tailing

239 1

240 10.5

241 10.5

242 62.6

243 62.6

244 Soil nearby areas

245 6

246 0.4

247 0.040–

248 0.8249 0.076–2.41

254 40.1

255 2.1–154

1.4
250 Soil Inside dressing plant

251 7

252 7.6

253 10.1–
17.7

168

Thailand
45 Concentration (Bq/g)

44 Number

43 NORM materialsof samples

256 Soil and plant @ the46 Ra-226

47 Ra-228

48 Mean

49 Range

50 Mean

51 Range

257

258

259

260

261

263 101

264 0.007

265 4×10-5–

266 0.014

267 4×10-5– 0.5

272 0.16

273 0.007–1.6

southern
262 Local plants

0.05
268 Cultivated area

269 44270 0.082

271 0.01–
0.33

As listed in Table 1, Rare earth production can produce NORM/TENORM. Figure 1(a)shows the disused rare earth processing facility owned by Thailand Institute of Nuclear
Technology (TINT) [4-6]. Figure 1(b) illustrates the radioactive residues found in the facility.
The liquid and solid residues were sampled from 175 drums and 30 drums, respectively. These
liquid and solid residues are now being measured their element contents using the inductively
coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and the X-ray fluorescence (XRF),
respectively. The obtained results were used to estimate the activity concentration levels.
The updated results of the Th-232 and U-238 concentration levels are shown in Table 3. It
can confirm that the activity concentration levels of these residues are exceedingly higher than
the safety criteria [7] (see Table 4).
Table 3. The estimates of the Th-232 and U-238 contents in the NORM residues found in thedisused rare earth processing facility.
275 Concentration

274 NORM
materials
282 Liquid
residues (Bq/L)
291 Solid
residues (Bq/g)

276 Th-232

277 U-238

278 Mean

279 Range

280 Mean283 12400.22

285 0.00–58266.47

287 19651.27

284 (≈12.40

286 (≈0.00–58.27

288 (≈19.65

Bq/g)

Bq/g)

Bq/g)

292 344.20

293 0.00–2140.98

294 51.65

169

281 Range
289 0.00–269854.95
290 (≈0.00–269.85 Bq/g)
295 0.00–421.94

Thailand

Figure 1 (a) Pathum-Thani Rare Earth Processing Facility; and (b) some of the NORM residues
in the drums stored in the facility [5].

10.2 Management of NORM&TENORM
In Thailand, the interpretation of radioactive waste is based on considering the activity
content (i.e., activity concentration, and total activity) of radionuclide contaminated materials.
In 2019, the Nuclear Energy for Peace Commission (NEPC) defined the activity content, also
known as “Safety criteria”, for the contaminated materials, according to the NEPC
Requirement on Safety Criteria B.E. 2562 (2019) [7]. Material that has the activity content
greater than the specified levels of activity content [7-9] must be considered as radioactive
waste. Regarding NORM, the NEPC also specified the levels for NORM contaminatedmaterials, as shown in Table 4. Hence, materials contain or are contaminated with NORM in
the levels of higher than these values might be considered as radioactive waste.
Table 4. The exemption threshold for NORM contaminated materials [7].
296 Radionuclide

297 Activity concentration (Bq/g)

298 K-40

299 10300 Radionuclides in the Uranium Series

301 1

302 Radionuclides in the Thorium Series

303 1

170

Thailand

Table 5. Classification of radioactive waste [10].

304 Waste class305 Half-life,
T1/2

308 Very short-

309 T1/2 ≤ 100

lived wastedays

306 Activity
concentration or total

307 NORM disposal method

activity, A
310 A > B

311 -314 A ≤ 100×B

315 Disposed of in near-surface(VSLW)
312 Very low-level

313 T1/2 > 100

waste (VLLW)

days

landfill type facilities. No waste
containment and isolation are
required.

316 Low level

317 100 days <waste (LLW)

T1/2 ≤ 30 years

318 A > 100×B

319 Disposed at the depths of at least
30 meters below ground level. Waste

320 T1/2 > 30

321 A ≤ 4000 Bq/g (forcontainment and isolation are

years, for alphaeach package), andrequired for periods of ≤300 years.

emitting

average value ≤ 400

radionuclides

Bq/g (for multiple
packages)

322 Intermediate

323 T1/2 > 30

324 Restricted A, (A325 Disposed at the depths between

level waste (ILW)

years

does not generate heat

30 and 300 meters below ground> 2 kW/mlevel. Waste containment and

326 T1/2 > 30

327 A > 4000 Bq/g (forisolation are required for periods ofyears, for alphaeach package), and>300 years.

emitting

average value > 400

radionuclides

Bq/g (for multiple

3

packages)
328 High level
waste (HLW)

329 -330 High A, (A can

331 -generate heat > 2
kW/m3

B is the activity content levels specified in the NEPC Requirement [7].

Thai radioactive waste is divided into 5 classes listed in Table 5, as specified in the
Ministerial Regulation on Radioactive Waste Management B.E. 2561 (2018) [10]. Radioactive
171

Thailandwaste resulted from the utilization of NORM-containing materials and the NORM-containing
waste arising from industrial activities are permitted to be treated, conditioned, and disposedof using different methods depending on their waste class (see Table 5).
Thailand allows the waste producers or holders to manage their waste themselves (ifcapable) [10]. According to the Ministerial Regulation on Permission to Import Radioactive
Waste into and Export out of the Kingdom B.E. 2561 (2018) [11], Thailand also permits theholders to transfer their waste to the countries capable of managing radioactive waste, for thewaste management purposes. However, Thailand does not permit the importation of radioactive
waste into the kingdom unless such waste is the waste that is exported to be processed outside
the kingdom.
Any person who wishes to export the waste out of the Kingdom, or to import it into the
kingdom, must obtain a license from the Secretary General of the Office of Atom for Peace(OAP). The person must also import the waste into or export it out of the Kingdom through thecustoms checkpoints designated by the OAP Secretary General [8, 9]. The customs checkpoints
to support this requirement have not been designated yet. However, the following 21 customs
checkpoints have been proposed in the Draft OAP Guideline on Designation of the Customs
Checkpoints that Licensee Imports, Exports, or Transits Radioactive Material, Nuclear
Material, or Radioactive Waste [12]. The rules, procedures, and conditions for the waste
exportation and importation can be found in the Ministerial Regulation [11].
(1) Bangkok Customs Office, Bangkok(2) Ladkrabang Cargo Clearance Customs Office, Bangkok(3) Suvarnabhumi Airport Cargo Clearance Customs Bureau, Samut Prakan(4) Bangkok Port Customs Office, Bangkok(5) Laem Chabang Port Customs Office, Chonburi(6) Maesai Customs House, Chiang Rai(7) Chiangsaen Customs House, Chiang Rai(8) Chiangkhong Customs House, Chiang Rai(9) Maesot Customs House, Tak(10) Thali Customs House, Loei(11) Chiang Khan Customs House, Loei
(12) Nongkhai Customs House, Nongkhai(13) Buengkan Customs House, Buengkan(14) Nakhonphanom Customs House, Nakhonphanom(15) Mukdahan Customs House, Mukdahan(16) Arayaprathet Customs House, Sa Kaeo(17) Prachuap Kirikhan Customs House, Prachuap Kirikhan(18) Songkhla Customs House, Songkhla
172

Thailand(19) Padangbesar Customs House, Songkhla(20) Sadao Customs House, Songkhla(21) Phuket Customs House, Phuket
Certainly, the importation and exportation mentioned above are involved in the wastetransportation. As specified in the Act [8, 9], a person possessing radioactive waste, who wishes
to arrange for the waste transport, shall submit a notice to the OAP Secretary General. The
person and a carrier who agrees to transport such waste have a duty to comply with the rules,
procedures, and conditions regarding nuclear and radiation safety and security prescribed by
the ministerial regulation. The supporting ministerial regulation has not been established.
However, OAP has drafted this regulation as the Draft Ministerial Regulation on Nuclear andRadiation Safety and Security in Transportation [13]. The exemption criteria for NORM
transportation were also provided in this draft.
Although Thailand permits the waste producers to export their waste so that the waste canbe managed safely by the overseas waste operators capable of managing the waste, most waste
producers decided to send their waste to the authorized waste operator or store the waste attheir areas [5, 14]. Formal agreements between the two countries involved (i.e.,intergovernmental agreement) and between the waste senders and receivers (i.e., commercial
contract) shall be made. Additionally, the transboundary moments of the waste might beinvolved with not only the sending and receiving countries but also the third country if thewaste transit is needed. This causes the complicated logistics. Basically, countries in which thewaste operators offer the waste management services to foreign clients ban the disposal offoreign waste in their country areas. Therefore, the processed waste must be returned to thecountry of origin. These activities (i.e., exportation, and importation) are then costly anddifficult to perform.
In practical terms, NORM/TENORM waste generated from industries is stored anddisposed of at the origin sites, as shown in Figure 2(a) [14]. The NORM/TENORM
contaminated materials illustrated in figure 2(b) are often transferred to the waste operator,
Radioactive Waste Management Center (RWMC), Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology(TINT). Here, the waste holders are required to pay for the cost of the waste management andthe cost of the waste transportation (if requested). The current service charge for NORM waste
management are set to be 42,800 THB/ton (VAT-inclusive price) [5].

173Thailand

Figure 2. (a) the by-product phosphor-gypsum stored at the National Fertilizer PublicCompany [14], (b) NORM contaminated metal from companies buying scrap metal.

10.3 Regulatory Base or Framework
Figure 3 shows the current Thai organizations associated with radioactive waste
management and the hierarchy of Thai nuclear and radiation legislations. Under the Nuclear
Energy for Peace Act [8, 9], the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research andInnovation (MHESI) has the power to enact the ministerial regulations regarding the nuclear
energy utilization and radioactive waste management, under advice from the NEPC. The NEPC
was instituted in order to propose nuclear and radiation policies to the council of ministers.
Also, the NEPC can establish specific requirements on nuclear energy, namely, the NEPC
Requirements issued as the Notification of NEPC.

174

Thailand

Figure 3. (a) a schematic diagram showing the current Thai organizations associated withradioactive waste management, (b) a diagram showing the hierarchy of Thai
nuclear and radiation legislations, and activities of each unit.
The OAP is assigned to be the regulatory body controlling and inspecting nuclear energy
utilization and radioactive waste management. The OAP is furthermore allowed to develop
fundamental guidelines supporting the ministerial regulations and the NEPC requirements,
namely, the OAP Guideline issued as the Notification of OAP. Any person who intends to
conduct the activities regarding nuclear and radioactive materials, including radioactive waste
management shall obtain a license from the OAP.
The TINT is a nuclear energy user and radioactive waste operator. The radioactive waste
met the waste acceptance criteria developed by the RWMC can be transferred from the waste
producers to the unit subordinate to the TINT (i.e., RWMC), for further management.

10.4 Issues related to NORM&TENORM
Although there have been some studies on NORM/TENORM waste, the existing
information on the waste does not cover all sectors that could generate such waste. Further
NORM/TENORM waste studies are therefore needed. This is not only to improve theprotection of the public and the environment from the potential risks due to the natural radiationfrom the waste but also to assist the development of national NORM regulatory programs.
175

Thailand

The NORM/TENORM contaminated materials illustrated in figure 2(b) are often received
from companies buying scrap metal. Large amounts of the scrap metal were processed and theoutput products were then sold. As a matter of fact, the metal is mostly from abroad. The
question is how they were brought into the country while the importation gates probably haveradiation surveillance systems. Is it possible that not all gates have such systems? To solve thisproblem, the OAP should check whether the intended 21 customs checkpoints have the systems
before promulgating the OAP Guideline [12].
As being a centralized waste operator, the RWMC realizes that there will be a problem with
the inadequacy of the storage space for unsealed radioactive waste including
NORM/TENORM contaminated materials. As currently happen, the NORM/TENORM
residues from the disused rare earth processing facility shown in Figure 1 were kept in thetemporarily designated area because the remaining space cannot support them. As reported in[5], there is approximately 30% of the storage space that can support the unsealed radioactive
waste.
References[1] S. Chanyotha, C. Kranrod, P. Pengvanich, Systematic approach to characterisation of NORM in
Thailand, Radiation Protection Dosimetry 167 (2015) 15-21. Retrieved fromhttps://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncv214[2] S. Chanyotha, C. Kranrod, N. Chankow, R. Kritsananuwat, P. Sriploy, K. Pangza, Naturalradionuclide concentrations in processed materials from thai mineral industries, Radiation
Protection Dosimetry 152 (2012) 71-75. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncs185[3] K. Srisuksawad, S. Thiangtrongjit, N. Chantaraprachoom, Report on recent status of TENORM in
Thailand, Hoken Butsuri 40 (2005) 99-103. Retrieved fromhttp://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:36061610[4] N. Yaanant, V. Kasemtanasak, A. Pattanasub, A. O-manee, S. Khaweerat, P. Pruantonsai, T.
Akharawutchayanon, P. Nuanjan, S. Punbut, P. Srimork, N. Prasertchiewchan, Study on
Developing Safety Infrastructure for Mineral Processing Waste (NORM Waste) andContamination Monitoring at the TINT Rare Earth Research & Development Center,
Khlong 5, Pathumthani, Thailand, Journal of Physics: Conference Series 860 (2017)012044. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/860/1/012044[5] K. Yubonmhat, T. Akharawutchayanon, P. Nuanjan, S. Issarapanacheewin, W. Katekaew, N.
Prasertchiewchan, Progress and Challenges of Radioactive Waste Management in Thailand,
Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste 26 (2022) 04022009. Retrieved fromhttps://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000693[6] FNCA, Radiation Safety and Radioactive Waste Management (No.12), (2017). Retrieved from176

Thailand

https://www.fnca.mext.go.jp/english/rwm/e_newsletter.html[7] NEPC, The NEPC Requirement on Safety Criteria, B.E. 2562 (in Thai), (2019). Retrieved fromhttps://www.oap.go.th/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/T_0013.pdf[8] NAT, Nuclear Energy for Peace Act (in Thai), (2019). Retrieved from https://www.oap.go.th/wpcontent/uploads/2022/11/830950.pdf[9] NAT, Nuclear Energy for Peace Act (in English, Unofficial Translation), (2019). Retrieved fromhttps://www.oap.go.th/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/UnofficialTranslationNuclearEnergyForPeaceActAsAmended-01-11-65.pdf[10] MOST, Ministerial Regulation on Radioactive Waste Management, B.E. 2561 (in Thai), (2018).
Retrieved from https://www.oap.go.th/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/T_0007-1.pdf[11] MOST, Ministerial Regulation on Permission to Import Radioactive Waste into and Export out of
the Kingdom, B.E. 2561 (in Thai), (2018). Retrieved from https://www.oap.go.th/wpcontent/uploads/2022/12/T_0023-1.pdf[12] OAP, Draft OAP Guideline on Designation of the Customs Checkpoints that Licensee Imports,
Exports, or Transits Radioactive Material, Nuclear Material, or Radioactive Waste (in Thai).
Retrieved from https://www.oap.go.th/2022/12/06/draft3/[13] OAP, Draft Ministerial Regulation on Nuclear and Radiation Safety and Security inTransportation (in Thai). Retrieved from https://www.oap.go.th/2022/12/06/draft3-2/[14] FNCA, Current Status of TENORM in FNCA Countries (Activity Report of TENORM Task
Group) (2005). Retrieved from https://www.fnca.mext.go.jp/english/rwm/e_tenorm.html

177Vietnam

11 VIETNAM
11.1 Sources of NORM&NORM waste
Radioactive waste in Vietnam originates from a variety of sources, including research
activities, industrial production, medical practices, the operation of research reactors, and the
manufacturing of radiopharmaceuticals. It's important to note that Vietnam does not have any
nuclear power plants.
NORM - naturally occurring radioactive material (currently, Vietnam only uses the term
NORM and does not use TENORM) waste is also generated within the country throughactivities such as:-

Uranium and thorium ores mining and processing
Rare earth ores mining and processing.
Titanium ore mining and processing and related industries.
Aluminum production.
Metal production: tin, copper, lead, iron, steel, etc.
Phosphorus industry.
Oil and gas production.
Coal mining and usage.
Water treatment and geothermal energy utilization.

The types of waste corresponding to the activities generating NORM waste listed in table
1.
Table 1. The types of NORM waste generated from activities related to the mining andprocessing of uranium ore, thorium ore, rare earths, titanium ore

Activities generating NORM waste

NORM
tailing

NORM
waste inliquidform

Uranium ore mining and processing
using traditional methodsx

Uranium ore mining and processing
using heap leaching
Uranium Processing through in-situ
leaching

NORM waste in solid form
Scale
deposites

Sludge /filter

Dust

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

178

VietnamMining of thorium ore, rare earths,
and titanium ore

x

x

x

x

Rare earth processing

x

x

x

x

titanium dioxide powder
manufacturing

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Zircon and Zirconia industryxx

We provide in detail some of the main activities that generate NORM waste in Vietnam as
below:
11.1.1 Generation of NORM waste from uranium and thorium ores mining andprocessing
Vietnam possesses approximately 240,000 tons of uranium reserves, but commercial-scaleuranium mining has not been initiated in the country. Nevertheless, there have been various
research projects at the ministerial and state levels relating to uranium ore extraction, refining,
and the production of UO2 ceramic pellets. These activities encompass several stages that giverise to different types of radioactive waste, which can be categorized as follows:-Solid waste stemming from the uranium leaching process: This waste typically contains amodest concentration of uranium (approximately 0.01% in technological samples at Thanh
My mine, Quang Nam province). It presents itself in the form of fine and coarse particles
resembling sand grains and yields a surface equivalent dose of approximately 10 µSv/hr.
-Waste water generated during uranium ore leaching: This waste water can have acidic or
alkaline characteristics and contains small amounts of uranium and thorium. Additional
waste water is produced during the uranium refining process, including ion exchange,
solvent extraction, ADU precipitation, and UO2 ceramic pellet production.
-Emissions of radioactive dust in exhaust gases: These emissions occur during themanagement of uranium ore, such as in dam construction, crushing of uranium products(ADU, UO2 powders), and drying processes. They are particularly hazardous as they canbe inhaled, leading to internal irradiation and adverse health effects for workers.
-Other waste types include ion exchange resins, solvents, and adsorbents, which also
contribute to the overall radioactive waste generated in the uranium mining and processing
industry.
Table 2. Composition and activity concentration of uranium ore leaching residue
No.

Elements

Content (wt.%)

Activity (Bq/g)

1

U

0.01

1.482

179

VietnamTh

4.10-3

0.162

Ra & isotopes

-

96

2
226

3

11.1.2 Generation of NORM waste from rare earth ores mining and processing
Vietnam boasts a substantial reserve of rare earth elements, totaling over 20 million tons.
Rare earth mines are primarily concentrated in the northern regions of Vietnam, including
provinces like Lai Chau, Lao Cai, Yen Bai, and Nghe An…. Rare earth minerals, such asmonazite and xenotime, are also discovered in coastal placer deposits, often associated with
ilmenite mining. Notably, monazite ore - (La, Th)PO4, predominantly found in coastal placer
deposits, and xenotime - YPO4, as extracted from the Yen Phu mine, are rich in radioactive
materials. The generation of radioactive waste is primarily linked to the mining, beneficiation,leaching, and purification processes of these rare earth ores.
Table 3. Chemical components in rare earth concentrate samples

Components

Unit

Monazite

Xenotime

Quang Nam mine

Binh Thuan mine

Yen Phu mine

TREO

%

47.33

58.85

19.5

ThO2

%

4.40

5.43

0.19

U3O8

%

0.18

0.31

0.05

Table 4. Activity concentration of residue obtained from the hydrometallurgy process of
xenotime concentrate (at pilot scale)
Activity ( Bq/kg)
K-40

Ra-226

U-238

Th-232

632

8682

6309

8989

Vietnam currently lacks a comprehensive rare earth processing facility. However, a minimal
quantity of NORM waste with a dose equivalent ranging from 80-120 µSv/hr results fromlaboratory-scale and pilot-scale research activities.
In Yen Bai province, a rare earth concentrate beneficiation plant is in operation, generating
thousands of tons of xenotime concentrate annually, and consequently, NORM waste is
produced during this process. Additionally, a hydrometallurgy plant is under construction at
this location, aiming to produce total rare earth oxides from the concentrate.
180Vietnam

In central Vietnam, a company is in the testing phase for the separation of total rare earth
elements from monazite. This process may lead to the generation of several tons of NORM
waste, with a portion of this waste currently being stored in the company's warehouse,necessitating treatment and proper disposal in the near future.

11.1.3 Generation of NORM waste from titanium ore mining and processing and relatedindustries
Vietnam boasts a wealth of coastal resources, including placer deposits (titanium placer)
exceeding 650 million tons. These deposits contain various valuable minerals that can beextracted from beach sands. Some of the primary minerals separable from beach sands areshown below:
Ilmenite

Beach sand
(0.3-10% placers)

Leucoxene

Dredging and washing(80-90% placers)

RutileZirconRare earth minerals(Monazite, Xenotime)

Mineral separation

Fig. 1. Schematic placer process.
NORM waste is produced during the processes of dredging and washing, which are part ofthe mineral beneficiation operations in Vietnam. Among the minerals found in these processes,monazite and zircon are notable for their high levels of radioactivity.
Table 5. Activity and Equivalent dose of placers

Minerals

Activity ( Bq/g)
226 RaEquivalent dose
228 Ra181(µSv/hr)Vietnam(at surface)Ilmenite<0.1 – 0.4

0.6 – 6

0.7

Leucoxene

0.25 – 0.6

0.04 – 0.35-

Rutile<0.1 – 0.25

< 0.6 – 4-

Zircon0.2 – 0.4

2–3

3-8

Monazite10 – 40

600 – 900

90

Xenotime

50

180

-

NORM waste in Vietnam predominantly arises from the production of zircon and rare earth
minerals, specifically monazite. Notably, in Ba Ria – Vung Tau province, there exists a ZOC(zirconyl oxychloride octahydrate) factory with an initial capacity of 13,500 tons per year (state
1) and an expanded capacity of 21,800 tons per year (state 2, be operated in 2023).

11.2 Management of NORM waste
11.2.1 Management of NORM waste from uranium and ores mining and processing
Due to the cessation of the first nuclear plant project located in central Ninh Thuan province,uranium mining and processing activities in Vietnam have also come to a halt. Presently,
research pertaining to uranium is conducted on a smaller scale within research facilities,
resulting in a relatively minor production of NORM waste.
Under a state project initiated in 2012, which focused on the search and evaluation of 8000
tons of U3O8 reserves, around 100 tons of uranium tailings were generated. The technologicalprocess for the management of this radioactive waste is outlined below:

182Vietnam

Uranium tailing
Stabilized by CaO
Cementation
Packing/ pelleted
Burial areas
Fig. 4. Technological process for solid rad-waste.

Concrete tank preparation

Load the cemented RW into the tank

Cover the tank with cement grout

Cover the tank by 1 metre of soil

Fig. 5. NORM waste burial.

183Vietnam

Waste water from uranium processing
Precipitation (pH=3)

BurialSolid

NaOH, Cao

Solid/ liquid separation
LiquidNot qualified

Precipitation (pH=8)

Polymer A101,
PAC, BaCl2

Co-precipitation
Solid

LiquidSolid/ liquid separation

Cementation

Analysis, QC
QualifiedDischarge

Packing,
Temporary storage

Shallow geological burial

Fig. 6. Technological process for waste water.

11.2.2 Management of NORM waste from rare earth ores mining and processing andresearch facilities
NORM waste generated from ore mining and rare earth extraction activities by companies
such as the Lai Chau Rare Earth Joint Stock Company (owner of the Dong Pao rare earth
mine, the largest rare earth mine in Vietnam) and the Yen Phu Rare Earth Joint Stock
Company (owner of the Yen Phu rare earth mine) are being managed with a focus onenvironmental and radiation safety.
184

Vietnam

These companies have successfully defended their environmental impact assessment
reports and radiation safety assessment reports for their investment projects related to theconstruction and operation of rare earth ore facilities. The NORM waste generated during themining and rare earth extraction processes (as well as NORM waste from other activities) can
be stored in reservoirs, dumps or storage tanks. The tanks are designed in one of three forms:
submerged underground, partially submerged or entirely above ground. The tank must meetthe following requirements:- The walls and the impermeable concrete base, with a reinforced steel structure are placedon a reinforced ground to ensure resistance to settling, cracking, leakage, and seepage inaccordance with the technical standards and construction criteria.
- Around the submerged part of the walls (below ground level) and underneath the tank,there is an additional impermeable lining layer, consisting of at least one of the following
materials: Compacted clay with a permeability coefficient of K ≤ 10-7 cm/s, with aminimum thickness of ≥ 60 (sixty) cm; HDPE membrane or synthetic PVC, butyl rubber,neoprene synthetic rubber, or equivalent materials with a thickness of ≥ 2 mm.
- Complete sun and rain protection must be provided for the entire tank surface, andmeasures should be taken to limit direct wind exposure into the tank during use until thetank is closed.
- In the case of tanks designed as submerged or partially submerged: after filling, the tankmust be sealed with an impermeable concrete cover, a durable reinforced steel structure,in compliance with the regulations in the technical standards and construction criteria.
The cover must completely seal the entire tank surface to ensure no water leakage orseepage. The tank cover should have an additional impermeable lining consisting of atleast one of the following materials: Compacted clay with a permeability coefficient ofK ≤ 10-7 cm/s, with a minimum thickness of ≥ 60 cm; HDPE membrane or synthetic
PVC, butyl rubber, neoprene synthetic rubber, or equivalent materials with a thickness of≥ 2 mm.
Currently, there isn't any deep rare earth mining plant in operation in Vietnam (except fora rare earth ore concentrate beneficiation plant in Yen Bai province and a rare earth solvent
extraction plant using imported pure raw materials in Ha Nam province). NORM related to rareearth was born primarily from research activities at the laboratory and pilot scales. The figure
below shows the waste disposal scheme for monazite processing.

185

VietnamMonazite
H2SO4

Decomposition

H2O

Leaching

Gas treatment

Filter/washing

Solid waste 1

Solvent/ Extraction

Rare earth

Thorium

Na2SO4

Rare earth
Precipitation

Thorium
Precipitation

H2C2O4

H2O

Filter/washing

Filter/washing

H2O

Waste water 1

Rare earth
Double sulfate

Waste water 2

Calcination
Th(C2O4)2

NaOH
BaCl2

Neutralization(pH = 8)FilterThO2

Stabilized by
Ca(OH)2 milk

Solid waste 2

Waste water treated at pilot
QC/check and pump to the
Waste water treatment system

Discharge into
the environment

Fig. 7. Schematic monazite process.

186

Packing and transport totemporary storage

VietnamTons of radioactive waste resulting from monazite processing are subject to treatment andare currently stored in the warehouse of the Institute for Technology of Radioactive and Rare
Elements (ITRRE). Within this facility, all radioactive wastes generated by ITRRE and otherinstitutes in the northern region of Vietnam, stored in 807 drums, each with a capacity of 200
liters, are gathered, categorized, treated, and subsequently stored in a temporary storage area
designated for radioactive waste..

Fig. 8. The radioactive waste facility at Phung Tower, Hanoi.
Experiments to develop suitable technologies for the treatment of various types ofradioactive waste have been conducted in a dedicated laboratory for this purpose. The
procedures applied for the treatment of radioactive wastes in general are as follows:187

Vietnam

RW classification

Incompressible solid waste

Compressible(Uranium tailing, mud)

(Clothes, gloves, filter paper)

Precipitation

Stabilized by CaO

Compressor(pH = 8.5 – 9)

(pH = 8-10)(Packing into 200l drums)

Liquid waste
NaOH

PAC

Deposition

Not qualified

Sand filter

Packing into 200l
drums

LiquidLiquidQA/QC

QualifiedDischarge into the environment
Fig. 9. General schematic radioactive waste process.

188

Temporary storage
WarehouseVietnam11.2.3 Management of NORM waste from titanium ore mining and processing andrelated industries
Typically, the mining sites are situated near the coastline and at a distance from theprocessing facilities. The extraction process involves pumping beach sand with water from thevalley floor. Subsequently, the separation of black sand from white sand occurs using a weightbased method. White sand typically exhibits dose rates of 0.15-0.20 µSv/hr, while black sand,or other minerals, can have higher dose rates of 3-3.5 µSv/hr. Clean or low-activity tailings
from this separation process are returned to fill the mined valley (pit).
Historically, Vietnam primarily exported refined ore. However, due to export restrictions
on raw minerals, several companies have ventured into the deep processing of placer resources.
The Vietnam Rare Elements Chemical Joint Stock Company (VREC) has been industrially
producing ZOC from zircon concentrate, which has a dose rate of 3-3.5 µSv/hr. This production
results in thousands of tons of NORM waste with dose rates ranging from 0.7-1.8 µSv/hr. The
radioactive waste is managed according to the following procedure.
Fig. 10. Pre-treatment of solid waste from ZOC process.
Solid waste

Green emissions
CementMix
Gas treatment(Scruber)

Weighing and packing

Air

Drying room

Warehouse

Transport to disposal
189

Vietnam

The radioactivity waste is then transported to the disposal areas owed by Blue River Co., Ltd.

Radioactive measurement of waste bags

Transfer waste bags to a truck

Transfer waste to cocrete tank

Environment survey the closed tankFig. 11. Management of residue from ZOC process.
In general, the management of radioactive waste generated from zircon processing is
executed effectively by the companies involved. All waste bags undergo radiation
measurements, and the transportation process is meticulously designed to ensure radiation
safety. Furthermore, specialized agencies prepare quarterly radiation safety reports for both theprocessing plants and burial sites. This radioactive waste management model can serve as avaluable example and be applied to other facilities in Vietnam, should they exist.
190

Vietnam11.3 Regulatory Framework
11.3.1 Atomic Law
Under the Atomic Law 18/2008/QH12, the Government of Vietnam has established a policy
framework for the management of radioactive waste, with key principles as follows:-Radioactive waste must adhere to internationally agreed principles for control and safety
management.
-Classification of radioactive waste is required, followed by appropriate treatment,
conditioning, and disposal.
-Emphasis on minimizing the generation of radioactive waste.
11.3.2 Circulars-To support the Atomic Law, several circulars have been issued, including:-Circular 22/2014/TT-BKHCN, which deals with the management of radioactive waste
and used radioactive sources.
-Circular 04/2016/TT-BKHCN, which outlines regulations for the appraisal of radiation
safety assessment reports in the exploration and extraction of radioactive ores.
11.3.3 Standards on Radioactive Waste Management-Various standards have been established to guide the management of radioactive waste,
including:-TCVN 6868:2001, which focuses on the safe management and treatment of radioactive
waste, including the classification of radioactive materials.
-TCVN 7078-1:2002, which addresses the evaluation of surface contamination,
specifically for beta-emitters with a maximum beta energy greater than 0.15 MeV andalpha-emitters.
-TCVN 7078-2:2007, related to the assessment of surface contamination, with a focus on
tritium surface contamination.
-TCVN 6854:2011, which provides methods for testing and assessing the ease of
decontamination for radioactively contaminated surfaces.
-TCVN 1469:2015, which deals with the measurement of radioactivity in solid materials
designated for reprocessing or disposal.
-QCVN 23:2023/BKHCN: National technical regulation on naturally occurring
radioactive material waste.

191Vietnam11.4 Issues Related to NORM
Vietnam currently has a number of radioactive waste management facilities, but most ofthem are of small scale. The country lacks a national facility for the storage of radioactive waste
and used radioactive sources. To ensure the safe and effective management of NORM, there isa need to establish a regulatory framework in the near future.
Immediate actions related to NORM management should include:-Upgrading or expanding existing small-scale radioactive waste management facilities.
-Developing management documents related to radon gas in residential high-risebuildings, underground public works, and mines.
-Enhancing the capacity of state management agencies to oversee all NORM-relatedindustries to prevent environmental incidents and accidents related to NORM.
-Strengthening the capacity of technical assistance agencies in the appraisal andassessment of exemption, licensing, decommissioning, and environmental monitoring for
NORM waste landfill sites.

192

RECENT ACTIVITIES
2023 Workshop• Date: 7th – 9th November 2023
• Host: Malaysian Nuclear Agency

2022 Workshop• Date: 17th – 18th January 2023
• Host: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT) of Japan. (Hybrid format)

2021 Workshop• Date: 9th – 10th November 2021
• Host: Online meeting

193

CONTRIBUTORSAUSTRALIA
Mr. Duncan Kemp
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO)BANGLADESH
Dr. Khandoker Asaduzzaman
Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC)CHINA
Prof. Liu Jianqin
China Institute for Radiation Protection (CIRP)
INDONESIADr. Syaiful Bakhri
The National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN)
JAPAN
Prof. Kosako Toshiso
The University of Tokyo
Dr. Saito Tatsuo
Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)
Dr. Hashimoto Makoto
Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)KAZAKHSTAN
Mr. Vyacheslav Gnyrya
National Nuclear Center of the Republic of Kazakhstan
MALAYSIA
Dr. Mohd Zaidi Bin Ibrahim
Malaysia Nuclear Agency
MONGOLIA
Ms. Ganbaatar Dolgormaa
Nuclear Energy Commission, Government of Mongolia
PHILIPPINES
Mr. Angelo Absalon Panlaqui
194

Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI)THAILAND
Dr. Klitsadee Yubonmhat
Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology (TINT)
VIETNAM
Mr. NGUYEN Thanh Thuy
Institute for Technology of Radioactive & Rare Elements (ITRRE)EDITOR
Ms. Che Jong-ah
International Affairs & Research Department
Nuclear Safety Research Association (NSRA)

195

Sponsored by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
Published by Nuclear Safety Research Association (NSRA)
Secretariat:
Nuclear Safety Research Association (NSRA)
5-18-7, Shimbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Tel: +81-3-5470-1983 Fax: +81-3-5470-1991

196

Email: fnca@fnca.mext.go.jp