論 文

Representations of Men and Women in the Mediaand the Effects on Language Construction

Staci-Anne Ali

要旨

メディアは社会において大衆の思考を引き出しうる現代の典型的イ
メージに影響を及ぼす。女性は家庭での役割，男性は仕事中心の役割を描き出す広告を通して，男女のイメージはしばしばジェンダーに特化した役割でカテゴリ化される。本小論では，ジャパンタイムズ紙の記事 “Womanlike, manlike, beaware what you ask for” に男性と女性がいかに示されているのか，そして各々の役割が課せられているのかを調査した。文章や発話の有用性，テクストの中における共通のパターンを見出し，いかに言語と関連しているのかを調査することは価値があると思われる。日本の職場における性差の不平等性，そしてそれがいかに可視化されているか，は重要な問題である。本論では，それが日本社会の中における女性と男性のステレオタイプ的な役割を支えているかを示したい。

Keywords: media（メディア），Japan（日本），gender roles（性役割）Media influences our knowledge of the world and influences our perception of how
we fit into the grand scheme of society. It often presents women as beautiful, skinny,mother-like figures who are in domestic roles as homemakers. It then presents men,

― 33 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 28as the hard earning, breadwinners, who are emotionally distant, and only need
women for satisfaction. These are examples of the ingrained biases we are exposed toabout gender, which are commonly reinforced by a particular use of words and codesof conduct popularized by the media. The present paper aims to analyze an article
from a popular Japanese newspaper, titled “Womanlike, manlike, beware what you
ask for”, elaborating on the representations of men and women found in the article.
Section 1 will discuss written and spoken discourse, and how it relates to society.
Section 2 will examine some common patterns found in texts to support the previous
argument. Section 3 will focus on significant gender inequality and how this disparity
materializes in the Japanese workplace. Finally, Section 4 will analyze the text of anarticle, and show how it contributes to stereotypical roles of women and men in
Japanese society.

1. Discourse and Society
Systems of writing have existed for many years in different cultures around the globe.
Over time, the relationship between language and the contexts was formed (McCarthy
1991: 5). Linguists such as Malcom Coulthard, and Michael McCarthy termed thisphenomenon “discourse”. Discourse can be divided into two groups, spoken andwritten forms. Spoken discourse includes everyday speech, and elements such as
intonation and word stress. The second form is written discourse which includes
anything inscribed, fact and fiction, word patterns, direct and reported speech (Cook
1989: 115). Written discourse allows time to stop, reflect, and for the reader to process
what is being understood, however spoken discourse is immediate. Discourse exists
in all areas of our society.
Politics and societal pressures are highly manipulative. Critical discourse exists
through social power abuse, dominance and inequality (Van Dijk 1997: 352). A main
influence is media which has the power to promote controversial ideas throughadvertising and contributes to gender disparity. The media has been known for
exposing biases, stereotypes, sexist or racist ideologies in text, illustrations and photos(Van Dijk 1997: 352). Some images that are being published in magazines depict
dominance and inequality between genders, as well as men and women fulfilling― 34 ―

Representations of Men and Women in the Media and the Effects on Language Construction

stereotypical roles as those in appendix 1. Men are represented as strong, muscular,
and rugged and recognized professionally, while women are beautiful, skinny, andpresent for pleasure. Messages that are sometimes conveyed in media can be powerful
and to some extent abusive, it can sway the reader’s thoughts, beliefs and can cause
people to change. Not only do they exist in media as images but also in the way
articles are written. The choices of words in text have the power to persuade which isone of many patterns used in text to capture the reader.

2. Patterns in text
The message the reader gets from the text can be interpreted differently depending on
how the text is written. Since the media has more access, and control over, various
types of public discourse (Van Dijk 1997: 356) they are highly influential. Patterns suchas repetition helps retain information; as it helps with memorization and is commonlyused in classrooms drills. Patterns that repeat can become deeply ingrained as part ofour cultural knowledge. It can lead the reader into what is the most important
information (Van Dijk 1997: 358) or what the writer thinks the most important
information is. Concepts that promote gender disparity such as the notion of thebeautiful homemaker wife, and the strong business man will certainly over time
influence our perceived and potential image of self. Patterns of repetition have theability to influence the mind and become ingrained as part of what we should do.

Direct and Indirect Speech
Information in text can be interpreted differently by using words and patterns thatreflect a sense of detachment or a neutral position. Changing certain words in the
text can alter the meaning, persuading the perception of the reader. The writer’s
position on any given topic can be persuasive and can influence the minds of readers
significantly. Using direct and indirect speech is an effective pattern that can reveal
the writers stance on the topic. In the example below, the reader understands that areport was lost by a male.
1. He claimed that he lost his report.
2. He said that he lost his report.
― 35 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 28In sentence one, the writer uses claim which suggests a sense of detachment from theinformation being reported. However, in the second example, using said implies amore neutral position on the topic (Caldas-Coulthard 1994: 295). Depending on thewords used, and the pattern they form when written, specific information can beemphasized, making the reader focus on it as primary information.

Problem-Solution Pattern
A common pattern in writing is the problem solution pattern. The reader is presented
with a problem or situation, the writer points out the complications or problems,
and then describes a response to the problem while giving a positive evaluation of the
response (McCarthy 1991: 30). In articles like “Womanlike, man like—Beware what
you ask for by Kaori Shoji, this pattern is visible almost to a T. Section 5 will analyze
this article in more detail showing how the writer has utilized this pattern. These
patterns exist in many magazines and editorials, especially with popular topics likesexual division in sectors of society like the workforce, which is prominent in some
Asian countries like Japan.

3. Gender roles in society
In Japanese society it is common for women quit her job voluntarily once married
to stay at home and raise the children while taking care of the house. This trend,
even today, is something that promotes the sexual division between men andwomen especially in the working environment. In Table 1 below, the amount ofmales to females in the workforce in 1989 was 98% for men comparing that to arange of 65% to 79% for women, which is represented by the dotted line. The
statistics show an odd “M-shaped curve for females which indicates that womenleave the labor force when they get married or give birth to a child and then rejoin
the labor force after their child has grown and the burden of child-rearing is
reduced”. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c12cont.htm― 36 ―

Representations of Men and Women in the Media and the Effects on Language Construction

Table 1 Labor Force Participation Rate by Sex 2009 7

However, the results in 2009 represented by the black line, shows that the number ofmales to females in the labor force, according to the statistics Bureau Japan was 72.0
percent for men and 48.5 percent for women, which indicates that based on thestatistics, disparity still exists. The low numbers of women in the work force indicatesthat there are more males who are career oriented and are expected to be stronger
financially whereas women are in a more domesticated passive roles. Women are
rarely seen in positions of power and are “in general are part of the un-accessedvoice” (Caldas-Coulthard 1994: 307). In 2001 in Japan 1.4 percent of senior
government officials were women compared to 23.1 in the United States (Marikkar
2007: 96). In numerous aspects of Japanese society supports this disparity, from theworkforce to the media, the influence seems to feed off each other. The ads inappendix 1 are examples of how the genders are naturally divided into set roles. Men
are shown to be dominant powerful figures because they are in the work force andwomen take a gentler position due to the fact that they are care takers. In theworkplace, women are still expected to fulfill a subordinate role to that of her malecounterparts; a Japanese company called Kanematsu had a policy paying workers
according to their jobs. It stated that men worked in the core positions dealing withcorporate services whereas women engaged in support services (Marikkar 2007: 95).
― 37 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 28

These assigned roles can affect the language we use on a daily basis and therefore arecontributing factors of how we speak and how certain words can be associated witheach gender.

4. Japan Times
The article for this assignment was chosen from a local online paper called The Japan
Times. It is a bilingual newspaper that offers updated recent news about aspects ofdaily life in Japan. It incorporates information in both languages (English andJapanese) and contains Japanese magazines ads. The features of this particular paper
are current events in Japan and how it relates to society. The products being
advertized cater to a wide range of people. However, the advertisements show men inbusiness oriented roles in ads like studying for TOEIC, and women in ads for dating.
This representation of gender deepens the sexual division from a social perspective
about the men and women in the workforce.

4.1 Womanlike, Manlike—beware what you ask for Article analysis
The article titled “Womanlike, Man like—beware what you ask for by Kaori Shoji
was selected because it illustrates interesting codes of conduct for both men andwomen in that associate them with their gender Japanese society. The text suggeststhat for women words like softness or flexibility, kindness, graceful, lightness, modesty,
cute, beautiful, and smooth-skinned are what constitute womanliness. However,workouts and muscles are cautioned, which, according to the article, ruins thewomanly body lines and is considered a stigma. The preferred modes of womanly skintexture, bone structure, hair length and condition, the exact curve of the ideal womanly
waistline suggest that there is pressure to fit into the mould of the perfect woman,and not possessing these characteristics creates an unsustainable image. The article
stresses that women exhibiting these characteristics will gain respect and be
empowered. However, “A Hairy Woman Will Not Succeed in Anything”. Men on theother hand are bound to the traditional role of manliness and are expected to be thepillar of Bushido (the way of the samurai). They are valued for being silent, strong in
mind and body, uncompromisingly earnest and honest, courageous and bold.
The article continues to insist that― 38 ―

Representations of Men and Women in the Media and the Effects on Language Construction  Men must be muscular, hairy in the right places, are to be messy, abstain fromvigorous washing, not care about what they eat, and to drink themselves into
oblivion without losing their male demure. Men are not supposed to whine or ask
for sympathy and if they do with excess, they’re referred to as onna no kusatta yona
yatsu which means a man who’s like a woman gone rotten.
The codes of conduct presented in this article basically reinforce the social distinction
between men and women and assigning specific characteristics to each sex widens thedisparity and influences not only the social image of gender but also carries over into
the workforce where women are used in supportive roles rather than primary roles.
The article confirms that individualism is acknowledged, but unique personality traits,
can be positive and negative given the situation.
  “A person with personality can be entertaining, but they can also be downright
weird and difficult to get along with”. This signifies seclusion and theunacceptable threshold of those who are different this is also a problem.
However, male “quirks are more tolerated than female ones and less likely to be
categorized as wagamama (selfish), or fushigi (freaky)”.
The choice of words used to describe the woman and man’s code of conduct classifies
them as strong and weak genders naturally. It implies that women are too weak
characteristically to take on a more dominant role in settings like the workforce.
Men, nevertheless, being typically stronger are better equipped mentally, to handle
the demands of the workforce.
  “The onna-rashisa code requires that Japanese women be quiet, unassuming andgood at listening to others, especially pontificating men, with an inherent dislike ofanything conspicuous”.
This confirms Caldas-Coulthard’s (1994) notion of women as part of the un-accessedvoice (Caldas-Coulthard 1994: 306), and that they are secondary to men which clarifies
the reason why  “Women were mostly assigned to roles in support of their male colleagues,
should serve tea for colleagues, and visitors at offices, or spend hours doing thephotocopying and other menial tasks and speak in artificial high-pitched voices,― 39 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 28serve tea and take photocopies” (Marikkar 2007: 92).
This code again being present in the work environment doesn’t balance the sexual
division but makes it more defined. If women and men take turns with duties ofprimary and secondary importance in the work place, then this can be a step towards
promoting gender balance.

5. Patterns and the Article
The pattern used throughout the article is the problem solution pattern mentioned
in section 2. The writer presents a problem which is the enduring social differencesthat exist between men and women and the detailed code of conduct that they
conform to in order to get respect. Shoji acknowledges that surplus amounts ofsoftness or flexibility, kindness, graceful, lightness, modesty, cute, beautiful, and smoothskinned womanly skin texture, bone structure, hair length and condition, and the exact
curve of the ideal womanly waistline for women, and being muscular, hairy in the rightplaces, messy, unclean, unhealthy, and having the ability to drink, not whining or asking
for sympathy for men, will get more respect. These characteristics for the sexes are partof the problem. However, there are two complications with this situation, the firstbeing that it ignores those who are different, such as hairy women not succeeding,and those who possess personality are entertaining, but can also be weird and difficult to
get along with. The first complication leads to another problem of those who are
different running the risk of being neglected. Another complication that arises in thearticle is that men complain that Japanese women are all the same and just notinteresting. Shoji defends the issues addressed in the article by stating that the code of
conduct is tolerated so it is not classified as inequality because it knowingly exists.
She uses personal pronouns which can signify that she identifies closely with theissues discussed, and that she is in agreeance with the topic. Though there are many
problems and complications with the content in the article, Shoji does not propose asolution or advises what can be done. She recognizes that the rashii school of thought
extends to other segments of the populace, such as children but defends the bias asexisting due to the fact that it has become deeply ingrained as part of cultural
knowledge. The social purpose of the text is to pinpoint the markings of womanliness― 40 ―

Representations of Men and Women in the Media and the Effects on Language Construction

and manliness in Japanese society, but showing how unsustainable it is to maintainthem and how it deepens the sexual division among men and women in this country.
The segregation of women and men in the workforce has been an ongoing problem
in societies like Japan for some time now. Regardless of whether these perceived
biases are ingrained as part of culture, or influenced via the media throughadvertisements or articles that promote women and men in stereotypical roles, there
is still not enough being done about this problem to equalize their duties. Despite
complaints, and law suits, a majority of women are content with being happy
housewives while the big strong men earn the fat salaries. Though there are some
women and men who do not fit the stereotype and who want to break the glassceiling, as a whole, it might not be enough for a significant change. With such astrict ideal as those described in the codes of conduct for womanliness and manliness
it is a challenge to find a solution. But, with men wanting something moreinteresting and something different there is a chance that the roles may change.

References
Caldas-Coulthard, R. M. (1994) ‘On reporting reporting: the representation of speech in factualand factional narratives’. In Coulthard, R. M. (ed.) (1994a)
Cook, G. (1989) Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Marikkar, F. A. (2009) The role of gender equality in the workplace in Japan. Kanagawa
University [online] 33. Available from:http://klibredb.lib.kanagawa-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10487/3942/1/kana-14-33-0006.
pdf [Accessed May 20, 2011
McCarthy, M. (1991) Discourse analysis for Language Teachers Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Shoji, K. (2004) Womanlike, manlike—beware what you ask for [online]. Japan times, Japan,
http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/ek20040916ks.html [Accessed May 2, 2011]
Statistics Bureau Japan (2009) Social Trends Labor Force Participation by Sex [online].
http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c12cont.htm [Accessed May 18th 2011]
Van Dijk, T.A. (1997) The Study of discourse’ in Van Dijk Discourse Studies Critical Analysis
Discourse 12― 41 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

Appendix 1 Controversial Advertisements
Men in positions of power and dominance

Women in domestic and nurturing roles― 42 ―

No. 28

Representations of Men and Women in the Media and the Effects on Language Construction

Appendix 2
Thursday, Sept. 16, 2004
Japan Times (BILINGUAL)
Womanlike, manlike—beware what you ask for By KAORI SHOJI
Elsewhere in the world, social distinctions between men and women erode on a daily basis,but in Japan, they still endure. Women are expected to be “onna-rashii (womanly),” menmust go by “otoko-rashii (manly)” codes of conduct, and to hell with political correctness.
And you know something ? We actually like it; or at least we’re well-aware that those endowedwith surplus amounts of onna-rashisa (womanliness) and otoko-rashisa (manliness) are likely
to get more respect.
The qualities that constitute onna-rashisa are pretty much standard fare: yawarakasa (softness
or flexibility), yasashisa (kindness), karoyakasa (graceful lightness), kenkyosa (modesty). Add
to that the traditional demands for women to be kawaii (cute), kirei (beautiful) and tsurutsuru (smooth-skinned) and you’ve got a nation of femmes all aspiring to be some characterout of a Junichiro Tanizaki novel (refer to “The Makioka Sisters” for details).
Women’s magazines are perpetually coming up with new, and more detailed, definitions of
onna-rashisa: lately, there’s been an emphasis on good health without the stigma of workouts
and muscles (which ruin the onna-rashii body lines) and a lot of ink has been poured in
describing preferred modes of womanly skin texture, bone structure, hair length andcondition, the exact curve of the ideal onna-rashii waistline. Interestingly, none of thesearticles (most written by women) has any intention of promoting inequality, but stress how
onna-rashisa will actually empower women and inspire self-respect. One headline in the everpopular An-An magazine threatens: “Kebukai Onna wa Nani o Yattemo Umaku Ikanai (AHairy Woman Will Not Succeed in Anything).” Scary, huh ?
Men aren’t having such a good time either. Bound by the ancient ropes of otoko-rashisa(manliness) to the pillar of Bushido (the way of the samurai), men are valued for being
kamoku (silent), goken (strong in mind and body), ippongi (uncompromisingly earnest andhonest), yukan (courageous) and daitan (bold). Visually, it helps if they’re kinnikushitsu(muscular) and kebukai (hairy) in the right places, like legs and wrists (for some reason, chest
hair has always been a downer). Naturally, they’re expected to be messy, to abstain fromvigorous washing, to not care about what they eat, and to drink themselves into oblivion
without losing their male decorum. It goes without saying that they’re not supposed to whine
or ask for sympathy. If they do either with excess, they’re referred to as onna no kusatta yona
yatsu (a man who’s like a woman gone 14 rotten), which I personally feel is one of the mostdiscriminatory remarks in the language, but we’ll forget that for now.
The rashii school of thought extends to other segments of the populace, such as children.
Kodomo-rashii (childlike) is a highly prized virtue even among adults, so imagine the effectand influence of a kodomo-rashii child. The traits include mujaki (guilelessness), akarusa― 43 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 28(cheerfulness), tenshinranman (naturally innocent) and oyaomoi (loving toward parents). A
kodomo-rashikunai (unchildlike) child is eyed with slight suspicion and is often labeled
sureteiru (knowing the ways of the world), hinekureteiru (twisted), kurai (gloomy) andkawaikunai (not cute). No wonder so many kids these days are kireteiru (gone off the deep
end).
Lately however, there are those who acknowledge that individuals can actually come in all
shapes and sizes, each with unique personality traits. We even have a word for it: kosei(individuality) — and it can be used in praise or irony, depending on the situation. To theJapanese mind, a koseiteki na hito (a person with personality) can be entertaining, but they
can also be downright weird and difficult to get along with. The threshold isn’t very high: A
friend of mine, while out for dinner with her male colleagues, refused beer and then asked
for a vegan dish. For weeks afterward, she was described as sugoku koseiteki (extremely
individualistic), and the dinner invitation was never repeated.
Of course, male quirks are more tolerated than female ones and less likely to be categorized
as wagamama (selfish), or fushigi (freaky). Besides, the onna-rashisa code requires thatJapanese women be quiet, unassuming and kikijozu (good at listening to others, especiallypontificating men), with an inherent dislike of anything conspicuous. So I’m always surprised
when men complain that “Nihonjin no onna wa minna onaji de omoshirokunai (Japanesewomen are all the same and just not interesting).” Uh, hello ? Whose fault is that ?

― 44 ―