The Nature of Today's Essay
Jiro Numano

According to Henri M． Peyre， the essay is， in modern Iiteratures，

the category of nonfictional prose that probably ranks as the mostimportant both in the quantity and in the quality．
the biggest literary domain of all．

And

it grew into

1）Nevertheless， the question whatan essay really is has puzzled me for years． It means several kinds ofのwrltlngS．

Etymologically speaking，
exagium'meaning

a weighing

or

essay

comes from a Latin word

trial．

And the word as the nameof a genre of literary work comes from the：French writer Michel deMontaigne of 16th century Who called his writingsessais．'The essay is defined， by C． Hugh Holman， coauthor of a handbook

to literature， as

an artistically wrought and imaginatively developed

work of non．fiction， which may reveal an author's personality， express
his speculations on life or events， or make a formal statement about his
attitude toword a precise， objective subject．

2）

Two Kinds of Essayists

Meanwhile， speaking of English essayists， we recall Charles Lambof 19th century， Robert Lynd of 20th and others． But the said C． HughHolman N of the University of North Carolina reminds us of theexistence of forerunners and points out that there have been two typesof essayists since the earliest period． And so， let us first look at thegeneral view of essayists from the past to the present． See diagram 1．

1 ） Peyre， Henri M．，

Nonfictional prosein

The Art of Literature，in

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica， Encyclopaedia Britannica lnc．，
1985， Vol． 23 Macropaedia pp． 188， 189．

2） Holman， C． Hugh，
Incorporated， 1985， Vol'

Essay

in Encyclopaedia Arnericana， Grolier

D 10， p． 589．

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徳山大学論叢

FORMAL ESSAY（評論）INFORMAL ESSAY（随筆）（Critical Essay）（Personal Essay， Literary Essay）
Proverbs， Ecclesiastes， Ecclesiasticus

No． 37 June 1992

FORERUNNERS

Plato Aristotle
りTheophrastus 37Q‑287 BC L（Bible）

Horace， Long血usSaint Paul

Cicero， Seneca

Marcus Aurelius 121‑1ee

Boethius

Plutarch， Thucydides， Tacitus

Saint Augustine 5th century

BEGINNINGS
16 C

Julius Caesar Scaliger

Michel Eyquem de Montaigne 1ssO

Julius Justus

Thomas More， Roger Ascham
Francis Bacon 1597
17 C

Joseph HaH， John Earle

Thomas Browne

Ben Johnson， La Rochefoucautd
William Temple

John Milton
John Locke， John Dryden
18 C

Cotton Mather， Alexander PopePERIODICALSRichard Steele， Joseph Addison

Athenian． Gazette
The Tatler

Jonathan Swift Lord ChesterfieldりBenjamin Franklin（US）

The Spectator

Sa由uei Johnson
Oliver Goldsmith

The Guardian
The Rambler

Jonathan Edwards （US）

19 C

Washinton lrvlng （US）

Charles Lamb， Henry David Thoreau
William Hazlitt， Leigh Hunt 一〔灘轡 1Thomas Carlyle

North American

Matthew Arnold
William Wordsworth

Thomas De Quincey
Oliver Wendell Holmes （US）

Review （US）

Mark Twain （US）， Chales Dickens

Walter Scott， John Wilson

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Harper's （US）

ShellyGeorge Eliot
Robert Louis Stevenson （US）

Atlantic Monthly （US）

Ralph Waldo Emers6n （US）︸

William Makepeace Thackeray

Edger'Alan Poe （US）

William Dean Howells （US）

H， L， Mencken （US）
El B， White （US）

James Thurber （US）

f

20C

The Criterion

Scrutiny

Encounter

Max Beerbohm
Robert Lynd
J， B． Priestly

W， Somerset Maugham

New York Review
of Books （US）

Paul Elmer More （US）

George Santayana （US）
Edmund Wilson （US）

Commentary （US）

E． V， Lucas

Harper's （US）

Norman Mailer （US）

Atlantic Monthly （US）

Virginia Woolf

New Yorker （US）

D， H Lawrence

Aldus HuxleyGeorge Orwell
A． A． Milne

Jerome K． Jerome

George Gissing

Diagram 1
一 208 一T． S． Eliot

Bertrand Russell

Jiro Numano ： The Nature of Today's Essay

Holman， admitting the difficulty to classify the types of essays，
Iists two kinds of essays： inforpaal and formal． ln the informal side hesuggests that Proverbs in the Bible， writings by Thucydides， Theo‑phrastus， Plutarch， and Tacitus were the forerunners． And he names
Plato， Aristotle， Cicero， Seneca and others as those who left criticalessays． The form essay was started by the French writer Michel deMontaigne in the late 16th century， who called his work

meant thatessai

his compositions were attempts or endeavours．

after Montaigne， Francis Bacon published

Essays，・

and3） Soonwhich could beclassified as formal essays． After these two masters followed many
essayists in the 17th century． Some well‑known names such as John
Milton， John Locke' and John Dryden are found on the formal side in thechart． Then．came the development of the periodicals in the late 17thand 18th centuries． The development of newspapers and magazineS
became an important medium for the essay andincreased its popularity，

expanded its audience， and moved its appeal from an essentially aristo‑
cratic audience to the middle class．

）

The 19th century was replete with essays， both formal and informal
as is evident from the chart． And on the left hand side is found thename of Charles Lamb， whose

Essays of Elia

is well known． His

essays are very personal and literary and widely recognized as landmarksof the genre．

In the 20th century， essays of both types continued to be written．

But informal essays only flourished in the earlier decades and its
popularity declined in the later decades， losing the note of whimsy．5）

Then the form， according to a handbook， didn't survive the Second
World War．6） And the formal essay， too， it is said， lost some of its
literary qualities．'） Thus， today， most essays are written as expository，

3 ） The New Encyclopaedia Britannica． 1985， Vol． 4， p． 562．
4） Holman， op． cit．， p． 590．

5）Ward， A． C。，Longmαn Companion to TtOentieth Century五iterαture（Third edition， revised by Maurice Hussey）， Longman， 1981， p． 187．
6 ） lbiel．， p． 60．

7） Holman， op． cit．， p． 591．

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徳山大学論叢

No． 37 June 1992

informative journalism．9）

The Differences of the Two Kinds

In the meantime， before we consider specific essays and essayists，
let us briefly look at the differences of the two kinds of essays． Formal

essays are tightly organized expositions， and formal or analyticaltreatment of impersonal subjects． They are logical in structure， serious

in purpose， and critical； they examine and pass judgment on works ofart or events． Emphasis is less on the author． And today， the term isoften applied to expository or descriptive columns that are factual andobjective， like magazine articles and reasoned opinions such as editorials．

On the other hand， informal essays are suggestive treatments ofSubjects， and informal in structure， personal， almost confessional in
quality， graceful in style and literary in nature； they try tQ convey amood and attitude， andkwithout strain．

to persuade without argument and entertain

9） Emphasis is more on what the author thinks about asubject than the subject itself． lnformal essay may take the form of anarrative， a description， an anecdote， a reflection， a dream， or a pieceof whimsical extrapolation．
．

Essays of Elia

by Charles Lamb

After surveying the two types of essays， 1 should like to report what

I have found in

Essays of Elia

by Charles Lamb， Who could be regarded

as a representative of literary・essayist． His essays are introduced
almost anywhere as among the favorite of all time， exhibiting humor，fantasy， sentiment， urbanity， and grace． ln reality， it was not from my
own will that 1 started reading Lamb's essays， but it was exhortation of

my friend， a high school English teacher， that prompted me to take up
this essayist of the ．former century． I must admit that it was not an8） Rexroth， Kenneth，・ture，

The Scope of Literaturein

The Art of Litera‑in The IVeLv Encyelopaedia Britannica， Encyclopaedia Britannica

Inc．， 1985， Vol． 23 Macropaedia p． 87，
9） Holman， op． eit．， p． 589．

一 210 一Jiro Numano ： The Nature of Today's Essay
easy reading， it took time to peruse， and that I often needed to refer tothe careful commentary and translation to understand him． lt may bethat hisEssays of Eli'ais one of what Somerset Maugham calledbooks important in the history of literature which it is now unnecessary
for anybody but the student to read．

iO） lncidentally， as 1 have a mind

to be a student of English， 1 tried to read him， i． e．

came to appreciate some of his pieces such as
mew Year's Eve'，

A Quakers' Meeting

Essays of Elia

andThe two races of men，

and a few others． 1 occasion‑

ally feel the tender personality of his while reading his essays．
His essay，Dream Children， for example， is a good piece that willsurvive the passing of time． lt reveals his sentiment toward his lover
whom he didn't marry， his affection toward his elder br'

盾狽???and sister

Mary whom he took care of， in a finely made work of fantasy． lt did

move me with unexpected ending． The piece remindedshort story，Miriamme of Capote's． Both are pieces of fantasy， or dream， andinvolves shifting and duplicating of characters， although the two pieces
of work may be quite different in nature．

Now， one of the major reasons for the difficulty of reading Lamb's

essays today is undoubtedly his oceasional use of archaic Elizabethan
style of English as well as obsolete Latin words and frequent references

to and quotations from his contemporaries， and of course works ofgreat literature such as Bible， Shakespeare， Milton and Bunyan．

But aside from this hard burden for a reader like myself， 1 wasdisappointed more often than not when his essays didn't say much on
the titles under which he started・his essays ； it gave me the impressionthat the author is irresponsible and lacks seriousness． Many of his
essays are verbous， look backward instead of forward．． For example， in
Oxford in the Vacation， he writes

Antiquity ！ thou wondrous charm，

what art thou？．．．What mystery lurks in this retroversion？
in

New Year's Eve） And， he confides，

1 am naturally， beforehand， shy of novelties ； ． ． ． am sanguine10） Maugham， W． Somerset， Books and You， Kinseido Ltd．， 1956， p． 2．

11） Hataya， Masao， Essays of Elia by Charles Lanzb， Kembunsha， 1929，
p． 75．

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徳山大学論叢

No． 37 June 1992

onlY in the prospects of'other （former years）． ．．．In a degree
beneath manhoodi it is my infirmity to look upon those early days．
．．． That I am fond of indulging， beyond a hope of sympathy， in such

retrospection， may be the symtom of some sickly idiosyncrasy． Or
is it owing to another cause： simply， that being without wife or
family， 1 have not learned to project myself enough out of my self ；and having no offspring of my own to dally with， 1 turn back uponmemory， and adopt my own early idea， as my heir and favourite？

'2）

Then he reveals his limitations bf the time， that is， his dislike
toward the Jews and the blacks．'i3） His attentions tend to be directed to
his inside world， namely， his brother， his sister， himself， his pastime andso forth． ln other words he avoided

whatever is urgent or disturbing：politics， suffering， sex， religion．

i） To sum up， his essays are notwritten in today's style， in terms of contents， purpose， organization，and economy． And so he treads out of the way of my sympathy，
retiring under the phantom cloud of Elia．

To return to Maugham's remarks，They （masterpieces） are impor‑tant to the student， but changing times and changing tastes have robbed
them of their savour and it is hard to read them now without an effort
of will．

'5） lt is no wonder that one of my colleagues， who reads English

literatqre of past centuries， admits

Essays of Elia

are boring though

the writer's tender personality betrays．

1 think Lafcadio Hearn's following remarks summarise the positionof Lamb as an essayist． He regards him as
light vein，

who leftpieces with

only good small influence．

a charming essayist in aneither great nor strong， but pleasing and delicate
i6）12） lbid．， pp． 209， 214， 222．

13） Lamb's dislike toward the Jews and the black is found in
Sympathies

in hisImperfect

Essays of Elia．

14） The IVew Encyclopaeelia Britannica， 1985， Vol． 7， p． 117．
15） Maugham， op． cit．， p． 14．

16）Hearn，：Lafcadio， A Histor：y（：ゾEnglish Literαture， Hokuseido Press，
1934， pp． 690， 691．

212

Jiro Numano ： The Nature of Today's Essay

Today's Essays
Some familiar essayists in the 19th century and Robert Lynd in the20th century followed Lamb's tradition and many other men of lettersleft literary essays in the last two centuries． But now， 1 should like tofocus on the contemporary， formal essays． By this 1 mean those

expository and informative ones which appear on magazines andnewspapers． Specifically speaking， 1 have in mind as specimens the

Essaycolumn of Time， an American weekly news‑magazine， andSydney J． Harris's column

Strictly Personal

which appeared on The

Chicago Daily News and The Chicago Sun‑Times for over forty years．
And 1 understand Bertrand Russell was one of'the great thinkers wholeft critical writings which preceded the modern type of essays．

Maugham．said in 1940，

Few people have the time today to read

anything but what immediately concerns them．

i'） So today's essays are

current and deal with the most urgent subjects in the world that meanmuch to us here and now．

Iobserve that the contemporary essays consist of （D analysis of thesubject matter， （2） expository commentary， ＠ criticism， ＠ viewpoint of
the writer， and （（5） proposition or suggestion．

Viewed from the angle of their nature， first， today's essays muststand up to the expectiation of up‑to‑date‑ness， in terms of information

the writer bases his argument on and his way of thinking． ln today's
ever changing and developing world， anything out of date won't be paid
attention to． Thus， today's essay is situated at the forefront of thehuman society itself， and of the dynamic move of journalism and mass
media． Second， writers are expected to present objective， serious andresponsible treatment of the subject． And third， lengthy， wordy style is
not fit for the busy world of today． A matter set forth and summarized
in one page is the typical amount． But on the other hand， as the articles

in most journals tend to become shorter and to strive for more
immediate effect since 1940's， laments on the decline of the essay were17） Maugham， op． eit．， p． 2．

一 213 一

徳山大学論叢

No． 37 June 1992

丁目so heard．i8）

The Essay Column of the

Now 1 turn to

Time

TIME

， an American Weekly Magazine

magazine's essay column． The column started

in 1965． It gives cool‑headed criticism on American civilization， politics，
economy， deception in the systems， ethics， and so forth．

Topics of the column from the issues 1 collected since 1983 ranges
from， to name a few， the U． S． Presidential election， Reagan Doctrine，affirmative action， totalitarianism， democracy， terrorism， NASA space
program， AIDS， Gulf War'to the collapse of U．S．S．R． and U．S．一Japan

trade conflict． As for the writers， 1 found nearly fifty names in thepast nine years， but only seven seem to be the regular contributors．
Among the rest are found foreign writers such as Hungary's Nobel Prizewinner， literary critic in Moscow， German poet‑essayist， editor of a
French magazine， former Kremlin foreign policy advisor and a journalist
and novelist in Zagreb．
To give the readers an idea of the column， let me list a few interest‑

ing titles ：new products ；New But Not Necessarily lmproved

Gravitas Factor

which speaks of various

which compares heads of state such as

Churchil， Gorbachev， Margaret Thatcher， Ronald Reagan and otherleaders． as Mother Teresa， et al． ln the latter essay Lance Morrow saysthese persons have gravitas factor but Jimmy Carter and Gerald Forddidn't．

Occasionally，Time

does have informal essays which could beclassed with traditional literary essays． Examples of titles are

Againsta Confusion of Tongues，

andWaiting as a Way of Life，

You Could Be Better Than You Are，etc． But the number is very small．

Some may question the appropriateness of applying the term
formal essay

to the columns I am examining here． While it is truethat Time's essay and other reasoned opinions such as editorials arequite journalistic， we still can draw a line of demarcation between theseand news articles in that the former gives the reader analysis， exposition

18） Peyre， op．cit．， p． 189．

一 214 一Jiro Numano ： The Nature of Today's Essay

and perspective on a particular subject， and not the substance of thesubject in detail．

Time's essays and even editorials express and reflect the writer's
opinions and it is this perspective that the readers are often looking for．

This presenting of a personal point of view is one of the essential andauthentic element of an essay． ln Peyre's words， the essay

shouldcommunicate an experience or depict a personality，．．．and it shouldmake accessible to the reader knowledge and reflection and the delight ofwatching a fine mind at work．

'9） And 1 think the reason for usefulnessof this type of essay is increasing in today's world．

Incidentally， as for the other side of the current nature of today's

informative essays dealing with political and economic issues， 1 cannot
deny that most of them are short‑lived． That is， many of those pieces

written a few years ago， or even half a year ago are already losing
appeal． For instance， people will not be inclined to read Time's essay
dealing with ・Geraldine Ferraro， then vice‑presidential candidate when it
was printed 7 years ago．

Sydney J． Harris's Column，Strictly Personal

On the contrary， Sydney J． Harris's columns， as opposed to Timemagazine's past essays， are still highly rewarding to read． His essays
treat contemporary subjects， yet readers don't feel his pieces are out ofdate． He passed away in 1986． lt is quite probable that part of thereason for the readability lies in the fact that what we are reading are

the chosen ones from his numerous pieces． During his 42 years as aregular columnist of Chicago Daily News， he must have written essays

deaiing with very specific matters whose relevance faded away soon．
But even from my meager reading， 1 can assert that his columns aredifferent from Time's essays． His essays are more general in natureand many of his pieces still have the power to convince readers． What
he did was to give readers deep insights and incisive criticism on many

fundamental issues ranging from war and peace to various problems in19） lbid．， p． 189．

215

徳山大学論叢

No． 37 June 1992

human life． He is known for his intelligent and sound argument， clear

logic， and warm humanisum． Refined and well‑balanced Judeo‑Christiantradition found expression in his essays．
Several titles of his columns may give a glimpse of his essays ： War

Is Cancer of Mankind， Peace lsn't Just the Absence of War， We're Not

Fit to Colonize Space， The Whole World ls a Huge Legacy， We Are Allon One Space Ship， and Good Teachers Hard to Come By．

Having touched upon two examples of today's essays， 1 think atleast two things are common among them． They are intelligence andperspective．

Time's Essays on the Gulf War

Now， returning to Time magazine， it carried a dozen essays on the

Gulf War from the time lraq invaded Kuwait until lraq was defeated in
February， 1991． The tone of argument as I understand it， was for themost part critical or at least cautious． of America's one‑sided involve．
ment in the conflict， as the titles suggest． And during that period， thecolumn did play the role of today's essays by giving analysis， exposition，and perspective．
However， those essays are already becoming of the past． There will

be few readers who would turn to those essays now， and few of theessays will remain worthwhile to be read again．

Noam Chomsky on the Vietnam War
The Gulf War reminds us of the Vietnam War， although in respectof the duration of time and the results the two were quite different．
And no other than a scholar of renoun， whos．e specialty is familiar to

English teachers， Noam Chomsky raised his voice against America's
intervention in the Vietnam War．

After America began bombing North Vietnam in 1965， Chomsky
took part in conferences， debates， forums， meetings on Vietnam， gave
lectures at universities， and wrote essays on' the subject for journals

such as Harvard Educational Review， and New York Review of Books．
一 216 一Jiro Numano ： The Nature of Today's Essay
Referring to a picture of a girl holding her wounded baby sister， heasks，How many hundreds of such pic七ures mus七we see before we begin

to care and act？

20） And he calls for immediate withdrawal saying，

The daily toll in Vietnam of innocent people is so terrible that thecessation of our military activity ． ． ． has become no longer debatable． ． ． but a matter of urgent and unilateral action．

2'） He interprets the

狽??most obscene example of a frightening phenomenon of

war ascontemporary history一 the attempt by our country to impose its
particular concept of order and stability throughout much of the world．

By any objective standard， the United States has become the mostaggressive power in the world ． ． ． ．

22） Thus he saw American hegemony，or American imperial goal behind the policy．

And regarding the attitudes of intellectuals， he writes，

It isfrightening to observe the comparative indifference of American
intellectuals to the immediate actions of their government．．．．
Changing expressions， he repeats，As for those of us who stood by insilence and apathy as this catastrophe slowly took shape over the pastdozen years， on what page of history do we find our proper place ？

2）

On the one hand he is startled to see the indifference on the part ofintellectuals， on七he other he points out the reason behind it． He
observes that

intellectuals are moving closer to the center of power， orat least being absorbed more fully into the decision‑making structure

and

25）

the largely humanist‑oriented， occasionally ideologically minded，free‑floating intellectuals，

who sees his role largely in terms ofproffering social critiques， is rapidly being displaced ． ． ． by experts

and specialists， who become involved in special governmental under‑
takings ．

26）

His essays in the book， though written more than 20 years ago， stil120） Chomsky， Noam， Anzerican Power and the New Mandarins， Penguin
Books， 1969， p． 12．

21） lbid．， p． 178．
22） lbid．， p． 316．
23） lbid．， p． 249．
24） lbid．， p． 257．
25） lbid．， p． 26．
26） lbid．， p． 28．

一 217 一

徳山大学論叢
rapay the labor of reading． He says，

No． 37 June 1992

Recent history shows that it

makes little difference to us what form of government a country has aslong as it remains an

open society'， in our peculiar sense of thit terma society， that is， which remains open to American economic pene‑
tration or political control．

2'） Does not this observation of his sound'

as if uttered yesterday ？

The Responsibility of lntellectuals

In the same series of essays he discusses the responsibilities ofintellectuals． H：e cites Conor Cruise O'Brien，

increased and specificvigilance，．．．is required from the intellectual community towards
specific growing dangers to its integrity．

28）Chomsky says，

In theWestern world at least， they（intellectuals）have the power that comesfrom political liberty， from access to information and freedom of
expression． For a priviliged minority， Western democracy provides theleisure， the facilities and the training to seek the truth lying hidden

behind theヤeil of distortion and misrepresentation．．．．The responsi．
bilities of intellectuals， then， are much deeper thanresponsibility ofpeoples'， given the unique privileges that intellectuals enjoy． ．．．It is
the responsibility of intellectuals to speak the truth and expose lies．

29）

The tone of his essays is very strong， perhaps tooでadical if we readthem today． By nature he has ainstinctive distaste for activism，

30）

but found himself edging towards an unwated crisis． Ifeel sympathy
toward him when he．says，Traditionally the role of the intellectual， orat least his self‑image， has been that of a dispassionate critic．

3D

It is in line with this role that a professor of English at Brigham

Young University wrote， in October，1990，七hat Americans should notfight Iraq and that the proper response to the Iraqi／Kuwait contest
し27） lbid．， p． 280．
28） lbid．， p． 23．
29） lbid．， p． 256， 257．
30） lbid．， p． 291．
31） lbid．， p． 251．

一 218 一Jiro Numano ： The Nature of Today's Essay

should be non‑violent．32） Though this may seem wide of the mark inretrospect， 1 was pleased to note his composed judgment and courage tofullfill the intellectual's role when 1 saw him state the wars they waged

against Viet Nam and Nicaragua were unjust wars．

Conclusion
Being one of the humanity living today， 1 prefer to read expository，

informative essays． But the more specific and relevant to the modern
readership those essays are， the greater is the possibility of their
becoming out of date soon． Maugham precisely observed，Time has aravaging effect on the work of our contemporaries． None can be certainthat what thrills us now will thirll a generatiOn that comes after．

33） ltis a great contradiction． And this is why 1 feel some ambivalence
toward today's essays because 1 also know the value of literary type of
essays which have universal validity in terms of both time and space．

As an essay is a means of bringing about a fundamental change inpublic opinion， andthe world opinion can serve as a kind of brake on

utilization of the technology of destruction，

3） we， as members ofintellectual community， can and should begin writing to help create an
atmosphere of concern about various issues that surround us．

REFERENCES
Capote， Truman，Miriam' in T． Capote ＆ Others，Study of the Short

Story' 1981 Tsurumi Shoten．

Chomsky， Noam，

American Power and the New Mandarins' 1969 Pelican

Books．

Encyclopaedia Americana， 1985．

福原麟太郎著作集，「評伝チャールズ・ラム」1968，研究社。
Harris， Sydney J．，

The Best' of Sydney J； Harris' 1975 Houghton Mifflin32） England， Eugene，
Iraq，

On Trusting God， or Why We Should not Fight

Sunstone， Vol． 14， No． 5 （October 1990）， pp． 9， 10．

33） Maugham， op． cit．， p． 12．
34） Chomsky， op． cit．， p． 248．

一 219 一

徳山大学論叢

No． 37 June 1992

Company．
Harris， Sydney J．，

Loves Geography' （Review of C． S． Lewis's

The Four

LoveS'） Saturday Review， Sept． 10， 1960．

幡谷正雄，「全訳 エリア随筆講義」1929，健文社。
Hearn， Lafcadio，

A History of English Literature' 1934， The Hokuseido

Press．

Maugham， W． Somerset，Lamb， Charles，Books and You' 1956， Kinseido．

The Essays of Elia' 1928， Kenkyusha （lntroduction andnotes by T． Hirata）．

Lamb， Charles，

The Essays of Elia' 1982， Daigakusyorin （Edited with

notes by Shigeo Kawamoto）．

ラム著，戸川秋骨訳，「エリア随筆」1940，岩波書店。
The New Encyclopaedia Brit．a皿ica，1985．

斉藤勇，西川正身，平井正穂編，「英米文学辞典」第三版，1985，研究社。
Ward． A． C．

Longman Companion to Twentieth Century Literature'

Third Edition （Revised by Maurice Hussey）．

一 220 一