論 文

The Value of Contrastive Rhetoricin the Japanese EFL Classroom

Nicholas Bradley

要

旨

対照修辞学は多文化におけるレトリック方法の違いに焦点をあて，第二言語を習得する際にも母国語と同じ方法がとられると示している。
対照修辞学は漠然としていて，言語学の中でも時流からはずれ関心をもたれていないが，EAP（学問的英語）の視点から教師にとって一概に価値がないわけではない。
この論文で私はまず対照修辞学の発展を説明し，次に実用的な成果が乏しい対照修辞学が，英語の授業でどのように活用できるかを論じる。数少ない英語／日本語における対照修辞学研究結果を参考にし，
この学問の知識がどの教授法に一番役立つかをについて議論する。
Keywords: Rhetoric レトリック，contrastive rhetoric (CR) 対照修辞学，Japanese 日本語，English 英語，English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
学問的英語，Japan 日本，pedagogy 教授法

Abstract.
Contrastive rhetoric focuses on the differences of rhetorical styles
across cultures and suggests that these styles are replicated in the L2.
Contrastive rhetoric is a vast and largely unfashionable area of― 63 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 27linguistics, yet, its lack of appeal to many in the field does notnecessarily mean it is not of value to teachers, particularly teachers
of EAP (English for Academic Purposes).
This paper will look at the developments in the field of contrastive
rhetoric and argue that, rather than being an academic area of
linguistics with extremely limited practical implications, contrastive
rhetoric can make a contribution in the English language classroom.
An attempt will be made to identify what areas of pedagogy it canbest contribute towards. To help meet this end, this paper will also
review the findings of the limited number of English-Japanesecontrastive rhetoric studies available.

1. Introduction.
Contrastive rhetoric (CR) has been broadly defined as “The view that the rhetoricalfeatures of L2 texts may reflect different writing conventions learned in the L1 culture,and the cross-cultural study of these differences” (Hyland, 2006: 312). Although
primarily focusing on expository writing, CR has expanded since its inception in the
1960s and today represents an extremely complex field combining, among others,
issues of writing, culture, and learning/teaching a second language (Atkinson, 2004).
The aim of this paper is to examine the developments within CR and its implications
for pedagogy. Due to space limitations and the breadth of CR, focus will fall upon
cultural issues in CR and implications of CR in pedagogy. The purpose of theinvestigation is to assess the value of CR for me as a teacher of English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) in Japan. To assist me in this endeavour, I will also review thefindings of Japanese-English CR studies.

2. The Origin of Contrastive Rhetoric.
Principles underlying CR have been seen as lying in the Whorfian hypothesis of― 64 ―

The Value of Contrastive Rhetoric in the Japanese EFL Classroom
linguistic relativity (Connor, 1996; Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000; Kubota & Lehner,2004). The hypothesis asserts that a person’s thoughts are controlled by patterns ofwhich they are unaware imposed by their L1. Thought patterns are illustrated in thesystemizations of the language used and highlighted through a comparison withother languages, particularly those of another linguistic family. Every language is a‘vast pattern-system’ that is culturally unique and categorised in the way a person
communicates and interprets the surrounding world (Carroll, 1956).
Applying ideas of the Whorfian hypothesis to L2 expository writing, Kaplan’s (1966)
paper is regarded by many to be the origin of CR (Leki, 1991; Connor, 2004: CelceMurcia & Olshtain, 2000; Hyland, 2003a; Kubota & Lehner, 2004). However, this view is
not unanimous. Ying (2000), for example, suggests that the origins of the field of CR
can be traced to eighteenth century Germany.
Kaplan argued that logic, which dictates rhetorical organisation, is a cultural
phenomenon and an expression of world view. By recognising the culturaldifferences within the rhetoric of writing, Kaplan moved beyond previous language
teaching, informed by contrastive analysis that had only recognized culturalvariation at the sentence level through grammar, vocabulary and sentence structure.
Kaplan viewed contrastive analysis as inadequate and, consequently, the native
English reader is left frustrated as students’ essays conflict with their culturally
shaped rhetorical expectations.
Kaplan concluded students’ work fell in to certain cultural groups that shared asimilar rhetorical style:• Semitic - Based on a series of complex parallel constructions, both positive andnegative.
• Oriental - Circling around the subject and showing it from a “variety oftangential views”.
• Romance - Much more room for digressions.
   These different rhetorical patterns were illustrated in the following diagram:― 65 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 27(Kaplan, 1966: 10).

The English expository paragraph was described as linear, usually beginning with a
topic statement followed by evidence to develop it and relate it to other ideas(inductive reasoning). Alternatively, it may state examples and then relate them to astatement at the end of the paragraph (deductive reasoning). These forms of reasoning
are expected by native English readers as part of any formal communication with nodigressions, no superfluous material and nothing important omitted (Kaplan, 1966).

3. Developments and Debates in Contrastive Rhetoric.
Despite Kaplan’s 1966 article, text linguistics remained focused on spoken discourse(Leki, 1991). In the late 1970s, research on writing still stressed sentence level issues
and comparisons (Kaplan, 1983). However, from the 1980s onwards, there was a“flurry of activity” in the field of contrastive rhetoric (Connor, 1996: 155) due partly
to developments in discourse analysis and text linguistics which “sparked renewedinterest in contrastive rhetoric and the exploration of more than the strictly surface
features of discourse” (Leki, 1991: 125).

3.1. Approaches to CR.
CR research increasingly attempts to look at the L1, more specifically, how L1 texts
are created and understood, as a way of understanding the rhetoric students employ
in English L2 writing (Eggington, 1987; Petrić, 2005; Mohan & Lo, 1985; Mauranen,
1993; Valero-Garces, 1996; Moreno, 2004). This typically falls within two main
approaches:― 66 ―

The Value of Contrastive Rhetoric in the Japanese EFL Classroom“(a) to examine L1 texts from different cultures, often professional,
published work, written for native speakers, and the rhetorical contexts inwhich these texts are inscribed; or (b) to establish textual criteria and search
for those qualities in samples of successful and unsuccessful texts by students
writing in their L1”(Leki, 1991: 126).

Connor (1996) expands methodological diversity further suggesting six main categories
of CR research:■ Reflective inquiry - Identify problems through observation/literature review.
■ Quantitative descriptive research - Isolate important variables and quantifythem.
■ Prediction and classification studies - Determine the strength of relationships
between variables.
■ Sampling surveys - Describing a large group in terms of a sample.
■ Case studies and ethnographies - qualitative descriptive research looking at
subjects in context.
■ Experiments - Mostly quasi-experiments, very rare.
(Connor, 1996: 156).
The sheer scope of CR encompassing culture, writing, pedagogy, linguistics, andlanguage acquisition is likely to attract a wide spectrum of interested parties fromdifferent academic backgrounds. With linguists, applied linguists, anthropologists,and researchers in education all entering the field, it is unsurprising that suchmethodological diversity exists.
Diversity in methodology and goals creates difficulty in comparing results, making
the usefulness of CR research somewhat opaque (Leki, 1991). This view is shared by
Kachru (1995) though for the reason that all CR methodology is based on Western
rhetorical tradition. Kachru (1995) questions if the results of CR studies are aconsequence of the methodologies followed rather than a clear indication ofrhetorical differences found in expository prose.

― 67 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 273.2. Genre.
“A genre comprises a class of communitive events, the members which sharesome set of communicative purposes”.
Swales (1990: 58).

Swales (1990), suggests that the choices of content, style and the purposes thecommunicative purposes the genre serves are dictated by the discourse community. A
discourse community contains members with a suitable degree of content anddiscoursal expertise who hold broadly agreed common public goals, have somespecific lexis, and have ways/opportunities to communicate (Swales, 1990).
Such a broad term as expository writing, the subject genre of most CR, is likely toencompass many different discourse communities, each with their own preferredrhetorical styles and expectations, and often operating in more than one genre. Thisdivision is particularly the case among different academic subjects and between thesame subject across different cultures (Swales, 1990).
Swales (1990) rejects the idea put forward by commentators such as Widdowson(1979) that academic disciplines have universal rhetorical tendencies that transcend
national/cultural, and therefore, linguistic boundaries. The Universalist argument
fails to take into account differences among cultures which develop from
“peculiarities of study modes, teaching styles and general educational expectations
within particular institutions” (Swales, 1990: 65). These differences point to different
educational cultures and discourse communities which employ their own rhetoric.
Rhetoric is not isolated to expository writing, nor is expository writing the only typewhich EAP students, or students learning English for other purposes, will create.
Unsurprisingly, CR from the 1980s began to move away from expository writing andlook at other genres. Notable examples include Connor’s 1988 (cited in Connor, 1996)
examination of Japanese and American business negotiation and Mauranen’s (1993)
investigation of Finnish and English metalanguage strategies. Such studies compared
actual examples of the genre in L1 and English rather than comparing them againststyle guides as did Kaplan (1966) and Ostler (1987).

― 68 ―

The Value of Contrastive Rhetoric in the Japanese EFL Classroom
Using texts of the same genre is of the upmost importance (Swales, 1990) and, if
possible, of the same sub-genre (Grabe, 1987). Distinctions and divisions of genre in
English may not be the same in other cultures. Hindi horoscopes, for example, haveno European parallel and Anglo-American written invitations have no Indian parallel(Kachru, 1995). Despite such extreme examples to the contrary, expository writing
does have parallels in other cultures, however, the cautions of Kachru, Swales andGrabe remind us the importance of ensuring the comparability of genres in CR.

3.3. World Englishes.
In EAP, the presentation of an Anglo-American rhetorical style as the desired form
for students to emulate comes with two major assumptions. Firstly, that an AngloAmerican rhetorical style exists. Rhetorical conventions differ from country tocountry making such a thing as Anglo-American rhetoric difficult to identify.
Connor (1996) suggests that CR is now taking into consideration the variation in‘native’ Englishes, as well as non-native varieties of English, developments welcomedby Kachru (1995) who feared that such groupings were increasingly being presented
as being valid.
The second assumption is the superiority of the Anglo-American rhetorical style overother ‘Outer Circle’ or non-native varieties. This view may devalue other English
varieties despite arguments that “just as no language is more or less logical than any
other, so no rhetorical pattern is more or less logical than any other” (Kachru, 1995: 28).
In addition, “A narrow view of what constitutes good writing may shut out a large
number of original studies from publication and dissemination” (Kachru, 1995: 29). The
assumption of superiority therefore has implications for the global transfer ofknowledge.
Anglo-American superiority implicit in much CR is especially flawed if one
subscribes to the notion of historical cycles of rhetoric. Swales (1990) questions
whether rhetorical style is actually a result of ‘intrinsic cultural differences’ or simply
a stage in an educational cycle. This suggests Anglo-American rhetoric has not always
been linear making it possible to conclude that it will not remain so and therhetorical styles of other cultures will also change. Suggesting the superiority of one― 69 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 27style not only demeans that of other cultures but also the past and future
developments of its own.

3.4. Culture.
A major problem within CR is the use of culture as a term of differentiation ofrhetorical style. Cultural boundaries often parallel national borders, for example, instudies of Japanese (Hinds, 1983; Kobayashi, 1984), Chinese (Mohan & Lo, 1985), andFinnish (Mauranen, 1993). Kaplan (1966) went further by grouping the rhetoric ofseveral nations and cultures, comparing their rhetoric to that of Anglo-American
English, itself a contested union (Kachru, 1995). Lumping cultures and nations
together has resulted in the creation of contrastive generalizations such asindividualist Vs collectivist (Connor, 1996) or direct Vs digressive cultures (Kaplan,1966). Such generalizations ignore divisions within cultures highlighted by genre,
assuming a non-existent homogeneity and encourage stereotyping.
Nationality does not correspond perfectly with culture. A number of writers havecriticised the grouping of cultures within CR (Scollon, 1997; Kachru, 1995; Zamel,1997), and the dichotomy that often results, such as East Vs West (Kubota, 1999).
National boundaries which are often given as cultural boundaries frequently containmore than one culture, and more than one rhetorical pattern. Eggington (1987), forexample, found the considerable number of Korean academics who had studied in
the United States employed a linear rhetorical style whereas others who had not,“presented in a more traditional non-linear style” (Eggington, 1987: 166). Though it
can be argued that American educated Korean academics constitute a different
cultural group it clear that Atkinson (2004) is correct and a better understanding of
culture in CR is required.
This need has been acknowledged by CR proponents with Connor (2002, 2004a,
2004b) acknowledging this need and proposing an intercultural rhetoric which:“Preserves the traditional approaches that use text analysis, genre analysis,
and corpus analysis as well introduces the ethnographic approaches thatexamine language interactions”(Connor, 2004a: 273).

― 70 ―

The Value of Contrastive Rhetoric in the Japanese EFL Classroom
The welcome development of intercultural rhetoric attempts to move CR away froma static notion of culture to a dynamic one which acknowledges ‘small cultures’ andthe interactions they have with larger ‘national’ cultures.

CR and Pedagogy.
With CR focusing on writing, it is mainly within writing that implications forteaching arise. Explicitly demonstrating rhetorical differences between English andstudents’ L1 through the reorganising of scrambled paragraphs and the use of
prefabricated structures were suggested as classroom techniques for developing
writing for advanced learners (Kaplan, 1966).
Such methods correspond closely to a product approach to writing strongly criticisedby proponents of process writing. In contrast, the process approach views writing as
unpredictable and highly individualistic focusing on the student as a writer whobrings in his/her individuality and writing resources (White and Arndt, 1991).
Attention is on meaning and the development of student’s meta-cognitive awarenessrather than on accuracy and form (Hyland, 2003a).
Such priorities have been supported by those engaged in CR. Mohan & Lo’s (1985)
research amongst Chinese students suggests that problems writing or understanding
Anglo-American linear rhetoric was not a result of cultural difference but resulted
from their lack of experience in writing. However, students do not begin to write inEnglish without first having had some writing instruction in their L1. In addition,schooling goes hand-in-hand with culture:“Writing for most schoolchildren is nearly always school sponsored andinevitably, therefore, reflects the culture of the school system and reproduces
culturally preferred discourse styles”(Leki, 1991: 124).

It is perhaps through genre that CR offers its greatest contribution to pedagogy, onethat is especially useful in an EAP context. As an approach to writing genre highlights
the reader, and promotes “knowledge of the culture, circumstances, purpose andmotives that prevail in particular settings” (Paltridge, 2001: 7) and emphasizes the― 71 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 27

constraints of form and content that must be reorganised for a text to fit a social
purpose (Tribble, 1996).
In the classroom, the provision of multiple example texts from a specific genre allows
students to compare and deconstruct the language used and thereby discover theunderlying assumptions and ideologies (Hyland, 2003b). EAP students need to know
the general consensus of their discourse community and construct texts that arecompatible with it. CR provides vital insights into genre and helps students identify
the differences between English varieties and their own L1 versions.
Raising awareness among students and teachers through CR has some positive
implications beyond direct writing instruction. Leki optimistically suggests that for
students:“the findings of contrastive rhetoric often produce instant enlightenment
about their writing in English, as students suddenly become conscious of
the implicit assumptions behind the way they construct written ideas andbehind the way English does”(Leki, 1991: 138).

This is unlikely to always be the case and such ‘enlightenment’ doesn’t necessarily
result in sudden improvement. However, raising students’ awareness of language issurely the responsibility of the teacher and in an EAP context the expectations of theaudience must be made clear. An unexpected result of this is that students’ selfesteem can increase as difficulties of writing become attributed to rhetoricaldifferences rather than personal inadequacy (Leki, 1991).

Japanese-English CR.
Hinds (1983, 1987 1990) has been prolific in the area of Japanese-English CR and
put forward the ki-shoo-ten-ketsu pattern of Japanese composition:• Ki - Begin one’s argument.
• Shoo - Develop further.
• Ten - Turn the idea to a subtheme where there is a connection, but not a― 72 ―

The Value of Contrastive Rhetoric in the Japanese EFL Classroom
directly connected association.
• Ketsu - Bring all of this together and reach a conclusion.

The most notable element of this pattern is ten. Here information that is not directly
relevant is introduced with minimal syntactic marking. Hinds (1983) suggests that, if
transferred, this could cause problems for English readers who do not expect
digressions and superfluous material to be suddenly introduced.
The ketsu (conclusion) section may also be problematic as the definitions of ketsu
and conclusion differ. Ketsu “need not be decisive. All it needs to do is indicate adoubt or ask a question” (Takemata, 1976: cited in Hinds, 1987: 80). Such a conclusion
would likely be deemed insufficient by native-speaker English readers expecting
something more concrete.
The overall style of Japanese writing has been characterised as reader-responsible(Hinds, 1987). Overly explicit writing is not valued in Japanese writing and readers
are expected to ‘think for themselves’ (Hinds, 1990). This pattern has been termed the‘quasi’-inductive’. The quasi-inductive style differs from the inductive and deductive
styles favoured by Anglo-American writers, not only in the responsibility it places on
the reader, but that the thesis statement is often hidden within the passage rather
than being easily identified at the beginning or end (Hinds, 1990). When asked toscore English translations of Japanese writing, English-speaking readers scored thequasi-inductive style consistently lower than Japanese readers thus indicating apreference for rhetorical patterns of their own language (Hinds, 1987).
The work of Hinds however, does not indicate if Japanese rhetorical patterns aretransferred to English writing. Yet, it is precisely this question that was the subject ofa study by Kobayashi (1984) among U.S students and Japanese students both inJapan and the U.S.
Kobayashi (1984) found that students did transfer Japanese rhetoric into theirEnglish writing. However, learners in Japan transferred more frequently than thosestudying in the United States. Japanese studying in the United States, like American― 73 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 27

students, favoured a style of “Text Relating (writers reveal personal values, beliefs,
feelings, and experience in relation to the content of the composition)” whereas
students in Japan preferred “Topic Stating (writers simply restate the given topic)”(Kobayashi, 1984: 737).
Kobayashi’s research supports the findings of Hinds that both Japanese and English
operate different rhetorical patterns and suggests a tendency among Japanese students
to use L1 language patterns and general statement types. This transfer is reduced
amongst Japanese studying in the United States who seem to employ a blend of
rhetorical style.
The applicability of CR to teaching has also been addressed in a Japanese context.
Yoshimura found that students explicitly taught the “organizational pattern,coherence structure, and argumentative patterns” out performed other students inargumentative essay writing (Connor, 2003: 231). Despite criticisms against focusing
on form (for example, by process writing proponents), Yoshimura claims the
successful outcome was partly attributable to Japanese students needing to be
comfortable with a form of writing. This would suggest the pedagogical implicationsof CR are culturally specific. Personal experience and much of the literature (Azuma,
1998; Fujimoto, 1999; Dorji, 1997) supports the idea that Japanese students like to‘play it safe’ and know the form well before they attempt to create.
Despite the contributions of Hinds, Kobayashi and Yoshimura there is a noticeablelack of work in the area. It is clear that much more research is needed to gain a better
understanding of Japanese-English CR and, most importantly, the transfer ofrhetorical preferences to the L2. With the expansion of the notion of culture in CR,
studies that take into account its dynamic nature and diversity within entities such as
nations will be welcomed.

Conclusion.
Although CR has developed greatly since its beginnings, problems still remain, mostnotably in the notion of culture and the clumping together of peoples under certain― 74 ―

The Value of Contrastive Rhetoric in the Japanese EFL Classroom
headers which are often tinged with certain value judgements. Despite such issues,
CR continues to develop and, with the proven transfer of L1 rhetorical patterns, itwould foolish to ignore it. EAP teachers have a responsibility to make students awareof the expectations of the subject in which they write and it seems clear that raisingsuch awareness can have positive outcomes. The fact that CR seems more applicable
to monolingual classes and students that have undertaken some form of contrastive
analysis before, as is the case with Japanese students, also contributes to its value in
the Japanese EAP context.
When raising students CR awareness, however, it would seem prudent to make it asrelevant to the students as possible. To do this, knowledge of genre would seemappropriate as general rhetorical tendencies found between Japanese and English may
not be equally represented within the discourse community they are entering.
Exposure to such differences in style and expectation can only have a positive impact
on the students understanding and development in EAP writing.
Yet it is not only students who can benefit from the ‘enlightenment’ CR offers. CR
can help native-speaker English teachers in Japan understand the rhetoricalpreferences of their students and allow them to focus on the area of greatest
difference/transfer. Although more research is needed, CR offers great potential forteacher and student development and the implications it has for pedagogy should be
welcomed.

References.
ATKINSON, D. (2004), Contrasting Rhetorics / Contrasting Cultures: why contrastive rhetoric
needs a better conceptualization of culture. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 3,
277–289.
AZUMA, H. (1998). Japanese Collectivism and Education. Washington, American Psychological
Association.
CARROLL, J. B. (1956), Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf.
Massachusetts, M.I.T Press.
CELCE-MURCIA, M & OLSHTAIN, E. (2000). Discourse and Context in Language Teaching: A
guide for language teachers. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

― 75 ―

愛知大学

言語と文化

No. 27CONNOR, U., & LAUER, J. (1985). Understanding persuasive essay writing: Linguistic/
rhetorical approach. Text. 5, 309–326.
CONNOR, U. (1996). Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second-language writing.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
CONNOR, U. (2002). New Directions in Contrastive Rhetoric. TESOL Quarterly, 36 (4),493–510.
CONNOR, U. (2003). Changing currents in contrastive rhetoric: Implications for teaching andresearch. IN (ed) KROLL, B. Exploring the Dynamics of Second Language Writing.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
CONNOR, U. (2004a). Introduction. Journal for English for Academic Purposes. 3, 271–276
CONNOR, U. (2004b). Intercultural rhetoric research: beyond texts. Journal of English for
Academic Purposes. 3, 291–304
DORJI, L. (1997). A Comparative Analysis of Japanese Students’ Learning Styles and British
TEFL Teaching Styles. The Japanese Learner. 11, 12–19.
EGGINGTON, W. G. (1987). Written Academic Discourse in Korean: Implications for Effective
Communication. IN (eds) CONNOR, U & KAPLAN, R. B. Writing Across Languages:
Analysis of L2 Text. Reading, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
FUJIMOTO, H. (1999) The Examination Backwash Effect on English Language Education. The
Japanese Learner. 19, 101–110.
GRABE, W. (1987). Contrastive Rhetoric and Text-Type Research. IN (eds) CONNOR, U &KAPLAN, R. B. Writing Across Languages: Analysis of L2 Text. Reading, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company.
HINDS, J. (1983). Linguistics in Written Discourse in English and Japanese: A contrastive study.
IN (ed) KAPLAN, R. B. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics III. Rowley, Newbury
House.
HINDS, J. (1987). Reader versus Writer Responsibility: A New Typology. IN (eds) CONNOR,
U & KAPLAN, R. B. Writing Across Languages: Analysis of L2 Text. Reading, AddisonWesley Publishing Company.
HINDS, J. (1990). Inductive, Deductive, Quasi-Indutive: Expository Writing in Japanese,
Korean, Chinese, and Thai. IN (eds) CONNOR, U & Johns, A. M. Coherence in Writing:Research and Pedagogical Perspectives. Alexandria, TESOL.
HYLAND, K. (2003a), Second Language Writing. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
HYLAND, K. (2003b). Genre-based Pedagogies: A social response to process. Journal of Second
Language Writing. 12, 17–29.
HYLAND, K. (2006), English for Academic Purposes: an advanced resource book. London,
Routledge.
KACHRU, Y. (1995). Contrastive Rhetoric in World Englishes. English Today 41, 11 (1), 21–31.
KAPLAN, R. B. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. Language Learning.
16, 1–20.

― 76 ―

The Value of Contrastive Rhetoric in the Japanese EFL Classroom
KAPLAN, R. B (1983). Contrastive Rhetorics: some implications for the writing process. IN(eds) FREEDMAN, A. PRINGLE, I & YALDEN, J. Learning to Write: first language /second language- selected papers from the 1979 CCTE Conference, Ottawa, Canada. London,
Longman.
KOBAYASHI, H. (1984). Rhetorical Patterns in English and Japanese. TESOL Quarterly. 18 (4),
737–738.
KUBOTA, R & LEHNER, A. (2004). Toward critical contrastive rhetoric. Journal of Second
Language Writing. 13, 17–27
LEKI, I. (1991). Twenty-Five Years of Contrastive Rhetoric: Text Analysis and Writing Pedagogies.
TESOL Quarterly. 25 (1) 123–143.
MAURANEN, A. (1993). Contrastive ESP Rhetoric: Metatext in Finnish-English Economics
Texts. English for Specific Purposes. 12, 3–22.
MORENO, A. (2004). Retrospective Labelling in Premise-Conclusion Metatext: An EnglishSpanish Contrastive Study of Research Articles on Business and Economics. Journal of
English for Academic Purposes, 3, 321–339.
MOHAN, B & W. A. LO. (1985). Academic Writing and Chinese Students: Transfer andDevelopmental Factors. TESOL Quarterly. 19 (3), 515–534.
OSTLER, S. E. (1987). English in Parallels: A Comparison of English and Arabic Prose. IN (eds)
CONNOR, U & KAPLAN, R. B. Writing Across Languages: Analysis of L2 Text. Reading,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
PALTRIDGE, B. (2001). Genre and the Language Learning Classroom. Ann Arbor. University ofMichigan Press.
PETRIC, B. (2005). Contrastive Rhetoric in the Writing Classroom: A Case Study. English forSpecific Purposes, 24, 213–228.
SCOLLON, R. (1997). Contrastive rhetoric, contrastive poetics, or perhaps something else?
TESOL Quarterly. 31, 352–363.
SWALES, J. M. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
TRIBBLE, C. (1996). Writing. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
VALERO-GARCES, C. (1996). Contrastive ESP Rhetoric: Metatext in Spanish-English
Economics Texts. English for Specific Purposes. 15 (4), 279–294.
WHITE, R & ARNDT, V. (1991). Process Writing. London. Longman.
WIDDOWSON, H. G. (1979). Explorations in applied linguistics. Oxford, Oxford University
Press.
YING, H. G. (2000). The origin of contrastive rhetoric revisited. International Journal of Applied
Linguistics. 10 (2), 259–268.
ZAMEL, V. (1997). Toward a model of transculturation. TESOL Quarterly. 31, 341–343.

― 77 ―