iafor

journal of education
studies in education
Volume 11 – Issue 3 – 2023
Editor: Pearl Subban

ISSN: 2187-0594

iafor
IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education
Volume 11 – Issue 3 – 2023

IAFOR Publications

The International Academic ForumIAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education
EditorPearl Subban
Monash University, Australia

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan
IAFOR Publications, Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor: Joseph Haldane
IAFOR Journals Administrator: Mark Kenneth Camiling
Publications Manager: Nick Potts
IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning in Education
Volume 11 – Issue 3 – 2023
Published December 8, 2023

IAFOR Publications © 2023
ISSN: 2187-0594
ije.iafor.org

Cover image: Zachary Nelson, Unsplash

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education
Volume 11 – Issue 3 – 2023
Edited by Pearl Subban
Monash University, Australia

Table of Contents
From the Editors
Pearl Subban

1

Notes on Contributors

3

Strategies to Succeed with Inclusion in a Diverse Learning Environment
May Olaug Horverak

9

Hybrid Learning Experiences of College Students with Special Education Needs
Jennifer B. Fabula

29

Student Diversity and School Climate in the Mediterranean Zone:A Comparative Study
F. Sehkar Fayda-Kinik

51

Motivation and Language Learning Narratives: A Case Study ofIndonesian Students
Biaz Dea Nabilla

77

The Impact of Supervision Process toward Counselling Competencies
among Malaysian Trainee Counsellors
Suhaili Arifin
Noor Syamilah Zakaria
Wan Marzuki Wan Jaafar
Nor Mazlina Binti Ghazali
Nor Shakirah Mohd Sakari

93

Pandemic-Led Challenges for Rural Students in Bangladesh
Md Monirul Islam
Sardar Md Shaheen
Ratan Kumar Roy
Aminul Islam
Md Daloar Hossain

113

Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Pedagogical Competencies ofPrimary School Teachers
Lawrence Achimugu
Zephrinus Chidiebere Njoku
Sunday Yomi

137

Exploring Intercultural Communication as a Means to Promote Inclusivity
in Diverse Organisations: A Study in a South African University
Maria Mushaathoni

161

Student Emotions and Engagement: Enacting Humanizing Pedagogy inHigher Education
Hyunjin Jinna Kim
Yiren Kong
Carol Hernandez
Muhammad Soban

185

Effects of Board Game with Different Debriefing Preferences on
Cyberbullying Prevention
Sasipim Poompimol
Patcharin Panjaburee
Pratchayapong Yasri
Khajornsak Buaraphan

207

Reviewers

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From the Editors
Nurturing Inclusive Education – A Call for Social Justice and Diversity
In our rapidly evolving world, education plays a pivotal role in shaping the future. Itstransformative power can either perpetuate inequalities or serve as a catalyst for social justice,equity and the celebration of diversity. The mission of this annual issue of the IAFOR Journalof Education, Studies in Education issue, is to explore the multifaceted aspects of social justiceand diversity across the educational landscape. By fostering an inclusive and equitableeducational environment, we have the potential to empower learners from all backgrounds andensure that no one is left behind.
As the selected articles in this issue reveal, Inclusive Education is an essential foundation forachieving social justice and diversity in the classroom. The selection considers this essentiality
drawing from scholarly pieces across the globe. Each contribution reinforces the view that all
students, regardless of their background, abilities, or characteristics, should have equal accessto quality education. The findings of each piece reiterate and acknowledge that diversity is nota challenge to be overcome but a strength to be embraced. It encompasses students of all races,
genders, socioeconomic statuses, abilities, and cultural backgrounds. It is vital for educators torecognize that inclusion is not just an idea, but its active implementation involves providing
the necessary support and accommodations for students to thrive in a genuinely accepting
environment. Inclusive education requires curricular adaptations, professional development for
educators, and fostering an open and accepting learning culture.
The selected articles span both school and higher education, reflecting on inclusive practices
across learning areas, and in countries with clear policy, and in other countries with emerging
policies on inclusion. In this regard, the articles also underline the view that to promote social
justice, it is crucial to address the persistent educational disparities that have come to exist incontemporary education. Disparities in educational access, quality, and outcomesdisproportionately affect marginalized communities, perpetuating cycles of poverty, alienationand inequity. This issue calls for research and advocacy to highlight these disparities and findinnovative solutions to bridge the educational divide.
It is evident that educational leaders and policymakers must engage in transformative reforms
that prioritize equitable resource allocation, culturally responsive teaching practices, andevidence-based interventions to narrow the gap. By eradicating these disparities, we create amore inclusive society where every student has the opportunity to reach their full potential. In
the context of this issue, diversity encompasses more than just demographics; it includes abroad spectrum of cultural, linguistic, and social differences. In this issue, we explore theimportance of cultural competence and sensitivity in education. To promote social justice,educators must not only acknowledge these differences but actively celebrate and integratethem into the curriculum. Cultural competence training and the inclusion of diverse
perspectives in the learning materials can contribute to a richer educational experience for all
students. This issue spotlights the significance of a global perspective on more equitable1

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education, that takes cognisance of the range of intersections and diversity markers that shapelearner profiles. Here, it is important that learning contexts create opportunities that equip
students with the skill to navigate an increasingly interconnected world with empathy, openmindedness, and respect for different worldviews.
This issue serves as a clarion call for all educators, researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders
to prioritize equitable educational opportunities. By promoting inclusive education, addressing
educational disparities, and fostering cultural competence, we can create a more equitable andinclusive educational environment.
Dr Pearl Subban, Editor
Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
Email: publications@iafor.org

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Notes on Contributors
Article 1:
Strategies to Succeed with Inclusion in a Diverse Learning Environment
Dr May Olaug Horverak
May Olaug Horverak has a master’s degree in English and in special education, and PhD in
English linguistics and didactics. She has a background as a teacher and works currently as aheadmaster at Birkenes Learning Centre. She is also leader of the project SAMM in adultlearning and primary and lower secondary school. Her research interests are applied linguistics,
motivation, health promotion and special education.
Email: may.olaug.horverak@birkenes.kommune.no
Article 2:
Hybrid Learning Experiences of College Students with Special Education Needs
Dr Jennifer B. FabulaJennifer B. Fabula is an Associate Professor of the School of Multidisciplinary Studies and headof the Learning Environment Unit within the Center of Educational Technology at De La SalleCollege of Saint Benilde. She earned a PhD in Education major in Special Education, from the
University of the Philippines Diliman and an MA in Religious and Values Education from De
La Salle University Manila. She passionately advocates for inclusivity and innovation, blending
her expertise in Special Education with Religious and Values Education principles. Her
visionary approach to education underscores a profound dedication to shaping an inclusive andinnovative learning environment, cultivating a vibrant community of diverse learners.
Email: jennifer.fabula@benilde.edu.phArticle 3:Student Diversity and School Climate in the Mediterranean Zone: A ComparativeStudy
Dr F. Sehkar Fayda-Kinik
F. Sehkar Fayda-Kinik is currently a senior lecturer at Istanbul Technical University, Turkey.
After gaining her master’s degree in educational administration and Supervision, she started towork for Istanbul Technical University as a lecturer embracing teaching undergraduate students
and research. Before embarking on an academic career, she received her PhD degree in
Educational Administration and Supervision. Her research has embraced educational scienceswith special emphasis on higher education, knowledge management, professional development,
technology in education, leadership, and organisational culture. She has been involved in a
number of international projects on education. She is currently a member of the International
Study Association on Teachers and Teaching (ISATT), the British Educational Leadership,
Management and Administration Society (BELMAS), and the International Academic Forum(IAFOR).
Email: kinik@itu.edu.tr

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Article 4:
Motivation and Language Learning Narratives: A Case Study of Indonesian Students
Biaz Nabilla
Biaz Nabilla is a MA student in Linguistics and Applied Linguistics in Arizona State
University. She comes from Indonesia, a country with plethora of languages and cultures. Her
research focus is on sociolinguistics including identity, multimodality, and second language
acquisition. She is currently working on several projects including promoting language
revitalization in Indonesia regions and identity negotiation in transnational contexts.
Email: bnabilla@asu.edu
Article 5:
The Impact of Supervision Process toward Counselling Competencies among Malaysian
Trainee Counsellors
Dr Suhaili Arifin
Suhaili Arifin is a counsellor lecturer and currently serves as the Advisor of Counselling
Academic Club in the Faculty of Business, Economics, and Social Development at University
Malaysia Terengganu (UMT). Her research interests cover a wide range of topics, including
trainee counsellors’ competencies and the supervision process. Now she led a project grant
focusing on how coping strategies contribute to trainee counselor’s mental health andpsychological wellbeing. Dr Suhaili also a Registered Counsellor (Licensed ProfessionalCounsellor) under the Board of Counsellors (Malaysia). As an academic supervisor, she has
supervised the academic progress of several students. Throughout her professional journey, she
has been appointed many times as a reviewer for the past two years.
Email: suhaili@umt.edu.my
Dr Noor Syamilah Zakaria
Associate Professor Noor Syamilah Zakaria, KB, PA is a counsellor educator at Department ofCounsellor Education and Counselling Psychology, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti
Putra Malaysia. Her focus of interest in counselling profession is foregrounded on counsellor
education and supervision, with her research enthusiasm is in counselling ethics education. She
has published articles and academic papers in profound journals, book chapters, books andother academic venues of high quality and recognition. Throughout these years, she is also
honoured receiving recognitions and awards for various academic excellent achievements, anddynamic campus, community and industry extension involvements locally and abroad. As her
career matures, she actively contributes to national and international level counselling
programmes’ academic revisions, audits and quality assurance consultations.
Dr Wan Marzuki Wan Jaafar
Wan Marzuki Wan Jaafar, Associate Professor in Guidance and Counselling at Faculty of
Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia and the Dean of Faculty of Educational Studies,
Universiti Putra Malaysia. He was the President of the Board of Counsellors (Malaysia)
session April 2018- April 2023 under the Ministry of Women Development, Family andCommunity Malaysia. His areas of specialization are Guidance and Counselling, Counselor
Education and Supervision; Career Development and Counselling; Mental Health Counselling;
Development of Psychological Instrument; Computer & Technology Application in Education;
Social Science Research; & Soft Skills. Dr. Wan Marzuki also a Registered Counsellor(Licensed Professional Counsellor) under the Board of Counsellors (Malaysia). He was the4

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Founder of Yayasan Lembaga Kaunselor and Harvard University-UPM Top University
Attachment Program Officer in (2017).
Dr Nor Mazlina Binti Ghazali
Nor Mazlina Binti Ghazali is a senior lecturer at Department Counselling Faculty of Cognitive
Sciences and Human Development, and currently she serves as Deputy Director (Teaching
Advancement, CALM), Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS). She also a Registered
Counsellor (Licensed Professional Counsellor) under the Board of Counsellors (Malaysia). Her
focus of interest in counselling profession is on counsellor supervision. Dr. Nor Mazlina also
involved in many research grants such as gay disclosure, students with disabilities, teenage
pregnancy, transformative teaching and learning, mental health, and bully awareness. She has
published articles and academic papers in profound journals, book chapters, books and otheracademic venues of high quality and recognition.
Email: gnmazlina@unimas.my
Dr Nor Shakirah Mohd Sakari
Nor Shakirah Mohd Sakari has a PhD in Counseling from Universiti Malaysia Terengganu(UMT), a master’s degree in Counseling from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), and abachelor’s degree in Social Science (Social Work) from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). She
is also a Registered Counselor in Malaysia. She actively involved in research and publications
on delinquent adolescent, expressive art therapy, and social work.
Email: norshakirahmohdsakari@gmail.my
Article 6:
Pandemic-Led Challenges for Rural Students in Bangladesh
Md Monirul Islam
International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, Bangladesh
Email: mmislam@iubat.edu
Sardar Md Shaheen
SIMEC Institute of Technology, Bangladesh
Ratan Kumar Roy
SIMEC Institute of Technology, Bangladesh
Aminul Islam,
SIMEC Institute of Technology, Bangladesh
Md Daloar Hossain
SIMEC Institute of Technology, Bangladesh
Article 7:
Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Pedagogical Competencies of Primary School
Teachers
Lawrence Achimugu
Prince Abubakar Audu University, Nigeria
Email: achimugu.l@ksu.edu.ng

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Zephrinus Chidiebere Njoku
Prince Abubakar Audu University, Nigeria
Sunday Yomi
University of Nigeria, Nigeria
Article 8:
Exploring Intercultural Communication as a Means to Promote Inclusivity in Diverse
Organisations: A Study in a South African University
Maria Mushaathoni
Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
Email: mushaathonim1@tut.ac.za
Article 9:Student Emotions and Engagement: Enacting Humanizing Pedagogy in Higher
Education
Hyunjin Jinna Kim
Stony Brook University, USA
Email: hyunjinjinnak@gmail.com
Yiren Kong
Stony Brook University, USA
Carol Hernandez
Stony Brook University, USA
Muhammad Soban
Stony Brook University, USA
Article 10:
Effects of Board Game with Different Debriefing Preferences on Cyberbullying
Prevention
Dr Sasipim Poompimol
Sasipim Poompimol was a PhD graduate in Science and Technology Education programme at
Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Thailand. Her research interests include
technology-enhanced learning, technology education, 21st-century skills, and instructional
design.
Patcharin Panjaburee
Patcharin Panjaburee is currently Associate Professor of Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen
University, Thailand. She is interested in computer-assisted testing, adaptive learning, expert
systems, and digital material supported learning, inquiry-based mobile learning and web-based
inquiry learning environment. She is the corresponding author of this paper.
Email: patchapan@kku.ac.th

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Pratchayapong Yasri
Pratchayapong Yasri is currently an Assistant Professor at Faculty of Science, King Mongkut’s
University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand. His research interests are psychology oflearning, STEM education and curriculum development.
Khajornsak Buaraphan
Khajornsak Buaraphan is currently an Associate Professor of Institute for Innovative Learning,
Mahidol University, Thailand. His research interests are Pedagogical Content Knowledge(PCK), Nature of Science (NOS), science teacher professional development and teaching andlearning science and physics.

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Strategies to Succeed with Inclusion in a Diverse Learning Environment
May Olaug Horverak
Birkenes Learning Centre
Norway9

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Abstract
Even though inclusion is a strong principle in the Norwegian educational system, there arechallenges when it comes to creating inclusive learning environments. This study investigates
the following: a) What challenges are there in the learning environment in primary school froma teacher’s perspective, and b) what strategies do teachers employ to address these challenges
and create an inclusive learning environment? The framework for data collection in this study
has been a project called SAMM: A Systematic approach to work with mastery, participation,and motivation, where a method based on health promotion theory and self-determination
theory has been developed and applied. Ten teachers were interviewed, after applying a fivestep method where the students identify what is important for them, success factors andobstacles, and make plans regarding what to focus on and what to do. The teachers interviewed
applied the five-step method with focus on life mastery, subjects, or the social environment. A
summative, traditional content analysis has been conducted, based on categories identified ina preliminary study, which investigates challenges and solutions in a diverse learning
environment from a student’s perspective. The three main categories in the analysis wererelational challenges, structural challenges, and individual challenges. The study concludes that
it is important to work systematically and over time to create an inclusive learning
environment. In line with different studies that have investigated interventions for children withbehavioural problems in middle school, it is also recommended to facilitate self-regulation andchoice-making to create an inclusive learning environment.
Keywords: diversity, inclusion, participation, self-regulation, primary school, learning
environment

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Several formal guidelines within the Norwegian educational system ensure inclusion and theestablishment of a safe learning environment in school (Report to the Storting 6, 2019-2020;
The Education Act, 1998, § 9a). However, despite the good intentions of politicians (Tveitnes,2022), schools may not necessarily implement inclusive practices. Inclusion was previously
narrowly defined as the inclusion of marginalized students with special needs in regular schools(UNESCO, 1994), where all students belonged to the same community. More recent definitions
take a broader perspective, describing inclusion as a process that addresses various needs thatall students have. This includes ensuring student participation, and allowing students to
influence the learning environment and the organization of teaching (Report to the Storting 6,
2019-2020; UNESCO, 2005). Another aspect of inclusion, as emphasized by Haug (2014), a
Norwegian professor in educational research, is that students must benefit from the education,either through social learning or subject-based learning, for education to be considered
inclusive. As a result, to ensure inclusion in schools, teachers must adapt to the students’preferred learning styles rather than expecting students to adapt to their own preferred teachingstyles. This becomes a challenge in regular schools where classes often comprise students withdiverse needs and preferences.
The current study investigates how teachers who have implemented an approach to promotestudent participation have addressed various challenges in the learning environment tofacilitate inclusion. The approach encompasses a five-step method (Horverak, 2023),
developed in a project centered on mastery, participation, and motivation. In this method,
students are guided to 1) identify what is important for them, 2) recognize their strengths andareas of satisfaction and 3) identify potential obstacles hindering them from achieving theirgoals, 4) plan what to focus on, and 5) determine specific actions they will take to effect change.
This method has been applied with focus on life mastery, subjects, and the learning
environment. Using this five-step method as a framework, teachers have identified the
obstacles faced by their students and experimented with various strategies to address thesechallenges. Both challenges and strategies are investigated in the analysis in the current study.
The five-step method is grounded in self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2017), which
underscores autonomy, competence, and relatedness as essential needs to foster intrinsic
motivation. Additionally, it draws from health promotion theory (Antonovsky, 2012), whichasserts that to experience a sense of coherence, an individual must comprehend situations, feel
capable of handling them, and perceive their actions as meaningful. When applied to subjects,
the method aligns with self-regulation theory, wherein students are actively engaged in
identifying problems, examining solutions, and planning and evaluating their own learning
process (Boekaerts & Niemivirta, 2005).
The research question in this study is two-fold: a) What challenges are there in the learning
environment in primary school from a teacher’s perspective, and b) what strategies do teachers
employ to address these challenges and create an inclusive learning environment? The study’s
sample is limited to teachers who have participated in the aforementioned project. This
selection was made with the aim of providing the most effective answers to the researchquestions, by having informants who have focused on identifying student obstacles and triedout different strategies as potential solutions. The study’s primary objective is not to generalize

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or to find a representative sample but to discover exemplary strategies that can be applied toaddress challenges when working with creating an inclusive learning environment, which canbe of value to other practitioners.
In the following, the theory of self-determination will be explored in greater detail, as alongwith research conducted in an educational context that is grounded in this theory. Since thisarticle primarily focuses on student diversity, there will also be a summary of research on
students with behavioural difficulties, with elaborations on specific programs that haveprovided support to such students. Subsequently, the research method will be outlined,
including details about the sample, data collection and analytical approach. The results will bepresented, comprising a first section on challenges the teachers have identified, and a second
section on strategies they have applied to address these challenges. In the discussion section,
the findings will be related to theory of inclusion, self-determination theory and the review of
research on programmes designed for children with behavioural problems. In addition, thevalidity of the findings is discussed. Finally, the findings of the study are summarized, andrecommendations for future research will be provided.
Literature Review
In self-determination theory, there is a division between extrinsic motivation, facilitatedthrough reward systems, and intrinsic motivation, facilitated through meeting the needs ofcompetence, autonomy, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The competence need is closely
related to mastery and having an expectation to master situations, or self-efficacy, as Bandura(1997) describes it. Having autonomy in a learning context means being in control of one’s
own learning process, setting goals, making plans, carrying plans out and adjusting them as
needed (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2018). Relatedness, the third basic need, concerns the need tobelong to a community. Research has shown that intrinsic motivation, characterized by aninterest to learn, is crucial for both academic performance and well-being in school (Deci &Ryan, 2000).
In their review of research on self-determination theory in an educational context, Ryan andDeci (2020) report on several studies that support a positive relation between autonomy-based
motivation in classrooms and academic achievement in various subjects (Grolnick et al., 1991;
Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Guay et al., 2010; Howard et al., 2017; Katz et al., 2014). They also
refer to studies that have demonstrated correlations between autonomy-supportive teachers andintrinsic motivation, perceived competence, and self-esteem (Deci et al., 1981; Ryan &Grolnick, 1986). Autonomy-support is a central element in several interventions based on selfdetermination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This means that teachers facilitate students to takeownership of their own learning process and provide different possibilities are provided
through choices of tasks and procedures that may engage students. By making choices, students
experience autonomy and intrinsic motivation (Bao & Lam, 2008; Reeve et al., 2003, Patall etal., 2008). Studies have also demonstrated correlations between autonomy-support in
combination with clear structures concerning expectations, goals, and directions on the one
hand, and better use of self-regulation strategies and lower anxiety on the other (Hardré &12

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Reeve, 2003; Vansteenkiste et al., 2012). Autonomy-support and clear structure are also
combined in the five-step method applied in the current study, serving as a framework forteachers and students to identify obstacles and find solutions together (Horverak, 2023).
Learner Diversity and Behavioural Problems
As highlighted by the American child psychologist Greene (2011), many children with social,emotional, and behavioural problems are often misunderstood, and addressing challenging
behaviour incorrectly can perpetuate the issue. Greene challenges the behaviouristic approach
to behavioural problems, which may involve detention and expulsion, and emphasizes thatchildren are not robots that may be programmed and controlled. He asserts that behaviouralproblems arise when expectations to the child are higher than the child’s capacity to respondin an acceptable way. Children are diverse, and when different children are subjected to similar
expectations, it can lead to challenging behaviour, particularly in children who do not haveage-adequately developed mindsets, or different disabilities.
Many students in schools exhibit behavioural problems, such as ADHD (attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder) (Olsen & Mikkelsen, 2015). These issues often result in disruption in
the classroom, which teachers may not feel confident in managing (Overland, 2007). Signs of
ADHD include attention difficulties, hyperactivity, impulsiveness, and concentration
challenges. (Olsen & Mikkelsen, 2015). Children with ADHD are easily distracted and struggle
with self-regulation (Ogden, 2022). Various approaches are used to handle and support students
with behavioural problems to improve their adaption to everyday school life. A recent literature
review focused on middle school students, aged 11 to 15 years, has identified numerous
programmes that have had an effect on this student group (Alperin et al., 2021). These
programmes generally include some type of self-regulation practice, which is aligns with thefive-step approach applied in the present study (Horverak, 2023).
Programmes for Students with Behavioural Problems
Programmes that include giving students with behavioural problems choices in the learning
situation aim at improving working ability and reducing disturbing behaviour in class. Kern etal.’s study (2002) on the programme Choice-making included six students with different
behavioural disorders, that were exposed to an intervention allowing them to make choices
concerning what to work with and how to do this. For example, they could choose whether towork individually on a computer or in collaboration with peers, or they could choose the topic
or materials to be used in class. The teacher planned different options based on the students’interests. Engagement and disruptive behaviour were measured through observation, and theintervention period included phases of a few days, alternating between baseline phases ofteacher-controlled teaching and intervention phases with choices. The results showed anincrease in engagement and a decrease in disruptive behaviour in both intervention phases. In
the baseline periods, there was a decrease in engagement and an increase in disruptive
behaviour. The study generally shows a positive effect of giving students with behaviouralproblems choices, which means more autonomy, in the learning situation.

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The Challenging Horizon Programme is another programme that includes interventions on selfregulation, in addition to practising social skills (Evans et al., 2007). The intervention covers
academic skills such as note-taking and using organizational strategies like monitoring theirown learning activities by taking notes on exercises performed, as well as social skills such asproblem solving, practice of prosocial behaviour, mastering anger, and conversational skills.
The study involved a three-year-long intervention with 42 students in test-groups and 37 incontrol-groups. The results based on evaluations from teachers and parents showed some
improvements in social and academic functioning over time in the intervention group. The
findings were not significant, but some suggested a cumulative increase over time that might
result in long-term effects on attention problems, hyperactivity, and social functioning (Evanset al., 2007).
A programme called A Classwide Peer-assisted Self-management Program (Mitchem et al.,2001) was implemented in three regular seventh-grade classes, with ten students facing
different behavioural challenges and learning difficulties receiving an intervention. The classes
were educated on what self-control means, and they roleplayed class rules. The class rules weredisplayed on the classroom wall, and every student in class was assigned a partner. The resultsof the study showed that the time all the students in the classes concentrated on tasks increased,
including the students with specific challenges. During the intervention period, they werefocused on tasks 80 % of the time, which was an increase from 35 % at the baseline. Overall,there was an improvement in the classes regarding behaviour and social skills, and this positivechange persisted as the programme gradually ended.
Another study with a focus on self-regulation describes an intervention called I Control (Smithet al., 2017). This programme includes knowledge presented by the teacher and an IT-based
mind-training lab. It consists of four units that may influence cognition and emotions,
ultimately strengthening self-regulation. Unit one concerns working memory, and the students
are presented with different tasks to solve. Unit two focuses on setting goals, and the students
learn to set value-based goals and find realistic strategies to reach them. The third unit focuses
on regulation of emotions, and the students learn to identify emotions and find effective
strategies to regulate unwanted emotions. The fourth unit concerns problem-solving, and thestudents are trained in skills they need to solve everyday problems. The study involved 167
students with behavioural problems, from 17 classes, whereof nine classes were intervention
groups and eight were control groups. Based on teachers’ reports, the findings showed apositive effect on the students’ executive functions (Smith et al., 2017), which involve thebrain’s performing functions such as starting on a task, generating ideas and problem-solving
strategies (Olsen & Mikkelsen, 2015). In addition, all the students reported improved emotional
control, meaning they could better moderate inappropriate emotional outbursts (Smith et al.,2017), a result corroborated by the teachers’ reports. Regarding behavioural problems, theresults indicated a tendency that students with the lowest initial scores, meaning the students
who needed the intervention the most, exhibited the most significant positive development inbehaviour.

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A programme called Coping Power Universal (Muratori et al., 2020) that has been applied toreduce emotional and behavioural problems, as well as promoting prosocial behaviour, focusedon developing mastery strategies. The programme includes six main modules, where the firstmodule concerns reaching short-term and long-term goals, the second is about developing
emotional awareness, the third focuses on emotional regulation, the fourth involves taking
different perspectives, the fifth is about problem solving and the sixth includes collaboratingwith peers. The sample in this study included 839 students, whereof 29 of them had some formof intellectual challenge or sensory issues. The findings showed that the programme provided
the students with useful strategies, reduced mental problems, and increased prosocial
behaviour.
The different programmes described all include various strategies related to self-regulation,
problem-solving, goal setting and raising consciousness. These elements are also included in
the five-step approach, which serves as the framework for data collection in the current study
and has been applied as a universal measure in ordinary classes and schools where there is
student diversity. The application of universal self-regulation strategies in classrooms has beenquestioned, as students who benefit most from these types of strategies, often are the students
who perform well academically. Therefore, these universal approaches may inadvertently
widen the gap between students (Madsen, 2020). Nevertheless, the studies described above
demonstrate that also students struggling with self-regulation, or with behavioural problems,
can benefit from interventions that include self-regulation practices and social skills training.
MethodThis study applies a qualitative research design to investigate teachers’ understanding ofchallenges in the learning environment and strategies they employ to address these challenges.
The study may be defined as a multiple-case study (Bryman, 2012, p. 77), as the data material
comprises interviews from 10 informants. The data was collected during the spring of 2021, in
relation to reporting on a project, where a five-step method for mastery, participation andmotivation was implemented. This method will be presented in greater detail before describing
the procedure of data collection, the sample, and the analysis approach.
The Five-Step Method
The five-step method places its emphasis on aiding students in taking control of their own lives
and learning processes by encouraging them to engage in reflection, both as a class andindividually, through five key questions. The first three questions pertain to situational
assessment, involving the identification of values, success factors and obstacles. Students are
asked to reflect on 1) what is important for them to be content in school, 2) what skills do they
already master, and with what are they content, and 3) whether there are any hindrances
obstructing them from attaining their goals and desires (figure 1, previous published in
Horverak & Aanensen, 2019, Horverak, 2020, Horverak & Langeland, 2022)?

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Figure 1
The Five-Step Method

The teacher initiates a class discussion on these three questions, and this is followed up byasking the students to write, or draw for the younger ones, answers to the questions. Dependingon grade, the answers are written anonymously, as one of the points here is that the students
write to themselves and not to the teacher. The teacher collects the student notes and compiles
a summary of anonymous reflections for the next session, which is presented to the class. Thenthe teacher asks the students 4) what they want to focus on, meaning what to work withimproving, or what obstacles to deal with, based on the answers to the first three questions.
Following this, the students discuss strategies that could be applied, or 5) what action to take.
Some of the strategies concern what they can do themselves, other strategies require facilitationfrom the teacher. When applying the method to subjects, the teacher asks the students to reflecton 1) what is important in the subject, 2) what they have already mastered and 3) what theyfind challenging. Subsequently, the students make plans on 4) what they intend to focus on and5) how they plan to work on it. The third variant of the method is adjusted to working on thelearning environment, and is implemented through the student councils, meaning that student
representatives apply the method in their classes with a collective focus and receive support
from their teachers and the adult responsible for the student council.
Data Collection
A semi-structured interview guide was utilised, with some pre-defined questions and topics,that were adjusted in the interview process (Bryman, 2012, p. 471). The interview guidecomprised three sections. The first section consisted of questions on the teachers’ backgroundconcerning working experience. The second section contained questions concerning thelearning environment, and challenges and strategies they employed to address the challenges.
The third section included questions concerning the implementation of the five-step method,
how they had applied it, what they focused on specifically and whether there was a change inthe learning environment. Notes were taken during the interviews, and all data collected wasanonymous.

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SamplePurposive sampling was chosen to ensure that the participants had diverse experience relevantto the research question (Bryman, 2012, p. 418). This resulted in 10 informants, whereof two
were responsible for the student councils in their schools and had applied the five-step method
through the student councils with a focus on the learning environment. The teachers had
different backgrounds and worked on different levels in primary school (table 1).
Table 1
SampleSchoolTeacher

School 1
School 1
School 1
School 1
School 2
School 3
School 3
School 3
School 4
School 5

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Years
workingexperience
8
22
3
35
18
30
15
6
23
4

Years in thecurrent
school
7
20
3
23
18
21
15
4
15
4

Grades taught ingeneralGrade taught attime of interview

5.-7. grade
1.-4. grade
1.-4. grade
Student council
Student council
2.-7. grade
3.-7. grade
5.-7. grade
1.-4. grade
1.-10. grade

6. grade
1. grade
3. grade
Student council
Student council
5. grade
3.-4. grade
6.-7. grade
1.-2. grade
5. grade

Analysis
A summative, traditional content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) was applied to identify thechallenges the teachers identified in the learning environment. A preliminary analysis of
student data related to the same project resulted in the three main categories relational
challenges, structural challenges and individual challenges, and these categories provided aframework for analysis in the current study. The codes that emerged during the analysis werecategorised according to these main categories. The codes closely represented the content,
resulting in a substantial number of codes. Therefore, these codes were further organized into
subcategories within each main category. The number of occurrences of different challenges isreported to give an indication of how many informants mention the different challenges. The
strategies employed by the teachers to address these challenges were analysed using a content
analysis, without counting occurrences, as the purpose here was to show different strategies
that may be applied to establish an inclusive learning environment.
Findings
The first findings present the challenges the teachers experienced in the learning environment.
There are 20 occurrences of relational challenges, 13 occurrences of structural challenges and39 occurrences of individual challenges (Table 2).

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Table 2
Challenges in the Learning Environment from a Teacher’s Perspective (n = 10)
Main category
Relational
challenges

Subcategory
Exclusion

Code
Bullying
Keeping out
Rude comments
Disagreement
Dispute over friendships
Drama
Throwing things
Competition
Insecurity
Unfairness
Total
Noise
Not raising hand
Mess
Digitalization
Total
Challenge in the subject
Dyslexia
Challenge to self-regulate
Lack of mastery
Lack of concentration
Difficulties finding words
Pressure from expectations
Lack of motivation
Passivity
Impatience
Restless boys
Inappropriate behaviour
Behavioural difficulties
Emotional difficulties
Grief
Lack of sleep
The invisible children
School anxiety
Low self-esteem
Total

Conflict
Aggressive behaviour
Performance pressure
Relations with adults
Structural
challenges

Rule breaking
Learning tools

Individual
challenges

Learning difficulties

Socio-emotional challenges

Occurrences
2
4
5
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
20
8
1
1
3
13
7
1
3
2
1
1
2
3
1
3
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
39

The relational challenges are exclusion, conflicts, aggressive behaviour, performance pressure
and relations with adults. Exclusion includes instances of bullying (2), keeping others out (4)and rude comments (5), and conflicts include disagreement (2), dispute over friendships (1)and drama (1). These categories concern students’ interaction with one another. One informant
said “Mobiles and social media is one of the bigger problems now. Little things, keeping out,
when it is a small place and only one group, one feels left outside”. Another informant
mentioned the rude language: “There are probably quite a few that feel they are being teasedby the older students, and the do not like the rude language”. Aggressive behaviour involves
the throwing of objects (2), such as chairs and stones. One informant also mentioned that the18

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students feel insecure in relation to people they do not now, and another mentioned that thestudents feel that it is unfair when they are treated differently.
The structural challenges involve breaking rules and challenges with learning tools. Breaking
rules includes noise (8), students who speak without raising hands (1) and mess in theclassroom (1). One informant reflected on the fact that the degree of noise varied dependingon the teacher: “I think it is challenging when others have the class, and not me, especially forthe more dutiful students. They struggle when it is noisy”. The challenge with learning tools
concern digitalisation (3), that there has been a fast increase in use and availability of digital
tools, and that it is difficult to find a balance.
The individual challenges comprise different learning difficulties and socio-emotional
challenges. Regarding different learning difficulties, the informants mentioned generalchallenges in subjects (7), such as writing and mathematics, dyslexia (1), difficulties with selfregulation (3), lack of mastery (2), lack of concentration (1) and difficulties with finding theright words (1). Lack of mastery is also related to noise in classes by one informant: “when thestudents do not master, this results in more noise”. Socio-emotional challenges include pressure
from expectations (2), as commented by an informant: “Some feel there is so much they are
expected to deal with, this is something of the most challenging […] the requirements are felt
as too much compared with what they can manage”. Lack of motivation (3) is anotherchallenge, as one of the informants said: “The student surveys show that the students can be
more active, or we want them to be more motivated and that they take more responsibility for
their own learning”. The informants also mentioned passivity (1) and impatience (3), which isrelated to difficulties with working for longer periods with exercises. Other informants
mentioned restless boys (1) and inappropriate behaviour (2), such as destroying things outside
or making some serious and strange comments. In addition, specific behavioural difficulties,
and diagnoses (3) are mentioned. Emotional challenges (2) mentioned are that some students
are tough on the outside, but vulnerable on the inside, as one informant describes: “to talk about
feelings is very difficult, and he is rather closed and concerned with showing a tough outside,at the same time as he is fragile and easily become upset”. In addition, grief (2) is mentioned,lack of sleep (2), the “invisible” children (2), who are quiet and easily forgotten, school anxiety(1) and low self-esteem (1).
The Teachers’ Strategies to Meet the Challenges
The strategies described by the teachers are sorted into the main categories: creating structure,providing acknowledgement, raising consciousness , facilitating activities, ensuring student
participation and applying strategies concerning the adult role (figure 2). More of the strategies
are applied to deal with different challenges.

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Figure 2
The Teachers’ Strategies

Concerning structural challenges associated with rule breaking, the teachers created structureby setting boundaries and routines for the students, as well as applying reward systems.
Examples of rewards were that the students could eat cake, watch a movie of their own choice,or do other activities they enjoyed. In terms of structure and routines, the informants mentioned
for example that they made plans for the sessions, had the students stand in a line in themorning, and started with silent reading and a clear “good morning”.
Another strategy the teachers applied was giving acknowledgement to the students. One
informant described it as: “Many conversations, little ‘I see you’, stay in touch and follow up”.
To address the challenge of low self-esteem, a strategy was to focus on the positive and what
they do well. Another informant said that she made a visual tree in the classroom where they
put notes on describing positive occurrences, to reinforce positive behaviour in class – “Ifanyone has heard or experienced something nice, they receive a leaf and put it on the tree”.
This strategy was applied in relation to question two in the SAMM-method, to identify successfactors.
Several of the informants mentioned consciousness-raising as a strategy and said that theytalked with the students to handle different challenges. For example, they talked about
behaviour and what is important for everyone to be okay, as well as addressing grief and how
to comfort each other. Conversations with consciousness-raising were often included when
applying the five-step method systematically and over time. When asked about whether thesystematic work with conversations influenced the class environment, one of the informants

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said: “Yes, it is affected positively […] it is more open, so the students dare to speak aboutproblems and thoughts that we can work with as a group, not just as individuals. It strengthens
the sense of community”. For the students to remember to include each other, which several
students chose as a focus area when working with the five-step method, some teachers put
posters in the classroom. There was also a campaign to keep the school tidy.
Facilitating activities was mentioned by several teachers, more specifically playing different
games, or having outdoor activities. For example, one teacher with a noisy class, and a coupleof students with behavioural problems, moved the class outside and incorporated activities andgames that included running around in the school yard in combination with learning concepts
and fact, or they were asked to do an activity, such as laughing for 30 seconds or give someone
a compliment, between tasks they solved.
Another strategy mentioned is student participation, for example engaging student
representatives in the student council to work with finding strategies for addressing challenges
in the learning environment. In two of the schools, girls’ groups were established, where they
applied the five-step method to make the girls become more conscious about including eachother. This was combined with activities such as making food and playing games. In addition,
the informants mentioned offering choices, both in terms of learning styles and exercises. One
informant said that the students were allowed to choose working position, either sitting or lying,or working outside the classroom. Choosing learning tool, such as computer or paper, is anotheroption mentioned by others. Another informant said that the students were to choose what towork with based on what they had written as focus area in their notebooks used with the fivestep method. The students were then given different exercises to choose from based on what
they had written that they wanted to work with. As one teacher noted: “It is important that thework they have done is made visible, it takes time, so when they have done this job, they
deserve to get SAMM-practice on the schedule, and that I have prepared for this”. Anotherinformant pointed out that having different options makes the students motivated.
The final strategy mentioned by the informants concerns the adults’ role. They emphasize theimportance of being clear and authoritative adults. In addition, they mention collaboration withcolleagues, including teachers and the school nurse, and working together with parents toaddress different challenges. The teacher who mentioned school anxiety as a problem said that
this was solved by talking to the parents. They made an agreement that the girl was going towalk to school with a friend, and that the teacher would meet them outside to greet them in themorning. This approach effectively resolved the situation.
Discussion
This study investigates what challenges the teachers in primary school experience in thelearning environment, and what strategies they employ to address these challenges and create
an inclusive learning environment. The findings of the study show that there are different
relational, structural and individual challenges, and that the teachers worked systematically andconsistently to raise consciousness and find solutions to foster an inclusive learning

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environment. The importance of systematic, long-term efforts is also highlighted in the studies
described from the meta-analysis of interventions related to behavioural problems (Alperin etal., 2021; Evans et al., 2007; Kern et al., 2002; Muratori et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2017).
In this study, the five-step method served as the framework for systematic work with thelearning environment. This approach offers professional autonomy for teachers to adapt
different strategies to the specific context in collaboration with the student group. The list of
strategies employed by the teachers demonstrates the diverse approaches applied, and strategies
are adjusted to the different students’ needs. Student participation is also emphasised, which isa fundamental element in creating an inclusive learning environment (Haug, 2014; Report to
the Storting 6, 2019-2020).
Self-Regulation and Choice-Making
Approaches that promote self-regulation and choice-making for students with behaviouralproblems, as described in the five-step method (Horverak, 2023) and other programmes
presented in the meta-analysis mentioned above (Alperin et al., 2021), may contrast withbehaviouristic approaches involving rewards and punishment (Vogt, 2016), which are often
found in educational contexts. Reward systems are based on the premise that behaviour can be
influenced through extrinsic means (Vogt, 2016). This aligns with a deterministic view,suggesting that humans may be modified by their environment (Johannessen et al., 2010).
Related to self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2017), reward systems may lead to
extrinsic motivation, where students conform to the teacher’s expectations to earn a reward,
rather than because they genuinely want to. In this case, the reward itself motivates, not thedesired behavioural change. This is not a very robust type of motivation, as the change may
fade when the reward is removed. In contrast, by granting students choices, they are given
autonomy-support, which is associated with intrinsic motivation (Bao & Lam, 2008; Reeve etal., 2003, Patall et al., 2008), good results in subjects (Grolnick et al., 1991; Grolnick & Ryan,
1987; Guay et al., 2010; Howard et al., 2017; Katz et al., 2014) and positive self-esteem (Deciet al., 1981; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986).
Often, choices are given students as a reward, as described by the informants, and this is not
an approach that promotes self-regulation, but rather the opposite. Providing choices as areward essentially deprives students of their autonomy, as the choices are conditioned by acertain behaviour. This is a control strategy employed by the teacher. This is turned around in
the choice-making study referred to above (Kern et al., 2002), which shows that students withbehavioural problems improved their concentration during intervention periods when offeredchoices. In the application of the SAMM-method, as described by the informants, the students
are also given choices in the learning process, based on what they have written that they want
to focus on. Students are given choices concerning what to work on, and how to do it, rather
than being manipulated through rewards for following the teacher’s instructions. Providing
choices in the learning process also promotes student participation, a key element in the
renewed curriculum for the Norwegian schools (Ministry of Education and Research, 2017).

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The Authoritative Teacher
Other strategies emphasized by the teachers include establishing clear structures and being
authoritative adults, at the same time as giving acknowledgement to the individual students.
This aligns with the ideal described in theories on the authoritative teacher (Roland, 2021),
which underscore the importance of combining clarity in enforcing rules and regulations withbuilding relations. Research conducted in a Norwegian context based on this theory has shownthat achieving this balance may be challenging. A study revealed that students who reported
increase in teacher surveillance also reported decrease in emotional support (Ertesvåg, 2009).
Finding the right balance between maintaining structure and adhering to regulations on the one
hand and acknowledging and adjusting to each individual’s needs and building relations on theother hand will probably always be a challenge when working with creating an inclusive
learning environment in a classroom with student diversity.
Validity
There are different challenges concerning the validity of this study, as it involves a limited
sample selected through purposive sampling related to a project. The findings reported in thisstudy may not be generalizable to other contexts. In addition, the analysis could have been
carried out differently, and there might be overlaps between the different factors. For example,
noise often results from individual challenges, still, this is coded under the category of
structural challenges. Despite these considerations, the study can still provide valuable insights
for relevant stakeholders, such as teachers, school leaders and politicians, concerning how todeal with challenges in school and establish an inclusive learning environment. The study’s
objective is not to find absolute truths, but rather, as is often the case with educational research,
to focus on utility (Bachman, 2009).
Conclusion
Implementing a method in the classroom, such as the five-step method described here
(Horverak, 2023), enables teachers and students to identify and address challenges incollaboration. The main challenges the teachers identified in the learning environment wererelational challenges such as exclusion, conflict, aggressive behaviour, performance pressure
and relations with adults, structural challenges such as rule-breaking and issues with learning
tools and individual challenges, sorted into the subcategories learning difficulties and socioemotional challenges. To handle these challenges, teachers applied strategies as creating
structure, giving acknowledgement, raising consciousness, facilitating for activities, making
students participate in decision-making and being conscious about the adults’ role asauthoritative, as well as collaborating with colleagues and parents. These strategies may allcontribute to an inclusive learning environment, which means that the students are engaged
and participate in decision-making, they are part of a community, and they profit socially andin subjects (Haug, 2014). There is a need for further research on the potential of this type of
methodology, which aims at being sensitive and respectful of student diversity throughemphasizing student participation, and where teachers collaborate with students in diverse

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classrooms to find solutions to different challenges that occur and assess how these strategies
work for the individual students.

Acknowledgements
This project has been financed by the Norwegian Directorate of Health, the Agder County
through the programme Health-promoting Kindergartens and Schools and the Agder County
Governor.

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disorders: Preliminary effects of the I Control curriculum. Journal of Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders, 25(3), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426616661702

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The Education Act. (1998). Act relating to Primary and Secondary Education and Training.
LOV-1998-07-17-61. Ministry of Education and Research. Retrieve fromhttps://lovdata.no/dokument/NLE/lov/1998-07-17-61
Tveitnes, M. S. (2022). Inkludering i en mangfoldig skole – fra teori til praksis [Inclusion in adiverse school – from theory to practice]. In G. Skeie, H. Fandrem og S. E. Ohna(Ed.), Hvordan arbeide med elevmangfold? [How to work with student diversity] (pp.
24–49). Fagbokforlaget. https://doi.org/10.55669/oa100302
UNESCO (1994). The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs
education. United Nations. Ministry of Education and Science, Spain. Retrieved fromhttps://www.right-to-education.org/sites/right-to-education.org/files/resourceattachments/Salamanca_Statement_1994.pdf
UNESCO (2005). Guidelines for inclusion: Ensuring access to education for all. Retrieved
from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000140224
Vansteenkiste, M., Sierens, E., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., Dochy, F., Mouratidis, A.,
Aelterman, N., Haerens, L. & Beyers, W. (2012). Identifying configurations ofperceived teacher autonomy support and structure: Associations with self-regulated
learning, motivation and problem behavior. Learning and Instruction, 22(6), 431–
439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.04.002
Vogt, A. (2016). Rådgivning i skole og barnehage: Mange muligheter for hjelp til barn og
unge [Counselling in school and kindergarten: Many possibilities to help children
and youth]. Cappelen Damm Akademisk.
Corresponding author: May Olaug Horverak
Email: may.olaug.horverak@birkenes.kommune.no28

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Hybrid Learning Experiences of College Students with
Special Education Needs
Jennifer B. Fabula
De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde
Philippines

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Abstract
Higher education institutions increasingly embrace hybrid learning to offer adaptable andvariable educational techniques. After the COVID-19 limits were loosened, students could now
take in-person and online courses simultaneously. Students engaged in distance learning foralmost three years gradually return to class. Although hybrid learning has been the subject ofnumerous research among typical college students, little is known about how this method of
instruction affects individuals with special needs. This descriptive qualitative study examined
their opinions and experiences in hybrid learning environments to close this gap. Semistructured interviews and theme content analysis were used. This study includes students withvarious diagnoses, including sensory impairments, learning disabilities, physical impairments,and social, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Findings revealed that students’ experienceswith hybrid learning were marked by efficient learning, safe feeling, a sense of belonging, andexpectation setting. College students with special education needs can benefit from efficientlearning and a safe feeling. However, it presented difficulties in establishing a sense of
belonging and clearly defining expectations, highlighting the need for customized approaches
to satisfy their various needs.
Keywords: hybrid learning, inclusive learning, special education needs, student experiences

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The transition to online education began when the COVID-19 pandemic first broke out, andlimits were put in place by governments all over the world. The rapid shift has allowed
educational institutions to adapt to meet the students’ varied learning needs. As a result, it has
been challenging to facilitate learning and meet the needs of students, and the most vulnerable,
such as those with special needs, have been severely affected. Amidst this profoundtransformation, it has become evident that students’ experiences are invaluable for shaping
educational practices responsive to the impact of unexpected crises.
After the pandemic, however, teaching and learning were never the same. With the inclusionof new technology, the classroom environment has changed, pedagogical strategies are createdto help students achieve their objectives, and face mask use is still required. In addition, we
now understand the importance of opening up many learning avenues to respond to extreme
circumstances, such as natural catastrophes on a large scale and daily disruptions of practicaleducation (Umiyati, 2022). As a result, teaching and learning have undergone a tremendous
transformation. To meet the needs of every student, many learning modalities, including online,
blended, and hybrid learning, have been introduced and implemented. Although these teachingstrategies are not new, they will continue to provide students with additional possibilities.
Several institutions have invested in technologically advanced learning environments tomaintain the continuity of teaching (Raes et al., 2020). Huggett (2022) affirms that technologyenabled learning has greatly revolutionized education and allowed new learning opportunities.
In the Philippines, De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde, a Catholic tertiary institution, has
opened its doors to students with this opportunity. One of the innovative pedagogicalapproaches to teaching and learning implemented following the pandemic to meet the demandsof students is hybrid learning. This proactive approach of the college made educational
experiences more accessible for all, including those with disabilities.
Hybrid learning, which incorporates digital and online teaching resources, is becoming
increasingly common in institutes of higher learning and is a productive learning style (Dietz,
2022). It has changed from face-to-face institutions that aim to give students freedom andgreater individualization to online institutions that understand the need to support students(Watson & Murin, 2014). Additionally, it incorporates “an element of learner’s control overtime, pace, path, and place” that transforms conventional teacher-to-student training into apersonalized method (Watson & Murin, 2014, p. 13). College students are more likely to be
more independent and in charge of their learning process because they have more developed
mental processes and independent behaviors. Online learners must be motivated and selfdisciplined to learn effectively (Carter Jr. et al., 2020; Jansen et al., 2020). They must manage,
access, and keep an eye on their learning to take ownership of their education.
What are the differences between online, blended, and hybrid learning? Online learning is asynchronous classroom setting where students use the internet to learn while interacting withthe teacher and other students (Singh & Turman, 2019). According to Graham (2006), blended
learning is the “combination of face-to-face instruction with computed-mediated instruction”(p.5) or an amalgamation of on-campus and online learning. Finally, hybrid learning occurs

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when teachers simultaneously instruct their students online and in conventional classrooms(Umiyati, 2022). Although some graduate schools have adopted these learning methods, they
are intimidating for instructors who are used to imparting knowledge face-to-face, particularly
to students with special educational needs.
The main emphasis of this study was the use of hybrid learning for students with special
education needs. Studies on the effects of blended learning on students with special needs havebeen conducted (Alvarado-Alcantar et al., 2018; Rivera, 2017; Zavaraki & Schneider, 2019;
Zhang et al., 2020), but there are not enough studies on how it affects students with disabilities.
To support flexibility and inclusive learning, researchers advise creating more hybrid learning
environments (Gnaur et al., 2020; Hediansah & Surjono, 2020; Li et al., 2021). Hybrid learning
also enables students to participate in class activities regardless of location, making education
accessible to those with disabilities. Students with disabilities may have difficulties in theiracademics. However, with adequate support and understanding of their conditions, they cansurvive the challenges of various learning modalities, such as online and on-site environments.
Hence, listening to learners’ experiences is crucial to providing appropriate accommodations
and fostering inclusion and equity for all learners.
Research Questions
This study aimed to identify the experiences of college students with special education needs.
The following research questions were explicitly addressed in this study:
1. How do college students with special education needs perceive and experience hybrid
learning environments?
2. How do college students with special education needs adapt to cope with the challengesof hybrid learning?
3. How do college students with special education needs achieve the desired learning
outcomes in hybrid learning?
Literature Review
Addressing Special Education Needs in Hybrid Learning
Examining the learning experiences is essential for assessing and enhancing course designs forvarious learners because hybrid learning is now the most popular learning mode since thepandemic. The researcher used peer-reviewed journal publications and other academic sources
to examine multiple learning environments and hybrid learning study participants. Studies
involving students who needed special education services were conducted sporadicallycompared with those involving ordinary university students. According to Dizon andcolleagues (2013), students with special education needs have levels of physical-motor,
cognitive, language, psychosocial, and independence significantly different from those of
average, regular, or neurotypical students of their age. They may have physical limitations frombirth, such as being blind, deaf, or physically disabled, which sets them apart from the general32

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population (Dizon et al., 2013). They could be “delayed behaviors indicating a low or
undeveloped intelligence, atypical language abilities, social-emotional and self-care skills, andmaturation” (Gomez & Oael, 2013, p. 13).
For neurotypical students, hybrid learning may offer flexibility and convenience, enablingthem to match their academic obligations with other personal commitments. However, students
with special educational needs may have difficulties with hybrid learning. For instance,children with attention or memory issues may find online understanding challenging and needmore assistance and accommodations to succeed. They might also need help managing theirtime and more structure and direction to keep on task.
Balancing the Convenience and Challenges of Hybrid Learning
Hybrid learning is a relatively recent concept gaining popularity in higher education
institutions (Bøjer & Brøns, 2022). However, hybrid learning research has frequently been
conducted with regular college students. For instance, a study by Little and Jones (2020) of
135 college students studying Accounting Principles found that hybrid and online classes
produce a more flexible and exciting learning environment than entirely on-site education. Thiseffort was assisted by Smith and Schreder’s (2020) study on adult learners’ attention in an
online course. It showed that the average attentiveness was more remarkable when students
and teachers signed on to Zoom simultaneously under the hybrid format.
In contrast, a study by Gutiérrez-Braojos and colleagues (2019) utilizing 36 female
undergraduate students engaged in educational research using hybrid learning showed thatcollaboration without rivalry in face-to-face contexts promotes excellent learning quality.
Students feel less pressure to meet their learning objectives when learning with their peers in aclassroom. Additionally, their face-to-face contact when working on their assignments gives
them confidence as they work with other students.
Integrating Technology and Assessing Emotional Impact
According to Liu, Spector, and Ikle (2018), integrating new technologies in hybrid
synchronous learning can support collaborative and individualized learning, valuablepedagogies for college students. However, adopting new technology to support learning andinstruction places a responsibility on designers and educators. Additionally, the complexity
and speed of technological development necessitate that our students be better prepared, quick
learners, and problem solvers. Furthermore, students with learning disabilities who require
extra time to complete their assignments find rapid technological development a significant
obstacle. In contrast to face-to-face classrooms, Daniels and Stupnisky (2012) identified
distinct emotions felt in online learning contexts. Emotions produce varied results because thelearning environment is vastly different. Although professors and some students are present in
the same venue, the first-year college students’ experience with virtual hybrid learning was
overpowering with ambiguity, functionality, and place (Olt, 2018). As a result, theyoccasionally felt alienated from their online lectures.

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Online students’ feelings of isolation might be a severe problem. For instance, some students
are compelled to participate in online course sessions due to their obligations to their families
and jobs. Because they have little time for their studies, these students could experience
isolation, fail to interact with the course material, and drop out (Cunningham, 2014).
Additionally, Francescucci and Foster (2014) found that visual anonymity can occasionallymake it simpler for online students to withdraw from class conversations. In these learning
situations, the issue of exclusion is therefore evident.
Similar to the previous study, Butz and colleagues (2016) examined the influence of students’emotions, perceptions of control, value, and achievement in synchronous hybrid learning
environments with 118 higher education students. Although using technology to participate intheir classes is initially enjoyable for students, the result implies that the novelty of the delivery
method wears off over time. To involve students in technology-mediated programs,
instructional designers should continuously experiment with new technologies (Hrastinski,2008).
Bower, Lee, and Dalgarno (2017) suggest offering remote students an embodied presence inface-to-face classes by considering the pedagogical, technological, and logisticalissues unachievable with traditional styles to build a collaborative virtual, hybrid learning
environment. To achieve learning objectives together, remote and in-person students should
feel like they are interacting naturally in the same physical place.
With these learning experiences explored in these studies, the researcher hopes to contribute
important insights into the journeys of students with special education needs through the
dynamic terrain of hybrid learning because they are also at the forefront of the educational
system and are not sufficiently represented in hybrid learning studies.
Methodology
Research Design
Semi-structured interviews were used in this descriptive qualitative study as part of a thematiccontent analysis strategy, a technique for “identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns(themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 79). For a fuller knowledge of the topic inquestion, this procedure emphasizes the experience (Holloway & Todres, 2003; McLeod,
2011), providing a thorough grasp of participants’ hybrid learning.
Participants in the Study
Four college female and four male participants were chosen for this study using purposive
sampling. They were identified as having physical impairments, sensory impairments, learning
challenges, and behavioral, emotional, and social issues. They were enrolled in the hybrid
learning program offered by the Catholic tertiary institution De La Salle-College of Saint
Benilde across all its schools. All participants are also proficient users of learning management

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systems, digital learning tools, and conference platforms such as Zoom or Google Meetbecause all classes were taught online for over two years. However, the participants have yet
to take a hybrid learning course.
Table 1
ParticipantsParticipants (Ps)
P1

GenderM

Age
23

Year Level
Third Year

Diagnosed Condition
Severe Hearing Loss

P2

M

22

Second Year

Physical Impairment(Arthrogryposis)

P3

M

22

Second Year

Asperger Syndrome,
Learning Disability

P4

M

21

First Year

Autism Spectrum Syndrome,
High Anxiety & Depression

P5

F

22

Second Year

Attention Deficit Disorder,
Anxiety, and Depression

P6

F

22

Second Year

Epilepsy, Anxiety,Depression & Obsessive
Compulsive Disorder

P7

F

22

Second Year

Hearing Impairment with
Cochlear Implant

Note: Participants’ Demographics and Diagnosis

Research Instrument
A semi-structured interview was used to obtain the data. The research instrument is a 10-item
questionnaire developed by the researcher with the guidance of special education professors
about their perspectives, expectations, significant experiences, challenges or barriers, andvision for hybrid learning, administered through in-depth interviews.
Before distributing the questionnaires to the study participants, the researcher pilot-tested themwith individuals who shared the same interests as those who would be participating in the study(Turner, 2010). This allowed the researcher to identify any weaknesses and limitations in thequestions and make the required adjustments. To obtain adequate formulations, a small sample
of interviewees completed the questionnaire (Bayat et al., 2019).
Data Gathering Procedure
The data-gathering procedure started after obtaining permission from the Center for Inclusive
Education of De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde, especially from the Learning Support Casemanager. This unit provides support and appropriate accommodation for students with special

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learning needs. The Case Manager provided a possible list of the participants, and theresearcher sent them an email with the consent form, inviting them to participate in the study.
Upon receiving their signed consent form, the researcher emailed the participants several
options for the in-depth interview dates through Zoom video conferencing. The interview forevery participant lasted from 30 min to 1 h. Participants with hearing impairments requested a
copy of the interview questions beforehand to understand the questions well and provide
concrete answers. Their mothers also joined during the interview to assist their children. During
the interview, the Zoom live transcript was also enabled to help the participants with hearing
impairments understand the questions clearly. The researcher also provided adequate time forother participants to think before sharing their responses. When the participants had difficulty
understanding some terms, the researcher used simpler words to help them respond to thequestions. The interviews were recorded with the participant’s consent, and the responses weretranscribed. The transcription was verified by checking them against the data and seeking theparticipants’ feedback to ensure the findings were accurate and represented their experiences.
Data Analysis
The data collected through in-depth interviews were transcribed, reviewed for accuracy andcompleteness, and coded and categorized. The researcher manually did this process to identify
the themes and patterns of the data. The result of the thematic analysis was interpreted in lightof the research questions to extract meaningful insights that allowed a more profoundunderstanding of the participants’ experiences and perspectives. Aside from the interview data,
the researcher used the existing literature on hybrid learning environments to triangulate thedata to increase the credibility of the findings and ensure a comprehensive understanding of
the subject matter.
Findings and Discussion
The themes that emerged from the data include efficient learning, safe feeling, a sense of
belonging, and expectation setting. The researcher used P1, P2, or P3 to specify the participants
to maintain the participants’ privacy. The schematic diagram for this study’s findings is shownin Figure 1.

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Figure 1
Schematic Diagram of Hybrid Learning Experiences of College Students with Special
Education Needs

Note: Themes for College students with special education needs’ hybrid learning experiences

Perception and Experiences of Hybrid Learning Environments
The participants perceive and experience hybrid learning as a modality with benefits andchallenges. Efficient learning and safe feeling were the themes that surfaced for the benefits,sense of belonging, and expectation setting for the challenges. These themes encapsulated how
the desired learning outcomes in hybrid learning environments will be achieved.
Efficient LearningThis theme highlights flexibility and independence, essential tools for the participants’practical learning. They experience flexibility in learning through different learning materials
like audio, video, and text. For the participants, hybrid learning is fun, easy, and convenient.
For instance, one participant (P2) with arthrogryposis, a descriptive term that describes anindividual with congenital contractures of three or greater joints (Levine & Van Heest, 2021),
said, “I can type whenever I want. I can submit my requirements on time and pass myassignment using Google Slides or video, which I love to do. It is hassle-free!” P1, who has
profound hearing loss, was convinced that hybrid learning is exciting. He said, “I love it when
I am with my classmates in the lab.”Moreover, P3, who has Asperger syndrome, conveyed, “The learning materials are accessible
so long as I have an internet connection. I can use shortcuts to learn easily, so most of the time,learning is enjoyable.” Therefore, utilizing technology in hybrid learning platforms, mobile
apps, and other digital resources can make learning more advantageous for students withspecial learning needs.
Likewise, P4, who has Autism Spectrum Syndrome, expressed his affirmation of hybrid
learning, especially in the online class. He said, “Since it is online, it is easier to finish tasks; I

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do not need to submit hard copies, but digital essays work easily.” Another participant (P7)with hearing impairment said, “I can study efficiently in front of my computer, in an airconditioned room without traveling, even without my mother assisting me.”
Aside from flexibility, participants also experience greater independence in hybrid and efficientlearning. They take ownership of their learning process and are self-directed in their studies.
As a result, they feel assured and in control of their learning. Like P6, who has epilepsy andexperiences anxiety and depression, said,“I like it when teachers have prepared video recordings, and I can always visit therecording if I do not understand the discussion with the teacher. The recordings help
me a lot because the teacher records the lesson alone, with no disturbances, so she isfocused on her lecture, which also helps me focus on her discussion. With this, I learn
better”.
Allowing the students to make decisions and have choices in their learning can foster theirautonomy and self-motivation. Hence, they take responsibility for their learning in the hybrid
learning environment. In addition, the hybrid learning approach could offer an array ofopportunities for the student’s time and space constraints (Tyagi et al., 2021) and is effectivewith students with special education needs.
Safe FeelingThis theme emphasizes accommodations and accessibility, crucial for the participants’ wellbeing and learning success, and are manifested when they feel comfortable and included in thelearning environment. For example, one participant (P7) with hearing impairment was gratefulfor how her needs were accommodated. She said,“I am thankful for my case manager, who informs my professors about my condition.
He always asks me about my needs or if I have difficulty in my courses. Because of his
assistance, my teachers are informed about my condition, so whether online or face-toface, I am not afraid in class.”
Moreover, P7 was also pleased with how her school is true to its inclusion policy. “I am somuch satisfied with the school accommodation policy. Before I enrolled here, I consideredother schools, and I think this school is the best, so our money is not wasted because this schoolaccommodates my needs.” She concluded.
All participants feared commuting to school because of their disabilities. Instead, they believe
their home is the safest place to engage in class or do schoolwork. For P2 with arthrogryposis,
he said, “My wheelchair is still new; I am still practicing using it, and I have difficultycommuting because of my condition, so I am comfortable in my room to attend my classes.”
Another participant (P5) with attention deficit disorder said, “I am scarred socializing withothers, so I do not talk.” Finally, P6 has epilepsy, and she expressed, “The commute to school38

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is a significant factor in my learning because of my disability. Although I am taking mymedicine, I still worry about my seizures or drop-downs. Also, the traffic is terrible!”
Therefore, a home is a safe place for the participants to be productive because of theirconditions. In addition, their parents, siblings, or helpers are there to assist them with theirneeds. Thus, with hybrid learning, online classes work well for them.
Regarding accessibility, the participants claimed they easily navigate the learning materials in
hybrid learning through the learning management system, allowing them to manage theirdisabilities better. “BigSky is easy to maneuver,” one participant said, referring to the school’s
official learning management system. Furthermore, disclosing their disability to theirprofessors gave them a feeling of security that they would be given more time to access andaccomplish their tasks and be more understanding of their needs.
Students with special education need to succeed academically and personally. They must feelsafe and secure. Creating a welcoming learning environment for them might promote theirgeneral well-being. By working together in a secure environment, the hybrid learning approachaids students in learning (Trela & Rutschmann, 2022).
Adaptation and Coping Strategies in Hybrid Learning
Sense of Belonging
This theme focuses on the participant’s social interaction, a challenge for the students withspecial needs to adapt and cope in the hybrid learning environment. For example, for P1 andP7 with profound hearing loss, engaging in class online and in person with professors andclassmates wearing masks is very tough. “I have difficulty responding to our conversations
with my classmates in the lab because I do not see their lips, “P1 asserted. Similarly, P7
explained,“When I am scheduled for face-to-face, it is difficult to understand my classmates andprofessors because they wear their masks. So, I ask my seatmate to explain what our
professor has said. Sometimes, I feel too shy to disturb my classmates. It would beeasier to understand the lessons if I see their lips.”
Lip reading determines a person’s words by watching lip movements without hearing the sound(Sooraj et al., 2020). It also recognizes speech information based on the change in lip
movement, called visual speech recognition (Wang et al., 2022). In short, this method
determines the speech by looking at the lips’ movement. For deaf or people with hearing
impairment, lip reading is crucial for understanding challenging conditions. However, when
their community is not aware of the importance of lip reading, they feel isolated. This isolation
may be caused by several factors, such as limited opportunities for interaction online or inperson or difficulty navigating technology or accessing lesson materials. For example, P7
receives a brief comment from her groupmate while discussing their group project. She
declared, “Sorry, but I cannot understand what you are saying!” P7 felt this was rude and39

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insensitive, and she never talked again in the group. P7 was born deaf and was diagnosed when
she was 1½ years old. She had her cochlear implants when she was six years old, never learned
signed language, but had speech therapy.
Using assistive technology has a great benefit for students who have profound hearing loss.
Unfortunately, some teachers are not trained to use the tools to engage their students withspecial needs. P1, who has a profound hearing loss, thanked her theology professor, who used
the Zoom live transcription to show closed captioning during the online session. With this, henever had problems engaging in class discussions and group activities. Thus, he wished that allteachers with hearing impairments use this tool to include all their students in the online class.
Developing relationships is also daunting for students with Autism Spectrum Syndrome (ASD)
in the hybrid learning environment. For P4, diagnosed with ASD and has anxiety anddepression, he finds online and in-person learning complicated because of difficultycommunicating with peers and professors. He claimed, “It is tough to communicate in hybrid
learning because others are at home and you are in the classroom. I do not want to work in agroup. It creates division in class; there is no connection or bonding.” One of the difficulties
linked with Autism Spectrum Disorder relates to adaptation to new situations and anxious
depressive symptoms because of excessive environmental requirements (Lugo-Marín et al.,2021). As a result, P4 asserted,“I do not have friends in class because of the rotation of classes from face-to-face toonline. It is hard to make friends with others. Everything is so rigid. So, I do not havesignificant experience in hybrid learning; it is mostly frustrating! Moreover, we do notopen our cameras, so it is difficult to put the face to the name and feel distant.’’
Students with special learning needs may feel left out of the classroom and have problems
building relationships with peers and professors. Therefore, creating opportunities for social
interactions is imperative to mitigate this challenge and promote community, improving thestudent’s educational experience and well-being.
Expectation SettingThis theme underscores communicating the learning outcomes to succeed in the hybrid
learning modality. Despite the conditions of the participants, they have set their goals andexpectations to ensure adequate academic performance. They believe clear and consistentcommunication with their teacher and case managers is crucial in working towards an inclusive
learning environment. Unfortunately, there were instances when they felt frustrated andundermined because of their disabilities. As one participant (P4) with autism claimed,“I contacted my adviser because of immediate concern, but receiving her response took
a long time, which triggered my anxiety. She is probably busy, but two days of no reply
is too much for me. So I still email her hoping she will respond.”

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The unpredictable and intolerable behavior of others is one of the things that cause high anxiety
levels in people with autism (Costley et al., 2021). It makes it challenging to achieve learning
goals in a traditional setting. Therefore, it is ideal for all instructors to thoroughly understandtheir children’s backgrounds to provide prompt, appropriate interventions if needed.
Another participant (P3) also shared his frustration. He commented, “There is no clear direction
about using Photoshop in the laboratory. At first, they said it was part of the tuition fee, butthere was no warning that it was not in the lab.” Likewise, P5 asserted her disappointment withsome of her teachers, saying,“I hope teachers’ timing for their announcements or emails should not be beyond school
hours. For example, sometimes teachers would announce that we have online classes
at dawn, and we would be surprised that we have a meeting. Also, I hope teachers will
use the official learning management system to announce their messages and not
through Facebook or other unofficial platforms.”
One participant (P7) feels comfortable sharing her disability with her classmates and teachers,saying, “I share my disability with my classmates during breakout session so as not to pity me
but to understand me and also to all my professors.” However, two participants (P3 & P6)
expressed reservations about disclosing their conditions to their classmates and teachers
because of their expectations. They pointed out, respectively:“I do not want them to know I have special needs. I want the school to maintain the
anonymity of students with special learning needs because I do not want my classmates
to feel that there might be some biases for giving me extra time for the test or asking
for more time for deadlines” (P3).
“I do not like to tell my situation because of inconvenience to the teacher, and it is not
obvious that I have epilepsy. So, I only disclosed my condition to my case manager but
not to teachers because of their expectations” (P6).
When students’ expectations are unmet, the consequences can harm their educational
experience. Unfulfilled expectations can lead to disappointment, frustration, and lack ofmotivation. When they do not feel that their teachers are meeting their needs, they may become
disengaged and uninterested in the material being taught, leading to a decline in academic
performance. This can harm the student’s overall attitude toward school and learning.
Therefore, teachers must take the time to understand and meet the expectations of their students
to create a supportive and successful educational experience, especially for students withspecial education needs.
Achieving Desired Learning Outcomes in Hybrid Learning
In a hybrid learning environment, students with special needs may encounter
several difficulties that could impair their learning outcomes. However, students will perform41

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better in their academic assignments with the assistance of their professors and peers. For an
engaged and active learning experience, in-person and online learners need support (Gambo &Shakir, 2022). Participants of this study expressed instances where they received support fromtheir teachers, who were aware of their conditions, which they disclosed at the start of theirclasses. “My teachers fully accommodated my needs because, from the start of classes, I had
already told them about my condition, so they always asked me about my needs,” P2 remarked.
Like P2, who has a physical disability, P6, who has epilepsy, also shared the same satisfaction:“My professors accommodated my learning well because I disclosed my condition with them
before classes started.” Another participant liked her professors when they asked her, “Do you
have any questions? Is there anything I can help you with?” P4 also shared her appreciation
with her teachers, who exerted effort to reach out. “I have conference meetings with myprofessors to discuss my needs and grades,” he said. By disclosing their diagnosed condition
with their teachers, they felt secure and assured of additional support and resources to help
them succeed.
Accessibility could be a problem in any hybrid learning course. However, participants in thisstudy were okay with using their smartphones to access the course contents. With theeffectiveness and efficiency of their learning management system, they effectively controlled
their learning tasks. A participant who has severe hearing loss made the following observation:“I have no problem with the learning materials, for they are accessible. Also, the LMS
is okay, and the video conferencing tool is. I like the video recordings of my teachers
because I can always review the lesson if I do not understand the class discussion.” (P7)
For students with disabilities to achieve the required learning outcomes, it is crucial to consider
their learning requirements. The student and teacher should establish a positive rapport throughongoing communication and cooperation to define how the learner might provide proof ofcompetency. Additionally, individualized learning might aid the learner in better understanding
the course instructors’ expectations. In general, implementing individualized instruction has abeneficial and constructive impact on student’s motivation and learning success (Rahimi et al.,2021). As one of the participants (P4) said, “I appreciate my teachers when they ask me about
my needs in class, especially when I am in an online class.” Similarly, P5 feels valued when
her professor, during in-person classes, provides positive feedback on her work: “I like it when
my professor appreciates my work and allows me to work independently.”
The role of teachers and peers in facilitating the learning process is essential for students’ wellbeing. One participant confirmed, “The most significant experience in my hybrid class is
meeting friendly teachers. I also meet lovely classmates during face-to-face classes.” Theparticipants also liked their group activities during face-to-face and breakout sessions when
they were online. “I enjoy breakout sessions for our activities and projects because I get to talkto my classmates,” P7 said. Similarly, P1 and P6 shared their satisfaction with conversing with
their peers during group tasks.

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Their teachers’ and peers’ strategies and support helped the students with special educationneeds achieve their desired learning outcomes. Furthermore, the collaboration andunderstanding between teachers, peers, and students with special learning needs break down
barriers and foster a culture of inclusion. This way, the support provided can be instrumental
in achieving the desired learning outcomes in a hybrid learning environment.
Conclusion
This study on hybrid learning experiences of college students with special education needs
highlighted the importance of recognizing their unique needs for better environments andlearning outcomes. Participants experienced a safe feeling and efficient learning as benefits ofhybrid learning, specifically at home, where they have greater flexibility in understanding andaccessing course content and resources. In addition, they can submit their tasks and collaborate
with their peers through access and familiarity with digital tools, elevating their learning
experience from the comfort of their homes. Finally, through hybrid learning, participants can
reduce the cost of transportation and have better time management, allowing them to balance
their academic and personal responsibilities.
However, college students with special education needs also experienced challenges infostering a sense of belonging and clear expectation setting in hybrid learning. For example,
the lack of in-person and limited opportunities for face-to-face communication can make itchallenging for them to build meaningful connections with their peers and teachers, resulting
in isolation and frustration. Further, the lack of clear structure in the student information
guidelines, shifting expectations, and inconsistent routines can exacerbate their learning
difficulties, making it more complicated for them to achieve the desired learning outcomes.
Nevertheless, despite the challenges they experienced in their hybrid learning, their teachers’
and peers’ support helped them achieve their learning outcomes. With the helping hands ofteachers and learners, students with special education needs can overcome obstacles and reach
their potential, proving that education success is within reach when we come together as asupportive community.
Implications for Educators
Recognizing learners with special education needs in a hybrid learning environment is crucial
for fostering inclusivity and achieving the desired learning outcomes. Educators must prioritize
a sense of belonging to counter the learner’s isolation. Additionally, the intricacies of
expectation setting should never be undermined because acknowledging students’ voices will
empower them to engage and excel, contributing to a more collaborative and nurturing learning
environment. Clear and consistent guidelines can ease students’ navigation in hybrid learning,enabling them to focus on their studies and achieve their academic goals confidently andefficiently.

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Moreover, embracing a culture of acceptance of diversity in learning enriches all students’
understanding of the learning experience, resulting in safe and efficient learning. In this way,
educators become instrumental in shaping an environment where every learner can thrive
academically and personally.
Recommendations for Future Research
To provide a more thorough knowledge of the difficulties and advantages of hybrid learning
settings, the researcher recommends a future study that includes a more significant sample ofcollege students with special education needs from various higher education institutions.
Moreover, the best practices for helping students with special education needs can be identified
and implemented by conducting additional research on successful teaching techniques,
inclusive and supportive learning environments, and personalized support. Treating students
with special education needs by teachers in higher education institutions is crucial for future
research. Therefore, additional research will help provide invaluable information about
students’ struggles and perspectives and ensure a welcoming and equal learning experience forall students in hybrid learning environments. This will help develop the best training programsand ensure teachers have the skills and knowledge necessary to support students withdisabilities effectively.

Acknowledgment
The author is deeply grateful to De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde, School ofMultidisciplinary Studies, Dr Basilia E. Blay, Dr Alma S. Epartinez, Dr Marissa R. Fearnley,
Ms Karl O. Salvador, Ms Marilyn P. Pescasio, Ms Camille C. Malioga and the Center for
Inclusive Education of DLS-CSB.

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Corresponding author: Jennifer B. Fabula
Email: jennifer.fabula@benilde.edu.ph48

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Appendix A
Interview Questions:
1. Tell me about yourself, including your special education needs.
2. What do you understand about hybrid learning?
3. Describe your experiences in the hybrid learning environment.
4. What pedagogical design of hybrid learning is the most effective?
5. How accessible are learning materials, the learning management system, and the videoconferencing tools used in class?
6. What are the barriers to hybrid learning that you have encountered?
7. What is your most significant experience with the hybrid learning modality?
8. How are your learning needs accommodated?
9. Are there policies in school about accommodation, accessibility, curriculum, or
instruction that you want to improve? Identify.
10. What is your vision for hybrid learning?

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Student Diversity and School Climate in the Mediterranean Zone: A
Comparative Study
F. Sehkar Fayda-Kinik
Istanbul Technical University
Turkey51

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Abstract
This study aimed to identify the extent student diversity and school climate vary within andacross France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey, to investigate and compare the impact of student
diversity on school climate in the selected Mediterranean countries. A quantitative research
design was adopted by using the data of 41,789 teachers obtained from the dataset of the
Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018. The research questions andhypotheses were formulated to investigate the extent of student diversity and school climate
variations within and across the selected countries. Accordingly, the variability of generalschool climate, teacher-student relations, teaching experience in multicultural classrooms,
teachers’ self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms, the presence of students from various ethnic
backgrounds, and diversity practices were tested in the schools of France, Italy, Spain, andTurkey in the research model. Statistical analyses, including chi-square and t-tests, ANOVA,
and multiple regression analysis, were conducted to test the hypotheses and examine therelationships between student diversity and school climate. The findings revealed significant
variations in student diversity and school climate within and across the participating countries,and evident relationships between student diversity and school climate were discovered andcompared among the selected Mediterranean countries. This study contributes to theknowledge base of educational policymakers, administrators, practitioners, and teachers by
guiding them in creating inclusive and supportive learning environments that promote positive
student experiences and academic success and suggesting the need for policies and practices
that support inclusive education and foster positive school climates in multicultural classrooms.
Keywords: learning environment, Mediterranean countries, school climate, student diversity,
TALIS 2018

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Student diversity has emerged as a key component of educational policies and systems aroundthe world in today’s more connected and diverse world. Diversity in terms of ethnicity andculture is more prevalent than ever in classrooms for both teachers and students, which makes
the Western world “more culturally and ethnically diverse” (Dubbeld et al., 2019). A diverse
student body that represents a range of cultural, linguistic, ethnic, socioeconomic, and ability
backgrounds presents educational institutions with both opportunities and challenges.
According to Kaplan and Bista (2022), to embrace (or even to celebrate) diversity, a schoolcommunity must go beyond mere tolerance and actively value diversity, which entails
developing a mindset where diversity is viewed not as a weakness and a challenge but rather
as a strength and something to be valued for teachers, students, and their families. Therefore,
it is crucial to comprehend how student diversity affects school climate because it is a key
factor in promoting a supportive and inclusive learning environment. A supportive andwelcoming school environment with a diverse climate fosters student engagement, academic
success, social and emotional well-being, and intergroup relations (Thapa et al., 2013; Ulbricht
et al., 2022).
There are many facets to the relationship between student diversity and school climate. The
variety of perspectives, experiences, and skills that students bring to the classroom enhances
the learning environment. Students feel valued, respected, and included when diversity isembraced and appreciated in the classroom (Iglesias-Diaz & Romero-Perez, 2021). The
engagement of students and collaboration among them are increased by a supportive learning
environment provided through a positive school climate, which also lessens incidents ofvictimization among students of different ethnic backgrounds (Caravita et al., 2020; Konold etal., 2017).
Despite the widely acknowledged value of student diversity and school climate, the precise
relationship between these elements has been changing as the world has faced some
unprecedented impacts of transformation resulting from political, technological, sociocultural,and socioeconomic reasons. In the context of the countries in the Mediterranean region selected
for this research; namely, France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey, there is a research gap providing acomparison of student diversity and school climate between these countries clarifying how
student diversity varies within and between these nations and how it affects the school
environment. To address this gap, this study contributes to the literature by determining thevariability of student diversity and school climate within and among these countries, as well as
investigating and contrasting the effect of student diversity on school climate.
Therefore, this study aimed to identify the extent student diversity and school climate vary
within and across France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey, to investigate and compare the impact ofstudent diversity on school climate in these selected Mediterranean countries. The examinationof these connections would advance knowledge of how student diversity and school climate
interact in the Mediterranean region and offer insightful information to educational
policymakers, administrators, practitioners, and teachers.

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Literature Review
Student Diversity
Diversity in education can be described as a difference or “unlikeness” between particularpeople or social groups (Pollock & Briscoe, 2020). It is multifaceted, may relate to tangible
aspects or intangible ones, such as cultural practices, and is rational in light of the boundaries
established by various social groups (Cerna et al., 2021). Student diversity is the inclusion of
students from a range of socioeconomic, racial, linguistic, cultural, and ability backgrounds in“a learning environment in which curriculum, pedagogy, and outreach are all consistent with abroadly conceptualized multicultural philosophy” (Nieto & Bode, 2018, p. 39). It comprises avariety of unique traits, stories, and identities contributing to the diverse content of the student
body.
Student diversity is critical to creating a dynamic and inviting learning environment for all
students. There are many significant benefits to having diverse student populations in schools.
It promotes intercultural understanding and respect among students in the first place and fosters
a rich exchange of cultures (Davis et al., 2022). Students who are exposed to various
viewpoints, cultures, and languages grow in their understanding of the world and become more
prepared to live and work in diverse societies. Additionally, diverse classrooms can improvestudents’ critical thinking, creativity, problem-solving, and academic performance (Dawes etal., 2020; Rasheed et al., 2020). Therefore, it is crucial to foster an environment in schools thatvalues and respects diversity, which can be accomplished by incorporating multicultural
curricula, attracting and retaining diverse educators, and offering culturally sensitive teaching
methods.
School Climate
School climate is defined as the social, emotional, and physical environment of a school that
influences the overall learning and well-being of students, staff, and the school community(Thapa et al., 2013; Voight & Nation, 2016). It represents the norms, values, and beliefs thatshape the school community as experienced by students, parents, and school personnel (Cohenet al., 2009). It includes elements such as the quality of interactions between students and staff,
the degree of safety and inclusivity, the existence of supportive policies and practices, and thegeneral sense of engagement and belonging among the school community.
School climate, an essential element of the learning environment, has been connected to both
positive and negative student outcomes. Supportive relationships, inclusive behaviours, and afeeling of belonging are typical indicators of a positive school climate. Therefore, students who
experience an optimal educational environment tend to perform better academically (Wang &Degol, 2016), demonstrate enhanced social-emotional well-being (Aldridge et al., 2016) and
improved mental health outcomes (Lewno-Dumdie et al., 2020; Wang & Degol, 2016).
However, an unsupportive school environment can have negative effects on students, including
higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms (Holt et al., 2016; Konishi et al.,54

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2010); lower academic motivation, decreased school attendance, and higher dropout rates(Thapa et al., 2013; Wang & Degol, 2016). It is important to develop and promote supportive
learning environments that contribute to the success and well-being of all students to lessen theeffects of a negative school climate on student outcomes.
Relationship Between Student Diversity and School Climate
Student diversity has a significant impact on the overall school climate by shaping student
experiences socially, emotionally, and academically. In diverse schools, the interactions
between students from different backgrounds can contribute to a more inclusive and tolerantschool climate, fostering positive attitudes toward diversity, reducing prejudice, and enhancing
intercultural understanding (Cerna et al., 2021; Cohen & Lotan, 2014; Schwarzenthal et al.,2020). Diverse student populations enable the creation of rich and active learning environmentsthat value diversity and promote the growth of key abilities for navigating an environment thatis becoming progressively diverse. Schools can create an inviting and encouraging educationalsetting for all students that supports both their overall well-being and academic success byembracing and valuing student diversity.
Numerous studies have examined the relationship between student diversity and school
climate, highlighting the importance of fostering inclusive and positive environments fordiverse student populations. Gromova et al. (2021) emphasized the importance of an accepting
school environment for elementary school students who are immigrants to Russia. According
to Dubbeld et al. (2019), it was reported that teachers’ multicultural attitudes and their opinionsof the school’s policies and culture were linked to burnout by highlighting the importance of a
supportive school environment for the well-being of students from different backgrounds.
Similarly, Shirazi (2018) underlined the significance of school climate in fostering sociopolitical inclusion and a sense of belonging for diverse student populations. Additionally,
Iglesias-Diaz and Romero-Perez (2021) conducted a systematic review that demonstrated thebeneficial effects of inclusive classrooms on adolescent well-being by emphasizing theimportance of a supportive school climate in meeting students’ diverse social and emotional
needs. Thus, it is important to develop welcoming environments at schools that value diversity
among students and foster positive social interactions. Schools can give all students, regardlessof background or identity, a sense of belonging, safety, and well-being by developing anenvironment that values diversity. These results highlight the significance of taking student
diversity into account as a key element in determining the school climate and the demand forinclusive education policies and practices that cater to the particular needs of diverse student
populations.
Methodology
Research Design
A quantitative research model was adopted in the study to identify the extent student diversity
and school climate vary within and across France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey, to investigate and55

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compare the impact of student diversity on school climate in the selected Mediterraneancountries. The research questions (RQs) were constructed below in line with the quantitative
methodology:
RQ1. To what extent does student diversity vary within and across participating
countries?
RQ2. To what extent does school climate vary within and across participating countries?
RQ3. What relationships are evident between student diversity and school climate inschools in selected Mediterranean countries?
Based on these RQs, the following hypotheses were formulated to quantitatively test various
aspects of student diversity and school climate in the Mediterranean zone in the study:
H1: The general school climate varies across countries.
H2: Teacher-student relationships vary across countries.
H3: Teaching experience in multicultural classrooms varies across countries.
H3.1: The general school climate in countries differs based on teaching experiencein multicultural classrooms.
H3.2: Teacher-student relationships in countries differ based on teaching experiencein multicultural classrooms.
H4: The self-efficacy of teachers teaching multicultural classrooms varies acrosscountries.
H5: The presence of students from multiple ethnic backgrounds in the school varies
across countries.
H5.1: The general school climate in countries differs based on the presence ofstudents from multiple ethnic backgrounds in the school.
H5.2: Teacher-student relationships in countries differ based on the presence ofstudents from multiple ethnic backgrounds in the school.
H6: Diversity practices vary across countries.
H6.1: Diversity practices have a positive impact on the general school climate.
H6.2: Diversity practices have a positive impact on teacher-student relationships.
Regarding the RQs and the hypotheses developed above, the research model of the study isillustrated in Figure 1.

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Figure 1
The Research Design

As depicted in Figure 1, the primary objectives of this study were to understand and compare
the differences in student diversity (RQ1), school climate (RQ2), and diversity in schools in
the Mediterranean region (RQ3). Accordingly, the variability of general school climate (H1),teacher-student relations (H2), teaching experience in multicultural classrooms (H3: H3.1, H3.2),
teachers’ self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms (H4), the presence of students from various
ethnic backgrounds (H5: H5.1, H5.2), and diversity practices (H6: H6.1, H6.2) were tested in theschools of France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey in the research model.
Participating Countries
The sample of the study was determined from the internationally collected data of the Teachingand Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018 obtained from the OECD TALIS 2018
database (OECD, 2018a). The main goal of the TALIS is to offer reliable international
indicators and analysis on teachers and teaching that is relevant to policymaking to assist
nations and economies in reviewing and developing legislation that can foster beneficial
conditions for both teaching and learning (Price & Carstens, 2020) over certain themes
including diversity and school climate (Ainley & Carstens, 2018). Based on the availability
and compatibility of the data, the participating countries were selected as France (FRA), Italy(ITA), Spain (SPA), and Turkey (TUR) located on the southern European coast representing
the Mediterranean region. According to the World Bank (2021), the world’s economies wereclassified into four groups of low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income countries.
Accordingly, France, Italy, and Spain were determined as high-income economies ($13,205 ormore) whereas Turkey was labelled as an upper-middle-income economy ($4,256 to $13,205)
in the Mediterranean zone. Other than geographical and economic backgrounds, thesecountries show similarities in rich cultural heritage, migration flows they experience, theinfluence of multiculturalism, educational policies, focus on inclusive education, and efforts
for intercultural understanding.

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After the identification and extraction of the data belonging to France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey,
the sample of the study comprised 41,789 teachers as listed in Table 1.
Table 1
Demographics of the Participating Countries
Country
France

Italy

Spain

TurkeyGenderFemaleMale
Total
FemaleMale
Total
FemaleMale
Total
Female
Male
Total

TOTAL

n
3,198
1,237
4,435
2,809
803
3,612
10,161
4,492
14,653
10,017
9,072
19,08941,789

%
72.1%
27.9%
10.6
77.8%
22.2%
8.6
69.3%
30.7%
35.1
52.5%
47.5%
45.7
100.0

As presented in Table 1, of 41,789 teachers in the study sample, 4,435 participants were from
France (10.6%), 3,612 from Italy (8.6%), 14,653 from Spain (35.1%), and 19,089 from Turkey(45.7%). Regarding the distribution of teachers by gender, the teachers surveyed in Francecomprised 3,198 female teachers, corresponding to 72.1% of the entire teacher population in
the country sample, and 1,237 male participants, roughly 27.9% of the total. Out of a total of
3,612 teachers in Italy, 2,809 participants, making up about 77.8% of the teacher sample in the
country were female while the number was 803 for male teachers, accounting for
approximately 22.2% of the total. In Spain, female participants totalled 10,161, corresponding
to 69.3% of the total teacher sample in the country; on the other hand, male teachers numbered
4,492, representing around 30.7% of the total. Finally, the study sample from Turkey
constituted a majority with 10,017 female participants, accounting for approximately 52.5% of
the total teacher sample in the country; in contrast, male teachers numbered 9,072 making up
approximately 47.5% of the total.
Research Instrument
The teacher questionnaire of TALIS 2018 was used as the research instrument in the study(OECD, 2018b). The questions analysed in the study were selected from OECD (2019) as
TQ44, TQ45, TQ46, TQ47, TQ48, and TQ49 in line with the RQs. TQ44 captured whether
teachers taught in classrooms with students from different cultures, with options for “Yes/No”
whereas TQ45(A,B,C,D,E) examined the extent to which teachers coped with challenges, adapted
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for cultural differences, and reduced ethnic stereotyping in culturally diverse classrooms, witha range from “not at all” to “a lot”. TQ46 assessed whether the school included students from
more than one cultural or ethnic background, and TQ47(A,B,C,D) explored the implementation ofdiversity practices, offering options of “Yes/No”. TQ48(A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H) evaluated aspects ofschool climate, including staff and parental participation, shared responsibility, collaborative
culture, shared beliefs, consistent enforcement of rules, and encouragement of staff-led
initiatives while TQ49(A,B,C,D,E) measured the agreement levels regarding teachers and students
getting along well, teachers valuing student well-being, teacher interest in student opinions,provision of extra assistance, and teacher reliance on each other, with a 4-point Likert scale.
The results of the reliability analyses for TQ48 and TQ49 indicated that the Cronbach’s Alphavalue of the general school climate (TQ48) was calculated as 0.840 for FRA, 0.843 for ITA,
0.901 for SPA, and 0.941for TUR; in addition, regarding teacher-student relations (TQ49), it
was detected as 0.812 for FRA, 0.811 for ITA, 0.839 for SPA, and 0.868 for TUR, which all
validates the reliability of the research instrument.
Data Analysis
In the study, several statistical analyses were employed on SPSS for Windows 26.0 to explore
different aspects of student diversity and school climate based on the views of teachers fromdifferent countries. Therefore, the data specifically determined to be used were extracted fromthe OECD TALIS 2018 database depending on the RQs and hypotheses developed in the study(OECD, 2018a). First, frequency analyses were conducted to establish the sample profile.
Subsequently, to determine the reliability coefficients of the variables of TQ48 and TQ49,
Cronbach’s Alpha values were calculated for each participating country. Next, the chi-square
test of independence to identify whether teaching in multicultural classrooms and countries
randomly occurs together or whether there is an actual relationship in addition to independent
samples t-test to identify differences between groups for the variables with two categories were
performed to test H3, H3.1, H3.2, H5, H5.1, H5.2, and H6. Regarding the variables with more than
two groups, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to detect group differences to test
H1, H2, and H4. Based on the results of the ANOVA, post hoc tests were conducted to determine
which specific pairs of groups differed from each other (H1, H2, and H4). Finally, multiple
regression analysis was used to investigate the impact of diversity practices on the generalschool climate and teacher-student relationships to test H6.1 and H6.2.
Results
Student Diversity Within and Across Participating Countries
To investigate RQ1 about the variability of student diversity, H3, H4, H5, and H6 were tested at
this phase. First, the chi-square test of independence was utilized to identify if there might bea relationship between teaching in multicultural classrooms and countries. Table 2 represents
the proportion of respondents in each country who reported teaching in a classroom with59

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students from different cultures (TQ44) and the percentage of classrooms and schools in eachcountry with a diverse cultural or ethnic student population (TQ46).
Table 2
Variability of Student Diversity and Teaching in Multicultural Classrooms by Country
Items
Taught classroom with students
from different cultures (TQ44)

France
Yes
No

Italy
Yes
No

Spain
Yes
No

TurkeyYesNo

63.8% 36.2% 70.2% 29.8% 81.6% 18.4% 45.7% 54.3%
χ2=4619.101; p<.001

School includes students of morethan one cultural or ethnic
background (TQ46)

71.3% 28.7% 85.7% 14.3% 89.9% 10.1% 48.6% 51.4%
χ2=7049.195; p<.001

As observed in Table 2, the stark differences in the percentages between countries indicatedvarying levels of exposure to multicultural classrooms among the teaching population. Spainand Italy had a relatively higher percentage of classrooms with such diversity while France andTurkey had a lower proportion (H3: accepted). Regarding the percentage of classrooms andschools in each country that had a diverse cultural or ethnic student population (TQ46), France,
Italy, Spain, and Turkey had different levels of cultural diversity in their educational settings,
with Spain and Italy having the highest percentages of classrooms and schools with students
from different cultures or ethnic backgrounds (H5: accepted).
Subsequently, the variability of diversity practices (TQ47) was examined as part of RQ1 to test
H6. The results of the chi-square test of independence are presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Variability of Diversity Practices by Country
TQ47

France
Yes
No

Italy
Yes
No

Spain
Yes
No

TurkeyYes
No

Encourage students’ expression ofdiverse cultural identities

47.8% 52.2% 57.2% 42.8% 66.6% 33.4% 42.5% 57.5%

Organising multicultural events

χ2=1347.998; p<.001
27.7% 72.3% 33.2% 66.8% 48.1% 51.9% 27.5% 72.5%
χ2=1150.860; p<.001

Teaching students how to deal withethnic and cultural discrimination

79.5% 20.5% 67.7% 32.3% 80.0% 20.0% 54.6% 45.4%
χ2=1796.629; p<.001

Adopting practices that integrate
global themes via curriculum

65.8% 34.2% 76.2% 23.8% 76.8% 23.2% 52.0% 48.0%
χ2=1622.127; p<.001

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As illustrated in Table 3, Spain had the highest percentage (66.60%) for encouraging students
to express their diverse cultural identities, preceded by Italy (57.20%), France (47.80%), andTurkey (42.50%). As for organizing multicultural events, Spain also had the greatest proportion(48.10%), followed by Italy (33.20%), France (27.70%), and Turkey (27.50%). Concerningteaching students how to deal with ethnic and cultural discrimination, France had the highest
percentage (79.50%), followed by Spain (80.00%), Italy (67.70%), and Turkey (54.60%). In
terms of adopting practices that incorporate global themes into the curriculum, Spain had thehighest percentage (76.80%), preceded by Italy (76.20%), France (65.80%), and Turkey(52.0%). Evidently, Spain tended to excel in encouraging cultural expression and organizing
multicultural events whereas France stood out for addressing ethnic and cultural
discrimination. Italy was notable for incorporating global themes into curricula. Turkey had
comparatively lower percentages across all categories, suggesting a relatively lower emphasison these diversity practices compared to the other countries listed (H6: accepted).
Finally, ANOVA was conducted to determine the variability of teachers’ self-efficacy inmulticultural classrooms by country to test H4. The ANOVA test is a statistical tool used todetermine whether there are any statistically significant differences between the means of threeor more independent groups. The results of the analysis are demonstrated in Table 4.
Table 4
Variability of Teachers’ Self-efficacy in Multicultural Classrooms by Country

Country

Cope with
Adapt teaching
challenges of ato cultural
multicultural
diversity ofclassroom
students(TQ45A)(TQ45B)

Ensure thatstudents with
w/out migration
background work
together(TQ45C)FranceItaly
Spain
TurkeyF(p)2.727 ± 0.598
2.838 ± 0.486
2.695 ± 0.650
2.673 ± 0.514
88.332 (0.000)

3.305 ± 0.588
2.971 ± 0.730
3.126 ± 0.636
2.852 ± 0.612
895.209 (0.000)

DifferenceAll2.704 ± 0.664
2.857 ± 0.497
2.692 ± 0.661
2.647 ± 0.514
133.087(0.000)All except
FRA and SPA

All

Raise
awareness for
culturaldifferencesamongststudents(TQ45D)2.970 ± 0.702
3.335 ± 0.534
3.070 ± 0.686
2.899 ± 0.529
606.736(0.000)All

Reduce ethnic
stereotyping
amongststudents(TQ45E)
3.188 ± 0.638
3.335 ± 0.584
3.255 ± 0.638
3.169 ± 0.508
118.824(0.000)All

In Table 4, it was indicated that all 5 sub-dimensions that made up teacher self-efficacy varied
according to countries (p<0.05 for TQ45A, TQ45B, TQ45C, TQ45D, and TQ45E). After
conducting an ANOVA test, post hoc comparisons are used when ANOVA indicates that there
are significant differences between group means. The purpose is to pinpoint exactly whichgroups differ from each other because ANOVA only explains that there is a significant
difference among the groups but does not specify in which pairs it exists. Therefore, post hoc
tests are performed to identify the specific pairs of groups with significant differences in theirmeans and provide a more detailed understanding of the data. Therefore, Tukey post hoc

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analysis was carried out to reveal the source of this difference for each sub-dimension. The
results detected significant differences among the countries for all of the sub-dimensions ofteachers’ self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms (all p-values<.001). Post hoc comparisonsproved that there were significant differences between all countries for the dimensions of“coping with challenges of a multicultural classroom”, “adapting teaching to cultural diversityof students”, “ensuring that students with/without migration background work together”,“raising awareness for cultural differences among students”, and “reducing ethnic stereotyping
among students”. Specifically, France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey showed statistically significant
differences in all of the five sub-dimensions compared to each other. However, France andSpain did not differ significantly from each other and were distinct from the other countries inall sub-dimensions except the adaptation of teaching to the cultural diversity of students.
Teachers from Italy had the highest self-efficacy in “coping with challenges of a multiculturalclassroom”, while teachers from France were the best among other countries in “ensuring thatstudents with/without migration background work together”. Italian teachers were good at
raising awareness for cultural differences amongst students” and “reducing ethnic stereotyping
amongst students” (H4: accepted).
School Climate Within and Across Participating Countries
ANOVA was conducted to examine the variability of general school climate (H1) and teacherstudent relations (H2) across different countries to address RQ2. For the general school climate,a significant difference was found among the countries (F(3.41785)=54.822; p<.001). Therefore,
post hoc comparisons proved that there were significant differences between all countries as
demonstrated in Table 5.
Table 5
Variability of School Climate by Country
Items

Country

France
Italy
General School Climate
Spain(TQ48)
TurkeyTotal
FranceItaly
Teacher-Student Relations
Spain(TQ49)
Turkey
Total

n

X̄

SD

F

4,435 2.801 0.464 54.822
3,612 2.815 0.427
14,653 2.907 0.534
19,089 2.879 0.626
41,789 2.875 0.565
4,435 3.266 0.441 481.272
3,612 3.157 0.430
14,653 3.311 0.461
19,089 3.118 0.516
41,789 3.205 0.491p
0.000
Difference
All except
FRA and ITA
0.000
DifferenceAll

Accordingly, France had the lowest mean score (X̄=2.801) whereas Spain had the highest meanscore (X̄ = 2.907) for the general school climate. All the countries except France and Italy
differed significantly from each other in terms of the general school climate (H1: accepted).

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Regarding teacher-student relations, a significant difference was also observed among thecountries (F(3.41785)=481.272; p<.001). Post hoc comparisons indicated that there weresignificant differences between all the countries. Turkey had the lowest mean score (X̄=3.118)
while Spain had the highest mean score (X̄=3.311) for teacher-student relations. All thecountries differed significantly from each other in terms of teacher-student relations (H2:
accepted).
Evident Relationships Between Student Diversity and School Climate by Country
To address RQ3, the variability of student diversity according to school climate wasinvestigated through the independent sample t-test (H3.1, H3.2, H5.1, and H5.2), and the effect ofstudent diversity on school climate was examined via multiple regression analysis (H6.1 andH6.2). The independent samples t-test is a statistical method used to compare the means of two
independent groups to determine if there is a significant difference between them whereas
multiple regression analysis explores the relationship between one dependent variable andmultiple independent variables to understand how each independent variable contributes tochanges in the dependent variable. First, the independent sample t-test was used to determine
whether the general school climate differs according to teaching experience in multiculturalclassrooms, and the results are presented in Table 6.
Table 6
Variability of General School Climate According to Teaching in Multicultural Classrooms
TQ48 /Country
FranceItaly
Spain
TurkeyTeaching ExperiencenX̄ ± SDt (p)in Multicultural Classrooms
Yes
2,682 2.805 ± 0.486 1.414 (0.157)
No
1,523 2.784 ± 0.457
Yes
2,472 2.822 ± 0.426 -1.298 (0.194)
No1,050 2.792 ± 0.445
Yes
11,819 2.917 ± 0.537 1.888 (0.059)
No2,663 2.861 ± 0.533
Yes
8,618 2.863 ± 0.638 1.028 (0.304)
No10,253 2.892 ± 0.620

As observed in Table 6, school climate did not vary according to teaching experience inmulticultural classes (p>0.05) (H3.1: rejected). Next, the independent sample t-test was used todetermine whether the teacher-student relationship differs according to teaching in
multicultural classrooms, and the results are demonstrated in Table 7.

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Table 7
Variability of Teacher-student Relations According to Teaching in Multicultural Classrooms
TQ49 /Country
FranceItaly
Spain
TurkeyTeaching ExperiencenX̄ ± SDt (p)in Multicultural Classrooms
Yes
2,682 3.263 ± 0.451 4.916 (0.000)
No1,523 3.282 ± 0.455
Yes
2,472 3.161 ± 0.438 -3.538 (0.000)
No1,050 3.144 ± 0.429
Yes
11,819 3.306 ± 0.465 -3.098 (0.002)
No2,663 3.341 ± 0.454
Yes
8,618 3.110 ± 0.527 -1.713 (0.087)
No
10,253 3.123 ± 0.509

As evident in Table 7, the teacher-student relationship in Turkey did not vary according toteaching experience in multicultural classrooms (p>0.05). On the other hand, the teacherstudent relationship in Italy was more positive if the teacher was experienced in teaching in
multicultural classrooms (p<0.05). Conversely, in France and Spain, the teacher-student
relationship declined the variability of teaching experience in multicultural classrooms (H3.2:
partially accepted).
Moreover, the independent sample t-test was used to determine the variability of the generalschool climate according to whether there is more than one ethnic student in the school, andthe results are listed in Table 8.
Table 8
Variability of General School Climate According to the Presence of More Than One Ethnicity
in the School
TQ48 /Country
FranceItaly
Spain
TurkeyPresence of more than one ethnicitynX̄ ± SDt (p)in the schoolYes
2,988 2.801 ± 0.489 0.943 (0.346)
No
1,203 2.787 ± 0.442
Yes
3,022 2.814 ± 0.420 0.146 (0.884)No504 2.811 ± 0.500
Yes
13,013 2.916 ± 0.535 6.026 (0.000)
No1,464 2.827 ± 0.548
Yes
9,186 2.835 ± 0.636 -9.253 (0.000)
No
9,710 2.920 ± 0.619

In Table 8, it was detected that the general school climate in France and Italy did not varydepending on whether there were students from more than one ethnicity in the school (p>0.05).
On the other hand, the presence of students from more than one ethnicity in Spain increased
the general school climate whereas it decreased in Turkey (H5.1: partially accepted). The

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independent sample t-test was also used to determine the variability of the teacher-student
relationship according to whether there are students from more than one ethnic origin in theschool, and the results of the analysis are demonstrated in Table 9.
Table 9Variability of Teacher-student Relationship According to the Presence of More Than One
Ethnicity in the School
TQ49 /Country
FranceItaly
Spain
TurkeyPresence of more than one ethnicitynX̄ ± SDt (p)in the schoolYes
2,988 3.266 ± 0.449 -0.850 (0.395)
No1,203 3.279 ± 0.462
Yes
3,022 3.152 ± 0.432 -1.360 (0.174)
No504 3.180 ± 0.453
Yes
13,013 3.313 ± 0.462 0.136 (0.892)
No1,464 3.311 ± 0.470
Yes
9,186 3.093 ± 0.518 -6.294 (0.000)
No
9,710 3.140 ± 0.516

As a result of the t-test analysis, the presence of students from more than one ethnicity in theschool did not affect the teacher-student relationship in France, Italy, and Spain (p>.05);
however, the teacher-student relationship decreased in Turkey if there were more than one
ethnicity in the school (H5.2: partially accepted).
Finally, multiple regression analysis was conducted separately for each country to determine
the impact of cultural diversity practices on the general school climate, and the findings of theregression analysis are presented in Table 10.

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Table 10The Effect of Cultural Diversity Practices on General School Climate by Country*
FranceItaly
Spain
Turkey
β
t
p
β
t
p
β
t
p
β
t
p
(Constant)
37.143 0.000
35.065 0.000
86.454 0.000
70.352 0.000
TQ44
0.018 1.028 0.304 0.028 1.523 0.128 -0.008 -0.921 0.357 -0.021 -2.411 0.016
TQ45A
0.010 0.586 0.558 0.029 1.371 0.170
0.025 2.345 0.019
0.007 0.780 0.435
TQ45B
0.029 1.543 0.123 0.064 2.978 0.003
0.036 3.317 0.001
0.026 2.796 0.005
TQ45C
0.087 4.930 0.000 -0.011 -0.652 0.514
0.052 5.504 0.000
0.045 5.185 0.000
TQ45D-0.010 -0.538 0.591 0.056 2.721 0.007
0.012 1.185 0.236
0.001 0.083 0.933
TQ45E
0.047 2.606 0.009 -0.001 -0.070 0.944
0.032 3.110 0.002
0.018 2.031 0.042
TQ46-0.006 -0.354 0.723 0.013 0.757 0.449 -0.010 -1.209 0.227
0.012 1.351 0.177
TQ47A-0.081 -4.899 0.000 -0.121 -6.656 0.000 -0.113 -12.552 0.000 -0.062 -6.450 0.000
TQ47B-0.058 -3.528 0.000 -0.044 -2.460 0.014 -0.063 -7.205 0.000
0.001 0.060 0.952
TQ47C-0.072 -4.566 0.000 -0.101 -5.677 0.000 -0.114 -12.821 0.000 -0.114 -12.543 0.000
TQ47D-0.065 -4.190 0.000 -0.112 -6.331 0.000 -0.148 -16.825 0.000 -0.106 -11.616 0.000
22.37933.000199.668
124.028
F
.000
.000
.000
.000
p
0.050
0.089
0.130
0.066
Adj. R2
1.597
1.881
1.738
1.759
DW
Items

*The increasing codes assigned to TQ44 and TQ47 within the original dataset are indicative of a progressively
unfavourable situation. Consequently, a negative coefficient signifies a contrary positive impact.

According to the results, cultural diversity practices positively influenced the general school
climate in all the countries. The models established for each country were statisticallysignificant (p<0.05). In France, “ensuring that students with and without a migrant backgroundwork together” (β=.087; p<.01), “reducing ethnic stereotyping amongst students” (β=.087;
p<.01), and all diversity practices (TQ47) had a positive impact on the school climate. In Italy,“adapting teaching to the cultural diversity of students” (β=.064; p<.01), “raising awarenessfor cultural differences amongst students” (β=.056, p<.01), and all diversity practices (TQ47)
positively influenced the school climate. In Spain, “ensuring that students with/without amigrant background work together” (β=.025; p<.01), “adapting teaching to the cultural
diversity of students” (β=.036; p<.01), “ensuring that students with/without a migrantbackground work together” (β=.052; p<.01), “reducing ethnic stereotyping amongst students”(β=.064, p<.01), and all diversity practices (TQ47) positively affected the school climate.
Finally, in Turkey, “teaching in a classroom with students from different cultures”, “adapting
teaching to the cultural diversity of students”, “ensuring that students with/without a migrantbackground work together”, and “reducing ethnic stereotyping amongst students” positively
impacted the school climate. Additionally, except from “organizing multicultural events”,
other diversity practices also had a positive impact on the school climate (H6.1: accepted).

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To test H6.2, multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for each country to
examine the impact of cultural diversity practices on teacher-student relations. The findings ofthe regression analysis are presented in Table 11.
Table 11The Effect of Cultural Diversity Practices on Teacher-student Relations by Country*
FranceItaly
Spain
Turkey
β
t
p
β
t
p
β
t
p
β
t
p
42.5350.000
34.6840.000
91.1070.000
78.9730.000(Constant)
0.056 3.088 0.002 0.039 2.065 0.039
0.051 5.958 0.000 -0.033 -3.752 0.000
TQ44-0.010 -0.586 0.558 0.030 1.403 0.161
0.028 2.544 0.011 0.032 3.625 0.000
TQ45A
0.015 0.774 0.439 0.022 0.986 0.324
0.024 2.205 0.027 0.010 1.062 0.288
TQ45B
0.097 5.458 0.000 -0.001 -0.031 0.975
0.093 9.544 0.000 0.044 5.045 0.000
TQ45C-0.009 -0.481 0.631 0.096 4.584 0.000
0.034 3.343 0.001 0.021 2.203 0.028
TQ45D
0.043 2.317 0.021 0.016 0.865 0.387
0.066 6.187 0.000 0.052 5.810 0.000
TQ45E
0.009 0.556 0.578 0.035 2.091 0.037
0.008 0.963 0.336 0.014 1.612 0.107
TQ46-0.029-1.7300.084-0.064-3.4580.001-0.058-6.318 0.000 -0.035 -3.599 0.000
TQ47A-0.047 -2.841 0.005 -0.027 -1.512 0.131 -0.024 -2.664 0.008 0.002 0.161 0.872
TQ47B-0.061 -3.858 0.000 -0.080 -4.427 0.000 -0.080 -8.710 0.000 -0.086 -9.346 0.000
TQ47C-0.047 -3.005 0.003 -0.080 -4.441 0.000 -0.099- 0.000 -0.064 -6.936 0.000
TQ47D
10.95912.30918.152
123.343
78.619
F
b
c
d
.000
.000
.000
.000e
p
0.027
0.050
0.084
0.043
r2
1.736
1.811
1.817
1.855
DW
Items

*The increasing codes assigned to TQ44 and TQ47 within the original dataset are indicative of a progressively
unfavourable situation. Consequently, a negative coefficient signifies a contrary positive impact.

The model established for France was statistically significant (p<.001) accounting for 2.7% of
the variance in teacher-student relations. In France, the results indicated that among theindividual predictor variables, “ensuring that students with/without a migrant background work
together” (β=.087; p<.01) and “reducing ethnic stereotyping amongst students” (β=.047;
p<.01) demonstrated a significant positive relationship with teacher-student relations.
Conversely, “teaching in a classroom with students from different cultures” (β=.018; p>.05),“coping with the challenges of a multicultural classroom” (β=.010; p>.05), “adapting teaching
to the cultural diversity of students” (β=.029; p>.05), and “raising awareness for culturaldifferences amongst students” (β=-0.010; p>.05) did not exhibit significant associations.
Regarding the cultural diversity practices, positive associations were observed for “supporting
activities or organizations that encourage students’ expression of diverse ethnic and cultural
identities” (β=-0.081; p<.01), “organizing multicultural events” (β=-0.058; p<.01), “teaching
students how to deal with ethnic and cultural discrimination” (β=-0.072; p<.01), and “adopting
teaching and learning practices that integrate global issues throughout the curriculum” (β=0.065; p<.01).

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The model employed for Italy was statistically significant (p<.001) accounting for 5.0% of thevariance in teacher-student relations. In Italy, “teaching in a classroom with students fromdifferent cultures” (β=.039; p<.05), “whether the school includes students of more than one
cultural or ethnic background” (β=.035; p<.05), and “raising awareness for cultural differencesamongst students” (β=.096; p<.05) demonstrated a significant positive relationship withteacher-student relations. On the other hand, “coping with challenges of a multiculturalclassroom” (β=.030; p>.05), “adapting teaching to the cultural diversity of students” (β=.022;
p>.05), “ensuring that students with/without a migrant background work together” (β=-.001;
p>.05), and “reducing ethnic stereotyping amongst students” (β=.016; p>.05) did not exhibit
significant associations. Regarding cultural diversity practices, positive associations wereobserved for “supporting activities or organizations that encourage students’ expression ofdiverse ethnic and cultural identities” (β=-.064; p<001), “teaching students how to deal withethnic and cultural discrimination” (β=-.080; p<.001), and “adopting teaching and learning
practices that integrate global issues throughout the curriculum” (β=-.080; p<.001).
The model developed for Spain was statistically significant (p<.001) accounting for 8.4% of
the variance in teacher-student relations. In Spain, only “whether the school includes students
of more than one cultural or ethnic background” did not have a significant impact on teacherstudent relations (β=.008; p>.05). All the other variables, which are “teaching in a classroom
with students from different cultures”, “self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms”(TQ45A,B,C,D,E), and diversity practices (TQ47A,B,C,D) had a positive impact on teacher-student
relations in Spain.
The final model established for Turkey was statistically significant (p<.001) accounting for4.3% of the variance in teacher-student relations. In Turkey, “teaching in a classroom withstudents from different cultures” (β=-.033; p<.05) positively influenced teacher-student
relations. “Coping with the challenges of a multicultural classroom” (β=0.032; p<.001),“ensuring that students with/without a migrant background work together” (β=0.044; p<.001),“raising awareness for cultural differences amongst students” (β=0.021; p<.05), and “reducing
ethnic stereotyping amongst students” (β=0.052; p<.001) also exhibited significant positive
associations. Regarding cultural diversity practices, positive associations were observed for“supporting activities or organizations that encourage students’ expression of diverse ethnic
and cultural identities” (β=-0.035; p<.001), “teaching students how to deal with ethnic andcultural discrimination” (β=-0.086; p<.001), and “adopting teaching and learning practices that
integrate global issues throughout the curriculum” (β=-0.064; p<.001) (H6.2: accepted).
To sum up, based on the research design of this study, the differences in student diversity(RQ1), school climate (RQ2), and diversity in schools in the Mediterranean region (RQ3) were
investigated through the variability of general school climate (H1), teacher-student relations(H2), teaching experience in multicultural classrooms (H3: H3.1, H3.2), teachers’ self-efficacy inmulticultural classrooms (H4), the presence of students from various ethnic backgrounds (H5:H5.1, H5.2), and diversity practices (H6: H6.1, H6.2) in the schools of France, Italy, Spain, andTurkey. The summarized results are presented in Table 12.

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Table 12Overall Results of Hypothesis Testing
Hypotheses
H1: The general school climate varies acrosscountries.
H2: Teacher-student relationships vary acrosscountries.
H3: Teaching experience in multicultural classrooms
varies across countries.
H3.1: The general school climate in countries differs
based on teaching experience in multiculturalclassrooms.
H3.2: Teacher-student relationships in countries differ
based on teaching experience in multiculturalclassrooms.
H4: The self-efficacy of teachers teaching
multicultural classrooms varies across countries.
H5: The presence of students from multiple ethnic
backgrounds in the school varies across countries.
H5.1: The general school climate in countries differs
based on the presence of students from multiple
ethnic backgrounds in the school.
H5.2: Teacher-student relationships in countries differ
based on the presence of students from multiple
ethnic backgrounds in the school.
H6: Diversity practices vary across countries.
H6.1: Diversity practices have a positive impact on
the general school climate.
H6.2: Diversity practices have a positive impact onteacher-student relationships.

p-value

Decision

All countries<0.001

Accepted

All countries<0.001

Accepted

All countries <0.01

Accepted

All countries>0.05

Rejected

Turkey>0.05
Other countries<0.01

Rejected for Turkey
Accepted for France,
Italy, and Spain

All countries<0.001

Accepted

All countries<0.01

Accepted

France>0.05
Italy>0.05
Spain<0.01
Turkey<0.01
France>0.05
Italy>0.05
Spain >0.05
Turkey<0.01
All countries<0.01

Rejected forFrance and Italy
Accepted forTurkey and Spain
Accepted only for
TurkeyRejected forother countries
Accepted

All countries<0.01

Accepted

All countries <0.01

Accepted

Discussion
This study sought to determine the degree to which student diversity and school climate differ
within and among France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey by examining and comparing the effects ofstudent diversity on school climate in these selected Mediterranean nations. The results
revealed several significant findings. Firstly, evident variations were detected in the generalschool climate, teacher-student relationships, teaching experience in multicultural classrooms,
self-efficacy of teachers, and the presence of students from multiple ethnic backgrounds among
the countries (H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5). These findings align with prior research in the field(Dawes et al., 2020; Rasheed et al., 2020; Thapa et al., 2013; Voight & Nation, 2016). Spainand Italy had a higher proportion of classrooms with diverse cultural or ethnic student
populations compared to France and Turkey (H3 and H5). Consistently, as stated by PatiñoSantos and Rubinstein (2012), “Spain shows a wide variety of communities”, which cancontribute to a rich and multicultural learning environment in Spanish schools by fosteringinteractions and exchanges among students from different backgrounds. Similarly, due to the69

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number of immigrant students in Italian schools resulting in more heterogeneous student
populations, it was reported that teachers in Italy were in great need of professional
development for teaching in multicultural settings (Forghani-Arani et al., 2019).
Furthermore, diversity practices differed among the countries, with Spain excelling in culturalexpression and multicultural events, France addressing discrimination, Italy incorporating
global themes, and Turkey showing a relatively lower emphasis on diversity practices (H6).
These findings align with previous research highlighting the importance of diversity practices
in promoting inclusive and tolerant school environments (Akkari & Radhouane, 2022;
Karacabey et al., 2019; Thapa et al., 2013; Voight & Nation, 2016).
Post hoc analyses revealed significant differences in coping with challenges of multiculturalclassrooms, adapting teaching to cultural diversity, raising awareness for cultural differences,and reducing ethnic stereotyping among students across the four countries. France and Spain
were similar in most sub-dimensions, while Italy displayed high self-efficacy in coping withchallenges, and France excelled in ensuring collaboration between students with/without
migration backgrounds (H4). Consistently, Romijn and colleagues (2020) detected that thevariance of Italian teachers’ self-efficacy related to diversity was a little higher compared tothe other countries, which is consistent with the results of this study. Regarding intercultural
education in France, Akkari and Radhouane (2022) highlighted the centralized system inFrance about “strategies dealing with cultural diversity in the school” and the creation of“integration classes” in France for students from different cultures to provide intercultural,
linguistic, and social support.
The general school climate varied among countries, with France and Italy differingsignificantly from the others (H1). As confirmed by Dawes and colleagues (2020) and
Khairutdinova and fellows (2022), a positive school climate is significant for student wellbeing, academic achievement, and social-emotional development. It was also detected thatteacher-student relationships also varied, with Turkey having the lowest mean score and Spain
having the highest (H2). Strong teacher-student relationships have been associated with positive
student outcomes, including engagement, motivation, and academic success (Rasheed et al.,2020; Thapa et al., 2013). In Turkey, despite the paucity of research that specifically examines
the learning environment from the perspective of diversity, a significant tendency was detected
for inclusive education practices (Sarigoz, 2019). While the diversity of students in Turkishschools presents chances for cross-cultural interaction and tolerance, it can also create
problems because of linguistic and cultural barriers. Turkey is working to promote inclusive
practices and cultivate welcoming school environments (Karacabey et al., 2019). According to
Basbay and Bektas (2009), teachers in Turkey need to be aware of students’ values, possess
the knowledge and abilities to integrate cultural differences, and update the classroom
environment, instructional strategies, and learning and teaching methods to meet the needs ofthe students by emphasizing the need for educational opportunities to help students internalize
multiculturalism, particularly in institutions that prepare teachers.

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Regarding the relationship between teaching experience in multicultural classrooms andteacher-student relationships, Italy showed a more positive association, while France and Spain
displayed a decline in the relationship with increasing teaching experience (H3.2). According
to these findings, teachers working in multicultural classrooms require continuous professional
development and assistance to successfully navigate the difficulties and build strong
relationships with their students (Forghani-Arani et al., 2019). A decline was explored in theassociation between teacher-student relationships and teaching experience in multiculturalclassrooms in France and Spain, which suggests that the ability of teachers in these nations tobuild effective relationships with students from different backgrounds may have decreased asthey gained more experience. These results underline the necessity of ongoing assistance andinstruction for teachers in France and Spain to give them the knowledge and abilities to develop
lasting relationships with their students throughout their careers as educators.
The presence of students from multiple ethnic backgrounds in the school influenced the generalschool climate differently, and an increasing trend was detected in Spain, but it was decreasingin Turkey (H5.1). Similarly, it was also revealed that the teacher-student relationship was
negatively affected by the presence of multiple ethnicities in Turkey, but not in France, Italy,
and Spain (H5.2). In other words, in Turkey, the interaction between students and teachers was
negatively impacted by the presence of various ethnic groups in the classrooms. This could be
because Turkish teachers’ relationships with students from different cultures may be influenced
negatively as a result of the difficulties teachers may encounter when working with students
from various ethnic backgrounds. In contrast, the presence of multiple ethnicities in the schoolsof France, Italy, and Spain did not significantly impact the relationship between students andteachers, which may result from teachers’ development of the necessary methods and strategies
to successfully manage the diversity of their classrooms and strong interactions with students
from different ethnic backgrounds. These findings revealed the complex dynamics between
student diversity, school climate, and teacher-student relationships, which suggests the needfor inclusive practices and strategies promoting positive interactions and cultural
understanding among students from diverse backgrounds (Hoti et al., 2017; Khairutdinova etal., 2022).
The models established for each country identified specific factors that positively influenced
the school climate and teacher-student relationships (H6.1 and H6.2), which aligns with theexisting literature. A supportive environment at school promotes the growth of positive
relationships between students and teachers and the effective management of behavioural andpsychological issues; therefore, a welcoming learning environment is critical for diverse
student populations (Hoti et al., 2017; Khairutdinova et al., 2022; Thapa et al., 2013).
In conclusion, the findings of the present study demonstrated several notable differences inschool climate, teacher-student interactions, teaching experience, student diversity, anddiversity practices among France, Italy, Spain, and Turkey. These results contribute to theunderstanding of the intricate interactions between student diversity and school climate inMediterranean countries. Hence, it is significant to promote inclusive educational71

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environments in schools and implement effective diversity practices to foster positive school
climates and enhance teacher-student relationships.
Conclusion
In summary, this study explored the significant variations in school climate, teacher-student
relationships, teaching experience, student diversity, and diversity practices among France,
Italy, Spain, and Turkey. Accordingly, some important practical implications can berecommended to educators, policymakers, and researchers. The results indicate that teachers
need specialized professional development programs to improve their ability to teach inmulticultural environments and to satisfy the requirements of various student populations.
Moreover, the differences in diversity practices among the countries underscored theimportance of implementing inclusive policies and strategies promoting cultural expression,
addressing discrimination, and incorporating global themes in curricula as detected in Spain,
France, and Italy, which can serve as valuable examples for other countries exploring toenhance their diversity practices. Additionally, regarding the variations in school climate andteacher-student relationships, it is a requirement for practitioners and teachers to foster positiveand inclusive learning environments. Therefore, educators and school administrators should
prioritize creating supportive school climates that should promote student well-being,
academic achievement, and social-emotional development for all. Strong teacher-student
relationships should be built and teachers should be provided with the necessary support andprofessional development to navigate the challenges of multicultural classrooms. It is alsoessential for education systems to invest in teacher training programs that equip educators withthe knowledge, skills, and resources including cultural competency training, interculturalcommunication skills development, and strategies for creating inclusive learning environments
to effectively teach in diverse classrooms.
For future investigations, it would be valuable to explore the long-term effects of diversity
practices on student outcomes, and the role of specific interventions and policies in enhancing
school climate and teacher-student relationships. Additionally, examining the perspectives andexperiences of students, parents, and school administrators regarding diversity and theirinfluence on school climate can provide further insights into the dynamics of diverse
educational settings.

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Corresponding author: F. Sehkar Fayda-Kinik
Email: kinik@itu.edu.tr

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Motivation and Language Learning Narratives: A Case Study ofIndonesian Students
Biaz Dea Nabilla
Arizona State University
USA

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Abstract
Motivation is a foremost aspect in language learning and has been extensively studied in thefield of SLA due to its important contribution to pedagogical implications. However, SLA
scholars/researchers have overwhelmingly preoccupied specifically with Asian students such
as Japanese and/or Chinese (Gong et al, 2020; Kikuchi, 2019). This ignores the unique
individual differences that Indonesian students have which contribute to their learning
trajectories. The present study investigated the factors of individual differences influencing
their motivation in learning English as foreign language and how the ideal L2 self is expressed
through their language learning narratives. A total of two Indonesian students studying abroadin one of the research-integrated universities in the US participated in this study during the Fallsemester. Through three stages of open-ended interviews and the researcher's observations, thedata were collected and analyzed using narrative analysis and the L2 Motivational Self System(L2MSS) proposed by Dörnyei (2009) as framework. The analysis revealed that factors suchas family background and socioeconomic status, education system inequality, and access to thetarget language contribute to their perception of their ideal L2 self. Additionally, this study
contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of Asian immigrant students as a wholeand helps to avoid stereotypical identities of Asian students based on previous research.
Keywords: L2MSS, motivation, narratives, individual differences, Asian immigrant students

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Studying abroad experience has become an interesting topic to discuss. Franklin (2010) andStroud (2010, in Anderson et al., 2015) argue that students and parents believe studying abroad
could enhance career prospects in relation to securing interviews, receiving job offers, andaccelerating career progression. Apart of the economic benefits, it is also believed that thisexperience can greatly enhance students’ acquisition of a second or foreign language. Yahsima(2009) argues that the learners need to have an embodied experience of using the language or
having the feeling of mediating one’s thoughts or interpersonal relations using the language.
Studying abroad highlights the creation of the feeling that an individual need to use thelanguage as a matter of communication and survival in the native speakers’ country.
Additionally, questions pertaining to the factors that contribute to one learner's success overanother, the motivations that drive them, and the strategies they employ to attain theirobjectives in language learning are undeniably compelling and noteworthy. Various variables
come into play that influence learners' performance, encompassing cognitive, environmental,
and cultural factors.
One of the variables to examine here is motivation. Ushioda (2009, as cited in Thompson etal., 2015) asserts that motivation has garnered substantial attention from researchers in Second
Language Acquisition due to its crucial role in determining whether learners acquire language
skills, the level of effort they invest in their learning, the duration of their persistence inlearning, and the overall success of their language acquisition endeavors. Additionally,
mastering a second or foreign language, such as English in this context, especially forIndonesian, is regarded as a fundamental aspect, particularly for students studying abroad, as
they must utilize the language both academically and in their daily lives. Motivation is usually
understood to refer to the desire to initiate L2 learning, and the effort employed to sustain it,
and in lay terms we all understand it to be a matter of quantity, as in the everyday observationthat some learners are highly motivated, and others have little or no motivation (Ortega, 2009).
Gardner (2001) believes the highest and most facilitative form of motivation is what he called
the integrative motivation, which is attained only when three conditions are met: (1) the
antecedent of integrativeness itself is high, (2) motivation quantity (that is, the combined
amount of effort, enjoyment, and investment) is also high, and (3) attitudes towards the learning
situation (teachers, curriculum) are positive.
Relating to Gardner’s (2001) socio-educational model of second language acquisition focuseson language learning taking place in the classroom and stresses that motivation is one variable
important in second language acquisition, it is proposed that motivation is supported by twoother affective components, integrativeness and attitudes toward the learning situation, and thatthe complex of such attitudes and motivation reflects an integrative motive that promotes
language learning (Gardner, et.al., 2004). Dörnyei (2009) reflects the changes of Gardner’s
motivation construct and suggests that motivated behavior is determined by three major
motivational dimensions; integrativeness, instrumentality, and attitudes toward the learning
situation, which corresponds closely with L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS).
The L2 Motivational Self System represents a major reformation of previous motivational
thinking by its explicit utilization of psychological theories of the self, yet its roots are firmly

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set in previous research in the L2 field (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009). L2MSS is a combinationof the self-dimensions in Higgins’s (1987) self-discrepancy theory and the conceptual content
of Markus and Nurius’ (1986) possible selves’ theory. The concept of L2 motivation wasframed as an outcome of how a learner perceives the relationship between his or her current
and future concepts of self (Papi, 2018). The L2MSS proposes that language learning
motivation is primarily composed of three facets: the ideal L2 self, the ought to L2 self, andthe learning experience. The ideal L2 Self is a powerful motivator for who a learner would liketo become in learning the L2 because of the desire to reduce the discrepancy between the actual
and ideal selves. The ought-to L2 self emphasizes learner’s belief in achieving the expectations
and avert negative outcomes. Whereas L2 learning experience concerns about the influencesof the environment such as the teachers, the curriculum, and peer groups. Below is thedefinition of each facet in L2MSS proposed by Dörnyei (2009):
Table 1
The L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei (2009) in Thompson & Vasquez (2015)
Component

Definition

Ideal L2 self

The ideal L2 self is the person one would like to become regarding a second
language. Powerful imagery helps language learners reach their ideal L2 selves withthe language in question.

Ought-toself

L2 The ought-to L2 self is the person one should become to meet external/societal
expectations and to avoid negative consequences of not learning the language inquestion.

L2 learning This aspect of the L2MSS does not correspond to a previous theoretical model, but
experience
instead focuses on the very real impact of past and current language learning
experiences. These can include interactions with instructors and peers, curricular
design, and experiences of successes or failures.

As previously mentioned, the L2 self is the most powerful motivator in terms of learning a new
language. In other words, a learner who has developed her/his ideal L2 self will most likely
succeed in learning the language. According to Markus and Nurius (1986) cited in Al-Shehri(2009), possible selves ‘represent individuals’ ideas of what they might become, what theywould like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming, and thus provide a conceptual
link between cognition and motivation. A comparative study conducted by Taguchi et al (2009)
on the validation of L2MSS in three important Asian contexts (Japan, China, and Iran) showsthat there is correlation of the L2MSS and the integrativeness which can be relabeled as theideal L2 self. The authors confirm instrumentality is classified into two constructive aspects:
promotion and prevention which have strong impacts on the development of the self, dependingon the internalization of external stimuli. This implies that learners’ motivation is contextspecific and influenced by many factors in learners’ surrounding. This corroborates with Papi’s(2010) study on Iranian learners’ motivation using L2MSS and its contribution to their anxiety
and learning effort. It shows that all variables in L2MSS contribute to learners’ intentions andideal L2 self minimizes their level of anxiety. Furthermore, a study conducted by Lamb (2012)

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investigating 527 Indonesian junior high school students in three distinct contexts: ametropolitan city, a provincial town, and a rural district. The study shows positive L2 learning
experience was the strongest predictor of learning effort and L2 proficiency. He also argues,
since ideal L2 self only marginally influence participants’ achievement, this might be explainedby the fact that during early adolescence, ideal selves often leaned towards being idealistic andvague and it became less likely to stimulate actual learning behaviors.
Several studies using L2MSS framework also investigate motivation with the lens of individual
differences such as language aptitude (Stenberg, 2002), learner attrition (Olsen, 2017), anxiety
and self-efficacy (Ueki & Takuechi, 2012) help to provide insights for further studies. Thus,
the present study investigates the motivation and the construction of ideal L2 self, or possible
selves added with the perspective of L2MSS framework proposed by Dörnyei (2009) and seeks
to answer these questions:
1. What are the factors of individual differences drawn from the participants’ narratives?
2. How the ideal L2 self is expressed in the participants’ language learning narrative?
Methodology
Setting and Participants
The study was conducted in a research-integrated state university in Arizona, United Stateswith two Indonesian study abroad students as the participants. During the Fall 2022 semester
from September–December, I reached out to approximately five Indonesian students who werecurrently studying abroad to participate in this study. The invitation with the selection criteria
was sent out to mailing group of Indonesian students. Only three out of five participants repliedand agreed to participate in the study. However, one participant decided to withdraw from thestudy due to health problem. Therefore, John and Nick (pseudonym) became my primaryparticipants in this study. Although, their participation was considered foremost and beneficial
as they represented two distinct parts of Indonesia.
John
Throughout the study, John was second year MTESOL student. He came from eastern part ofIndonesia, specifically Flores Island. He earned his bachelor’s degree in English educationfrom an accredited University in Yogyakarta, Central Java. He considered himself as
multilingual since he spoke several local languages such as Ngada, Bahasa Indonesia, andEnglish as foreign language. John grew up with diverse cultural and linguistic background. The
primary language used in his schools was native language—Ende-lio—which was his motherfirst language. His exposure to Bahasa Indonesia was rather limited.

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Nick
Nick was a third-year undergraduate student studying construction management. He came fromwestern part of Indonesia, specifically Tangerang. Before coming to Arizona, Nick studied andlived in Taiwan for three years, then moved to Seattle and stayed for two years. He also
considered himself as multilingual since he came from a diverse cultural family background.
His father was a native speaker of Sundanese, while his mother was a native speaker ofJavanese. He went to school where the primary language was Bahasa Indonesia and English as
second language. Because of his Chinese blood, his parents sent him to Taiwan and had him tolearn Chinese/Mandarin. He spent a year to work on the language before he could use thelanguage in classroom and daily interaction.
Data Collection and Analysis
To collect the data, I conducted three stages open-ended interviews and field notes taken during
the interviews. The objective was to seek (1) the participants’ demographic information andlife history, (2) the participants’ learning trajectories and how they use English as foreign
language in academic setting and daily social interaction before and during their time studying
abroad, and (3) the participants’ struggles of learning and utilizing English as FL as well as
their investment in increasing their motivation to utilize the English as FL. To maintain its
flexibility and comfortability, the interviews were conducted either in-person or online
depending on the participants’ availability, and the choice of language used during theinterview. Both participants chose and agreed to use Bahasa Indonesia for practical reason andto avoid any misunderstanding.
To analyze the data, I employed narrative analysis approach with Dörnyei’s (2009) L2
Motivational Self System (L2MSS) as the framework. As a matter of research ethic in social
behavior, I applied for IRB approval before conducting the interviews and had the participants
to sign the consent form. Next, I transcribed and coded by adopting Lichtman’s (2013) 3C’s ofdata analysis: codes, category, and concept. First, I read and analyzed each transcription andfield notes, the codes emerging from the data were noted and compiled into appropriate groups.
These steps built themes and once all codes were created I began to analyze them qualitatively
through narratives. Moreover, Barkhuizen (2016) discusses one of the importance of narrative
research is that narrative has acquired as a resource that individuals draw upon in theconstruction of their identities and the stories that they tell help researchers understand theways in which they situate themselves and their activities in the world. In other words, narrative
research goes beyond surface-level descriptions and seeks to understand the deeper meanings
and cultural contexts embedded within narratives. It recognizes that narratives are not justabout transmitting information but also convey cultural, social, and personal significance. Thisapproach allows researchers to explore the complex interplay between individual experiences
and broader sociocultural contexts. Additionally, I also provided my reflection andpositionality for having similar identity with the participants as Indonesian and EFL speaker.

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Findings and Discussion
Factors of Individual Differences
This study uncovers three primary factors related to individual differences that contribute to
the motivation and expression of the participants’ ideal L2 selves. The first factor revolves
around the influence of family and socioeconomic status, followed by the impact of educational
system inequality as the second factor, and finally, the significance of access to the target
language as the third factor. These factors align with the concept of regional distinctions,reflecting the specific backgrounds and circumstances of the participants’ respective origins.
A. Family and Socioeconomic Status
John comes from a family that places a high value on education, with both of his parents
working in the field of education. His father holds the position of a vice principal in one of thestate schools in Flores. Reflecting on his journey, John begins his narrative by highlighting
how his father played a pivotal role in his initial exposure to the English and opens doors tolearn the language. John goes on to express his aspiration of becoming a multilingual individual
proficient in English, envisioning his ideal L2 self. His parents serve as his role models, having
already achieved the same goal, even though they may not have had the opportunity to study
abroad. Nonetheless, they have guided and inspired John on the path towards personal growthand becoming a better individual.
“So, actually. I have been learning English since I was a kid. I think I was 6 years oldwhen I was used to it. because my father often liked to play music. when I was a kid.
Played some western songs.” (2nd interview).
“Coincidentally, my mother and father are teachers. so I already have the reading
habit. Father often brought some English story books. Even though I didn't
understand, my curiosity had appeared. There was an English dictionary that myfather brought for us. Those opportunities have shaped me to become who I am
today.” (2nd interview).
In Dörnyei's framework (2009), the individual's competence serves as a significant
motivational factor that drives them to become a successful language learner. John's fortunate
circumstance of having parents who genuinely care about his education and personal
development as well as provide diverse opportunities to immerse himself in the target language,serves as a powerful source of motivation. This was particularly crucial as he recognized thatthe likelihood of success as a language learner was quite low due to the challenging
environment in which he lived, where access to resources was limited. Nevertheless, thededication of his parents and the experiences they afforded him ignites his own determinationto achieve proficiency in a foreign language.

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Figure 1
Factors of Individual Differences

Family &Socioecono
mic Status

Education
SystemInequality

Access toTargetLanguage“They never forced me to learn. But I always remember they used to say they havehope that I can change the family. They did not have opportunity to study abroad, andthey always hope I could be the son who gains degree from abroad. Even if everythingis limited, my parents never give up their hope. And here I am studying in the US
because of them.” (3rd interview).
John acknowledges that their decision was not solely influenced by their family's strong
educational background. The public discourse surrounding also had an impact on their choice
to pursue studies abroad. Despite coming from a family with a solid educational foundation, theexternal tensions and discussions within the public sphere also influence their decision to seek
higher education opportunities overseas. Despite his parents' occupations as a vice principal anda teacher in a state school, they could only support him in obtaining a diploma degree, which
would make it easier for him to find a job upon graduation. However, upon graduation fromhigh school, John decided to pursue his bachelor in Yogyakarta, Central Java and studied
English education. He acknowledges that although his parents were facing financial difficulties
at the time, he was able to contribute by working part-time to manage the situation.
“I wanted to study accounting, but my parents could not afford to pay for the college.
So, I decided to study English education and that way I can also work part-time. My
parents had to finance four children and colleges were expensive. I also think it was
not really bad idea after all. I mean I love English, and I know my parents also want
us to be able to step forward.” (2nd interview).
John openly acknowledges that it was challenging to pretend to have an interest in a subject ofstudy. He reveals that he experienced various fluctuations in motivation and moments of selfdoubt, questioning whether he would be able to utilize the degree he would eventually obtain.
Nevertheless, John consistently reminded himself and would not give up or lose motivation incompleting his studies, while also ensuring his proficiency in the English language remainedon track. This corroborates with finding from Taguchi and colleagues (2009), the representation

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of L2 Ought-to-Self shown in his learning trajectory to meet his and family’s expectations andavoid undesirable outcomes.
“I didn’t want to feel insecure or anything. I tried every opportunity. After college, I
started to think that English is required for many job opportunities. At work, some of
my friends came from abroad which required us to be able to communicate in English.
From that, I started to apply to some YSEALI programs. The training was held
overseas. The most recent was in 2018 where I went to the US. So, those opportunities
shaped my identity in speaking English.” (3rd interview)
Compared to John, Nick comes from a family with high socioeconomic status who also value
education. For generations, his family has embraced the belief that pursuing goals throughstudying abroad is an excellent pathway to achieve success. His parents are both entrepreneurs,
his brother pursued high school in Taiwan and earned his bachelor in US university. Unlike
John who had to rely on scholarship, Nick has been provided access to pursue education abroad.
“My parents believe education is number one. I think they sent us to bilingual schools
ever since we were in kindergarten. They want us to learn English formally andinformally. I remember they used to tell us to pick any activities that involved foreign
languages. They also would hire private tutor to teach us English after school.” (2ndinterview).
His admiration towards English grew since he exposed to English movies and attached to his
brother’s reflection of studying abroad in English speaking country. However, as he enteredhigh school, his parents sent him to Taiwan that made him a little bit of disappointed as he had
to start a year before his class studying Mandarin. He describes that he went through many silent
periods and demotivated to study. This opposed Noels’ (2001) argument that motivation isinternally related as opposed to external motives. Nevertheless, Nick’s narrative provides a clear
view that motivation is socially and culturally constructed.
“They sent me to Taiwan for my high school. I felt down for a while. I like Mandarin
but I like English more, and I wanted to be like my brother, studying in the US. He
used to tell me that he wanted to go to the US and work here because the opportunity
is big to earn more money and that is why the US is known as the land or country ofopportunity. So, that is why I am motivated to be able to speak English. I think mybrother has opened a way that brings me here and pursue my study here.” (2ndinterview).
Nick views his brother as his primary role model to learn language. He emphasizes how his
brother's own learning experiences greatly influenced his desire to become proficient in both
Mandarin and English. Despite his difficulty in learning Mandarin, he receives big support fromhis brother to keep his motivation to graduate from high school and pursue his higher education
in English speaking country. When asked about his investment, he mentions the hours he put
into learning both foreign languages and his willingness to communicate (MacIntyre, 2007)

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indicate that there is balance between his motivation to learn and investment which contributeto his success in acquiring both languages.
“My family always gives us everything we need when it comes to education. In
Taiwan, they provided me with best tutors and activities so that I could keep up withthe language and school. However, sometimes it comes within yourself whether you
liked it or not. I honestly at first failed many times and had to try again and again. I
also must maintain my English that time. I talked to my brother who was in New York,and he helped with my English. So I used to juggle between Mandarin and English
because I don’t’ want to lose one of them.” (3rd interview).
Learning two foreign languages at the same time was not easy for Nick. He dealt with numerous
challenges such as a demanding environment, and anxiety. He felt uncomfortable and often
disconnected. Even if it took him a while to participate fully in his communities, his level ofintercultural awareness (Mirzaei et al, 2013) equals to his communicative competence as a resultof his investments. He explains that he intentionally distanced himself from fellow Indonesian
native speakers to ensure he had ample opportunities to improve his proficiency in Mandarin.
Prior to that, he isolated himself from almost everyone and dedicated his time to self-study in
his dorm. He states that his focused efforts on studying from books would be sufficient to pass
the language proficiency exam, and supported by his willingness to communicate and associatewith Mandarin native speaker. Nick has big desire to finish high school quickly and move to an
English-speaking country for his higher education. His story reminds me of Ortega’s (2009)
argument that the influence of immediate learning environments on learner’s motivation andthe development of his possible L2 self.
B. Education System Inequity
John and Nick come from two distinct regions in Indonesia. John comes from Flores, easternpart, while Nick comes from Tangerang, western part of Indonesia. Relating to education andregion disparity in Indonesia, Suryadharma (2016) explains that there are two types of region
segregation in Indonesia which consist of Java and Bali versus outside Java and Bali, andWestern Indonesia versus Eastern Indonesia. Both of the participants’ narratives help todistinguish the inequity on the basis of education system and facilities.
John learned English formally for the first time in high school with limited resources. In John’s
school and most public school in Flores had limited human resources – English teacher – which
contribute negatively to the development of the language in Eastern part of Indonesia. This was
also mentioned by Azzizah (2015) that the disparity of education is seen from the teachers andtextbooks used as well as medium of instruction in Eastern part of Indonesia do not provide
sufficient knowledge compared to the facilities, textbooks, and teachers’ resources in Westernpart of Indonesia. John specifically describes in his narrative that the medium of instruction

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used in his English class was local language. Due to this, the impact was seen from his friends
facing challenges in acquiring Bahasa Indonesia and English.
“English was taught formally for the first time in high school. The teachers were nonnative speakers. We didn’t necessarily learn the skills; it was mostly learning
vocabularies. Most of my friends who had difficulty in speaking Bahasa Indonesia,
they thought English was not necessary to learn. I remember it was hard to findpartners to develop my English. I mean everything is limited there. So, pursuing mymaster’s degree abroad also have me thinking that the education system should be
revised especially in Eastern Indonesia. I mean we should get equal opportunity tolearn languages or any other subjects.” (3rd interview).
Meanwhile, in the Western Region, English has been introduced since kindergarten. Nick’s
parents provided him with the opportunity to learn the language formally from an early age.
The division of educators and resources are considered equal in private and public school, eventhough the medium of instruction in private school is English compared to public school whose
goal is promoting Bahasa Indonesia. Nick emphasizes that English is commonly used ineveryday conversations, and the majority of books used in schools are written in English.
Additionally, many instructors – specifically in private schools – are native English speakers.
The education system in the western region has experienced rapid growth compared to theeastern region. This growth has both directly and indirectly influenced the students'
performance in language proficiency.
“I think it wasn’t because the the limitation of English tutors or schools that provide
English as medium of instruction or English subjects. In fact there were many manynative speakers and schools’ systems are about English as medium of instructor. My
parents were confused for which school I should attend. Even at school, for particulardays, we weren’t allowed to speak language other than English. (3rd interview).
The comparison of education system in western and eastern regions could visibly be seen fromthe use of English and local language as medium of instruction. Azzizah (2015) argues that it ischallenging for the students to get accustomed to using and absorbing study materials explained
and written in Bahasa Indonesia and English, because the local languages are still usedpredominantly by the majority of students in eastern region. In correlation to Csizér and Lukaćs’(2010) study on students attending well-equipped schools have more opportunity to study theirpreferred second language (usually English) as early as elementary school in contrast to students
attending less well-resourced schools who usually have to wait until secondary school, resulting
in a substantial difference of 2 or 3 years versus 8 years of English instruction. This disparity in87

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program design had a detrimental effect on the language learning motivation of students who
had to start learning English at a later stage.
C. Access to Target Language
The third factor found in the participants’ narratives is accessibility of learning the target
language. This factor can also be regarded as the effect of education system inequality between
both regions. John describes his challenges in learning the language due to inadequate facilities
such as limited access of internet connection. Consequently, he could not optimally study for
his language proficiency exam as part of his scholarship application.
“I feel like I have a big responsibility for what I want to achieve. So, I always want topursue my master’s degree because I want to reflect on what I have accomplished anddone for 4 years in my undergraduate degree. When applying to Graduate school weneed to have an IELTS certificate, and when I learned IELTS, the biggest challenge
was COVID-19. Because in NTT (East Nusa Tenggara), the internet connection wasalways down, and I was left behind. So, I learned by myself. I downloaded some
exercises on the website because my time was limited, and I should get 7 out of 9. I
almost never slept. I remember it was 10 to 14 hours a day.” (3rd interview).
In his narrative, John shows his dedication and investment to study for his IELTS exam despite
having trouble with network connection. This shows a correlation between doing well on
English standardized tests and his personal aspirations (Du & Jackson, 2018). John’s investment
helped him to succeed obtaining the perfect score and received the scholarship to study abroad.
In contrast, Nick explains that he did not face any issues with access or infrastructure. In fact,
he had unlimited internet connection and access to private tutors. Nick reveals that heexperienced motivational shift when his parents sent him to Taiwan, but upon returning toIndonesia, he improved his commitment to learn English by hiring several English tutors in
preparation for his educational journey to the US. In addition, Nick’s confidence on his ability
in learning the language was framed by the access provided.
“I always knew I would pass the IELTS test. Well, to get back on track, learning
English from the beginning after the Taiwan experience was difficult. So, I took
IELTS intensive private class for 2 months, approximately 6 hours per week. My firstoverall IELTS score was 6.5 and the second was 8, and then I continued to Shoreline
Community College at Seattle before I transferred to Arizona State University.” (2ndinterview)
However, his confidence dropped when he entered community college in Seattle. This happened
specifically because after spending years in Taiwan, as well as the objective of learning English
was only to achieve perfect score on the language proficiency tests. However, upon reflecting
on his past experiences, he believes that no matter the difficulties he faced, he always had a setof effective strategies to overcome obstacles. One of the strategies was practicing tocommunicate with native speakers. Even though he acknowledges that he may still encounter88

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difficulties with English pronouns like he/she and it, which could be influenced by his native or
first language, he focused in learning the language through social interaction (Lee, 2014) which
also helped to restore his language learning investment.
Expression of Ideal L2 Self
The participants’ narratives on their experiences in learning English envision themselves tobecome their ideal L2 self. Despite the various factors that have influenced their individual
experiences, they had their own strategies to keep their motivation and investment in learning
the target language. Moreover, Mendoza and Phung (2018) argue the Ideal L2 Self is an L2specific aspect of the ideal self a person aspires to become. That person visualizes his or her
future self as proficient in the target language. For John, his region of origin serves as the barrier
in attaining his ideal L2 self, as limited access and his family's financial situation motivate him
to succeed in his target language and pursue his goal of studying abroad. Additionally, John
faces a motivation challenge related to his ethnicity. Being born in the eastern part of Indonesia,
some people doubt his potential for success. However, John's dedication to do self-study andimmerse himself in the target language exemplifies his determination to succeed, even in theface of societal norms that may push against his aspirations (Brehm, 1966, as cited in Thompson& Liu, 2018).
Moreover, it is also related to dynamic systems theory (Cameron & Larsen-Freeman, 2007),
which takes into account how motivation is impacted by time, material resources, opportunities
to learn, developing relationships with speakers of the target language, and access to target
communities. In Nick’s account, he was fortunate to have unlimited access since his family’s
financial situation and his region of origin support his development in learning the target
language. However, unlike John who views his parents as his biggest motivation and as thefigure to shape his ideal L2 self despite the obstacles, Nick views his brother as the person who
paved the way to achieve his language learning goals. Nick's aspiration to achieve proficiency
in a foreign language shape his ideal L2 self, which is interestingly constructed and influenced
by his brother's ability to envision himself as a successful language learner.
Looking at attribution theory proposed by Weiner (1992, as cited in Martinović & Burić, 2021),
the narratives provided by my participants describe the assumption that individuals tounderstand the causes of their success and failures. This attribution will somehow affect theiremotional reactions and behaviour in the future. John and Nick were fully aware of his struggles
to achieve a certain proficiency in language, and to reach their goal pursuing higher education
in English speaking country. In addition, the awareness of being successful or failure isconsidered prominent variable for the expression of ideal L2 self.
Researcher’s Reflexivity
The participants' motivation shift and their expression of the ideal L2 self have demonstrateda dynamic and intricate nature, as they projected their learning trajectories to become proficientlanguage speakers in their envisioned future. As a researcher, I am fully aware of the89

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preconceptions surrounding the factors that contribute to my participants’ motivational shift
and the expression of their ideal L2 selves. As the researcher shares the same regional
background as Nick, there is a deep understanding of the factors that can influence anindividual's proficiency level compared to others. Additionally, during the interviews andobservations, I relate to my own personal story, recognizing the similar journey of experiencing
a series of motivational shifts to express my own ideal L2 self.
Conclusion
The participants helped to unpack the factors of individual differences that significantly
contribute to the motivation and expression of ideal L2 self in learning target language. The
disparity between participants’ region of origin became a major point of any inequities such associoeconomic status, education system, and accessibility of infrastructure to sustain thelanguage learning. The participants’ motivational trajectories have implications for National
education to further assess and offer equity in terms of medium of instruction, educators, andaccessibility to help students in eastern region better adapt to the environment.
The analysis of the participants’ narratives afforded fresh insights into why motivational shifts
contributed most to the participants’ ideal L2 self as shown in their aspiration of becoming whothey want to be and the investment they put into becoming the aspired individual. The
continuous interactions between the participants’ perceptions of the changing learning andsocial context (Du & Jackson, 2018) influenced their sustain enhancement in motivation tolearn the target language.

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context. Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self, 86(1), 144–163.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691293-008
Yashima. (2018). International Posture and the Ideal L2 Self in the Japanese EFL Context. In
Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (pp. 144–163). Multilingual Matters.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691293-008
Corresponding author: Biaz Dea Nabilla
Email: bnabilla@asu.edu

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The Impact of Supervision Process toward Counselling Competencies
among Malaysian Trainee Counsellors
Suhaili Arifin
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia
Noor Syamilah Zakaria
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Wan Marzuki Wan Jaafar
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Nor Mazlina Ghazali
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Nor Shakirah Sakari
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia

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Abstract
The main objective of this study is to investigate the level of counselling competencies among
trainee counsellors in supervision. It also aims to analyze the relationship between frequencyof supervisions with counselling competencies. This study was conducted among trainee
counsellors (counselling students) from nine public universities all across Malaysia that offer
bachelor programmes in counselling. The respondents consisted of n=204 trainee counsellors
and n=62 lecturer supervisors who were selected in pairs using stratified random sampling. The
Counselling Competencies Scale was used to assess the counselling competencies of trainee
counsellors. The results of the study revealed that most of the respondents were at the “meets
expectations” level of the counselling competency. The results also showed that there was asignificant relationship between the frequency of supervisions with two sub-scales ofcounselling competency, namely professional behaviour (d=.180, p<.009) and counsellingskills (d=.169, p<.019). This research finding has implications for the training field ofcounselling education in Malaysia. Additional research on other areas, such as the othercontribution factors toward the trainee counsellor’s competency is needed for future studies.
Keywords: Malaysia, supervision, counselling competencies, trainee counsellors

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Our lives today have become more challenging as urbanization and globalization have comeinto the fore. The idea of urbanization and globalization may be intimidating to many, as it is
all about the resistance to change. With globalization, there will be transitions in terms of jobs,
cultures as well as the environments and lifestyles, and in effect, people have to deal with thesechanges. In response to this form of modern lifestyle, nowadays counselling is acknowledged
as a professional service equipped with various approaches and techniques that can assist
humans when dealing with psychological distress and mental health problems (Arifin et al.,2022).
As a result, there is a demand for counsellors in providing research-based and structured
counselling services competently (Farozin, 2019; DepPue & Lambie, 2014; Falender &Shafranske, 2014; Swank et al., 2012; Zakaria, 2013). Therefore, it is worth pointing out that
counsellors shoulder various responsibilities for clients with psychological and mental healthstruggles. Ideally, to become a competent counsellor, all aspects of competence need to be
developed from the beginning of counsellor training and education (Bernard & Goodyear,
2019; McLeod, 2013; Setiyowati et al., 2019; Zakaria & Warren, 2016). Unfortunately, a
trainee counsellor does not develop in a vacuum and requires the readiness to bear
responsibility for personal learning in many areas. As stated by McLeod (2013), educating acounsellor involves many aspects such as the system of education, training, and also support
to produce and maintain the quality of counselling services offered (Zakaria et al., 2017).
Therefore, counsellor education programmes are designed to ensure that their trainees are
efficient, that they can persevere through difficult periods of counselling, exert themselves towork effectively with a complex range of clients, and demonstrate a high level of competence
in dealing with their clients (Zawawi & Al-Ali, 2014). In view of this, counselling internship(Mohd Ali et al., 2020) and supervision process (Alis et al., 2017) are both among the mainelements in counselling degree courses in Malaysia that need to be undertaken concurrently asstated in the Counsellor Training Standard and Qualification (Malaysian Board Counsellors,2015) guidelines.
Counselling internship is a form of post-practicum experience training supervised with the
purpose of enabling students to scrutinize, increase and strengthen the counselling knowledge
and skills application at the professional training hubs (Malaysian Board Counsellors, 2015).
The internship training needs to be executed in any organizations, institutions or clinics that
prepare counselling services and it is part of the supervision process.
Although Malaysian Board of Counsellors has presented a clear guideline, counsellor educatorsand supervisors find it really challenging to develop and empower their trainees’ competency,
due to the complex nature of the supervision process (Arifin et al., 2022). That is why the extent
of the actual competency level achieved by trainee counsellors is still open for debate(Falender, 2014). Additionally, the researchers also found that the studies or writings related
to the topic of trainee counsellors’ competency are also very limited especially in the context
of supervision in Malaysia.

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That said, the past literature shows that most of the studies related to supervision practice havebeen conducted through the lens of Western supervision practices (Falender et al., 2021). In
the context of Malaysia, there are supervision studies conducted by Mat Min (2017), Ahmad(2016), Alis and colleagues (2014), Ghazali (2015), Norwati & Wan Mazwati (2013), Mohd
Nor (2012), Wan Jaafar (2007), and Abdul Ghani (2007). However, none of the studies havefocused on the true competency of the trainee counsellors in supervision. One of the root causes
to this issue is the lack of competency instrument.
There are several instruments labelled as the counselling competency measuring tools such as
Helping Skills System (Hill & O’Brien, 1999), Skilled Counselling Scale (Urbani et al., 2002),
and Counselling Skills Scale (Eriksen & McAuliffe, 2003). However, all the instruments arelimited to only one component namely counselling skills (Lambie et al., 2018; Swank et al.,2012). Until today, there is only one instrument which is Counselling Competencies Scale(CCS) that can measure counselling competency in a comprehensive supervision (Lambie etal., 2018) as utilized in this study. Given that no research has been done in Malaysia toinvestigate the actual mastery level of trainee counsellors on the counselling competency in the
supervision, this study has been conducted to reduce the paucity existing in the previous study
through the following two objectives:
1.
2.

To investigate the level of counselling competency of trainee counsellors in the
supervision process; andTo analyse the relationship between the frequency of supervisions with counsellingcompetencies.
Literature Review

Among the earliest literature found to have discussed counsellor competency was Gross andRobinson (1987). These writers discussed five main components that have to be possessed by
a competent counsellor including (1) have to display accurate professional qualification; (2)professional growth through involvement in professional activities; (3) services can only beoffered by those having acknowledged qualification; (4) always maintaining knowledge andqualification at the best level; and (5) able to help the client resolve the issue more effectively.
In other words, the use of supervision process is a crucial element in counsellor development
during training and throughout the working life of the counsellor (American Counselling
Association, 2014; Bernard & Goodyear, 2019; Malaysian Board Counsellors, 2015; McLeod,
2013). In the supervision process, there are support and education activities from the supervisor
to channel the counselling profession’s knowledge, skills, and attitude (Bernard & Goodyear,2019); professional value and identity (Barton, 2016; Zakaria et al., 2017); as well as
instruction, modeling, and mutual problem-solving to trainee counsellors (Falender &Shafranske, 2004).
Other than that, supervision is also a form of evaluation to the development that has beenachieved by the trainee counsellor throughout their internship training (Bernard & Goodyear,

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2019; Kabir, 2017). Meanwhile, Watkins (2020), found that previous studies had proven thatthe supervision process really helps trainee counsellors to go through with the session, increase
their self-awareness and self-efficacy; have a positive correlation with work satisfaction andable to deal with obstacles and workload effectively.
It can be concluded that one of the main aims in the supervision process is to empower thecompetency of trainee counsellors (Arifin et al., 2022; Falender & Shafranske, 2014; Swank etal., 2012; Vassara & Papavassilio-Alexiou, 2021; Bernard & Goodyear, 2019).
For the competency definition that was first identified in counselling, it was found under thepsychology branch introduced by Epstein and Hundert (2002) which is: “the habitual andjudicious use of communication, knowledge, technical skills, clinical reasoning, emotions,values, and reflection in daily practice for the benefit of the individual and community withcuriosity, self-awareness, and presence” (p. 227).
Nonetheless, this definition received criticism from Ridley and colleagues, (2011), whoquestioned how “the habitual and judicious use” can be illustrated. Even so, terms like “clinicalreasoning, with curiosity, and presence” were also criticized as they had broad meanings, were
ambiguous and vague. Based on the literature survey, early on, counselling scholars only
discussed and put forth the idea that the competency of a counsellor only depends on theirmastery towards counselling skills for instance in Egan (1990), Hill (1990), and Ivey andAuthier (1978).
However, ideas like this contradict the view of McLeod (1992) who opined that the competencyof a counsellor depends on any quality, capability or factor that can influence his or her
effectiveness in doing tasks or playing their role. According to McLeod (2013), the author
identified that there were seven broad areas of counsellor competence namely interpersonal
skills; personal beliefs and attitudes; conceptual ability; personal ‘soundness’; mastery oftechnique; ability to understand and work within social systems; and openness to learning andinquiry.
On the other hand, Ridley and colleagues, (2011), viewed that counselling competency isdefined as a set of micro skills encompassing the cognitive, affective and behaviouralcomponents and involving therapeutic change outcome. Meanwhile, past studies like Balichand colleagues (2015), Carnes-Holt and fellows (2016), Foo and colleagues (2017), Lambie
and fellows (2018), Subarimaniam and colleagues (2020), Swank (2014), Swank and fellows(2012), Warren and colleagues (2012), Warren and fellows (2013), Zakaria and colleagues(2020), and Zakaria and fellows (2022) established that counselling competency means
knowledge, counselling skills, professional disposition, professional behaviour. as well as
ethical sound practice and application.
Based on the discussion above, there are various definitions of counselling competency
established from one scholar to another. There is nothing more critical on counsellingcompetency other than defining the term (Pelling, 2009; Ridley et al, 2011). Up until today,97

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the researchers have not found, or been informed of, any consensus in regard of what anachievable counselling competency entails (Barnett et al., 2007; Xia et al., 2021).
The difficulty in determining the definition of counselling competency truly shows that theprocess of acknowledging trainee counsellors as competent counsellors is something that isvery much prioritized in this profession. One of the main reasons is because competency is adeterminant to the effectiveness of counselling process and a therapeutic outcome to the client(Ridley et al., 2011; Setiyowati et al., 2019). A counsellor without competency, who provides
the counselling services may harm the clients’ psychology as a whole, can ruin the profession
reputation, and will affect all the counsellors in service (American Counselling Association,
2014; Arifin et al., 2022; Bernard & Goodyear, 2019; Falender, 2014; Malaysian Board
Counsellors, 2015; Zakaria, 2013).
To prevent this from happening, a counsellor competency act has been made effective in
Malaysia in Counsellor Ethics Code (Malaysian Board Counsellors, 2019) under Professional
Competency Section (C.2) Professional Competency, sub-section (C.2.a) Competency Border,
which is: “Counsellor must be carrying out their professional work in the scope of competency
based on education, training, supervision experience, professional accreditation also
appropriate professional experiences. Counsellors should obtain knowledge, personalawareness, sensitivity and skills, all of which are related to their services through various
clients” (p. 28). Hence, promoting counselling competency among trainee counsellors inclinical supervision is very crucial in counsellor training and education programmes.
Methodology
This is a cross-sectional study which employs a quantitative method by distributing the
instruments in the data collection phase. The respondents in this study are 204 trainee
counsellors in their final year of internship and 62 counselling lecturers appointed assupervisors to the trainee counsellors. All respondents are from counselling undergraduate
programmes from nine Malaysian public universities namely Universiti Putra Malaysia(UPM), Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI), Universiti Malaya (UM), Universiti Utara
Malaysia (UUM), Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), Universiti Malaysia Sarawak(UNIMAS), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM),and Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM). All these universities have been
accredited by the Malaysian Qualification Accreditation and the Malaysian Board ofCounsellors. A stratified random sampling procedure was used for the study.

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Table 1
Demographic Information of the Respondents
Demographic information
GenderMale
FemaleUniversity
UPSI
UMT
UPM
UM
UUM
UMS
USIM
UNIMAS
IIUM
Race
Malay
ChineseIndia
Other
Settings
Non-governmentalorganizations
Government organizations
Counselling Centre forhigher studies institute
SchoolDemographic information
Supervision frequency
Once
Twice
Three times
Four times
Five times

Trainee counsellor
N (204)
Percentage

Lecturer Supervisor
N (62)
Percentage

36
168

17.6
82.4

20
42

32.3
67.7

12
12
30
44
24
11
23
30
18

6.5
9.7
14.7
21.6
12.9
6.5
11.3
14.7
8.8

10
4
6
8
5
6
8
4

16.1
6.5
9.7
12.9
8.1
9.7
12.9
6.5

169
9
8
18

82.8
4.4
3.9
8.8

57
2
1
2

91.9
3.2
1.6
3.2

13

6.4

39
80

19.1
39.2

72
35.3
Trainee counsellor
N (204)
Percentage
24
91
76
8
5

Lecturer Supervisor
N (204)
Percentage

11.8
44.6
37.3
11.8
2.5

Approval and ethics clearance were obtained before prior data collection progression from the
EthicsCommitteeofUniversiti
Putra
Malaysia,
Referenceno:
UPM/TNCPI/RMC/JKEUPM/1.4.18.2 (JKEUPM). Having received the endorsement,
researchers had asked for permission to conduct the study from the Academic Deputy
Chancellor from every university involved. After it was approved, researchers contacted every
respondent involved and asked for their permission before the instrument was distributed. The
instrument set consisting of two sections was used in this study. Section A includes thedemographic information of the trainee counsellors, consisting of university, gender, race,99

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internship setting and frequency of supervisions. Section B, on the other hand, includes theCounselling Competencies Scale (CCS) (Swank et al., 2012) were distributed to their lecturers.
For the trainee counsellor respondents, 204 sets of demography instruments were distributed
using the Google Form, whereas for the supervising lecturer respondents, 204 sets of CCS
instruments were sent using express post. The CCS instrument set posted to the supervising
lecturer is based on the frequency of trainee counsellors selected under their supervision. As
an example, three trainee counsellors under the supervision were selected. Thus, three sets of
the CCS instrument will be posted to a supervising lecturer. Also, attached is a prepaid express
post envelope under the name of the principal researcher to make it easier for the lecturer toreturn the instrument set. The CCS is an instrument used specifically to assess the counsellingcompetencies of trainee counsellors in supervision.
The CCS consists of 32 items divided into 4 sub-scales, namely, (1) Counselling Competency;(2) Professional Disposition; (3) Professional Behaviour; and (4) Overall Competencies. The
CCS instrument uses a five-point Likert scale: 8=exceeds expectations; 6=meets expectations;
4=near expectations; 2=below expectations; 0=harmful. A summary of the sub-scales, items,
and CCS scoring methods can be found in Table 2, while the interpretation of the CCS scoresis presented in Table 3.
Table 2Sub-scales of CCS
Sub-scaleCounselling skills
Professional disposition
Professional behaviour
Overall competencies

Items
1 to 1213 to 2223 to 32
1 to 32

Minimum score
00
0
0

Maximum score
96
80
80
256

professional
behaviour0
2 to 20
22 to 40
42 to 60
62 to 80

Overallcompetencies
0
2 to 64
66 to 128130 to 192
194 to 256

Table 3.
Interpretation of CCS score
Competency level
HarmfulBelow expectations
Near expectations
Meets expectations
Exceeds expectations

Counselling
Skills0
2 to 24
26 to 48
50 to 72
74 to 96

professional
disposition0
2 to 20
22 to 40
42 to 60
62 to 80

Data Analysis
Prior to the use of the CCS, the instrument was tested twice in pilot and actual studies with
Cronbach's Alpha (α) statistical tool to determine the reliability of the instrument. Reliability
means that the results obtained with an instrument are consistent and stable (Pallant, 2013). For

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both tests administered, the α-value obtained for CCS instruments was .96. Based on Cohenand colleagues (2007), interpretation α-value of >0.90 indicates very high reliability. This
proves that the CCS is an excellent measurement tool and can be used for the purpose of thisstudy. Data were analyzed using statistical tests such as frequencies, means, and standard
deviations, meanwhile Chi-square (Somer's d) was used to test the relationship between thefrequency of supervisions and counselling competency.
Results
Table 4 shows the analysis findings for the professional behaviour sub-scale with the mean
54.07 (SD=11.58). For this sub-scale, the majority have fulfilled the expectation level which is
129 (63.2%) respondents, followed by 46 (22.5%) respondents exceeding the expectation level,and 27 (13.2%) respondents almost meeting the expectation. Meanwhile, 2 respondents stay below
the competency level, and no respondent obtains a harmful level of professional behaviour.
Table 4
Professional Behaviour Sub-Scale
Levels of professional behaviour
HarmfulBelow expectations
Near expectations
Meets expectations
Exceeds expectations
Total
Mean=54.07

Score
0
2 to 20
22 to 40
42 to 60
62 to 80

Frequency
%
0
0
2
1.0
27
13.2
129
63.2
46
22.5
204
100%
Standard Deviation=11.58

Table 5 illustrates the analysis outcome for the counselling skills sub-scale. Based on the tablebelow, the mean score for counselling skills is 65.73 (SD=12.70). The majority of the
respondents for the counselling skills have met the expectation which is 140 respondents(68.6%), 44 (21.5%) respondents exceed the expected competency level, and 20 (9.8%)
respondents reach close to the competency level. Meanwhile, no respondent has obtained
counselling skills score under the competency level and at a harmful level.
Table 5Counselling Skills Sub-Scale
Levels of counselling skills
HarmfulBelow expectations
Near expectations
Meets expectations
Exceeds expectations
Total
Mean=65.73

Score
02 to 24
26 to48
50 to 72
74 to 96

101

Frequency
%
0
0
0
0
20
9.8
140
68.6
44
21.5
204
100%
Standard Deviation =12.70

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Looking at Table 6 representing the distribution of the professional disposition sub-scale forthe respondents (trainee counsellors), all in all, the mean of the professional disposition subscale is 58.66 (SD =10.76). The majority of the respondents have met the expected competency
level with 109 (53.4%) respondents, followed by 78 (38.2%) respondents exceeding the
expected competency level. Next, 17 (8.3%) respondents reach close to the competency level,and no respondent is found below the competency level and harmful level for this sub-scale.
Table 6
Professional disposition sub-scale
Levels of professional disposition
HarmfulBelow expectations
Near expectations
Meets expectations
Exceeds expectations
Total
Mean=58.66

Score
0
2 to 20
22 to 40
42 to 60
62 to 80

Frequency
%
0
0
0
0
17
8.3
109
53.4
78
38.2
204
100%
Standard Deviation=10.76

Table 7 shows the distribution for the overall competencies level of the trainee counsellors insupervision. The mean score for overall counselling competencies is 178.46 (SD= 32.03). The
majority of the respondents meet the expected competency level which is 140 (68.6%)
respondents, while 53 (26.0%) respondents exceed the expectations, and 11 (5.4%) respondents
have nearly met the expectation as their counselling competency level. No respondent has
obtained the score under the counselling competency level and harmful level.
Table 7
Distribution of overall competencies
Levels of counselling competency
HarmfulBelow expectations
Near expectations
Meets expectations
Exceeds expectations
Total
Mean=178.4

Score
02 to 64
66 to 128130 to 192
194 to 256

Frequency
%
0
0
0
0
11
5.4
140
68.6
53
26.0
204
100%
Standard Deviation =32.03

Next, in Table 8 below, we have the findings for Somers’ d tests analysis. Based on thefindings, there is a relationship between total supervision received with two counsellingcompetencies level sub scales among trainee counsellors namely professional behaviour andcounselling skills. The results indicate that the higher frequency of supervision (more than onetime) received by counsellor-in-training is found to be statistically significant and this meansthat they are more competent in professional behaviour (d = .162, p < .009), and counsellingskills (d = .143, p < .019) compared to their peers who received supervision only once.

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Table 8The Relationship between the Frequency of Supervision and Counselling Competencies

Frequency ofsupervision

Professional Behaviour
Exceeds
Meets
Near
Below
expectations expectations expectations expectations

Once
Twice
Three times
Four times
Five times
Total (204)

4
12
28
2
0
46

Once
Twice
Three times
Four times
Five times
Total (204)

3
16
23
1
1
44

17
3
65
14
38
9
5
1
4
0
129
27
Counselling Skills
20
1
67
8
43
10
6
1
4
0
140
20

0
0
1
0
1
2

d/sig

.162 / .009*.143/.019*

Discussion
This study is conducted to identify the level of counselling competencies among Malaysian
counsellors-in-training, also to determine its association with the frequency of supervisions
received. For the first objective, the result in this study indicates that the majority of the
respondents have met the expected competency level in the overall CCS sub-scales with themean 67.73 (counselling skills); 58.66 (professional dispositions); and 54.07 (professional
behaviour) respectively. This result is relatively similar to that of DePue and Lambie (2014)
that examined the impact of a training experience including supervision process toward trainee
counsellors’ levels of empathy and their counselling competencies. This study used the same
instrument which is CCS and the measurement was made twice during the training in themidterm and final supervision period. The respondents involved 87 University-Based
Community Counselling and Research Center trainee counsellor-respondents.
The results indicate that the trainee counsellors’ overall counselling competency sub-scales in
midterm supervision are mostly at the “meets expectations” level with the mean very similar
to this study for counselling skills=64.05; professional disposition=59.66; and professional
behaviours=58.48 respectively. Meanwhile, the study finding is also in line with another study
conducted by Yaumas and colleagues (2018). This study involved 145 final year trainee
counsellors that were randomly selected in Faculty of Tarbiyah and Education in Islamic
University of Raden Intan Lampung. Generally, the result of the study reveals that most of the
trainee counsellors possessed an average or simple level basic counselling competence withthe mean ranged from 61 to 80. In addition, none of the respondents acquired the highest
competencies with the mean ranged from 81 to 100 which indicates that the majority of the103

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respondents did not master the competencies completely. However, this study did not report
the number of the students for each counselling competency score obtained.
Another study conducted by Alis and colleagues (2017) examined the associations between
self-reflection with counselling competencies consisting of (1) performing helping skills; (2)managing the counselling process, and (3) handling challenging counselling situations. There
were 100 trainee counsellors from four public universities in Malaysia namely UMT, UPSI,UPM and UM involved in this study selected through the stratified sampling technique.
Interestingly, their study findings were slightly different compared to this study with the
majority of the respondents which is 65% had high competency level and 35% had moderatecompetency level, with the mean 263.23. Meanwhile Wan Jaafar (2011) investigated thetrainee counsellor competencies through their counselling performance. The respondents
consisted of 100 trainee counsellors who underwent counselling internship for 12 weeks. They
were chosen through the stratified sampling from three universities in Malaysia namely UPM,
UM and UMS. The result is also quite similar to this study with the majority of the trainee
counsellor competencies at a moderate level with counselling skills=50.61; counsellingknowledge=47.25; interpersonal=49.22; and general performance =49.22 respectively.
According to these findings, it seems that there was a variation in the levels of competencies
possessed by trainee counsellors during the supervision. This is related to the fact that most of
the researchers have administered different psychometric properties and employed varying
competencies cut-off points. For example, other than this study, DePue and Lambie (2014) had
also used Counselling Competencies Scale (CCS), whereas Wan Jaafar (2011) adopted theCounsellor Performance Inventory (CPI) where the measurement was implemented throughthe supervisor’s lens of evaluation. Meanwhile, Yaumas and colleagues (2018) used unnamed
psychometric properties, and Alis et al., (2017) administered Counsellor Activity Self-Efficacy
Scale (CASES) respectively. The measurement tools that were used in both of these studies are
based on the counsellor-in-training self- rated evaluation. Despite the different cut-points, there
is still a similarity with the past studies in terms of the competency of the trainee counsellors
who have gone through the internship and obtained supervision. The majority were at the goodand moderate levels and none had been at the lowest or harmful level. Only few trainee
counsellors were found to obtain the highest competency level.
In a similar vein, for the second objectives, this study finding indicates that the frequency ofsupervisions received had a significant association with the two counselling competencies subscales namely counselling skills and professional behaviour. This study’s findings were parallelwith DePue & Lambie (2014) to see the impact of practicum experience for the counselling
students towards the empathy level and counselling competency. The outcome from the workby DePue and Lambie (2014) shows that there is an increase in the empathy level andcounselling competency among the trainees at the end of the semester, compared to the middleof the semester after they have been supervised throughout the practicum. Other than that, thestudy finding is also consistent with the study by Swank (2014) that attempts to compare thelevel of counselling competency evaluation between the supervisor and the counselling
practicum students. There are two evaluations which is in the middle of the semester and the104

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end of the semester, using Counselling Competencies Scale (CCS). The finding from Swank(2014) shows that there is an addition to the competency score at the end of the semester
compared to the mid-semester, based on the evaluations given by the supervisor and thecounselling students. Next, the finding also supports the finding from Alis et al., (2017) where
there is a connection between self-reflection and competency among the trainee counsellors
who are being supervised. The finding from Alis and colleagues (2017) shows that thecompetency level self-reflection ability of the trainee counsellors has increased after they havegained the experience being in the counselling session a few times in the supervision.
Based on the second objective findings, it proves that there has been an increase in thecompetency of the trainee counsellors in line with the increased frequency of supervisions
undertaken. This is due to the fact that the data in this study and in previous studies such as
Yaumas and colleagues (2018), DePue and Lambie (2014), Swank (2014), and Alis andfellows, (2017) were gathered at the end of the internship after the trainee counsellors had dealt
with a lot of issues in the supervision and having undergone the supervision process with theirrespective supervisor. Normally, early on in the training, whether in the internship orpracticum, trainee counsellors will have to confront a lot of challenges like anxiety and fear
(Bernard & Goodyear, 2019; Kurtylmaz, 2015; Tsai, 2015), certain difficulties such as being
unclear about their role (Babcock, 2014; Olk & Friedlander, 1992) and various issues insupervision relationships (Bernard & Goodyear, 2019; Falender, 2014; Ladany & Malouf,
2010; Mohd Ali et al., 2020). However, multiple studies have also proven that the supervision
process can also increase the level of competence of trainee counsellors in terms of theincreased skills in carrying out the session, increasing the level of awareness and self-efficacy
and it is related positively with the satisfaction of the trainee counsellors (Subarimaniam et al.
(2020); Watkins, 2020); higher empathy level (DePue & Lambie, 2014); and better selfreflection (Alis et al., 2017; Arokianathan et al., 2020; Zakaria, 2013).
This is due to the fact that in the internship training, every trainee counsellor will be provided
with a counselling lecturer from their university, as their main supervisor (Mohd Ali et al.,2020) and a site supervisor as the second supervisor throughout the internship training period.
During the supervision, the supervisor is responsible in assisting the development of the trainee
counsellors such as making observation, evaluation also giving feedback towards the skills,
theory, intervention and many other competency components that need to be mastered bytrainee counsellors when undergoing the counselling session (Bernard & Goodyear, 2019;
Kabir, 2017; Falender, 2014,; Malouf & Ladany, 2010). Other than that, the supervisor willtransfer the competency needed by the trainee counsellors to ensure that they are able to executethe counselling session effectively.
At the same time, trainee counsellors have the opportunity to discuss any issues that clients are
not able to handle, or any shortcomings or difficulties with the supervisor during thesupervision. Indirectly, all the activities that happen in the supervision process are those thatwill, in the end, contribute to the increased level of competency for the trainee counsellors.
Therefore, the supervision process is pivotal and significant in developing the competency of
trainee counsellors during internship/practicum (Arifin et al., 2022; Bernard & Goodyear,

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2019; DePue & Lambie, 2014; Swank et al., 2012). In addition, their competencies during aninternship will bring positive results to counselling services specifically toward clients(Spielberger, 2020), whereas the lack of supervision will expose adverse effects and be harmful
to them (Wheeler & Richards, 2007). As supported by Bernard & Goodyear (2019) supervision
is the “gatekeeper” in the counselling profession that preserves the welfare of the clients.
Limitation and Recommendation
In this study, mere attention has been given to the level of competency of the trainee counsellors
in Malaysian public universities. To enhance counselling training in Malaysia, this study
recommends that it is carried out as well at private universities with full accreditation from
Board of Counsellors Malaysia. Other than that, future researchers are also recommended tolook into other factors that may influence competency such as personality, experience as aclient self-exposure, transference, satisfaction and expectation towards the supervision process
and others contributing to the trainee counsellors’ competency in the supervision process.
Next, in this study, data were only gathered once, which is at the end of the semester. Thus, in
our next study, it is proposed that the data are to be gathered twice and conducted as alongitudinal study, which is the middle of the internship semester and at the end of theinternship semester. By conducting this type of study, the trainee counsellors’ mastery levelcan be more precisely determined.
Conclusion
There is a consistent, albeit subtle, reminder throughout this current study that the supervision
process is the mainstay that aids the development of the professional identity of every trainee
counsellor through their increased competency. Being a competent counsellor does not only
mean mastering the skills per se, but also encompassing the supposed components ofcompetency. The results of this study have provided a general overview of the counsellingskills of counsellor-in-training in Malaysia. The result shows that most of the respondents meetthe expectations of counselling skills, professional behaviour, professional disposition, andoverall competencies at the fourth level. It is also revealed that trainee counsellors in Malaysia
have the prerequisites to become a competent counsellor. Additionally, there is a significant
mention of the implications for trainee counsellor education, and supervision practice. This isbecause the frequency of supervisions appears to be one of the important factors in thedevelopment of trainees’ counsellor competencies. With these given circumstances, thesupervisors need to carry out sufficient frequency of supervisions as dictated in the Board ofCounsellors Malaysia’s guideline. It is fundamental for the trainee counsellors to master thetheory, concepts, and application of counselling to provide the best counselling sessions. Thus,
as building trainee counsellor competence is a challenge for the supervisor, concerted efforts
towards the evaluation, enrichment and consolidation towards a standard counsellingcompetency that need to be achieved are vital to be executed continuously in the counsellor
education and training programmes.

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Corresponding author: Suhaili Arifin
Email: suhaili@umt.edu.my

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Pandemic-Led Challenges for Rural Students in Bangladesh
Md Monirul Islam
International University of Business Agriculture and Technology
Bangladesh
Sardar Md Shaheen
SIMEC Institute of Technology
Bangladesh
Ratan Kumar Roy
SIMEC Institute of Technology
Bangladesh
Aminul IslamSIMEC Institute of Technology
Bangladesh
Md Daloar Hossain
SIMEC Institute of Technology
Bangladesh

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Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic had has a impact on education in Bangladesh, especially forrural areas students. This research was conducted in the South Bali Para village of Trishal
Upazila in Mymensingh and focused to investigate the difficulties faced by rural students interms of accessing and adjusting to online education during the pandemic. A sample of 300
students from primary to higher secondary levels was surveyed, and empirical research
revealed that economic hardship and lack of access to online education were the primaryconcerns for rural students. This contrasts with urban students, who were primarily
affected by mental health issues. According to the research findings, more than 60% ofhouseholds in rural areas lacked internet access or smartphones, despite the fact thatapproximately 70% of primary, lower, and higher secondary students resided in theseregions. Efforts to provide remote learning through methods such as television or
multimedia classrooms in remote areas did not effectively support rural students in their
online education during the pandemic. Therefore, the study highlights the socioeconomic
challenges and costs of pandemic-led online education in rural Bangladesh, including theincreased risk of dropouts and child marriages. The findings emphasize the urgent needfor an inclusive and accessible strategy for remote learning that specifically addresses theneeds of the poorest and most vulnerable students in Bangladesh.
Keywords: accessibility, Bangladesh, COVID-19, pandemic, rural education, online education

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COVID-19 has posed innumerable challenges to the education sector all over the world.
Educational institutions across the globe experienced an unprecedented transition from faceto-face to various forms of online education (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020). Various challenges
for the education sector include the concerns of quality, equality, accessibility, the learners’
mental health, the capacity and skills of instructors, and consensus among the stakeholders.
Nationwide closure of schools in more than 100 countries made it impossible for 1 in 5 learners
to attend schools, adversely affecting over 800 million learners worldwide, as estimated by
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) (Education,2020). Due to the sudden disruption, regular in-person educational activities turned virtual
overnight with inadequate support, facilities, and planning. Neither the takers nor theeducation providers were prepared to accept the shift to online education but had to adopt it
eventually. Research Data shows that around 38 million students were affected due to the
COVID-19-related closure in Bangladesh (Bank, 2021).
The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in online teaching and learning becoming the new norm
for education globally (Xie et al., 2020). However, the challenges of distance, scale, andpersonalized teaching and learning in online mode have not been adequately addressed, leading
to failures in compensating for traditional educational practices. Additionally, pre-existingsocial and digital divides have led to unequal access to digital technologies and resources,
exacerbating existing inequalities and making marginalized groups more vulnerable. Girls,
students with special needs, and those from low-income countries are at the highest risk ofbeing affected (Mathrani et al., 2022). Implementing remote education has brought various
logistical, technical, financial, and social issues to light. These issues include unequal
availability of ICT infrastructure, inadequate Internet, and power resources, as well as skill
deficiencies in using distance-learning platforms (Kozimor, 2020).
Moreover, the pandemic has placed an extra financial strain on households and resulted in adecrease of progress made in the educational sector. Projections even suggest that students
from countries with less developed infrastructure may experience a regression, undoing the
progress made over the past few decades (Amir et al., 2020). The psychological impact ofsocial isolation, confinement, and lack of physical exercise, reduced access to nutrition andschool meals is also a significant concern (Mathrani et al., 2022). The digital divide between
rural and urban areas is still significant, with underprivileged communities lagging behind. The
exclusionary nature of digital access and differences in the penetration of ICT assets are further
hindering progress toward equal access to education (Aziz et al., 2020). A survey conductedamong class nine students in 2020 who were eligible to receive the government’s povertytargeted stipends in Dhaka and Mymensingh divisions identified that more than 50 percent of
the respondents do not have access to television to participate in distance learning. Less than
50 percent of students watch television for remote learning those who have access to television(Biswas et al., 2020). Additionailly, Mymensingh division has the lowest access to electricity,
as 23% of households experienced daily shortage of electricity, and it ranks third in terms of
the highest illiteracy rate, standing at 43.83%. These factors are likely contributing to a
relatively lower levels of digital access and skills in Mymensingh division (Shadat et al., 2020).

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It’s obvious that students in rural areas have had a hard time adjusting to online learning during
the pandemic. Despite the shift to virtual education, there was no clear plan or support system
in place to ensure a successful transition. Developing countries like Bangladesh, encounterchallenges in establishing the necessary infrastructure and resources for online education,
which sets them apart from higher education institutions across the globe (Shrestha et al.,2022). This has resulted in even greater challenges for students who are already disadvantaged
by poverty and their remote location. To better understand the difficulties faced by
impoverished and vulnerable students in rural parts of Bangladesh, this study investigates the
obstacles they encountered when trying to access, learn and adapt to online education during
the COVID-19 outbreak. Moreover, the study will contribute to the existing literature andprovide a basis for future research. The research findings will help policymakers and education
providers to design and implement effective online education strategies that address thechallenges faced by rural students during the pandemic. In doing so, this study will contributeto the broader goal of enhancing education quality and accessibility in Bangladesh, particularly
in rural areas and promoting the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
related to education.
This paper provides a brief overview and analysis of online education during the pandemic in
Bangladesh. The first section will provide a literature review of the challenges brought by the
COVID-19 pandemic to the education sector, the challenges of online education, and the digital
divide in Bangladesh and around the world. Then we present our findings and data analysis
from the study site, Balipara, located at Trishal Thana of Mymensigh district. The third section
presents the study’s findings and discussion, highlighting the challenges faced by rural students
during the pandemic. Finally, the paper is concluded with recommendations for policymakers
and education providers.
Literature Review
The shutdown of schools due to the COVID-19 pandemic has brought significant disruptions
to education worldwide, and Bangladesh is not an exception. The pandemic has posed a manysided challenge for the education sector in the country that was already struggling to minimize
the gap between urban and rural, elites and the poor. COVID-19 lockdown and closure ofschools have caused a massive shock to the students and teachers who had to adapt to online
teaching-learning. The closure of schools had very high social and economic costs for thepeople as well as the system. Instances of child-marriage, early motherhood, and child-labor
increased following the long-term school closure (Makino et al., 2021). As the UNESCO(UNESCO-IEA, 2022) report shows, the disruption in education has caused many otherdifficulties, including interruption of learning, poor nutrition of the school students, stress andmental health hazard, anxiety of the parents, social isolation, compromised childcare,technological challenges, high economic costs, and increased dropout rates.
The Ministry of Education reports that Bangladesh has approximately 38.6 million students
across all education levels. The country presently accommodates approximately 21.6 million
elementary and primary school students, thirteen million secondary school students, and four116

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million university and college students. The majority of secondary schools, roughly seventysix percent, are in rural areas, and a significant proportion of primary school children, about
sixty percent, attend government-run schools, which are primarily situated in rural locations.
(Ministry of Education, 2022).
Before the outbreak of COVID-19 in Bangladesh, the concept of online education or blended
learning was not widely recognized or implemented in the country. The country’s education
system did not have any mainstream online-based teaching methods, as reported by (Islam &Selim, 2006). Access to technology and connectivity is one of the most significant challenges
for rural students in Bangladesh. Multimedia-based education or online learning could not beestablished due to various challenges, including a lack of infrastructure, connectivity, and thenecessary skills of educators (Islam & Inan, 2021).
The majority of students from marginalized and rural areas belong to weaker socioeconomic
backgrounds. They are not able to access and continue remote learning opportunities throughtelevision, radio, the Internet, smartphones, etc. do not have access to these devices. Amidst
these difficulties, it is also important to note that the schools are not only places to take formal
education but also place to participate in extra curriculum activities, which got affected terribly(Chowdhury, 2020). A report conducted jointly by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS,2021) and UNICEF has revealed the immense impact of school closures, particularly on themost vulnerable children who have no opportunity to access to the Internet, television andsupportive devices like computers or smartphones at home. Rural children have been
particularly affected, with only 15.9% participating in remote learning compared to 28.7% of
urban children. Geographical disparities are also significant, with Khulna and Dhaka having
the highest percentage of students participating in remote classes, while Mymensingh has thelowest. Primary school children have been affected, with only 13.1% participating in remoteclasses compared to 20.3% and 23.7% of lower and upper secondary students, respectively.
With the emergence of COVID-19, educational institutions were forced to adopt alternativemodes of teaching and learning. Despite the challenges posed by inadequate infrastructure andlimited skills among educators, there have been many efforts to overcome these obstacles andprovide online education to a larger audience in Bangladesh. The government has made many
attempts to improve the required infrastructure, such as expanding internet access andproviding training for teachers to adapt to the digital environment (Islam et al., 2021). Since
the middle of March 2021, the government has taken some initiatives, like providing distancelearning through television. Various government ministries and departments, such as the
Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education, the Ministry ofInformation Technology and Access to Information, the ICT division of the government, andso forth, decided to provide online-based education to reduce the educational crisis. The
programs were named “Ghore Boshe Shikhi” meaning is “study at home” and “Amar Ghore
Amar School” meaning is my “home is my school”, respectively, and aimed to broadcast prerecorded lessons on various subjects. However, a mere 56% of households in Bangladesh
possess a television, leaving nearly half of the learners without access. In order to reach themarginalized 44% of the population, UNESCO collaborated with the government to implement

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a comprehensive distance learning initiative for primary education based on radio broadcasts.
Additionally, recorded lessons were uploaded on YouTube, and a dedicated portal was createdspecifically for the “Ghore Boshe Shikhi” program (Mousumi, 2023). But there have been
several questions raised like: maintaining or providing the qualities education, proper
engagement of the students, accessibility of Internet and television, etc. The government takes
initiatives to provide online-based and telecast education. But the fact that 50% of the nation’s
households do not have a television set means that many people have been kept outside its
ambit (Khan et al., 2021).
Developed countries prioritize high-speed internet access, but in the case of developing
countries like Bangladesh, physical access is considered more important. Scholars emphasize
focusing on social, psychological and cultural barriers to digital inclusion, which include digital
literacy, digital skills, and reluctance to use digital tools. In addition, social inclusion concerns
such as inequality, gender disparity, and citizen rights are not fully considered in National ICT
Policy (Aziz, 2020).
Apart from access to technology and connectivity, rural students in Bangladesh also facechallenges due to the lack of digital literacy and digital divinity. Access to technology alone
cannot ensure digital literacy; having the knowledge and skills to use technology effectively isnecessary. However, the lack of access and skills is prominent in rural areas of Bangladesh,which is contributing to a growing digital divide (Waughen, 2015). Many students are notfamiliar with online learning platforms, and they lack the necessary skills to navigate theseplatforms effectively. A cross-sectional survey was conducted (Badiuzzaman et al., 2021) tocollect quantitative data and qualitative information on the digital divide experienced by
Bangladeshi students during the pandemic. The study found that despite having physical accessto information and communication technology (ICT), only 32.5% of students could attend
online classes seamlessly. Data prices and poor network infrastructure were identified as
significant barriers preventing students from participating in online learning activities. The
study suggests that stakeholders, including the Bangladesh government and educational
institutions, should take action to reduce internet costs and improve the mobile network
infrastructure in rural areas. Additionally, parents and teachers should take care of students’digital well-being. World Bank research report (Haven et al., 2021) on Bangladesh shows thatthe digital divide between rich and poor households has been a persistent phenomenon. Basedon a survey among school students aged between 5 to 15, it highlights that less than 50 percent
have access to the medium to join virtual learning or online education. Since Bangladesh had
to go for a complete online education during the first two waves of COVID-19, it was totallydependent on ICT. Many rural students in Bangladesh come from low-income families, andtheir parents may not have the necessary knowledge and skills to support their education.
Studies (M. A. Islam et al., 2020; S. M. D.-U. Islam et al., 2020; Mamun et al., 2020) suggestthat many students face challenges due to the lack of support from their families. The study
also reported that many parents were unable to provide their children with the necessary
devices and internet connectivity due to financial constraints. Online education is not only
challenging for students but also for teachers.

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Technology-based teaching becomes more complicated when the instructors do not possess therequired skills to make the teaching-learning process efficient, like interactors are unfamiliar
with using an online platform such as Zoom and google meet etc. (Yeung et al., 2012). Online
classes were found to be less effective than traditional classes since students and teachers alikelacked technological expertise. Communication gap and long length of classes posed a major
challenge for the instructors (Mahmud et al., 2021). Hossain and colleagues (2022) suggested
that improving technical infrastructure and pedagogical contents, as well as resolving financial
issues, is crucial for making online education/distance learning more effective and reducing
the impact of a pandemic on the education sector in Bangladesh.
Online learning can also have an impact on the mental health of students. A study conductedby Sayeed and colleagues ( 2020) aimed to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
on the mental health of Bangladeshi students and their perceptions towards the pandemic. A
web-based survey was conducted among 589 students in Bangladesh between April 29 and
May 07, 2020. The survey collected data on demographic status, perceptions towards COVID19, and mental health symptoms using the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale. The results
showed that a high prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms was reported among
the students. The study also found that student’s age, gender, income, location of residence,and family size are associated with mental health difficulties. Negative perceptions towards the
pandemic were significantly associated with poor mental outcomes.
Methodology
The research design for this study was a cross-sectional survey that aimed to investigate thedifficulties that primary to higher secondary level students in the South Bali Para village,
Trishal Upazila in Mymensingh, while trying to keep up with their virtual classes during the
COVID-19 school lockdown. The sample size consisted of 300 students, including 170 boys
and 130 girls, ranging in age from 7 to 20 years old. The study population mainly comprised
students from economically weaker sections and lower-middle-class families, with many of
their families relying on agriculture and agro-based incomes for their livelihood. Survey
research is generally the best option for investigating a group of people who are too large tostudy in depth through direct observation (Babbie, 2007). The cross-sectional survey design
allowed for data collection at a single point in time, providing a snapshot of the various
obstacles faced by the students while doing online classes during the pandemic. The survey
approach provided a standardized way of collecting data and allowed for comparisons acrossdifferent subgroups of students. Additionally, the survey design enabled the researchers toefficiently collect data from a large sample of students, thereby increasing the generalizabilityof the findings to the larger population of students in the village.
Data Collection
The data collection process utilized in this study was a mixed methods approach, including
qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis techniques. Social researchers often
deal with complicated issues, and these issues cannot be adequately addressed by using only

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quantitative or qualitative methods. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the diverse
issues confronted by rural students, this study adopted a mixed-method approach thatincorporates both these methods (Creswell, 2009). Triangulation, a methodological processthat integrates both techniques, was used to achieve the research objectives. Babbie (2007)
believed triangulation was an excellent technique as it can minimize certain weaknesses ofeach research method. Qualitative data was collected through interviews with the students toobtain in-depth and rich descriptions of their experiences and perspectives. On the other hand,quantitative data was collected through a survey to gather more structured and numerical dataon the student’s attitudes and behaviors. The use of both techniques and the triangulation
process allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of the research question, providing
a complete picture of the topic under investigation.
Sample Selection
For this study, a convenience sampling technique was employed to select a sample of 300
students from various schools in the South Bali Para village to serve as respondents.
Convenience sampling method relies on the availability of samples, meaning whoever iswilling to answer questions are selected for the study (Babbie, 2007; Bernard, 1988). Because
the study was carried out during the pandemic, a more non-risky sampling method such as
simple random sampling could not be utilized. The schools in the study area were closed, andas a result, getting a list of students from school authorities to run a random sampling was not
feasible at the time of data collection. The study required a certain number of respondents who
faced pandemic induced challenges, so the convenience sampling technique was adapted. As
shown in Figure 1, the composition of boys and girls surveyed was 57% and 43%, respectively.
The students were selected based on their availability and willingness to participate in the
study. The sample was equally composed of boys and girls, representing the gender distributionof the student population in the village. Additionally, the sample was representative of the age
range of the students in the village. This sampling method was chosen due to its practicality
and convenience in terms of accessibility to the target population, allowing for data collection
in a timely and cost-effective manner. However, it is essential to note that conveniencesampling may introduce some degree of bias in the sample selection process, and therefore, thegeneralizability of the findings may be limited.

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Figure 1.
Composition of Boys and Girls Surveyed

Data Analysis
The data collected in this study were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitativetechniques. Qualitative data collected through interviews were analyzed using thematic
analysis, whereby the data was conceptualized, classified, and relationships were built between
the concepts and numbers. The emerging themes were then used to describe and interpret theparticipants’ experiences and perspectives. On the other hand, quantitative data collected
through the survey were analyzed using descriptive statistics to summarise and present the data
in tables and graphs. Triangulation was employed as a methodological process to integrate thequalitative and quantitative data and to build a complete picture of the challenges faced by
students in rural areas during the COVID-19 pandemic. This allowed for a deeper
understanding of the socioeconomic challenges and costs of pandemic-led online education inrural Bangladesh and helped to identify issues related to accessibility, approaches, andadaptability of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The use of triangulation andqualitative and quantitative data analysis techniques contributed to the comprehensiveness ofthe study’s findings and increased the validity and reliability of the results.
Findings and Discussion
The objectives of the study were to find out the challenges faced by students in terms ofaccessing, learning, and adapting to online education during the COVID-19 outbreak,contribute to the existing literature and serve as a basis for future investigations, and help
policymakers and educators in developing and implementing effective online education
initiatives to address the obstacles faced by rural students during the pandemic. The study
achieved its objectives using sample data of Primary and Higher Secondary school students
from South Bali Para village, Trishal Upazila in Mymensingh. A mixed method approach anda convenience sampling technique was applied to collect and analyze the data. The study showsthat most of the students come from low-income families, with a majority of them being
dependent on agriculture and agro-based labor activities. The monthly income of these families

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is also relatively low, which makes it difficult for them to afford the devices and internet
connectivity needed for online learning. The study found that only a small percentage ofstudents had access to the Internet and owned devices such as computers or laptops to attend
online classes.
Family Background and Socioeconomic Status of the Students
Most of the students belong to lower-class families. There are 44.4% of respondents’ fathers
who do agricultural work, 20% of businessmen, 8.9% have businesses, 3% are fully
unempolyed, 2.2% are teachers, 2% are carpenters, 3% live abroad, and 16% engaged in otherprofessions as shown in Figure 2. Many families depend on agriculture and agro-based labor
activities. The maximum family depends on the income of their father. There are, 86.7% of
respondents’ fathers earn money for their family and the rest, 13.3% of respondents’ sisterbrothers earn for their family instead of their father. The profession of the respondent’s motheris not very diverse. There are 97% of respondents’ mothers are housewives, and the other 13%
of respondents’ mothers work outside.
Figure 2
The Profession of the Parents in Percentage

Monthly Income of the Respondent’s Family
When we paid attention to the monthly income of the student’s families, it was quite
depressing. Figure 3 shows that 87.20% of the respondent’s family’s monthly income is onlyaround 80 to 100 USD. Only 6.40% of respondents’ families’ income is 120 to 150 USD. Only
2.20% of respondents’ families earn 200 to 250 USD per month. 2.10% of families have amonthly income of 250 to 300 USD and 300 to 350 USD, respectively. The maximum incomeof a family is 350 USD per month, with which they struggle to maintain a decent life.

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Figure 3.
Monthly Income of the Family in USD

Resources or Equipment Available in the Students’ Households for Their Studies
Our study reveals that the majority of students residing in rural areas lacked access tobroadband Internet in their homes. Figure 4 illustrates scenario of resources or equipments
available in the house of the students; only one percent of students having their own computerat home and none of them possessing a webcam, even among those who owned a computer.
Additionally, a mere five percent of students had a broadband internet connection. During
interviews with these students, we discovered that they relied on smartphone data packages toconnect to the Internet, which presented challenges in terms of affordability and smartphone
accessibility. It is worth noting that access to the Internet was only possible through mobile
data packages, making these students heavily dependent on smartphones for online
connectivity. However, it is important to note that only 16% of students had their own
smartphones and headphones. When asked if they could afford to purchase a new smartphone
during this period, 73.3 percent responded with “No” (as illustrated in Figure 5). On a positivenote, 26% of students had chairs and tables in their homes that they could utilize for studying.
We also inquired whether they had a quiet space at home for attending online classes;
unfortunately, only 14 percent of students responded affirmatively.

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Figure 4
The Study Tools/Devices that the Students Had in Their Home

Figure 5
Percentage of Students Who Could Afford to Buy Smartphones during the COVID-19 Period

Most Used Device for Continuing Online-Based Classes and the Number of Devices
Available in the Family
During the COVID-19 lockdown, students depended on various devices to continue their
online education. When considering the distribution of device usage, a majority of students,
comprising 81% of the total, relied on smartphones or tablets to attend online classes though
their parents used those devices as they did not own the devices, shown in Figure 6. Only 16%
of students had access to a laptop or computer. Surprisingly, 3% of students had no access to
any type of device to join their classes. Among the respondents’ families, the majority (85%)
owned one smartphone, while 12% had two smartphones, and the remaining 3% had threesmartphones. During our interviews, we discovered that among the 85% of students whosefamilies owned at least one smartphone, it was predominantly the breadwinner, typically thefather, who owned it.

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Figure 6
Different Devices Used in Percentage

Classification of Owners and Dependency Percentage for Various Devices Used forOnline Classes
Regarding the classification of owners and the percentage of dependency on devices among
these students, our findings indicate that 70.6% of students shared their phones with theirsiblings to attend online classes, while 29.4% did not share their phones with their siblings. In
terms of device ownership, 60.5% of respondents used their parents’ phones, 23.7% utilized
their siblings’ phones, 10.5% had their own personal phones, and an additional 5.25% reliedon phones borrowed from friends and relatives for online classes, as illustrated in Figure 7. It’s
worth emphasizing that not all students may have personally possessed these devices; some
could have been shared with neighbors or borrowed from various sources, as indicated in
Figure 7. However, this shared device arrangement at times presented difficulties for students,
leading to occasional class absences due to conflicting schedules with their siblings or friends.
This underscores the restrictions and interruptions that can emerge when multiple individuals
depend on a single device for their educational requirements.
Figure 7
Classification of Owners and the Percentage Dependency for Devices

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Educational Costs during and after the COVID-19
The cost of education, including school and transportation fees, became an additional burden
during these challenging times. A significant number of students confirmed that school fees
increased following the COVID-19 lockdown. However, it is concerning that most students
indicated that their respective school authorities did not reduce the fees during the pandemic,
which was crucial for ensuring continued education during the lockdown. (Table 1) Only 38%
of students agreed that the school authorities waived their fees, and a mere 32% confirmed thatthe authorities had taken the initiative to facilitate an easier process for fee payment (load or
through instalments). These statistics underscore the financial challenges faced by students andtheir families and the limited support provided by educational institutions in addressing these
difficulties.
Table 1
Educational Costs While and After COVID-19
Student’s opinions & percentage
Agree/yesDisagree/no

Topic
School fees increased after COVID 19

70%

School authorities decreased school fees during
17%
COVID-19
The school authority waived school fees during
38%
COVID-19
School authorities make it easier to pay the school fees
32%of the student through a loan system or other

30%
83%
62%
68%

Monthly Internet Cost of the Respondents
Figure 8 illustrates the monthly internet costs reported by the respondents. The first column
reveals that 18.90% of students can afford to allocate around 2.5 USD (Tk. 200) for purchasing
internet services. Furthermore, 64.90% of students could spend between 2.5 to 6 USD (Tk.
200-500) per month, while 5.40% of students spent 7-8 USD (Tk. 600-700). Additionally,
8.10% of students allocated 10-12 USD (Tk. 800-1000), and 2.70% spent more than more than
12 USD (Tk. 1000) on internet expenses each month.
To actively participate in online learning, a minimum expenditure of 12 to 15 USD per month
was required for internet access. However, it was evident that most students could not meetthis requirement due to their family’s monthly income being only 80-100 USD. For ruralfamilies facing economic hardships, allocating 10% of their income solely to purchasing
internet services presented a difficult decision. This data highlights students and their families
financial constraints, which further hinder their access to quality online education.

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Figure 8
Monthly Internet Cost of the Respondents

The Price of the Devices Used for Online Classes
When it came to acquiring a new device for attending online classes, 66% of the students had
spent approximately 115 USD (Tk. 10,000), while 28% of students had invested between 115
and 225 USD (Tk. 10,000-20,000). Only 6% of students had spent 250 to 350 USD (Tk.20,00030,000) on their devices.
Additionally, it is worth noting that a significant percentage of students in rural Bangladesh, atleast 30%, encountered difficulties in using various apps on their devices, such as Zoom,
Messenger, WhatsApp, and Google Meet. This information, as depicted in Figure 9, highlights
the challenges faced by students in effectively utilizing the required online communication andcollaboration tools.
Figure 9
The Prices of the User Devices

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As a consequence of the high cost of maintaining online learning, there has been a drastic
dropout in schools. The sample size of our study shows that 21 percent of the respondents are
no more continuing their education (Figure 10).
Figure 10
School Going/Still Studying Student Percentages

Present Conditions of the Dropout Students
A significant number of students have become engaged in various professions after droppingout of school or college. Among the respondents, 50% reported being employed andcontributing their earnings to their families. Only 1% of the respondents were unemployed.
Additionally, 20% of respondents assisted with their family’s business, while 29% wereinvolved in household work and farming activities.
Following the outbreak of COVID-19, a concerning trend emerged where a large percentage
of female students faced familial pressure to get married, reaching a staggering 90%. Amongthe 21% of students who dropped out of school, 50% dropped out during grade seven, 40%
dropped out during grade eight, and the remaining 10% dropped out during class nine. These
details can be seen in Figures 11a and 11b.
Figures 11a & 11ba) The Present Condition of Dropout Students, b) The Last Academic Status of the Respondents

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The Reason for the Discontinuation of the Study/Dropout of the Respondents
According to our findings, a significant number of students have halted their studies due to theeconomic crisis. Continuing their education online posed challenges as it necessitated newarrangements. Moreover, the various incentives, moral support, and motivation they used toreceive during offline classes were no longer available. As shown in Figure 13, approximately
32% of students were unable to continue their studies due to the financial difficulties faced bytheir families. Additionally, 28% discontinued their education due to family pressure. Another
24% of students were unable to continue their studies online due to the impact of the pandemic.
Furthermore, 16% of students discontinued their education due to the pressure from theirfamilies to get married. This data highlights the factors contributing to the discontinuation ofstudies among students during thee pandemic of COVID-19 and aftermath.
Figure 13
Study Stop/Dropout Reasons of the Respondents

Rural families often faced financial constraints exacerbated by the pandemic, making it
challenging to afford the tools and resources required for remote learning. In our final analysis,
it was revealed that the students in rural areas have faced major challenges due to the economic
hardship in opposition to the crisis of mental health and stress of the urban students in
Bangladesh. This is not to say that the rural students were not facing stress and mental healthissues. As illustrated in Figure 14, 43% of students responded that they felt stress and had gone
through depression when their institutions are closed. The financial difficulties resulting fromthe pandemic heightened the likelihood of rural students discontinuing their education in orderto support their families financially or getting married at an early age (Mahmud et al., 2021),
as indicated 32% under economic crisis, 28% under gone family pressure and 16% married
and discontinued the study which is portrayed by the data presented in Figure 13.

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Figure 14
Mental Health Conditions of the Respondents after School Closed

Most of the students depended on smartphones or tabs to continue their education. The cost ofpurchasing these devices and paying for internet connectivity was also found to be a major
challenge for these low-income families (Mahmud et al., 2021). Additionally, the combinationof network connectivity issues in rural areas and the high cost of data packages further
exacerbated the situation, preventing numerous students from participating in online classes
during the COVID-19 pandemic. A recent report from a UK-based cable company highlighted
that, among the three South Asian countries – India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, Bangladesh
had the highest mobile data package rates. In specific terms, Bangladesh charged the most for
one gigabyte of mobile data at $0.99, while India’s rate for the same amount was significantly
lower at $0.26 (Jasim and Sajid, 2020). As a result, a significant number of students had todrop out of school or discontinue their education. The study also found that education was
discontinued mainly due to economic hardship, family pressure, and the difficulties ofcontinuing online education. Family pressure, especially for female students, to get married
was also found to be high. The results of the study call for policy interventions to address the
economic, social, and technological barriers rural students face in accessing education. The
government needs to take immediate measures to improve the internet connectivity
infrastructure, provide students with low-cost devices, and ensure that schools and teachers areequipped to deliver online education effectively.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, after recognizing the need for a response to mitigate thepandemic’s educational disruptions, policymakers quickly embraced the idea of transitioning
to online platforms for educational activities (Wadud, 2020). However, the pandemic
compelled a shift, making online platforms the primary means of conducting classes,
accommodating a large number of students (Mishra et al., 2020). Bangladesh, too, initiatedefforts to facilitate online classes to sustain education without in-person interactions(Shivakumara, 2020). Many academic institutions in the country have adopted theestablishment of academic portals, enabling teachers to create their courses online(Chowdhury, 2020). But many of the rural area based educational institutes still poses thelacking of facilities and instromanization.

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Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the uncertainties and emotional distress have had a detrimental
impact on the mental well-being of students, parents, and educators. This impact has given riseto psychosocial challenges during the outbreaks and their aftermath (Mopme, 2020). It was
imperative to formulate strategies to address the mental health of rural students facing
substantial stress and depression due to the pandemic and difficulties in accessing education.
This research also underscores the significance of increasing investments in rural education toprevent students from being left behind and to enable them to realize their full potential.
Education is a fundamental right, and it is the government’s duty to ensure that all children,
regardless of their socioeconomic status or geographic location, have access to high-quality
education.
Finally, it is essential to recognize that the challenges faced by rural students are not unique to
Bangladesh but are prevalent in many developing countries. Therefore, the findings of thisstudy have important implications for policymakers and education stakeholders worldwide. By
addressing the challenges rural students face in accessing education, we can work towards
building a more equitable and just society that leaves no one behind. The research findings canhelp inform policies and strategies for providing students with the necessary resources andinfrastructure to access online education.
Conclusion & Recommendations
In conclusion, our research provides insight into the difficulties and expenses involved in
implementing online education during the pandemic in rural areas of Bangladesh. Despite theintroduction of measures like remote learning through television and multimedia classrooms
in remote regions, our results indicate that these efforts did not lead to a seamless transition toonline education. On the contrary, dropout rates rose, and the likelihood of early marriage
escalated, underscoring the necessity for an inclusive and accessible remote learning approachthat caters to the poorest and most vulnerable students in Bangladesh.
Based on our study, we offer several recommendations for policymakers to consider when
designing policies for online education intervention in Bangladesh and other developing
nations across the world:
1. To begin with, it is crucial to produce more empirical evidence for rebuilding the
remote-learning strategy to make it more inclusive for poor and vulnerable
communities. This could involve conducting studies that assess the effectiveness ofexisting policies and identifying areas for improvement. Schools should conduct
surveys to assess the availability of devices and accessibility of the Internet for students.
This will help identify the students who lack access to these resources and needassistance.
2. Upon finding the unavailability of e-learning devices and inaccessibility to electricity
and devices, the school authority should arrange the same with the support of competentauthority. By doing so, schools can ensure that all students have equal access to online
education.

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3. Supporting the students to use ICT effectively and familiarising them with most newlearning technologies can be instrumental in making online education accessible andeffective for all students. This could involve providing students with training on how
to use online tools and resources effectively and how to access the Internet.
4. Moreover, access, quality, and participation should be given supreme priority. This will
include the assurance of accessibility to all students and maintaining the highest qualityof teaching-learning, and it has to be participatory in nature. By prioritizing these
aspects, policymakers can ensure that all students have access to high-quality
education, regardless of their socioeconomic background.
5. Students and parents should not suffer from anxiety about the evaluation or exam,
results, certificate, and the overall value of the degree or education earned via virtual
learning during critical times. It is crucial to ensure that online education is valued andrecognized like traditional forms of education. This could involve developing
standardized certification processes that recognize the value of online education.
6. Finally, in order to develop a framework for blended education, policymakers need to
pay attention to the infrastructure and feasibility of remote learning. A national-level
policy should be framed to develop and provide low-cost educational learning packages
for availing online education to rural students in Bangladesh. By doing so,
policymakers can ensure that all students have equal access to high-quality education,
regardless of their socioeconomic background.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of SIMEC Foundation for funding thisresearch project and to its volunteers for providing the necessary support to complete thisproject and assisting us in the field successfully.

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Education, G. C. f. (2020). Urgent action Required to curb learning disruption. Global
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Islam, S. M. D.-U., Bodrud-Doza, M., Khan, R. M., Haque, M. A., & Mamun, M. A. (2020).
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Mamun, M. A., Chandrima, R. M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2020). Mother and Son Suicide Pact
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Xie, X., Siau, K., & Nah, F. F.-H. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic – online education in the
new normal and the next normal. Journal of Information Technology Case andApplication Research, 22(3), 175–187.
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Corresponding author: Md. Monirul Islam
Email: mmislam@iubat.edu

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Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Pedagogical Competencies ofPrimary School Teachers
Lawrence Achimugu
Prince Abubakar Audu University
Nigeria
Zephrinus Chidiebere Njoku
Prince Abubakar Audu University
Nigeria
Sunday Yomi
University of Nigeria
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Abstract
The qualities of a teacher are the essential factors that influence learners’ academic
performance. Most of these qualities are acquired through retraining programmes. As a resultof this, many in-service training programme have been on-going. This study was undertaken
to ascertain the impact of SDGs retraining workshop on pedagogical competencies of primaryschool teachers. It is a descriptive survey design guided by four research questions. The
population of the study consisted of 3,115 primary school teachers who participated in SDGs
retraining workshops. Multistage sampling technique was used to select 360 teachers. The
researchers developed a structured questionnaire titled primary school teachers’ pedagogicalcompetence questionnaire (PSTPCQ, r=0.86). Mean and standard deviation were used toanswer the research questions. The results of the data analysis revealed that the SDGs retraining
workshops impacted basic science and technology teachers’ pedagogical competencies
positively in areas of teaching methods, construction of instructional materials and assessmentof learning outcomes but negatively on the out-of-class science teaching strategy. It wasrecommended among others that all primary school teachers should be given opportunity toattend the SDGs retraining workshop and that adequate fund should be made available forregular and consistent retraining programmes to ensure greater and effective instructionaldelivery of BST lessons.
Keywords: pedagogical competencies, primary school teachers, national teachers’ institute,sustainable development goals, retraining workshop

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The need to end poverty, hunger, AIDS and discrimination against women and girls brought
about the introduction of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The sustainable
development goals were adopted by United Nations in 2015 as a blueprint to achieve a betterand more sustainable future for all and it is expected to be achieved by 2030 in every countryof the world (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs came up with seventeen clearly defined goals
and the fourth of the seventeen goals centres on education with mandate to ensure inclusive
and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (Alamin &Greenwood, 2018). Trainings and retraining workshops for teachers is the key for the successof critical goals to sustainable development on quality education (Akogun & Yomi, 2023). And
this is what prompted the federal ministry of education of Nigeria through the National Teacher
Institute (NTI) to start nationwide retraining workshops for primary school teachers on four
core subjects namely, mathematics, English language, social studies and basic science andtechnology under the SDGs projects. The focus of this study is on basic science and technology(BST). The NTI provides the general guideline for nomination of participants as well as appoint
resource persons to facilitate the retraining workshops.
The retraining workshops is a kind of in-service training programme that helps in updatingteacher’s knowledge and skills for improving teaching and learning in schools. United Nations
Educational, Scientific, And Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2019) defined in-service
training as a process by which the teacher engages in refresher course to upgrade theirprofessional knowledge, skills and practices in the course of their employment. Retraining
workshops update teachers’ competency, knowledge, expertise, positive attitude, practicalskills, inquiry abilities and positive attitude towards teaching (Ngwu et al., 2019; Wahyudiati
et al., 2022; Wahyudiati, 2023). Thus, the capacity building workshops is focused on enhancing
teachers’ effectiveness in pedagogical competencies. Ekim and colleagues (2022) definedpedagogy as the principles and methods of teaching or practice of teaching profession. Thus,
pedagogy is a professional approach of imparting knowledge and skills on the learners in theclassroom. Pedagogically, a teacher should be competent in the knowledge of content areas
and arts of teaching to deliver quality instruction. Atsua and Abdullahi (2015) defined teacher
competency as the ability of a teacher to do something or perform a task as expected or in linewith stipulated standard or the possession of satisfactory level of relevant knowledge andacquisition of range of relevant skills. This, therefore, means that the teachers who implement
the curriculum have to be pedagogically competent for the onerous task of guiding the learners
through the curriculum content. Not only that teacher’s initial training has adequately enabled
them to acquire the necessary pedagogical competencies needed for effective implementationof the curriculum, the teacher should be given periodic and constant refresher capacity building
workshops that will keep them continually updated in the required pedagogical competencies(Ademola, et al., 2023; Kakarla, 2023; Lubis, et al., 2023).
Basic science and technology (BST) is one of the subjects offered at primary and juniorsecondary schools and it plays a key role in shaping how the students acquire the spirit andmethods of science as well foster learners’ interest in science subjects. Throughexperimentation and practical activities in basic science and technology, the learners develop
critical and logical thinking as well as scientific attitudes. In order to achieve this, the teacher

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should be able to possess high pedagogical competencies that will ensure effective and efficientteaching of the innovated curriculum (Seth, 2020; Usman et al., 2023). The consistent andperiodic development of the BST teachers for effectiveness in their classroom responsibilities
becomes imperative. Without retraining the BST teachers to enhance their capacities theywould most likely fail to understand and/or adopt the expected teaching strategies needed for
effective implementation of the innovated basic science and technology curriculum. NTI has
in the last seven years (2016–2022) embarked on massive teachers’ capacity building
workshops to retrain primary school BST teachers in line with Goal Four (quality education)of SDGs. Having been made an annual event since 2016, there is the need to determine theimpact of SDGs retraining workshops on primary school teachers in terms of enhancing theirpedagogical competencies in teaching basic science and technology in primary schools. The
concern of this study, poised as a question, is What is the impact of SDGs retraining workshop
on pedagogical competencies of primary school BST teachers? Therefore, the objective of thestudy is to determine the impact of SDGs retraining workshops on the pedagogicalcompetencies of primary school teacher in basic science and technology. To achieve thisobjective, four research questions were raised.
a. What is the impact of the SDGs retraining workshops on the competencies of primaryschool teachers in the teaching methods to deliver basic science and technology (BST)
lessons?
b. What is the impact of SDGs retraining workshops on the competencies of primaryschool teachers in constructing basic instructional materials to deliver BST lessons?
c. What is the impact of SDGs retraining workshops on the competencies of primaryschool teachers in the use of out-of-class science activities to deliver BST lessons?
d. What is the impact of SDGs retraining workshops on the competencies of primaryschool teachers in assessing learning outcomes in BST lessons?
Literature Review
The review of related literature were treated under three main theme of this study: Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), teacher’sCompetencies and teaching activities and impact of refraining workshops programmes andteachers’ pedagogical competencies.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) and Educational for Sustainable Development
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and the SDGs were found to have a causal
relationship in research by Diemer, Khushik, and Ndiaye (2020). Their research examined thecausation with a focus on Pakistan and other emerging nations. The two researchers stated that
SDG4’s definition of excellent education as a means to improve people’s quality of life is at
the heart of education for sustainable development and the SDGs. Due to its dynamic character;
Pakistan’s SDG implementation is crucial and can serve as a case study for ESD and SDG
research. Neither the Human Development Index (HDI) nor the Multidimensional Poverty
Index (MPI) gives Pakistan a particularly high score. While Pakistan, Kenya, and Bangladesh

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all share the same MPI, the disparity between the two countries is twofold in Pakistan and onefold in Kenya and Bangladesh, respectively. Reviewing the Human Development Index andother indices helps us make sense of the connection between SDG-1 and SDG-4, which is
crucial for realising the goals of both the national and global agendas. The work done hereemphasizes the significance of and connection between various SDGs, policies, quality
education, and ESD. It is determined that the quality of education in Pakistan may be enhanced
by prioritising the SDGs in light of the country’s specific circumstances and working towards
the goals of education for sustainable development.
The lack of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) focus has led to two issues, say
Kalsoom, and colleagues (2018). There is a shortage of research on ESD-related concerns, and(i) preservice teachers’ awareness of sustainability issues and attitudes and behaviours towards
sustainability fall short of expectations. Kalsoom and colleagues (2018) examined a trove ofPakistani-authored academic literature on ESD. Springer, Taylor & Francis, and four national
education publications were used as databases. More than 2,500 articles on ESD were located,but no research was conducted. Moreover, the scientists analysed 353 articles published innational journals between 2004 and 2016 and found that no articles pertaining to ESD wereamong them. There appears to be a severe lack of familiarity among Pakistani academics withthe literature around sustainable development and education for sustainable development.
Nakidien and colleagues (2021) conducted a study examining the role of teachers and teacher
education in South Africa in relation to the attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 4. The
authors argue that despite the passage of a decade towards the realisation of the Sustainable
Development Goals by 2030, African nations continue to grapple with issues of poverty andunderdevelopment. The majority of children in Africa are unlikely to achieve Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) 4. Based on the findings of two interconnected empirical studies,
one examining citizenship and social cohesion in high schools and the other investigating theimplementation of assessment for learning in primary schools, it was determined that schools
are inadequately prepared to deliver the high-quality education outlined in Sustainable
Development Goal 4. Furthermore, it was revealed that teachers require further training in order
to effectively embody the principles and objectives of Sustainable Development Goal 4. For
the purpose of ensuring comprehensive resolution, it is imperative that all relevant parties,
including government entities, businesses, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), areactively engaged. To begin, it contends that issues of health, environment, and child nutrition
are intrinsically related to the implementation of education for sustainable development.
Therefore, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) could help Pakistan enhance its
educational system. Second, it presumes that "education quality" (SDG 4) and "poverty" (SDG
1) are intrinsically linked.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2018) found that 39% of Pakistanis, mostly
in rural areas, were poor using the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which was basedon government social statistics and derived using 15 criteria. Extreme poverty exists inPakistan, with 50.9% of the country lacking access to even the most fundamental amenities. A

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positive feedback loop suggests that raising the bar on educational quality can help alleviate
poverty, and that doing so in turn raises the bar on educational quality across the board.
Teacher’s Competencies and Teaching Activities
Effiong and colleagues’ (2018) study of the whole quality management principles of educationin elementary schools revealed that these teachers were ineffective in their classroom
management and teaching activities. This is true because the vast majority of elementary school
teachers hardly ever use the guided discovery technique that is suggested in the national
curriculum for primary schools. As a result, educators who use the BST curriculum still requireongoing capacity building. The Sustainable Development Goals provide developing nations,such as Nigeria, with an opportunity to enhance the quality of life for their citizens byfacilitating access to quality education and achieving other objectives related to Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD). To effectively address local and global objectives, thisinternational agenda emphasises the engagement of nations in establishing problem priorities
that align with their respective domestic contexts. Poverty stands as a prominent issue inNigeria. The implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can effectively
address this issue, particularly in terms of enhancing educational provisions to improve Human
Development Index (HDI) indicators and mitigate the underlying factors contributing topoverty. The findings of this study have the potential to inform more informed policy decisions
in subsequent periods, ensuring that the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) align with thelong-term objectives and ambitions of the country. If no action is taken in the present, thechallenges anticipated in the year 2030 will likely be significantly exacerbated. Whenexamining the development and economic well-being of a nation, the consideration of
education emerges as a key factor.
A study on the critical thinking abilities of basic science teachers and students for global
economic growth was undertaken by Solomon and colleagues (2018). The study found thatstudents and teachers of fundamental science and technology have poor critical thinking
abilities. A teacher of fundamental science and technology should possess the fundamental
knowledge and abilities necessary to influence students’ behavior and critical thinking throughinstruction. But little will be accomplished for the students if a teacher is unsuccessful becauseof poor critical thinking. The teacher needs ongoing in-service teacher training programs inorder to be able to demonstrate a certain level of competencies that will assure a quality
standard in educating the students. The level of education inside a country significantly
contributes to its overall significance. Training teachers is a crucial component inside India’s
comprehensive education system. In contemporary times, the concept of a training course has
evolved beyond its traditional institutional framework, assuming a broader significance as ameans for societal and national rejuvenation. The establishment of an effective teacher training
methodology holds significant importance for India. In order to enhance students’ educational
achievements, there is a growing consensus among scholars that a key strategy for instructors
is to enhance their instructional competencies, with a particular emphasis on cultivating student
motivation and fostering a drive for learning.

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In an effort to improve the writing abilities and motivation of undergraduate students,
Meletiadou (2021) conducted research employing Padlets as electronic portfolios. According
to the study’s findings, students were able to considerably improve their writing abilities andincrease their motivation for writing and learning in general. In their focus group discussion,
the student teachers (pre-service teachers) requested assistance in honing their writing andreflective skills as well as extra help when using e-portfolios. In order to foster greater creativity
in their students, teachers should accept the usage of cutting-edge teaching strategies to makesure that classroom interactions are student-centered. The Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) are incorporated into educational contexts, which offer educators significant
opportunities to foster critical thinking and problem-solving skills in both themselves and theirstudents. These goals can be used by educators to promote discussions and activities that help
students conduct critical analysis of complex global issues. Teachers who actively incorporate
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into their pedagogical practices are more likely tocultivate cultural sensitivity and inclusivity in their lessons. Teachers will recognise the valueof taking into account a variety of viewpoints and backgrounds, improving the fairness andinclusion of their teaching methods. Since active learning practices encourage student
participation and engagement, they are commonly used in the context of SDG-related topics.
Retrainings and Pedagogical Competencies
Ekim and colleagues (2022) assessed how an in-service training program affected secondary
mathematics teachers’ pedagogical skills and use of technology. They found that while theprogram had a significant impact on teachers’ pedagogical skills, their ability to use technology
had not significantly improved. The results of this study have made it possible for teachers’
capacity building to be centered on their ability to use ICT in the classroom in order to assure
increased job performance. The association between in-service training and teaching skills wasstudied by Norwani and colleagues (2017). The study discovered a marginally significant link
between teaching abilities and in-service trainings. The findings imply that teachers need toreceive more thorough training in teaching techniques. The act of educating a girl has a
profound impact on the entire family unit. When one imparts knowledge to an educator, theentire community is educated. According to the national curriculum plan for teacher educationin 2009, a key objective of teacher education is to foster students’ ability to perceive the world
through the lens of equitable and sustainable development. It is evident that educators serve asa valuable source of ideas for promoting equitable and sustainable development across all
sectors of society. As a result of these circumstances, individuals necessitate comprehensive
training across several domains, including but not limited to the cultivation of respect for therights of all individuals, the promotion of gender equality, and the fostering of peace.
The study on the effect of professional development activities on teachers’ perceived
proficiency in teaching English was carried out by Omar (2017). The findings showed thatparticipation in professional development activities boosted instructors’ teachingcompetencies. This demonstrates the necessity of providing instructors with frequent, ongoingtraining in order to improve their competencies. The results of a study conducted by Ngwu andcolleagues (2019) on evaluating the professional development needs of junior secondary school143

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basic science teachers showed that the study area’s professional development programs do notadequately address teachers’ needs and that basic science and technology teachers are not taken
into account when planning professional development programs. It is crucial to determine
which pedagogical abilities the instructors need the most based on this result in order to planand organize capacity building activities specifically for them. Osei-Owusu (2022) conducted
research on how professional development programs affect teachers’ knowledge and seniorhigh school students’ academic performance in Nigeria. The study’s findings demonstrated astrong positive association between professional development and professional knowledge andCompetencies. This suggests that the professional development programs are intended toaccomplish the general objectives of professional development programs, which include
familiarizing instructors with contemporary trends that enliven their ideas and make them more
relevant in the achievement of educational goals. Therefore, those involved in education should
give frequent and constant retraining of instructors more attention. The correlation between a
student’s academic achievement and the competence of their instructor underscores thesignificance of providing teachers with the necessary training to effectively inspire and engage
their pupils in the learning process. It is imperative for the instructor to establish a positive
example for the students to emulate. This intervention is expected to facilitate the cultivationof enhanced moral values among the students. The fundamental components of sustainable
development encompass the formulation and implementation of these guiding principles,
fostering social consciousness, recognising economic considerations, and advancing
environmental preservation, among various other facets. It can be reasonably inferred that those
employed as educators has a certain level of concern for sustainable development, as they arelikely to possess knowledge regarding the issues associated with it. The training of teachers is
a highly effective mechanism, thereby rendering it one of the most optimal approaches for
attaining the objectives of sustainable development. Professional development programmes foreducators aim to ensure that students are provided with competent teachers who will facilitate
their lifelong learning. The quality of instructors is significantly influenced by the training theyget, (Nkomo & Abdul, 2023).
Mak (2019) looked into how a professional development program affected teachers’
assessment skills. The results showed that the professional development initiatives improved
instructors’ knowledge of assessment. This indicates that their assessment abilities have
improved as a result of the retraining seminars. Therefore, it is important to support theteachers’ professional development programs so that teachers can continue to strengthen theirevaluation abilities. Teachers who participate in workshops centred on the evaluation andassessment, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are more likely to pick up cutting-edge
pedagogical techniques that encourage active participation and student engagement.
Enhancement of Assessment and Feedback: by trained teachers create authentic assessmentsthat are in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), educators have the chance toimprove their assessment and feedback skills. The deployment of more thorough feedback andevaluation procedures may arise from these evaluations, forcing students to analyse, evaluate,
and develop solutions for actual situations.

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Evidence from the literature analysis mentioned above revealed inconsistent reports on how
professional development programs for teachers affected the thinking and pedagogical skills
that instructors need to have in order to provide high-quality education. The result that
instructors’ classroom interaction patterns remain learner-centered rather than teacher-centeredafter teachers’ capacity building programs (Ngwu et al., 2019) further reinforces the cause forconcern. In light of this, the current study was carried out to ascertain how the SDGs retraining
workshops affected the pedagogical abilities of primary school teachers.
Methodology
The study employed descriptive survey design. It is a research design that observes, collects
and describes data in a systematic manner of the characteristics feature of population (Lawrant,2018). The design is considered most appropriate because the study would select a sample fromthe population from which generalization would be made. Furthermore, there would be no
manipulation of variables rather appropriate information would be collected from teachers ofbasic science and technology on the levels of competencies needed for effective
implementation of BST curriculum. The population for the study comprised of all teachers inpublic primary schools in Kogi State that participated in the SDGs capacity building workshops
since its inception in 2016. There are 3,115 teachers. This number represented the number ofteachers who participated in SDGs retraining workshops in Kogi since 2016. The sample sizeof 360 for this study was determined using Krejice and Morgan (1970) method. Multistage
sampling technique was used in selecting the research sample. Multi-stage was used because
the sample were drawn at different stages. Firstly, simple random sampling technique(balloting by replacement) was used to select three local government areas from each of thethree educational zones of Kogi State, giving a total of 9 local government areas out of the 21
local government areas of Kogi State, Nigeria. Secondly, purposive sampling technique wasused to draw 4 primary schools based on the population of primary school teachers (10 andabove) who participated in SDGs retraining workshops giving a total of 36 primary schools.
Thirdly, simple random sampling technique was carried out through the use of balloting withreplacement to select 10 primary school teachers who participated in the SDGs retraining
workshops from each of 36 primary schools already sampled. The names of the primary school
teachers were written on pieces of paper, folded and put in transparent container, shuffled andresearchers drew the teachers with replacement. Since 10 teachers were drawn from 36 sampled
primary schools, the total of 360 teachers participated as the sample of the study. The NTI
office Lokoja and head teachers at the sampled schools supplied the information of the SDGs
workshops participants, from which the sample was drawn.
The instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire developed by the
researchers titled primary school teachers’ pedagogical competencies questionnaire(PSTPCQ). It was divided into two sections (A and B). Section A was made up of biodata,
which made up of gender, school location and participation in SDGs workshops. Section B was
divided into four clusters tagged I, II, III and IV clusters that were used to solicit information
on primary school teachers’ effectiveness in teaching basic science and technology on: use ofteaching methods, construction of basic instructional materials, use of out of class activities in

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teaching and assessment of learning outcomes. Questions that were posed to the participants
according to the clusters as follows:
Cluster 1: How effective are you in using the following teaching methods and strategies
to deliver BST lesson?
Cluster 2: How effective are you in constructing basic instructional
materials/equipment? Cluster 3: How effective are you in carrying out-of-class-science
activities and programmmes while teaching topics in BST curriculum?
Cluster 4: How effective are you in the assessment of learning outcomes while
preparing to teach and actually teaching topics in the BST curriculum?
Each of the item in the different cluster ranked on a five points scale of very effective (VE =5), effective (E = 4), moderately effective (ME = 3), somehow not effective (SNE = 2), noteffective (NE = 1).
The instrument was validated by presenting it to three experts, two in chemistry education and
one in measurement and evaluation all from University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The experts wererequested to scrutinize the instrument for the purpose of ensuring the suitability andappropriateness in addressing the research purpose of the study. Consequently, suggestions for
improvement were strictly implemented which resulted to the final draft of the instrument. The
validated instrument was administered to 40 primary school teachers who were not part of thesample as a pilot study. Data obtained from their various responses on the questionnaire wereused in determining the reliability, using Cronbach Alpha formula. The final Cronbach Alphareliability coefficient of 0.86 was obtained for the instrument. Data collection was carried out
by 30 research assistants (10 per zone) who were properly trained in their zones on theadministration of the instrument and later assigned to their respective educational zones for theadministration of the questionnaires. The choice of large number of research assistants is toensure that the research work was carried out simultaneously in various zones at the same
period of time. This was necessary as the questions were not reshuffled or modified for teachers
in different zones or areas. The questionnaires were served and retrieved the same day to ensure
100% return rate of the instrument. Data collected were analysed using mean and standard
deviation to answer research questions. The criterion mean is 3.00 since 5-point rating scale of
VE =5, E = 4, ME = 3, SNE = 2, NE = 1 was used. The criterion mean was obtained by
5 + 4 + 3 + 2 +1
averaging the five scales as follows:= 3.00 . In taking decisions, a mean value
5of 3.0 and above is agreed and mean value below 3.0 is disagreed. When the respondents agreed
with the idea in the item, it implies that SDGs retraining workshops has impact in respect of
the item. Similarly, when the respondents disagreed with the idea in the item, it implies that
SDGs retraining workshops has no impact in respect of the item.

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Results
Research Question One: What is the Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Teaching
Methods?
Table 1
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Teaching
Methods
S/No.
1
2
3
4

Items
Guided inquiry method
Demonstration method
Lecture method
Discovery method

X
3.49
3.48
3.53
3.60

SD
1.17
1.07
1.16
1.15

Remarks
ImpactImpactImpactImpact5

Process-based classroom interaction methods

3.62

1.01

Impact

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Discussion method
Questioning method
Laboratory method
Project method
Concept mapping method
Problem based method
Cooperative learning strategies
Competitive learning strategies
Field trip method
Use of analogy
Group discussion method

3.51
3.60
3.46
3.38
3.51
3.67
3.67
3.54
3.68
3.24
3.64

1.03
1.09
1.06
1.09
0.91
1.02
0.96
1.08
0.99
1.03
1.03

ImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpact17
18

Group project method
Advance organizer method
Grand mean / standard deviation

3.68
3.59
3.55

0.97
1.05
1.04

ImpactImpactImpactTable 1 shows item by item of mean and standard deviation of individual’s responses on theimpact of SDGs retraining workshops on competencies of primary school teachers in using
teaching methods to deliver BST lessons. All the items have mean scores of above 3.00
benchmark, indicating that SDGs retraining workshops have positive impact on competencies
of primary school teachers in using teaching methods in delivering BST lessons.

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Research Question Two: What is the Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on
Constructing Basic Instructional Materials?
Table 2

Mean and Standard Deviation of the Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Constructing
Basic Instructional Materials
S/No.
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

Items
kites,
inclined planes,
pulleys,wind vanes,
PulleySimple level machines
measuring Instruments:
Measuring cylinder,
weighing balances
Ruler/Tapechemical balance,
spring balance
tit-pipette
Stop clock/watch
Grand mean/ standard deviation

X
3.76
3.72
3.51
3.53
3.55
3.65
3.66
3.26
3.10
3.16
3.33
3.01
3.16
3.24
3.40

SD
0.99
0.95
0.97
1.87
1.07
1.87
0.87
1.08
0.98
0.78
1.10
1.12
0.98
0.87
1.06

Remarks
ImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactImpactTable 2 shows that the Mean and Standard Deviation of the respondents on the Impact of SGDs
retraining workshops on BST Teachers’ competencies in constructing basic instructional
materials. The mean value of all the 14 items as well as the grand mean are more than the criterion
mean of 3.00. This implies that SDGs retraining workshops have impacted positively on BST
teachers’ competencies to construct the basic instructional materials for delivering BST lessons.

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Research Question Three: What is the Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on
Primary School Teachers’ Competencies in the Use of Out-of-Class Science Activities?
Table 3
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Primary School
Teachers’ Competencies in the Use of Out-of-Class Science Activities
S/No.
33
34
35
36
37
38

Items
Organizing BST debates for learners.
Taking learners out on field trip to places of BST interestin the community.
Linking community concerns to BST teaching/ learning
activities.
Linking community economic activities to BST learning
activities
Linking environmental concerns to BST teaching/learning activities.
Bringing in community-based resource persons as rolemodels to talk to children learning through BST
curriculum.
Grand mean and standard deviation

X
2.98
3.11

SD
1.43
1.13

Remarks
No impact
Impact2.82

1.20

Not impact

2.75

1.09

Not impact

2.69

1.11

Not impact

2.86

0.97

Not impact

2.87

1.15

Not impact

Table 3 shows the mean and standard deviation of the impact of SDGs in training workshops
on primary school teachers’ competencies in the use of out-of-class science activities. All theindividual mean scores, as well as grand mean scores except for item 34 are below the criterion
mean of 3.00. This that implies the respondents agreed that SDGs retraining workshops havenegative impact on primary school teachers’ competencies in using out-of-class science
activities in BST lessons. Thus, primary school teachers are incompetent in using out-of-classscience activities in delivering their BST lessons after the SDGs retraining workshops.

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Research Question Four: What is the Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Primary
School Teachers’ Competencies in Assessing Learning Outcomes?
Table 4
Mean and Standard Deviation of the Impact of SDGs Retraining Workshops on Primary School
Teachers’ Competencies in Assessing Learning Outcomes
S/No.
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48

Items
Constructing good achievement test instrument based on
the objectives of the lesson.
Assessing the learners as teaching goes on in theclassroom
Using innovative assessment practices
Creating positively challenging assignment for thelearners.
Constructing observational rating scale for assessment ofpractical skills.
Developing good BST attitude scale for learners.
Developing BST interest scale for learners.
Constructing practical tests.
Developing adequate marking scheme for scoring
learners’ tests outputs.
Marking series of assignments and tests
Grand mean and standard deviation

X
3.23

SD
1.12

Remarks
Impact3.56

1.16

Impact

3.10
3.06

1.08
1.30

ImpactImpact2.89

1.13

No impact

2.74
2.56
2.82
3.60

1.16
1.18
1.13
0.99

No impact
No impact
No impact
Impact

3.32
3.09

0.89
1.11

ImpactImpactTable 4 shows impact of SDGs retraining workshops on primary school teachers’ competencies
in assessing learning outcomes. Items 39, 40, 42, 43, 47 and 48 have means of 3.00 and above
while items 43, 44, 45 and 46 have means below 3.00 criterion mean, however the grand meanof 3.09 was obtained for the 10 items indicating, that overall SDGs retraining workshops havepositive impact in primary school teachers’ competencies in assessing learning outcomes in
BST lessons.
Discussion
Results on Table 1 in respect of research question one revealed that the primary school teachers
who participated in the SDGs retraining workshop were generally of the view that their
participation enhanced their pedagogical competencies on using conventional and innovative
teaching methods in delivery BST lessons. The teacher’s effective use of innovative teaching
methods after the retraining workshop is a welcome development and realization of learnercentred teaching. This will encourage activity-based learning which include learner’s active
participation, interactive discussion, creativity and doing which are the hallmarks of learningscience. It is particularly interesting to note the SDGs retraining workshops have positively
impacted the primary school BST teachers towards the utilization of modern teaching methods
in their classroom interaction pattern. Hence primary school teachers have not participated in
the retraining workshops should endeavour to upgrade themselves in the use of modern
teaching methods through attendance to SDGs retraining workshops. The finding of this study
is in line with the findings of Ekim and colleagues (2022), and Osei-Owusi (2022) who

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revealed that in-service training programme significantly impacted teachers’ pedagogicalskills. Thus, the primary school teachers should be given retraining workshops that will keepthem continually updated on the latest teaching methods and pedagogic skills. According toSunthonkanokpong and Murphy (2019), the concept of quality in teacher education isunderpinned by the acquisition of information, skills, and teaching methods by trainees throughclassroom instruction and practical experience. According to Lalvani (2013), the medical
perspective on education primarily centres on the impact of individual students’ learning
difficulties on their academic performance, rather than considering the influence of social andcontextual factors on students’ grades. The fourth objective of the Sustainable Development
Goals is to achieve the eradication of severe poverty and hunger by the year 2030. Thisphenomenon presents a greater challenge in attaining the desired objective. In response to this,recent revisions to the teacher training curriculum have endeavoured to shift theconceptualization of difference away from the deficit perspective. Currently, there is anincreased emphasis on developing a heightened awareness and understanding of the social andeducational elements that influence children’s capacity to acquire knowledge (Lalvani, 2013).
The findings on Table 2 with respect to research question two revealed that the respondents
agreed that SDGs retraining workshop had positive impact on primary school teachers’
construction of basic instructional materials for BST lessons. Availability and utilization of
instructional materials is one of the most essential components of teaching and learning
process. Before the utilization of these materials they have to be available. However, in mostdeveloping countries, most of these instructional materials are not available because of the highcost. Therefore, science teachers have been called upon to improvise or construct some basic
instructional materials from the resource materials available in their rich environment.
However, the primary school teachers need their capacity strengthened in order to achieve thisobjective. The SDGs retraining workshops has remarkably improved teachers’ pedagogicalcompetencies in constructing some basic instructional materials for BST lessons. The, finding
concur with the finding of Omar (2017) which revealed that the past professional development
programmes resulted in high improvement in teachers’ skills among others. Significant
modifications are being implemented in educational institutions to acknowledge and embrace
diversity (Jetly & Singh, 2019; Sunthonkanokpong & Murphy, 2019). According to theconceptual framework proposed by Sunthonkanokpong and Murphy (2019) for Sustainable
Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), the notion of equity in teacher education entails facilitating
trainees’ ability to embrace principles of social justice and prioritise equitable teachingpractises. Such as the construction and use of instructional materials in teaching and learning
processes.This educational intervention aims to support students who are marginalised orsocially excluded, facilitating lifelong learning opportunities in order to promote social equity
within society. What was discussed about the least in the SEN course, meanwhile, were therights of children to education, social justice, and communicating and working with parents.
The findings on Table 3 in respect of research question three revealed that the SDGs retraining
workshops have not positively impacted primary school teachers in the aspect of out-of-classscience activities. The results indicated that primary school teachers lack the pedagogicalcompetencies to carryout out-of-class science activities after the SDGs retraining workshops.

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The teachers were particularly deficient in some pedagogical competencies such as organizing
BST debates for learners linking community concerns to BST learning activities, linking
community economic activities, linking environmental concern and bringing community-based
resource persons as role models. The finding of this study corroborates the finding of Ngwu
and colleagues (2019) which found out that the professional development programmes are notmeeting the pedagogical need of basic science and technology teachers. Thus, this particular
result thus contradicts the objectives of the SDGs retraining workshops which emphasis on theuse of, hand-on, mind-on activities to foster learner’s interest in science. Therefore, there isneed to focus attention on this aspect in future retraining programmes. Therefore, we argue that
it is imperative to dismantle the hierarchical structure inherent in traditional teaching andlearning dynamics, and instead foster an environment that nurtures personal development. Thisis because educators who possess a comprehensive understanding of pertinent laws and policies
are more inclined to exhibit effectiveness in their inclusive pedagogy. Furthermore, theutilisation of outdoor activities that are beneficial and designed to cater to a wide range ofindividuals is a crucial aspect of delivering inclusive training that facilitates adaptableapproaches to learning.
The findings on Table 4 with respect to research question 4 revealed that overall, primaryschool teachers were effective in their assessment of learning outcomes after the SDGs
retraining workshop but were lacking in area construction of observational scale, attitude scale,interest scale and practical tests. Assessment of students is very essential in teaching/learning
process as it provides the necessary feedback to the students. The finding of this study is in linewith the finding of Mak (2019) which revealed that teachers’ assessment knowledge wasenhanced by the professional development efforts. This mean that the retraining workshops ofteachers have improved their assessment abilities and should be encouraged to be organized on
regular basis. It is on this note that Jetly and Singh (2019), posit that the aforementioned
concerns hold significant importance in the context of sustainable development and serve as
the foundation for fostering a sustainable future. Regarding the establishment of a sustainable
future, the subsequent issues pertaining to sustainable development are of utmost significance.
The findings of this study provide empirical support for advocating significant support forteachers training in line with SDG goal 4, this intervention is expected to have a lasting impact
on the enhancement of teacher education. The perspective on this matter has the potential toinfluence the attitudes of educators towards endorsing inclusive education in both established(Lalvani, 2013) and developing (Dart, 2006) nations. Purdue and colleagues (2009), argued
that trainees developed an understanding that every kid is entitled to get a quality education.
This realisation occurred as a result of engaging in discussions about disability from various
perspectives, including the lens of rights rhetoric. Adding strength to the above, the scholarly
works of Jetly and Singh (2019) and Sunthonkanokpong and Murphy (2019), there is a proposal
to incorporate the concept of quality into teacher education programmes in order to ensure its
sustainability.

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Implications
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can have a major impact on the pedagogicalcompetencies of primary school teachers who are undergoing retraining. The aforementioned
consequences have some implications which are discussed below: Teachers’ awareness ofglobal issues and ambitions is increased by the SDG retraining workshops, which promote agreater grasp of topics relating to sustainability, poverty, inequality, and climate change. Thishigher degree of awareness can lead to a more thorough and informed approach to teaching.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can be effectively used by educators todemonstrate the relevance of many academic fields in real-world contexts.
The capacity of educators to show students how their newly learned knowledge relates to larger
global issues helps to increase student’s engagement and the importance of the learning
process. Collaboration among educators from various academic fields is encouraged as a resultof the adoption of an interdisciplinary approach commonly required for the attainment of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). As a result of learning how to design and implement
cross-curricular lessons that encourage the development of critical thinking and problemsolving skills, teachers’ pedagogical skills may be strengthened.
Since SDGs retraining workshops has impacted positively on primary school BST teachers’
pedagogical competencies especially in areas of teaching methods, construction instructional
materials and assessment techniques, all primary school teachers should be given theopportunity to attend the workshops. This can be achieved if government at various levels
organize SDGs retraining workshops quarterly (4 times in a year) as against once in a year thatis presently in vogue. Stakeholders such as non-governmental organizations should support
government financially to ensure that adequate fund is available for the quarterly retraining of
all the teachers in the primary schools in order to ensure greater instructional delivery BST
lessons.
Since the primary school BST teachers are deficient in the pedagogical skills of out-of-classscience activities, the SDGs retraining workshops should be organized to target this specificaspect of the skill, which in turn will improve their performance on their jobs in this specificarea. Thus, accurately focused capacity building workshop should be developed and organizedon out-of-class science activities for the primary school teachers. The SDGs retraining
workshops should enable primary school teachers to effectively utilize out-of-class science
instructional strategy in order to make their teaching real and activity-based, thereby enhancing
pupils’ interest in science subjects as well as ensuring equity.
Resource persons/facilitators of NTI should refocus their retraining programmes on the
deficient areas of assessment techniques such as development of rating scales and practicaltests. This will ensure that the retraining programmes cover the assessment of all the threeeducational domains (cognitive, affective and psychomotor) rather than cognitive domain only.
In this way, emphasis will be laid on character formation and adequate development of motor
skills of the pupils.

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Conclusion
Based on the finding of the study, it was concluded that the SDGs retraining workshops have
impacted positively and thereby enhanced the pedagogical competencies of primary school
BST teachers in the areas of the use of teaching methods, construction of some basic
instructional materials and assessment of learning outcomes, but the teacher are still deficientin some areas of assessment procedures such as construction of observation, attitudes’ andinterest scales as well as the construction of practical tests.
It was also concluded that in spite of SDGs retraining workshops, primary school teachers
were still lacking in pedagogical competency of out-of-class science activities. It is importantto carry out this study in wider context to include the use of technologies. Therefore, further
research should be conducted on the impact of SDGs retraining workshops on primary school
BST teachers’ use of computer assisted instruction (CAI).

Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge with thanks, the NTI office Lokoja Kogi State Nigeria and headteachers at participating schools for providing us the opportunity to collect data. We would also
like to acknowledge the management of Prince Abubakar Audu University and Tetfund forfinancial support for this research work.

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Appendix
Primary School Teachers’ Pedagogical Competencies Questionnaire (PSTPCQ)
We are science teacher educators. We are conducting a research to find out the teaching skills
which Basic Science and Technology teachers in our schools have and those they do not have.
The need is to create a competency based programme of retraining the Basic Science andTechnology (BST) teachers to improve their knowledge and skills. We therefore request you
to most sincerely complete the questionnaire below to enable us find the important things you
may not know so that we can select what we shall include in the retraining programme we want
to develop to improve the capacity of BST teachers. Please, Tick (√) in the appropriate
column of the scale below as it applies to you. Please try and be as honest as possible for the
information you give will be used for only research purpose and your confidentiality is assured.
Section A: Demographic Information
Gender: Male
FemaleLocation: Urban
Rural
The Classes you teach.: (Tick as many as you teach)
PRY 1
PRY 2
PRY 3
PRY4
PRY 5
PRY 6
Your Qualifications: SSCE
TCII
NCE
OND
HND
B.Ed.
B.SC
MASTERSPhD
Any Other
Did you benefit from the training given by NTI during the MDG training programme?
Yes
No
Section B: Rate yourself on 5-point scale in each of Competency statements below. The scale points
range from 1 to 5 where 5 is the highest level of effectiveness. How effective are in you in the following
areas:
Cluster A

Item statement using teaching methods to deliver BST
lessons.

S/No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

1

Guided inquiry method
Demonstration method
Lecture method
Discovery method
Process-based classroom interaction methods
Discussion method
Questioning method
Laboratory method
Project method
Concept Mapping
Problem based method
Cooperative learning strategies
Competitive learning strategies
Field Trip method
Use of analogy
Group Discussion method
Group project method
Advanced Organizers Method

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2 3

4 5

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Cluster B
19
20
21
22
3
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
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Constructing basic instructional materials/equipment:

kites,
inclined planes,
pulleys,wind vanes,
PulleySimple level machines
Using measuring Instruments:
Measuring cylinder,

weighing balances
Ruler/Tapechemical balance,
spring balance
tit-pipette
Stop clock/watch

Cluster C
33

Out-of-class-science activities and programmes
Organizing BST debates for learners.

34

Taking learners out on field trip to places of BST interest in
the community.
Linking community concerns to BST teaching/learning
activities.
Linking community economic activities to BST learning
activities
Linking environmental concerns to BST teaching/learning
activities.
Bringing in community-based resource persons as rolemodels to talk to children learning through BST
curriculum.

35
36
37
38

Cluster D
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48

Effective Assessment of Learning Outcomes.
Constructing good achievement test instrument based on
the objectives of the lesson.
Assessing the learners as teaching goes on in the classroom
Using innovative assessment practices
Creating positively challenging assignment for the learners.
Constructing observational rating scale for assessment ofpractical skills.
Developing good BST attitude scale for learners.
Developing BST interest scale for learners.
Constructing practical tests.
Developing adequate marking scheme for scoring learners’
tests outputs.
Marking series of assignments and tests

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Exploring Intercultural Communication as a Means to Promote Inclusivity
in Diverse Organisations: A Study in a South African University
Maria Mushaathoni
Tshwane University of Technology
South Africa

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Abstract
The paper aimed at exploring intercultural communication as a means to promote inclusivity
in diverse organisations. The study adopted a case study design with qualitative data. A semistructured interview guide with open-ended questions was utilised as the main data collection
tool from a sample of ten purposively selected professionals from the departments responsible
for transformation, employment equity, and diversity; human resources development,
corporate affairs, and marketing. The study’s findings showed that the university lacked a wellthought-out action plan for taking a deliberate approach to intercultural communication as ameans to promote inclusivity. In particular, the staff felt that there was no deliberate attempt toguarantee that intercultural communication was handled uniformly throughout the university
and that communication strategy documents did not offer direction regarding how successfulintercultural communication could take place. The university’s current practices in relation to
cultural awareness and training initiatives only focus on cultural diversity and should be
amplified to include raising awareness of how intercultural communication can unify people
who differ culturally towards a common purpose. Furthermore, the university should consider
expanding its current cultural diversity training programmes to include training on interculturalcommunication dimensions. Cultural awareness campaigns in the form of information fliers,
cultural events, and cultural training sessions should form an integral part of interculturalcommunication enhancement initiatives.
Keywords: culture, diversity, inclusivity, cultural diversity, intercultural communication,intercultural communication competence, intercultural communication enhancement, internal
communication

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Cultural diversity has an impact on many aspects of an employee’s work environment,
including how well they get along with co-workers who are different from them (Hellriegel etal., 2013; Smit et al., 2011). Organisational managers and executives must acknowledge that
their workforce comprises culturally diverse groups and that employee cultures affectcommunication. People’s behaviour is influenced by their diverse cultural backgrounds,
experiences, and perceptions, which are evident in how they interact and communicate witheach other (Penceliah, 2008; Nyathi-Saleshando, 2011).
Therefore, differences in cultures can lead to misunderstandings and consequently ineffective
communication. According to Roy and colleagues (2016), misunderstandings occur inintercultural communication simply because people have different perceptions andinterpretations of the same information. According to Green and colleagues (2018), perception
is more of a process in which each individual creates mental images. Green and colleagues(2018) further explain that perceptions drive communication decisions and understanding thisprocess helps us to avoid common perceptual problems. Roy and colleagues (2016) argue that
individual perceptions and cross-cultural communication are crucially shaped by culture. In
particular, they are shaped by culturally ingrained and infused beliefs, values, media,
worldviews, and language.
Since participants in intercultural communication come from a variety of cultural backgrounds,
cooperation is necessary for communication to be effective between all employees (Penceliah,
2008; Sadri & Flammia, 2011). Therefore, the significance of successful interculturalcommunication inside organisations should not be understated because it influences theorganisation’s goals and significantly affects how well it functions. Culturally diverse
organisations may struggle to function properly without effective communication. (Flammia,
2011). This emphasises the significance of a strategic and continuous effort to enhanceintercultural communication.
Organisations should foster a culture where work-related plans, work instructions, issues,
opinions, thoughts, and ideas are shared through effective communication in light of theknowledge that employees use communication to carry out their jobs. (Adu-Oppong & AgyinBirikorang, 2014; Hellriegel et al., 2013). It is of this view that an effective interculturalcommunication approach is important if everyone involved understands the goals and desired
outcomes and can work towards the successful execution of plans and tasks.
Organisations that manage intercultural communication benefit from such an approach.
Managing intercultural communication, including the understanding that cultural diversity has
a communicative purpose, helps culturally diverse organisations to improve interculturalcommunication competence, which is a requirement for employees from various cultural
backgrounds to work together to achieve a common purpose (Gudykunst, 2005; Sadri &Flammia, 2011). In order for organisations to respond to the challenges of interculturalcommunication, they must recognise the communication difficulties and needs of employees.
Hence the recognition and appreciation of cultural differences is the departure point of working

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towards enhancing intercultural communication thereby creating inclusivity within diverse
organisations.
The university’s existing strategy for dealing with intercultural communication challenges does
not support the uniform, concentrated, and coordinated strengthening of interculturalcommunication skills. Turning our attention to barriers of intercultural communication, Sadri
and Flammia (2011) show how encounter contexts can greatly impact whether or not theencounter results in the development of favourable attitudes towards people from different
cultural backgrounds. A preliminary review of the university’s strategic and policy documents,
as reported reveals that the university seems to lack a uniform intercultural communication
enhancement approach, which is necessary for its employees to clearly understand what theinstitutional strategic goals and desired outcomes are so that they can work to achieve them. It
is maintained that effective intercultural communication facilitates the achievement ofpredetermined goals and desired outcomes. The perceived absence of a common approach toissues of intercultural communication is, for the purpose of this study, considered to be a lessthan-ideal practice for the enhancement of intercultural communication to promote employees’
inclusivity, and is unlikely to help the university strategically and continuously improve
intercultural communication competence of its culturally diverse employees. The perceived
gap in the university’s current approach to intercultural communication issues calls for adifferent approach that could enhance intercultural communication so that employees fromdifferent cultural backgrounds could develop their intercultural communication skills andultimately help the university succeed.
By using a strategy appropriate to the university’s distinctive and culturally diverse
environment, the discovered intercultural communication deficit might be addressed. To startclosing the gap, it may be necessary to look into the presumptions driving suggestions for
improving intercultural communication within an organisation with diverse employees. This
study is therefore desirable to extend knowledge on how effective intercultural communication
promotes inclusivity in the workplace. Consequently, the paper sought to find answers to thefollowing research question, How does effective intercultural communication promote
inclusivity in the diverse organisation?
Literature Review
The Impact of Culture on the Intercultural Communication Environment
Culture, as a whole, consists of a set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and patterns of behaviour
shared by members of a social unit. In the context of internal communication, it is assumed thateach culture encourages a particular communication style, has the power to shape perception,and is regarded as the glue that bonds organisation members together (Hartnell, Ou. & Kinicki,
2011; Reisinger & Turner: 2012). As propounded, culture has an impact on behaviour andcommunication. Accordingly, culture and communication are inseparable, as culture is thefoundation of communication this is more prevalent when communication occurs between
individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. When different cultures are involved,

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communication practices vary. It is indispensable for individuals to understand culturaldifferences, as culture tells us how to interpret the behaviour of others, including how tocommunicate effectively with individuals from other cultural backgrounds (Schmitz, 2012).
It is important to mention that there are different levels of culture, namely, 1) National culture,
the set of norms, behaviours, beliefs, and customs that exist among the population of asovereign nation; 2) Business culture, which represents the working style, accepted norms,
values, and beliefs of the sector within which an organisation operates; 3) Organisational
culture, which is a system of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs, which govern how
individuals behave in organisations; and 4) Occupational culture, which encompasses
associated values, norms, and characteristics of members of a particular occupational group(Westaby, Fowler, & Philips, 2020). Whatever cultural environment surrounds people helps toshape and form their attitudes, behaviour and readiness to respond to intercultural encounters(see Samovar & Porter, 2007). The university, for instance, is characterised by values, norms,
and characteristics that can be understood to be the foundation upon which its interculturalcommunication practices should be based.
In order to effectively improve intercultural communication, all university staff members must
be sensitive to the values, conventions, and traits that are likely to affect the institution’scommunication style. When workers switch from one cultural context and communication style
to another, they must comprehend the underlying meaning of culture (Littlejohn & Foss, 2009;
Schmitz, 2012). Gill and Orgad (2015) assert that cultural aspects show how the group sees its
own social system. In order to comprehend what dominant ideas, values, norms, and traits arebeing ingrained in the way communication occurs in a specific social situation, people must beable to recognise the factors that make up a particular culture.
Mushaathoni (2021) avers that though there might be more similarities than differences
regarding cultural elements among the university employees, and despite the many common
attributes employees share, there still exist cultural differences. As elucidated culturaldifferences also exist within a single race, language group, religious group, or nationality;
people are also differentiated by age, gender, socio-economic status, education, and exposure
to other cultures (ibid). Furthermore, (1) cultures have internal variations, and culturalawareness varies among individuals; (2) one’s own sense of cultural identity is not always
evident until you encounter another culture; (3) cultures continuously evolve; and (4)understanding another culture is a continuous process (Kagawa‐Singer et al., 2010; Samovar& Porter, 2007). It is imperative that decision-makers at the university have a sense of these
dynamics of culture, so that they ensure that appropriate measures that are aimed atenhancement of intercultural communication and improvement of intercultural communicationcompetence are in place.
It is important to stress that each generation passes on its culture to the following one and thatrituals, myths, and symbolism all serve to continually reinforce a particular culture. When it
comes to organisations, culture has a tremendous impact on how people think, act, and mostimportantly, how they view others. Given the impact culture has on communication, it becomes165

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imperative for organisations to recognise that culture teaches significant rules, rituals, andprocedures that are essential for interaction among employees.
The Process of Transformation to a Competent Intercultural Communicator
Compelling intercultural communicators are individuals who are (1) motivated, (2) possess a
wealth of knowledge to draw from, (3) have communication skills, and (4) have good moral
character – qualities that set them apart from others in the field and help them choose the mostsuitable path. Based on the criteria used in this paper, these attributes rank as the most crucial
fundamental prerequisites or facilitators of intercultural communication.
Motivation
Motivation, as it relates to intercultural communication competence, means that, as acommunicator, someone wants to interact with people from cultures different to their own, andfor that to happen successfully, they must desire to improve their ability to communicate
effectively across cultures. Feelings, intentions and actions are conditions that motivate or are
more likely to lead to an attitude conducive to individuals having a desire to become competentintercultural communicators. Feelings are the emotional states that are experienced whencommunicating with someone from a different culture. Intentions guide choices in a particularintercultural interaction – the goals, plans, objectives and desires that focus and direct
behaviour. Actions are the actual performance of behaviours that are regarded as appropriate
and effective during intercultural communication encounters. If people allow feelings ofanxiety, ethnocentrism and prejudice to control their actions, for example, they obviously lackthe motivation necessary to be effective communicators. Instead, individuals need to becommitted to the entire communication process. For employees in a culturally diverse
organisation to become competent intercultural communicators, they need to have positive
feelings about the process of personal transformation, and have intentions to transform and act
in a manner that reflects the desire to transform. It can, therefore, be concluded that motivation
plays an important role as an intercultural communication enabler for employees to becomecompetent intercultural communicators (Kiss, 2008; Samovar et al., 2012).
Knowledge
Knowledge relates to the cognitive aspect of intercultural communication competenceadvanced by Kim (2006). The cognitive aspect of intercultural communication competencerefers to the process by which people acquire knowledge that allows them to function
successfully and interact meaningfully with one another (Kim, 2002; Vevea, 2011). For
someone to interact meaningfully across cultures requires a fund of knowledge about cultures– other people’s and one’s own culture – and the context and the norms of appropriateness that
operate in specific cultures (Samovar et al., 2012). Without such knowledge, it is unlikely thatpeople will be able to select behaviours that are appropriate and enable them to achieveintercultural communication objectives. Penceliah (2008) mentions that knowledge of culture
and of fundamental principles of communication are essential propositions of intercultural

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interactions. Therefore, if we would like to communicate effectively, it becomes necessary for
us to know what culture is, how cultures vary and how culture affects behaviour. Thishighlights that the kinds of knowledge that are essential in intercultural communication include
culture-general and culture-specific information (Kiss, 2008). For organisations, knowledge ofdifferent cultural perspectives gives employees a broader understanding that different cultures
have different customs, standards, social norms and thought patterns, which is essential for
people to become competent intercultural communicators. Knowledge about cultures is,therefore, considered an aspect that is likely to make employees more receptive to initiatives
that are intended to make them become competent intercultural communicators.
SkillsSkills, in the context of this study, refer to skills required to communicate effectively withpeople of other cultures, which Kim (2006) refers to as the behavioural aspect of interculturalcommunication competence. Skills are displayed by intercultural effectiveness, which refers to
the cultivation of communication skills to accomplish specific goals; this is the ability torecognise communication rules, meet the contextual requirements of those rules and recognise
the rules in different contexts. The behavioural skills needed for reaching interculturaleffectiveness include language ability, behavioural flexibility, interaction management,
identity maintenance and relationship cultivation (Littlejohn & Foss, 2009). Skills are,therefore, the actual applications of specific acts that enable people to accomplish theirintercultural communication competence goals; skills are goal directed, because they must be
designed to accomplish something (Jandt, 2013; Samovar et al., 2012). Skills are needed toadapt to the rules of intercultural communication that are appropriate to organisational culture.
Employees need to have the ability to recognise communication rules, meet the contextual
requirements of those rules and recognise the rules in different contexts, as these are the skills
needed for individuals to improve their intercultural communication competence (see Kim,
2006; Samovar et al., 2012). It is assumed that gaining skills in effective interculturalcommunication can minimise intercultural communication conflicts and make it possible for
employees to become competent intercultural communicators.
Character
Character relates to the ability to understand, respect and appreciate cultural differences, andcould be referred to as the sum total of a person’s choices in an intercultural interaction, which
Kim (2002) refers to as affective aspects of intercultural communication competence. The key
is how someone acts out choices when they interact with people of other cultures, as thesechoices indicate character attributes, such as trustworthiness, integrity, honour, altruism,
sincerity and goodwill. A valid measuring instrument of intercultural sensitivity, based on theseelements, was developed by Littlejohn and Foss (2009). Littlejohn and Foss measureintercultural sensitivity by, amongst others, examining people’s open-mindedness concerning
the differences they encounter in other cultures, their flexibility concerning behaving in
unfamiliar cultures, and understanding of different ways they can behave, depending on theenvironment in which they find themselves.

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As far as intercultural communication in the context of an organisation is concerned, employees
need to have the ability to be flexible and to speak the language/s of communication used intheir respective organisations. As communication is interactive, an essential influence on its
effectiveness is people’s ability to understand, respect and appreciate culture varieties,
including their relationships with others. Employees should continuously attempt to understandthe ways communication varies across cultures, and apply these understandings to enhance
relationships, despite differences (Samovar et al., 2012). So, managing cultural differencessuch that employees become aware of and become open-minded about character attributes that
influence intercultural communication, has the likelihood of preparing employees to respondpositively to endeavours that seek to improve their intercultural communication competences.
It is clear that the focus of the attributes advanced by both Kim (2006) and Samovar andcolleagues (2012) can be referred to as intercultural communication enablers or co-requisites,
which capture attributes employees require in order for them to improve their interculturalcommunication competence. Accordingly, the discussion in this section shows that employees
in culturally diverse organisations require the following competences to become competentintercultural communicators and the ability to accommodate each other:• The ability to understand, respect and appreciate cultural differences.
• The ability to change behaviour and act in a way consistent with the culturalenvironment in which people find themselves.
• Possession of requisite cognitive information about different cultures, including one’s
own.
• The desire to improve the ability to effectively communicate across cultures.
To sum up the discussion in this section, motivation, knowledge, skills and character are
distinguished as intercultural communication competence enablers or co-requisites, which areimportant for employees in a culturally diverse organisation, to communicate meaningfully
across cultures. Motivation is considered to be at the root of an employee’s desire to improve
intercultural communication competence. It is maintained by this study that, if an employee is
not motivated to improve intercultural communication competence, the other three attributes
do not really matter. The pivotal conclusion is that motivation and other enablers/co-requisites
can improve intercultural communication competence, promote inclusivity and facilitateachievement of organisational success. Doing so requires culturally diverse organisations toinvest in ensuring that employees are motivated to become competent interculturalcommunicators, and use motivation as the foundation upon which to base the other attributes.
Theories of Intercultural Communication Adaptation
The guiding theories of adaptation are regarded as a guiding principle in relation to interculturalcommunication. The purpose of this section is to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges
of intercultural communication adaption, to help the researcher to understand and determine
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background and how this adaptation will assist them in promoting inclusivity amongst
individuals.
Intercultural Adaptation Contextualised
It is essential to start by indicating that words, such as assimilation, adjustment, acculturation,and even coping, are used by different sources interchangeably to describe how individuals
respond to their experiences of cultures other than their own, as all these terms refer to how
people from one culture react to prolonged contact with those of another culture (Lustig,
Koester, & Halualani, 2018). For Gudykunst (2005), intercultural adaptation is the process ofchange over time that takes place within individuals who have completed their primarysocialisation process in one culture and then come into continuous and prolonged first-handcontact with another, unfamiliar culture. Intercultural adaptation is also considered as an
expansion of one’s worldview to include behaviour and values appropriate to the host or
dominant culture (Bennett, 2005; Patel, Li, & Sooknanan, 2011). This perspective includes
physical, biological and social changes in people who are in the process of adapting to a newenvironment. Lustig and colleagues (2018) and Kim (2006) define intercultural adaptation as
the process by which people establish and maintain relatively stable, helpful and mutuallyshared relationships with others upon relocating to an unfamiliar setting.
Regarding how individuals adapt, Martin and Nakayama (2004) argue that characteristics,
including age, gender, preparation level and expectations, can influence how well they adapt.
Younger people may have an easier time adapting, because they are less fixed in their ideas,
beliefs and identities. In comparison, older people may have more trouble adapting, because
they are less flexible. In pursuit of assisting employees to respond to their experiences incultures different to their own, organisations must do so with due consideration of thecharacteristics of all their employees, including recognising and acknowledging how eachcharacteristic contributes to the manner in which individuals adapt to cultures that differ fromtheir own.
The intercultural adaptation operational definition provided above was approached from acommunication orientation, considering that enhancement of intercultural communication is
the focus of the study. Consistent with the operational definition provided, and in spite of theculturally diverse nature of organisations, it is argued in this study that, from a communication
point of reference, intercultural adaptation reduces cultural distance and increases interculturalcommunication competence. Central to the argument is acknowledging a need for employees
in culturally diverse organisations to respond to their experiences in a manner conducive tothem adapting to a new way of communicating and improve their intercultural communicationcompetence.
Theories of Intercultural Communication Adaptation
The section will now move on to the analysis and contextualisation of theories that explain
adaptation in the context of intercultural communication, to describe the way individuals
respond to their experiences in cultures other than their own.

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The Communication Adaptation Theory (CAT), Intercultural Adaptation Theory (IAT) andCo-Cultural Theory (CCT) are, for the purpose of this study, considered to be theories that
explain adaptation in the context of intercultural communication. Theories of interculturalcommunication adaptation provide a wide range of frameworks aimed at describing the way inwhich employees at an organisation respond to their experiences of cultures not similar totheirs.
Communication Adaptation (Accommodation) Theory
The CAT begins with the socio-historical context of the interaction, including the relations
between the groups having contact, and the social norms. The theory elaborates that the social
environment in which individuals interact also affects their communication behaviour, which
is a reflection of the extent of the influence the socio-historical context has on interculturalcommunication. At its foundational level, the CAT emphasises the cognitive and effective
processes that are fundamental to speech convergence or divergence, which are linguistic
moves to increase or decrease communication distance respectively. In terms of interculturalcommunication, individuals communicating across cultures use convergence and divergencestrategies to signal their attitudes towards each other and their respective social groups.
Convergence is a process in which individuals tend to adapt the other person’s communication
characteristics to reduce the social differences; it involves adjusting one’s communicative
behaviours to be similar to another’s. Divergence contradicts the method of adaptation andrelates to the social and nonverbal differences between people participating in an interculturalinteraction; it refers to adjusting one’s communicative behaviours to be more dissimilar toanother’s (Dragojevic, Gasiorek, & Giles, 2015).
In the context of organisations, the patterns of convergence indicate that, regardless of people’s
differences, it is practicable to enhance intercultural communication and achieve a focused andcommon manner of communicating across cultures. Achieving this requires culturally diverse
organisations to maintain a balance that normalises the process that helps to reduce theuncertainty that results when cultures collide (Ayoko, Hartel & Callan, 2002; MacIntyre, 2019;
Wiseman, 1995). To guide successful enhancement of intercultural communication, it is,therefore, a requirement for a culturally diverse organisation to strategically and continuously
ensure that intercultural communication competence is improved such that collision of cultures
could be avoided.
This component of the CAT relates to cases where intercultural communication is influenced
by the communicators’ accommodative orientation and tendencies, as an illustration,interpersonal or intergroup dynamics or a combination of the two (Ayoko et al., 2002; Giles &Ogay, 2007). Accordingly, employees’ accommodative orientation and tendencies motivate
their desire to improve intercultural communication competence. Employees enter interculturalinteractions with personal attitudes (interpersonal) and social (intergroup) identities as factorsthat shape intercultural communication. Moreover, the attitudes of individuals are determined
more by their immediate surroundings (immediate situation) than by the society within which
they find themselves. Therefore, recognition of the impact on the features of the immediate

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situation of employees is regarded essential for understanding the context within which
enhancement of intercultural communication could be successful, as the extent and nature ofadaptation depends on the influences of the immediate surroundings of people participating inintercultural communication (Giles & Ogay, 2007).
Socio-psychological states signify communicators’ interpersonal orientation and serve as
motivational aspects for adapting to the context of intercultural communication. MacIntyre(2019) contends that the motivational component was expanded, firstly, to incorporate theinitial socio-psychological states of speakers, or the extent to which speakers are motivated tomove towards each other at the outset of an interaction. Secondly, speaker strategies werereconceptualised because of addressee focus, or the way in which one speaker pays attention
to the behaviours of another and, accordingly, adjust their behaviour in order to fit into thecommunication style of the new cultural environment. Thirdly, MacIntyre (2019) expanded theconceptualisation of reactions to interactions to speaker behaviour. Finally, the latter part of
the CAT model was expanded to include an evaluation that interlocutors take away with them,which influences their future orientation to both the other person and other members of that
person’s group (MacIntyre, 2019). To enhance intercultural communication, it is necessary forculturally diverse organisations to embark on improving intercultural communication
effectiveness initiatives that are premeditated by interpersonal and intergroup attitudes of theiremployees. It is reasoned in this study that doing so could contribute to internal relationships
and promotion of a sense of belonging, and is more likely to make employees accommodate
each other and adopt a uniform style of communicating. That, during intercultural interactions,individuals use specific communication accommodative strategies, particularly convergenceand divergence.
A convergence approach is, in this study, suggested as the communication accommodative
strategy culturally diverse organisations should use to move colleagues of different cultures
towards each other, considering that its patterns reflect that, regardless of differences, it ispracticable to achieve a focused and common manner of communicating. Furthermore, forculturally diverse organisations to successfully enhance intercultural communication, theirsocial and historical contexts, and the cultural dynamics of the environment within which theorganisations concerned operate (immediate situation), should form the basis of theirintercultural communication enhancement framework.
Unlike CAT, which elaborates that socio-historic context and immediate situations influenceintercultural communication, the discussion to follow focuses on IAT, a theory designed todescribe a complex, long-term adaptation process in which stress serves as the necessary drivefor individuals to adapt their communication behaviours, specifically for working towards theachievement of a common purpose (purpose-related encounters).
Intercultural Adaptation Theory
From a communication perceptive, the IAT suggests that, during intercultural interaction,
participants who recognise themselves as being outside their environment will become171

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stressed, experience confusion, and as a result, practice ineffective communication. Through along-term adaptation process, stress-adaptation and growth dynamic subside, as individuals
achieve functional efficacy in interacting with the host environment. IAT holds that, in termsof communication, intercultural adaptation is a complex and long-term process, in which
individuals go through a journey characterised by stress, before they become capable ofcommunicating and functioning effectively in a culture other than the one they were originallysocialised to. Some individuals struggle to cope with the feelings of inadequacy and frustrationin the changed environment and this affects the way they communicate and function. Whenpeople enter an environment in which they no longer communicate and function effectively,
they attempt to change through stress adaptation and growth. In this context, stress, then, serves
as the necessary drive for people who find themselves in a new cultural environment, to adapt
their original cultural habits. In the context of communication, IAT is, therefore, used to explain
why stress serves as the necessary driver for individuals from different cultural backgrounds toadapt their communicative behaviours. From this perspective, stress serves as interculturalcommunication enabler or co-requisite, given that it motivates individuals who are strangers in
a new cultural environment to improve their ability to effectively communicate across cultures(Haslberger; 2005; Kim, 2006).
Of central importance and relevance is that employees at the university communicate with eachother for the purpose of working towards the achievement of a common vision and purpose
guided by the slogan that the university is A people’s university that makes knowledge work.
University’s vision is, therefore, a specific purpose that acts as the main guiding principle inrelation to what the institution hopes to become. From the IAT point of reference, the university
vision, therefore, serves as the specific purpose or main motive why all within the university,
despite different cultural backgrounds, should adapt to one another in interculturalcommunication encounters.
In the context of this study, and consistent with the main insight acquired from this section, allpeople at the university, despite cultural differences, must adapt their behaviours such that they
improve their intercultural communication competence and function effectively towards theachievement of that common vision and purpose.
The deduction from the discussion in this section is that, from the IAT standpoint, it ismaintained that the degree of intercultural communication adaptation and effectiveness isachieved based on (1) the extent to which stress serves as the driver for employees to adapt
their communicative behaviours and (2) a need for employees to adapt their communication
behaviours with the aim of working towards the achievement of a particular common purpose.
From the IAT standpoint, reduction of stress and unification of employees towards a common
purpose should be utilised as intercultural communication enhancement contributing factors orintercultural communication competence enablers.

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Co-Cultural Theory
In the context of CCT, co-cultural group members are individuals who are members of
traditionally marginalised groups, and the theory is specifically helpful for understanding themanner in which co-cultural group members are impacted, and the strategies they use, during
everyday communication with members of the dominant group. CCT offers a practicalframework for identifying and examining non-dominant-group members’ communicative
experiences, as it describes the communication process of those individuals traditionallymarginalised within dominant social structures. In the context of organisations, the theory,
therefore, holds that the degree of intercultural communication effectiveness that is achieved
is based on the value and importance of how employees who are marginalised communicate
with those who have direct access to power (Orbe, 2017).
Fundamentally, CCT provides a structure through which co-cultural group members negotiate
attempts by others to render their voices muted within dominant societal structures. In thecontext of internal communication. The approach co-cultural members choose, therefore,
determines the effectiveness of intercultural communication within an organisation (Orbe,
2017; Orbe & Roberts, 2012; Visagie, Linde, & Havenga, 2011).
An important aspect is the pursuit of enhanced intercultural communication, for which theinstitution needs an approach to communication that considers the perspective of protecting
non-dominant groups from being marginalised by dominant groups. From a standpoint theory
perspective, this can be achieved through inclusion of non-dominant-group members’ culturalexperiences in shaping the manner in which intercultural communication is enhanced such thatintercultural communication is improved (as discussed in a paragraph above). This approach ismore likely to contribute to internal relationships characterised by employee commitment – animperative that was distinguished as one of goals and desired outcomes of internal
communication.
To sum up the analysis and contextualisation of intercultural communication adaptation
theories, namely, CAT, which is regarded as a communication accommodation theory andexplains how socio-historic context influences intercultural communication; IAT, which
explains how communicators from diverse cultural backgrounds adapt to each other in purposerelated communication encounters; and CCT, which emphasises intercultural communicationinteractions among underrepresented and dominant-group members of organisations. Overall,
the analysis of intercultural communication adaptation theories assisted the researcher to gaina better understanding of how individuals respond to their experiences in other cultures during
intercultural communication encounters; an understanding essential for organisations to havea grasp of how intercultural communication could be enhanced.

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Methodology
Research Approach and Design
The study followed a qualitative approach and a case study design was used. Using a qualitative
research approach allows researchers to describe, decode, translate, and come to terms with themeaning of naturally occurring phenomena in a social setting (Brynard, Hanekom, & Brynard,
2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2015) and was preceded by the semi-structured interviews. For the
purpose of this study, qualitative research is entailing the gathering and analysis of nonnumerical data to comprehend ideas, viewpoints, or past observations. As a result, thequalitative method was applied to develop fresh study concepts or to obtain a thorough graspof a problem (see Bhandari, 2020).
Instrument
The data was gathered through semi-structured interviews. A semi-structured interview is a
type of qualitative research technique in which participants are given the chance to respond toa planned set of open-ended questions. The researcher was guided during the semi-structured
interviews by a planned set of open-ended questions on an interview schedule based ontheoretical concepts (see Maree, 2011:87). The pre-set questions served as a means of gathering
data on the perspectives of experts in marketing, human resources development, employment
equity, and diversity, as well as corporate affairs and transformation, with regard to methodsof intercultural communication in the workplace. The goal of the semi-structured interviews
was to get accurate and trustworthy information from the participants during discussions on
the study’s subject. The goal was always to gather detailed, descriptive data that would aid theresearcher in comprehending the participants’ social realities and level of expertise.
Participants
Ten experts from the departments in charge of transformation, employment equality anddiversity, human resources development, corporate affairs, and marketing were among theparticipants, who were carefully chosen. Purposive sampling, according to Flick (2013), isemployed in unique circumstances when participants are chosen based on their level ofexpertise in a given topic. Because they had in-depth knowledge of the issues the researcher
was trying to investigate, professionals from the aforementioned departments were thus theones the researcher focused on. These individuals were chosen based on their deep knowledge
and comprehension of diversity management, training, and development: the manager incharge of human resources development (a black woman), the officer in charge oftransformation, employment equity, and diversity (a black man), and the manager in charge oftransformation, employment equity, and diversity (a black woman). Expert knowledge andunderstanding of communication dynamics led to the selection of the university spokesperson(a black woman), university brand manager (a white woman), deputy director of corporate
affairs and marketing (a black man) and four staff members (two black men and one white174

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man) in charge of writing electronic the university’s journal articles. Each participant possesses
the necessary qualifications or has a wealth of experience in institutional communication,
diversity management, and human resources development.
Data Analysis
Qualitative responses were analysed independently once all interviews had been conducted.
Analysis was followed by interpretation of the responses sourced through semi-structured
interviews for the purpose of arriving at informed conclusions. Consistent with Maree(2011:105), qualitative responses were analysed manually by transcribing all handwritten notes
and audio-recorded interviews. Viewpoints provided by the ten sampled professionals
regarding the university’s approaches to intercultural communication were carefully read andconstructs were identified accordingly.
Findings
Below the findings are elaborated according to the themes focused on in the study, namely,intercultural communication enablers, cultural elements and the stages of adaptation.
Intercultural Communication Enablers/Co-Requisites
Competent intercultural communicators are individuals who possess the desire to improve theirintercultural communication abilities, who are in possession of requisite information about
different cultures, have the ability to change their behaviour and act in a consistent way in each
cultural environment they find themselves in, and have the ability to understand and appreciate
cultural differences. As a result, organisations need to invest greater efforts in ensuring that
employees are empowered to become competent intercultural communicators, as doing so has
the potential to facilitate effective functioning of organisations.
Comments made by purposively selected professionals indicate that they acknowledged that
there are conditions that contribute as enabling factors for employees to improve interculturalcommunication competence to promote inclusivity.
As an illustration, Participant 4 suggested enablers or co-requisites that are important for
employees to become competent intercultural communicators:“One of the greatest weapons that you can give to employees is to make them feel thatthey matter; by so doing, you know that they will be motivated and encouraged. To
make people feel welcome, make people feel that they matter, make people know thatyou have their back, and make people feel that they are recognised. All these aspects
are essential to motivate and encourage people to become competent interculturalcommunicators”. [P4]175

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Participant 5 offered the following conditions, which are aligned with the enablers that wereidentified by the analysis of the literature:“Employees should be empowered with skills to become competent interculturalcommunicators. People who know that they are skilled enough to communicate acrosscultures easily express themselves in all situations they find themselves. The university
should also train employees regarding the primary language that is used forcommunication purposes.” [P5]Participant 10 gave a statement that is slightly different from what is argued about interculturalcommunication enablers; this participant commented as follows from a cultural integration andawareness viewpoint:“Cultural integration initiatives and awareness campaigns should also be conducted
throughout the year. New employees should also be oriented to ensure that they
understand that the institution they are joining is culturally diverse in nature and that
there exists a need for them to familiarise themselves with the new ways of doing things.
This approach could make them quickly form relationships and make social
connections with ease. [P10]The comments quoted above give substance to the theoretical argument that, for employees tobecome competent intercultural communicators, they require certain attributes and abilities.
Motivation, encouragement, empowering people with skills, training employees, andpresenting cultural integration initiatives and awareness campaigns are suggested as conditions
that are likely to enable employees to improve intercultural communication competence. The
conditions advanced by purposively selected professionals, specifically, motivation, skills,
knowledge and character are aligned with the enablers as conditions that are likely to contributeto helping individuals become competent intercultural communicators. The above assertions
are supported by (Kiss, 2008; Samovar et al., 2012), when they argue that motivation plays animportant role as an intercultural communication enabler for employees to become competentintercultural communicators.
It is assumed that the submission regarding cultural integration initiatives and culturalawareness campaigns as intercultural communication enablers was triggered by anunderstanding that the two conditions are likely to equip employees with knowledge about
different cultures that exist in the environment within which they operate, including their own
culture.
To operationalise the findings related to intercultural communication enablers/co-requisites,
managers at the university have the responsibility to distinguish enablers specific to theuniversity, and to employ them in their purposeful endeavours to enhance interculturalcommunication.

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Cultural Elements
Literature review findings show that cultural elements are contributing factors for effective
intercultural communication and that they direct the manner in which individuals communicate
across cultures. This assumption suggests that cultural elements play an important role inshaping and informing intercultural communication and that culturally diverse organisations
should be conscious of cultural elements that are likely to influence their communication styles.
Furthermore, literature states that elements such as norms, values, beliefs, cultural symbols andstories and rituals are core elements that guide and assist us to shape interculturalcommunication. Strategic Plan (2014–2019) analysis findings point out aspects, such as
integrity, respect, inclusion, honesty and dignity, are features distinguished as fundamentallyimperative for shaping intercultural communication at the university. These elements theuniversity should use as contributing factors in its efforts to enhance interculturalcommunication and to improve intercultural communication competence.
The responses sourced from purposively selected professionals reflect a certain level offamiliarity with cultural elements, which is reproduced in the literature and the university’s
strategic and policy documents, including an understanding of the values the university ascribesto.
For instance, Participant 10 mentioned,“If you share beliefs, norms and values, chances are understanding each otherduring intercultural encounters is possible as these elements inform how people
communicate. These elements make us to learn to understand each other duringcommunication encounters. People who share beliefs, norms and values also tend
to respect each other, maybe because it is a sign of belonging to same cultural
background” [10].
Two other participants also indicated familiarity with the importance of cultural elements inshaping intercultural communication, and gave the following responses.
“I would say respect, language and honesty. These are the basics of interculturalcommunication. Be honest and truthful to yourself and others”. [P4]“For me, I think language, traditions, attitude, values, respect, behaviour, habits
and the way we perceive things are the main cultural elements that influence theway we interact. One of the challenges that we face is that people hold on to what
they believe in and do not want to change that for anything, they have a sense ofentitlement”. [P9]177

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The strategic and policy document analysis findings presented in Section 4.4 in relation tosocial culture being both a perceived and experienced reality point to a need for the university
leadership to aggressively work to change the perspective to a reality that is experienced by all.
Despite documented consciousness, strategic and policy document analysis findings andpurposively selected professionals’ responses overall demonstrate that cultural elements
specific to the university are well documented and employees are familiar with the elements
fundamentally necessary for shaping intercultural communication at the university. Beliefs,
norms, language, values, respect, honesty, tradition, attitudes, habits and integrity are theaspects purposively selected professionals submitted as the elements they considered
fundamentally necessary in intercultural encounters. Having a communication framework that
is, amongst others, structured around the existing documented cultural elements that employees
are familiar with, places the institution at an advantage, and makes it more likely the university
will succeed in its efforts to improve intercultural communication effectiveness.
Stages of Adaptation
Purposively selected professionals referred to the following stages they believed individuals
go through before they adapt and become competent intercultural communicators. Participant
7 said,“When employees find themselves within environments, they are not familiar with, atthe beginning, they might find it strange not understanding what is required of them andmight feel intimidated. Nevertheless, if the environment is conducive for them to adapt
and there is a strategic way of integrating new employees to the new environment,
overtime, they become more used to the new environment, accept the new situation,and no longer feel threatened by it. As soon as they accept that the situation is what itis, they eventually integrate and adapt to the new situation” [P7].
Participant 6 explained,“Largely, as a new employee, you go through the normal and basic three stages ofchange. Firstly, finding yourself in a new working place make sort of being frustrated
by not knowing what is expected of you by everyone around you. Then you go into a
stage where you rather try to form friendship and relate to fellow colleagues. The laststage is asking yourself as to what you do with what you know. How you progress
through these stages is dependent on the kind of support you get from the institution. It
is important for the university to device ways and means of ensuring that employees aretaken by hand for them to navigate through these stages with easy” [P6].
Participant 1 said,“They start from a stage of fear and then they move on to a stage of slightly self-doubt.
You fear and then you express your doubts, after which you are slightly selfactualised. Then, depending on the environment, you become comfortable and start178

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interacting with your colleagues. It is only after one start feeling comfortable that you
slowly start feeling at home. This is then the stage at which you start adapting and get
integrated in the new environment, including understanding the way the newcolleagues communicate and do things in general” [P1].
Participant 8 said,“I think they go through a whole lot of stages. Firstly, they become shocked because
they do not know the environment. Depending on the attitudes of the individual
employee, the second stage will be grouping, that is identifying yourself with specificindividuals within the organisation. That is followed by acclimatising yourself withthe way the group you identify with do things. Thereafter, you observe what othergroups are like as compared to the group you identify with. Slowly you gel-in andstart behaving exactly the same way as everyone else in general behaves, and that
becomes the final stage where you then feel at home and start communication the way
each employee is expected to” [P8].
Though there are differences regarding the specific stages identified in responses provided bypurposively selected professionals, it is clear that they concur that employees go throughdifferent stages of adaptation before becoming competent intercultural communicators.
Frustration, fear and self-doubt, finding it strange, feeling intimidated and feeling shocked are
the experiences purposively selected professionals identified as those individuals go throughduring initial stages of their adaptation journey, namely, fascination and excitement, andanticipation stages of adaptation, and Lysgaard’s honeymoon stage. Forming friendship andrelating, self-actualisation and grouping, acclimatisation, gelling-in and feeling at home areexperiences that relate to Lysgaard’s recovery and integration stages, as are the acceptance,
integration and adaptation stages.
Discussion of Findings
Determining whether intercultural communication fosters inclusion in varied organisations was
the paper’s goal. The results of the research thus demonstrated that the institution did not havea well-thought-out plan of action for intentionally promoting intercultural conversation. Thiswas because the staff believed that there had been no systematic attempt to guarantee thatintercultural communication was managed consistently and that the institution’scommunication strategy documents provided no direction on how to facilitate effective
intercultural communication. This result is consistent with the Strategic Plan (2014–2019),
which did not identify cultural diversity as a strategic goal or even mention the need to set up
controls to direct the application of managing cultural diversity through improved interculturalcommunication.
The elements that are stated under findings coincide with what the literature asserts as guiding
aspects that are essential for assisting to shape effective intercultural communication. The
aspects staff submitted as elements necessary for informing intercultural encounters, namely,179

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integrity, respect, inclusion, dignity, beliefs, language, norms values, honesty, tradition,
attitudes and habits are the cultural aspects from which the university should choose what it
considers most relevant, and use these elements as contributing factors in its efforts to enhanceintercultural communication. The university should also take advantage of having employees
who acknowledge the content of documents that guide its strategic orientation, and use that asa path in its efforts to improve intercultural communication competence and move employeesof the institution towards inclusivity.
The findings also indicated that staff members thought management’s goals for improving theefficacy of cross-cultural communication should be governed by a policy statement. They thinkthat everyone at the university will be able to handle these challenges in a formal and consistentmanner by embracing a formal and consistent approach to intercultural communication.
According to the staff, the organisation needs an operational plan that outlines how interculturalcommunication can be used to unite staff members in pursuit of a single objective. The resultsof this study corroborate earlier research by Mmope (2016), who looked at the motivations
behind a conceptual framework for integrated intercultural staff communication for line
management of changed universities.
The findings of this paper also revealed that employees were of the view that the managementof cultural diversity and communication are essential elements to enhance interculturalcommunication so as to assist the university to develop and implement interculturalcommunication such that employees from various cultural backgrounds could improve
intercultural communication competence. This result is in line with Gumede’s (2016)
investigation into the existence of cultural diversity, whether it necessitates an organisational
response, whether managing cultural diversity affects performance, and, ultimately, what
approaches, techniques, and resources the Engen Refinery should employ to manage its
culturally diverse workforce. Even though the study found no problems with interculturalcommunication, it did highlight the significance of initiating team-building exercises and social
events to foster greater employee interaction, putting cultural diversity programmes andpolicies into place, and reorganising work teams to foster greater multiculturalism.
The study’s conclusions also showed how important it is to recognise and comprehend thephases people go through while trying to adjust to a new work environment. This result is
consistent with research conducted by Nhlapo (2013), who examined interculturalcommunication in information systems development teams across many businesses in theSouth African province of Gauteng. The study came to the conclusion that personality andculture could have an impact on how well people communicate. The study’s conclusions also
showed how important it is to recognise and comprehend the phases people go through while
trying to adjust to a new work environment. This result is consistent with research conductedby Nhlapo (2013), who examined intercultural communication in information systems
development teams across many businesses in the South African province of Gauteng. The
study came to the conclusion that personality and culture could have an impact on how wellpeople communicate. The study’s conclusions also showed how important it is to recognise180

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and comprehend the phases people go through while trying to adjust to a new work
environment.
The results demonstrate that the university values and acknowledges its cultural variety. As
workplace diversity dimensions that reflect the shape and influence of the university as an
institution of higher learning, the uniqueness of each individual, cultural diversity training,
institutional culture recognition, inclusion culture creation, and multilingualism promotion are
all acknowledged. For this reason, they have been prioritised in the aforementioned strategic
and policy documents. The results align with the literature review’s conclusion, which is thatan organisation can begin to systematically improve intercultural communication byacknowledging and comprehending the culturally diverse nature of modern organisations
thereby improving inclusivity amongst employees.
Conclusion
The goal of this paper was to explore the extent to which intercultural communication
contributes in promoting inclusivity in diverse organisations. The study suggests anintercultural communication strategy that could lead a culturally diverse organisation down apath of intercultural development that could ultimately lead to improved interculturalcommunication skills and a cohesive workforce. Complementary findings from multiple
sources helped the researcher to draw holistic conclusions that are relevant for the developmentof the plan, which is intended to be used as a tool for the university and other similarorganisations to become resilient in their pursuit of improving intercultural communication asa strategic and continuous priority.
The paper’s findings also show that intercultural communication variables have positive
relationships. This means that all staff members need to adjust to communication styles that
improve intercultural communication as a whole if diverse organisations are to strategicallyand continuously enhance intercultural communication and improve interculturalcommunication competence. The finding that intercultural communication adaptation has ahigher influence on other intercultural communication characteristics leads to the conclusionthat intercultural communication adaptation is a factor that is essential for varied organisations
to promote inclusion.
This study closed the gap and added to the volume of research that has been undertaken, andto the base of knowledge regarding enhancement of intercultural communication with thespecific purpose of improving intercultural communication competence and the promotion ofinclusivity, unifying employees towards a common purpose and achieving organisational
success, as ultimate outcomes.

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Corresponding author: Maria Mushaathoni
Email: mushaathonim1@tut.ac.za

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Student Emotions and Engagement: Enacting Humanizing Pedagogy inHigher Education
Hyunjin Jinna Kim
Stony Brook University
USA
Yiren Kong
Stony Brook University
USA
Carol Hernandez
Stony Brook University
USA
Muhammad Soban
Stony Brook University
USA

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Abstract
Student engagement in higher education has been a topic of discussion for decades, as student
engagement directly indexes student retention, achievement, and career development. Whileprevious research emphasizes the importance of effective teaching practices to increase student
engagement in higher education, faculty and staff report institutional and professional
challenges to increase interactions with students. This study highlights cases of successful
teacher-student relationships that engendered positive student emotions and advanced student
engagement in higher education settings. Using the thank-you note messages provided by
students in a Thank-a-Teacher initiative, data were analyzed qualitatively through thetheoretical principles of humanizing pedagogy (del Carmen Salazar, 2013). The findings
indicate that the enactment of humanizing pedagogy through conveying emotions and forming
positive teacher-student relationships made a meaningful impact on student motivation,
engagement, and growth. Implications for the transformation and liberation of higher education
through affect-driven pedagogy are discussed.
Keywords: gratitude, higher education, humanizing pedagogy, student engagement, teacherstudent relationship186

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Over three decades, student engagement in higher education institutions has been frequently
pointed out as one of the main factors in predicting student success and retention rate (Cassidy& Eachus, 2000; Grier-Reed et al., 2012; Maguire et al., 2017). Reports show that between 20
and 30% of first-year students fail to progress to their second year, and only about 64%
graduate with degrees within six years (NCES, 2022; Tinto, 2010). Given the COVID-19
pandemic and the emergency remote learning students were forced into, concerns about student
engagement have intensified. The quality of student and instructor interaction in higher
education classrooms is closely related to student engagement, which is worthy of further
investigation.
A high-quality teacher-student relationship (TSR) and effective teaching practices areindicators of elevated student involvement and engagement in higher education. Positive
emotions play a crucial role in these interactions between faculty and students and extend to
student success. Depending on how the student felt in these interactions, students’ satisfaction
and views of the class, the institution, or the learning experience could change (White, 2013).
Thus, in student engagement theories, the emotional aspect is highlighted as a component that
influences students’ overall engagement and achievement (Bryson, 2014; Kahu, 2013; Kahu
& Nelson, 2018). In particular, increasing student diversity in U.S. higher education institutions
calls for high-quality TSR and engagement to provide equitable academic opportunities for all
students. In today’s diverse higher education contexts, paying attention to and promoting
positive student emotions could index students’ self-awareness, self-management, social
awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making, which in turn, contributes tobuilding a more inclusive campus environment (Lubit & Lubit, 2019).
In this study, we examine TSR in student comment data retrieved from a Thank-a-Teacher
initiative to gain insights into the pedagogical approaches that fostered positive student
emotions in higher education classrooms. Specifically, we focus on addressing the following
questions: (a) How do students perceive higher education teachers’ approach to teaching and
TSR? and (b) How does TSR positively influence student emotions and engagement?
Literature Review
BackgroundPrevious research stated that positive emotions and TSR have notable benefits for students.
Positive emotions lead to student satisfaction, learning performance, creativity, social
integration, resilience, and coping mechanisms (Maguire et al., 2017; White, 2013; Xerri et al.,2018). Students who reported positive relationships with peers and instructional staff showed
higher levels of emotional and cognitive engagement, thus, developing a sense of belonging(Maguire et al., 2017; Pedler et al., 2022). Unarguably, TSR is proven to promote positive
emotions leading to emotional and cognitive engagements.
Over a decade of research demonstrated the importance of TSR both inside and outside of theclassroom and shed light on practices that bring about positive effects. In terms of interactions

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inside the classroom, student-centered pedagogies, such as active learning strategies, promoted
instructor-student contact and enhanced students’ sense of belonging (Fisher & Machirori,2021; Thomas, 2012). Other classroom practices, such as learning and using students’ names,
providing timely and constructive feedback, and disclosing instructors’ own experiences,contributed to authentic TSR, leading to students’ academic success (Cuseo, 2018; Ingraham
et al., 2018; Kim & Sax, 2014).
Interactions outside of the classroom, such as informal mentoring, making personalconnections, providing emotional support, showing mutual respect, keeping the line ofcommunication open, and advising students, showed positive effects on student’s academic
success, retention, and sense of belonging (Cole & Griffin, 2013; Estepp et al., 2017; Guzzardo
et al., 2021; Hagenauer & Volet, 2014). Furthermore, positive instructor-student interactions
made an impact on particular student populations, such as commuters, first-generation, lowincome, and at-risk students, by enriching academic development, success, and integration intocollege (Dwyer, 2017; Fuentes et al., 2014; Guzzardo et al., 2021).
Research suggests a myriad of benefits of promoting positive student emotions and instructorstudent interactions in higher education classrooms. Positive emotions of gratitude were
evident in high-quality TSR, where instructors cultivated an ethos of care and respect for
students (Grantham et al., 2015; Hagenauer et al., 2023). However, the factors that contributed
to positive emotions and interactions remain under-investigated, especially concerning thefactors that could benefit students amid the COVID-19 pandemic that forced students into alarge-scale remote learning environment (Martin & Bolliger, 2018). In this study, we utilize acritical lens, humanizing pedagogy, to examine the positive effects of TSR and interactions ata four-year research-intensive higher education institution.
Humanizing Pedagogy
Grounded in Freirean philosophy, humanism in humanizing pedagogy focuses on the cognitive
capacity of humans to develop full humanity through personal and collective self-actualization(Dale & Hyslop-Margison, 2010). Paulo Freire’s humanist approach evolved into influential
philosophies and conceptualization of educational approaches, including liberalism, Marxism,
phenomenology, progressive education, feminism, and critical race theory (Schugurensky,2011). As Freire (1970) emphasized, teaching is eminently political and should be treated as ameans to emancipation, preparing students for self-managed life. Thus, learning is no longer
viewed as a transmission or receiving of knowledge, but rather a practice of empowerment.
Previous research highlighted the importance and influence of humanizing pedagogy in higher
education settings. Specifically, studies emphasized humanizing pedagogy leading to stronger
TSR established in online settings, higher student engagement, equitable access to higher
education, and students developing critical thinking skills (Gleason, 2021; Mino, 2020;
Olszewska et al., 2023; Pacansky-Brock et al., 2021). In the context of U.S. higher education,
especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, such humanistic philosophies and humanizing
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involvement of students in learning, paying attention to emotions, and respecting personal
histories.
In a proposed framework for TSR, Cox (2011) highlighted the importance of interactions thathumanize teachers and students. Humanizing pedagogy emerged as an apt lens to uncoverteachers’ approaches and practices that humanized the learning experience for students.
Inspired by Freire’s conceptualization of humanizing pedagogy, del Carmen Salazar (2013)
put forth efforts to reinvent the principles and practices of humanizing pedagogy by outlining
five theoretical principles and ten pedagogical principles in practice.
Through a review and synthesis of scholarship across the globe, del Carmen Salazar (2013, p.
128) proposed the following five tenets as the guiding principles to apply Freire’s pedagogicalphilosophies in the context of today’s education:
1. The full development of the person is essential for humanization.
2. To deny someone else’s humanization is also to deny one’s own.
3. The journey for humanization is an individual and collective endeavor toward criticalconsciousness.
4. Critical reflection and action can transform structures that impede our own and others’
humanness, thus facilitating liberation for all.
5. Educators are responsible for promoting a more fully human world through theirpedagogical principles and practices.
Acknowledging the challenge and complexity of applying such a philosophical approach, ten
principles in the practice of humanizing pedagogy were introduced through a synthesis ofresearch and application from the past four decades.
In the description of the fifth tenet, del Carmen Salazar (2013, p. 138) unpacked thepedagogical practices in pursuit of promoting a humanizing pedagogy. The ten principles andpractices of humanizing pedagogy are as follows:
1. The reality of the learner is crucial.
2. Critical consciousness is imperative for students and educators.
3. Students’ socio-cultural resources are valued and extended.
4. Content is meaningful and relevant to students’ lives.
5. Students’ prior knowledge is linked to new learning.
6. Trusting and caring relationships advance the pursuit of humanization.
7. Mainstream knowledge and discourse styles matter.
8. Students will achieve through their academic, intellectual, and social abilities.
9. Student empowerment requires the use of learning strategies.
10. Challenging inequity in the educational system can promote transformation.
The foundational idea grounded in humanizing pedagogy is respecting the realities of students’and teachers’ lives (del Carmen Salazar, 2013). Aligned with the motivation and values thatinspired the Thank-a-Teacher initiative, which provided the data sources we analyze in this189

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study, a holistic understanding and interpretation of students’ and teachers’ lives are crucial totransforming the learning spaces in higher education. Thus, the principles and practices ofhumanizing pedagogy were an ideal theoretical framework for this study to holisticallyinterpret the nature of the interactions between students and higher education teachers.
Research Methodology
Data Collection
The study was conducted by a faculty professional development center at a four-year researchintensive state university in the United States. The data sources were collected from a Thanka-Teacher program, a university-wide initiative launched by the center in the spring of 2021.
The data for this study were collected during the spring semester of 2022, the second year of
the program’s existence.
The purpose of the Thank-a-Teacher initiative is to offer students an avenue to express their
gratitude and write a thank-you note to any educator or staff member who made a differencein their learning experience. This initiative is intended to acknowledge faculty and staff for
their hard work with students–whether they are teaching a course, advising, coaching, or simply
listening and providing encouragement. An email through campus announcement was sent out
to all full-time and part-time students enrolled in spring 2022. For four weeks, from March 7
to April 4, students could complete a form online. The online thank-you notes were collectedusing a simple electronic template developed using Qualtrics XM™. Handwritten notes
completed by students in person on campus were also collected. To collect the handwritten
thank-you notes, staff and student assistants set up tables with thank-you cards forapproximately four hours a day, twice a week, for the duration of two weeks.
Both electronic and handwritten thank-you notes were collected from students. In the spring of2022, a total of 559 completed responses (376 online notes and 183 handwritten notes) werecollected. A letter of thanks from the director of the center accompanied either a printout of theelectronic notes or the handwritten notes. These were then distributed to the corresponding
faculty or staff through the university mailing system. Among the 559 collected responses, thehandwritten notes were transcribed electronically and were compiled with the online responses
for analysis. Messages that contained a simple “thank you” apropos without other elements toanalyze were discarded from the analysis. A total of 448 thank-you note messages wereanalyzed in this study.
Data Analysis
A qualitative thematic analysis was employed to analyze students’ thank-you note messages.
Using Maguire and Delahunt’s (2017) steps for a theory-based thematic analysis, the data wereanalyzed in the following six phases: (1) becoming familiar with the data; (2) generating initial
theory-based codes; (3) searching for themes; (4) reviewing themes; (5) defining themes; and(6) writing-up. Applying the prominent work of Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis

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framework, Maguire and Delahunt offered explicit steps and suggestions for analyzing
qualitative data that helped capture the patterns and themes of the data.
Once the research team completed the initial reading to become familiar with the data, a theorybased initial coding process took place. The data were initially coded using the principles andpractices of humanizing pedagogy (del Carmen Salazar, 2013). Through a comprehensive
coding cycle and discussion, several categories and themes emerged: (a) forming trusting andcaring relationships, (b) providing mentorship and one-on-one support; (c) commitment andpassion to teaching the content, (d) providing meaningful content, and (e) engendering positive
emotions. Based on these sub-themes, similar themes or categories were identified or merged.
As these themes were defined, a final cycle of coding took place to create four major themespresented in the findings.
Findings
Four major themes emerged from the data analysis: (a) humanizing the teacher, (b) humanizing
the student, (c) humanizing the course content, and (d) practicing humanizing pedagogy. While
many comments provided general insights into the positive emotions the instructors or thecourse engendered, some valuable insights are presented in the following sections.
Humanizing the Teacher
The most significant theme that stood out in data analysis was the students’ appreciation
expressed toward the teachers’ care, kindness, support, and ‘humanness.’ Principles inhumanizing pedagogy correspond to the literature and research concerning caring educationand pedagogy for diverse students, such as practicing active listening, respect, trust, andcompassion toward the student (Cammarota & Romero, 2006; del Carmen Salazar, 2013; Gay,
2018). Many messages from students expressed gratitude toward the humanization of theteacher as the students were able to receive care, trust, and compassion and forge a meaningful
relationship with their teachers.
Communicating Care
Teachers’ personal attention, care, and kindness were appreciated by many students.
Sometimes, it was the teachers’ approachable personality and availability to help the students
that made an impact. Other times, the sense of belonging and the feeling of someone’s care
were significant to students’ overall college experience. From the teacher’s care and attention,
many students formed long-term relationships and shared more than academic matters.
“I wanted to thank you for making my last few semesters here worthwhile. I enjoyedyour class a lot. It’s hard to find a professor like you, and I’m glad I met you. You’reso humble and always considerate of your students. You genuinely care about each andevery one of us, and that is one of your best qualities…I hope you know how much I

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appreciate that, and hope we get to stay in touch throughout the years. I wish to learn
more from you” (Online_Msg 191).
Whether the relationship formed between the student and teacher lasted a semester or longer
than a single semester, the interactions were impactful enough to have changed students’college lives in many ways.
In another case, one student’s message expressed appreciation for the teacher’s extended
availability and the impact on the student’s personal life.
“I would like to take a moment to thank you for all the countless hours you have spent
with me. You have been a personal mentor to me. Thank you for guiding me since lastyear. Your guidance really plays a huge role in shaping my personality and shaping myfuture. You supported and guided me when I was going through past trauma. Many
people told me to just get over it, but you suggested taking the necessary steps to get
out of the trauma. I feel so blessed and grateful to you for all the help you have providedme” (Online_Msg154).
During the course of a few months, the student found someone to confide in with difficult
personal issues. Because of the teacher’s compassion and guidance, the student also described
developing coping mechanisms to help with traumas and personal difficulties. Similarly,
another student's message described how helpful the relationship was at a critical time oftransition in college.
“When I first came here, I was scared and didn't feel like I belonged. And though it
wasn’t serious before, I was a bit depressed and started to feel worthless. But things got
better when I met you during class…helped me get through my first semester here. You
always greeted me every time I came to class and…you called my name out loud…I
was able to open up to the class a lot more and crack some pretty bad jokes along theway. I felt safe in your class. I felt heard, loved, and finally felt like I actually belonged
here…I got through my first semester here and was able to fight some personal issues,
all thanks to you” (Online_Msg 190).
Numerous student messages reflect the impact of teachers’ care on students’ personal lives.
The teachers’ close attention, such as remembering students’ names, support outside of theclassroom, and availability to actively listen contributed to students feeling safe and a part of alarger community in college to overcome challenges and barriers.
Being a Mentor and Role Model
To some students, it was meaningful to form a relationship beyond the traditional TSR.
Students expressed their admiration toward teachers who acted as role models in life and an
inspiration to career pursuits. Also, many students showed gratitude toward teachers who
provided mentorship in their overall college lives—thus preparing for a self-managed life.

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Students’ messages included the inspiration given by their teachers in various career paths.
One student's comment discussed how the long-term relationship has inspired and shaped thestudent’s future.
“Someone who has been an inspiration and an individual who I look up to on a daily
basis is Dr. S. I have had the opportunity to work with him for the past four years andto say that I’ve learned just a few things is a major understatement. He has taught me
so much over the past few years and has been there every step of the way for my future.
Even though this is my last semester at SBU I know I will never forget the times wespent together in labs. Thank you” (Card_Msg 108).
The teachers’ support, guidance, and advice in and out of the classroom have impacted
students’ future goals and aspirations. Many students also appreciated the teachers’
mentorship, which often lasted more than a single semester. Students viewed mentorshipdifferently, but these mentoring relationships commonly influenced students long-term.
“I want to thank you for seeing something in me during my very first semester here thathas helped me completely transform over the last 2 years. My whole life, I was a shy,quiet kid who was afraid to speak in class and afraid to go after opportunities. Since
you selected me to be a fellow in Fall 2020, I have gone on to be offered every position
I’ve gone after…I appreciate the way that you took a special interest in me and equallycared deeply about all of the scholars’ success. It is such a great quality to have, andI’m so glad I can call you not only my mentor but also my friend” (Online_Msg 132).
The mentorship of uplifting students, providing guidance in school and in life, and thecontinuous support encouraged students to form long-term, meaningful relationships withteachers. Furthermore, students’ higher engagement, passion, and accomplishments were often
indicators of a successful mentoring relationship.
The trusting and caring relationship formed between students and teachers had long-lasting
effects on students’ emotional states, college life, future aspirations, and personal or academic
accomplishments. Because teachers showed how much they cared or extended their interaction
beyond the boundaries of the classroom, students were able to see themselves and their futuresin a new light. Students perceived teachers as mentors, role models, friends, or someone they
could confide in rather than an authority figure.
Humanizing the Student
Aligned with the first principle of a humanizing pedagogy, teachers’ efforts of advocating forthe full development of a person were appreciated by many students. Students commented on
the support and encouragement from the teachers beyond the course content, such as
developing life skills. As teachers humanized themselves, they also made an impact byinspiring students and facilitating students’ holistic development as empowered humans.

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Developing Life Skills
Students acknowledged the various roles teachers played in their lives to develop co-curricularskills. Some skills students valued were leadership skills, time management skills,
communication skills, and elevated self-esteem as a result of the interactions with theirteachers.
Particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, students struggled with the transition from inperson to online instruction, social networking, and time management. One student discussed
how the teacher bridged these gaps and helped the student be more confident overall.
“I came to the US in search of better education. I’ve seen power dominance by manyteachers in my country, which felt so wrong! As I came to the US during COVID…I
realized that it's hard to communicate with teachers online…even though my course
was asynchronous, Professor K successfully managed to bridge the gap. I
communicated with her throughout the semester, received feedback, and talked about
my confusion during office hours…I also made my first college friend because of thisclass…I want to thank you for being such an amazing teacher and motivating me to bea better writer, boosting my confidence, and making a huge impact in my life!”(Online_Msg 82).
Another student described how the teacher’s care and support boosted the student’s self-esteem
to feel more confident about choosing future career paths (Online_Msg 15). In addition toteaching the content in class, teachers helped and supported students in developing transferable
skills to be successful in life after college.
Authentic learning experiences were appreciated despite the challenges of remote learning.
Furthermore, given the unique challenges students face during the pandemic, the student was
grateful for learning additional skills, such as time management and organizational skills.
“I want to thank you for guiding me during my first real step into the filmmaking
process. This is something I’m really looking to pursue, and COVID made it difficult
to seek out any opportunities. I was worried about whether or not I’d be able to get any
practice. But you helped with not only that but also organizing and my time
management skills, which is something I really needed” (Online_Msg 7).
In many cases, students reported a more positive attitude toward their teachers because of thetransformative experience they had as a result of the TSR. Beyond students’ expectations,students walked out of their classes with more than a simple grade or knowledge of the subject
matter. Instead of positioning students as recipients where they can deposit knowledge,
teachers went beyond the banking model of teaching to promote students’ holistic development
and position them as co-creators of knowledge in the learning process.

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Inspiring Future Professionals
Aligned with the aspect of humanizing the teacher as a mentor and role model, students
described meaningful experiences with teachers that inspired them to pursue a career path or afield of study. Also, many student comments indicated how instructors sparked a new interestin certain fields or motivated students to continue on a path despite the barriers theyencountered. In addition to facilitating a caring relationship, teachers acknowledged students’reality, resources, and skills to inspire and guide them.
Teachers’ passion communicated through the course inspired students to rethink their future
paths and interests. One student described how the teacher’s care and passion contributed tothe student’s new interest in anthropology.
“Thank you so much for introducing me to a completely new field that I hadn’t
previously considered and effectively changing my educational trajectory. You are a
hub of resources and you help students find their passion. Thank you so much for all of
the opportunities that you have shown me and being a passionate instructor who deeply
cares for their subject” (Online_Msg 225).
Instead of simply depositing knowledge in students, many teachers modeled a teaching practicethat encouraged students to see their learning as an opportunity for transformation and growth.
Students appreciated teachers who viewed their academic endeavors as a part of a pathway
toward success in their lives. Other student messages reflected the influence teachers had on
their future career path and passion in various professional pursuits such as filmmaking(Card_Msg 72), literacy (Card_Msg 68), or social work (Card_Msg 134).
Another student’s message indicated similar appreciation toward a teacher who shared morethan course knowledge with the student.
“Dr. F, I just want to say thank you for always sharing all the rich knowledge with me
and other students. I especially enjoyed being your undergraduate research assistantbecause the process of doing research helped me discover myself” (Card_Msg 136).
A humanizing pedagogy focuses on students’ resources and incorporates those resources into
relevant learning experiences (Fránquiz & Salazar, 2004; Huerta, 2011). The practical
opportunities to work closely with the teacher as a research assistant influenced the student’s
development to find focus in their academic orientation and promoted personal growth.
Student messages included gratitude toward teachers for acknowledging them as an individual,
not just one of many students in the class. The impact that lasted beyond one semester or
beyond the boundary of the classroom created these positive emotions to appreciate TSR.
Students’ resources and experiences were valued, and students were treated as human beings
who needed nurturing and growth beyond the classroom, which many teachers were able toinstill through their interactions with the students.

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Humanizing the Course Content
The teaching and learning strategies in the courses made a difference in students’ levels of
engagement and commitment in class. The instructional model that teaches effective learning
strategies and enables students’ self-assessment in humanizing pedagogy empowers students(Bartolomé, 1994). Many students mentioned their impression of teachers’ commitment toteaching the course content. Furthermore, the manner in which the course content wasdelivered encouraged students to participate in the class.
Commitment to the Course
Many students described how impressed they were with the teachers’ passion, commitment,
knowledge, and expertise. Demonstrating both an affective and intellectual drive toward thecontent can contribute to students’ motivation and interest in the course (Olszewska et al.,2021). It was evident in students’ comments that teachers’ personal commitment to the course
content motivated students in many ways.
For instance, one student’s message commented on the teacher’s passion translated into
positive energy throughout the course. This helped the student ease into the course and develop
as much passion as the teacher had demonstrated in class.
“Thank you, Professor S, for always going the extra mile for all of your students! Your
passion and excitement for the courses you teach help keep class entertaining and I
really appreciate the energy you bring to each class. Coming into PA school, I was
definitely very nervous, but after meeting you for the first time…I felt so welcomed. I
am so fortunate to have you as an advisor and professor. You are truly amazing and you
are so appreciated!” (Online_Msg 92).
Passion and commitment to the course were communicated by the additional effort teachers
put into the course and the students. This excitement, joy, and positive energy were received
by students, who also found it helpful to learn in a space full of positive emotions.
Student messages commonly indicated teachers’ commitment by mentioning how the teacher
went above and beyond common teaching practices or the students’ expectations. One student
described how such efforts were shown in the class instruction.
“Thank you for the many wonderful activities you do for students, for the disseminationof knowledge, and for the encouragement of the pursuit of knowledge. You go aboveand beyond your roles to support students, and from personal experiences with you, I
am definitely grateful. I hope our paths will cross again sometime in the future”(Online_Msg 261).
The teaching method of using activity-based learning, encouraging students, andcommunicating passion for the course content translated into motivating students in their196

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academic journey. Because the teachers modeled such dedication and commitment, students
were encouraged to pursue a similar path and feel excited about the subject matter, whichbrought joy to the classroom. Interconnected with the humanization of teachers and students,
the humanization of content occurred with the teachers’ extended availability and support forthe students.
Making Course Content Meaningful
The manner in which the course content was taught, especially in challenging courses or topics,
made an impression on students. Inspired by the teachers’ passion and commitment to the field,
there were more efforts dedicated to ensuring students’ learning. Teachers’ clear explanations,breaking down the concepts, and providing multiple examples were all efforts to make thecourse content more meaningful and helpful to students.
Students expressed appreciation and admiration toward the depth of knowledge reflected in theteachers’ simple and clear explanations to help students easily understand the course material.
“Thank you for being a great instructor. During the online sessions, you helped us out
so much with teaching and doing labs with us. I thought that you conveyed theinformation very well and had a great depth of knowledge of electronics andmanufacturing…The videos that we did were a great project for helping us understandthe processes deeper. Thank you for teaching us and being very helpful when we didn't
fully understand the topics” (Online_Msg 219).
In particular, students had positive feedback about teachers who made it easier for them tounderstand and grasp the material. The teachers’ willingness to help or dedication to making
the content comprehensible was evident in their enthusiasm toward the subject matter.
One student described how the teacher’s dedication was shown in the level of enthusiasm, timespent explaining difficult concepts, and the amount of effort invested in creating an enjoyable
learning environment.
“Of all my classes, I look forward the most to attending your lectures because of theenthusiasm that you bring to the subject. You explain the topics very clearly and checkin with us along the way to make sure we understand. I truly appreciate the effort thatyou put in to make this class as effective and enjoyable as possible, as well as yourattention to making the subject as appealing and relevant for us as possible byconnecting what we’re learning to biological concepts” (Online_Msg 192).
Many students found it helpful when the course material made sense to them as they advancedin their academic program. A similar comment was made by a student illustrating how aparticular prerequisite class helped in the following clinical field experience.

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“Thank you for being a great professor! And teaching us the best social work practices!
I love hearing your stories and applying them to my own practice” (Card_Msg 141).
Sometimes, the content became relevant immediately as students made connections to real-lifesituations. Other times, the course content was deemed helpful because students were able toperform well in advanced-level courses. Teachers’ passion informed their effort to provide acourse curriculum that was meaningful, relevant, practical, and helpful for the students.
Teachers also dedicated their time and effort to creating meaningful course content. These
efforts of humanizing the course content were noticed and appreciated by students.
Practicing Humanizing Pedagogy
Humanization of pedagogy, in essence, is rejecting dehumanization in education. In the second
principle of a humanizing pedagogy, del Carmen Salazar (2013) stresses how rotememorization and skill-and-drill practices perpetuate dehumanization. Thus, moving beyond
the banking model and promoting critical reflection is imperative to transformation. Students
appreciated teachers’ efforts to incorporate innovative pedagogical practices, and a few
students even elaborated on the new perspectives they gained through the course.
Moving Beyond the Banking Model
Instead of delivering long lectures, teachers incorporated pedagogical practices that would
challenge the traditional banking concept in education, which refers to perceiving students asstoring deposits that need receiving and filling (Freire, 1970). Many students illustrated thepositive experiences they had with teachers by engaging in activities that empowered them asknowledge creators and learners.
One student highlighted the use of the Socratic discussion method in a class where the student
found it enjoyable to participate.
“Your course was always engaging and informative. I loved the Socratic discussions
and the ideas you shared. Though there are some (very few) things we don’t agree on,
I always loved the discussion” (Online_Msg 91).
The Socratic style discussion, a formal open-ended discussion format, facilitated higher
engagement from students, which is also known to enhance TSR (Fisher & Machirori, 2021).
Such an alternative instructional format engaged students to have ownership of their own
learning and, thus, empowered them as active participants and creators of knowledge.
Students were able to assess their own progress in learning and described how certain activities
or strategies in class helped them learn better. One student recognized that the association withemotions through active recall sessions helped retain information.

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“I love how you make the concept stick with us through active recall and create
emotional attachment (cause there’s a reason why you do that, that’s how memory
works!). Additionally, you also challenge our critical thinking skills to be goodclinicians with "not so simple" materials and the up-to-date information that keeps us
up at night” (Online_Msg 94).
Because the learning process actively involved the students instead of the teacher-centeredapproach, the student also showed appreciation for grappling with more complex materials inclass. These opportunities helped the student think more deeply and critically about the current
issues related to the subject matter.
Another student described how student-centered active learning strategies motivated thestudent to participate in class and engage in coursework.
“Thank you for making informatics much more interesting than it really is! Your energy
and humor is contagious and there was never a boring day in class. This made it somuch easier to leave a long day at work and come to class…I really enjoyed the debate
project. Never once did the assignments feel like "work." Honestly, this was the best
way to learn and retain information” (Online_Msg 17).
Through the experience of actively participating and engaging in the learning process, students
realized the value of active learning. Many students found out that learning is more effective
when it is enjoyable and includes the elements of students’ true involvement. Contrary to thedehumanizing banking models, these learning methods encouraged students’ active
participation in class, which in turn, facilitated higher student engagement in overall learning.
Providing New Perspectives
Some students specifically described the transformative experiences they had with the teachers.
These experiences helped students gain new perspectives, develop critical consciousness, andrethink inequity in their respective fields. While only a few student comments elaborated onthese experiences, these were indicative of the level of impacts teachers made on students, as
the student comments suggest future-oriented critical consciousness.
One student’s message described how the course offered new perspectives concerning
environmental issues. By rethinking items used in human’s daily lives, the student gained
understanding and new insights toward health and the environment.
“This class was an eye-opener for me. Before taking this class, I was always thinking
about the impact of all the chemicals on our lives but I never realized how close tohome those issues were. The fact that I was in my senior year and I was so ignorant
about…the environmental issues plaguing our planet shows that something was
missing from my education, and this class was the lighter to my deep and passionate

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desire to fight for the health of our environment against human greed for money andpower” (Online_Msg 115).
The impact made by the teacher encouraged the student to take action, as the student described,
to “fight for the health of our environment.” Similarly, another student explained how such atransformative experience motivated the student to raise awareness among friends and family.
“I have reflected back on your class…offered us new perspectives on race, gender,
bodies, and people that I had never heard before. Your ability to provide us with theknowledge for higher-level concepts in an introductory course was phenomenal.
I…always felt encouraged to ask questions. As my knowledge and understanding havegrown, I have tried to apply the techniques I observed from you to further spread myknowledge. Educating friends and family members on intricate social interactions is
one of my favorite activities, and you gave me the tools and empowerment to do thatsuccessfully” (Online_Msg 35).
Teachers’ efforts to help students develop critical thinking and critical consciousness werereflected in students’ messages. Students appreciated the transformative experience that ignited
their passion, prompted their interest, and provided them with new insights to reevaluate theirsurroundings that perpetuate inequity and oppressive systems.
Students also demonstrated their abilities to make connections between the course content andtheir practices in the field. One student illustrated the experience of critically viewing humanbehavior and the systems in occupational therapy.
“Professor K always encourages us to think on a greater scale of how human behavior,actions, and systems affect other individuals around us, both locally and globally. Thisis critical to our education as Occupational Therapists who need an understanding ofboth micro and macro subjects…I’m grateful to have been a student of hers”(Online_Msg 171).
As highlighted in the principles of humanizing pedagogy, developing critical consciousness isfundamental to humanization. Teachers’ efforts were often reflected in the way they makepersonal connections to learning or how they highlighted students’ contributions to society indismantling oppressive structures (Allen & Rossatto, 2009; Bell & Schniedewind, 1989).
Teachers’ humanizing pedagogical practices facilitated students’ development of criticalconsciousness and critical reflection, leading to change-oriented action taken by students.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore TSR in relation to student engagement by analyzing
emotions of gratitude through the lens of humanizing pedagogy. Findings from an analysis of
thank-you note messages highlight a few implications for research and higher educationteaching practice. First, the affect-driven humanizing pedagogy had positive effects on TSR

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and student engagement. Student engagement theories stress students’ holistic engagement inhigher education, including cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and social engagements (Bryson& Hand, 2007; Kahu, 2013). The practices of humanizing pedagogy demonstrated the positive
impacts of teachers’ care and humanness on students’ academic, social, and emotional
engagement. The affect-driven caring pedagogy improved students’ engagement, enhancing
TSR as well as social interaction among peers. Furthermore, students reported more interest in
the subject matter because of their close relationship with the teacher. As demonstrated by
students’ appreciation of the teachers’ care, compassion, and mutual respect, humanizing
pedagogy stems from the relationship between students and educators (del Carmen Salazar,2013), which leads to students’ holistic engagement and development as empowered humans.
Second, the pursuit of humanizing pedagogy was practiced in four interconnected dimensions:teacher, student, content, and pedagogy. In higher education contexts, students spend relatively
less time with teachers, which poses challenges to practicing humanizing pedagogy or pursuing“mutual humanization” (Freire, 1970, p. 74). Similar to the multidimensional nature of student
engagement (Maguire et al., 2017), humanizing pedagogic practices in higher education
contexts revealed teachers’ multidimensional practices (Olszewska et al., 2021). Teachers
engaged with students by humanizing themselves and students through caring pedagogy and aholistic approach. Teachers also practiced the humanization of the content by modeling their
passion and commitment and educating students with authentic content. Such humanizing
pedagogy was also manifested in their innovative and critical teaching practices. Through thismultidimensional practice of humanizing pedagogy, students were able to act as coconstructors of knowledge in the learning process.
Lastly, although teachers’ humanizing pedagogy made positive impacts on students’
engagement and emotions, limited evidence indicated teachers’ individual and collective
endeavors toward developing critical consciousness. In an investigation of higher education
instructors’ humanizing pedagogic beliefs and practices conducted by Olszewska andcolleagues (2021), the authors highlighted the instructors’ commitment to societal changeamidst the corporatization of higher education and aggressive neoliberalism that dehumanizes
the higher education community (Davies & Bansel, 2007; Desierto & De Maio, 2020;
Olszewska et al., 2021; Seal, 2018). A few teachers in this study made an impact through theircommitment to societal changes, and many taught against dehumanizing pedagogy. These
efforts had positive effects on students’ holistic engagement and acted as a catalyst for student
empowerment and future-oriented transformation. As such efforts are critical to engaging in‘mutual humanization’ (Freire, 1970), these few teachers’ attempts to change-oriented student
action and transformation need to be amplified.
Implication and Conclusion
This study calls attention to the importance of practicing humanizing pedagogy, especially inhigher education contexts where teacher-student interaction is constrained by the neoliberal
agenda and corporatization of higher education institutions. The findings of the study
demonstrated how a positive TSR formed through practicing humanizing pedagogy could

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create emotions that made significant impacts on student engagement and empowerment.
Through the humanization of learning and the invitational stances of instructors, students were
motivated and willing to assume critical roles in the process of constructing knowledge anddeveloping critical consciousness. Moreover, a program such as the Thank-a-Teacher initiative
provides an effective way and a safe space for students to acknowledge emotions andcommunicate their needs while also motivating the instructors to further engage with thestudents. This is particularly important when students come from diverse social, cultural,
linguistic, or racial backgrounds. In addition to offering students an opportunity to humanize
their instructors and the process of learning, the program generates valuable information for
instructors to understand diverse students’ learning needs to provide equitable access to higher
education.
The findings of this study suggest future directions for research and practice in higher
education. Further examination of higher education teachers’ principles and practices ofhumanizing pedagogy in and out of the classroom will provide in-depth insights into
understanding effective pedagogical approaches focused on student engagement,
empowerment, and transformation amid the diversification of higher education community thatdemands a range of students’ emotional, social, and academic needs to be met. Furthermore,an analysis of the long-term effects of humanizing pedagogy can indicate various possibilities
and promising approaches toward the humanization of higher education through TSR. As
emphasized by del Carmen Salazar (2013), education should be a space for students to feel
supported in their identity development through “achievement, purpose, power, and hope” (p.
141). The positive emotions created by humanizing pedagogy bring us hope–a central concept
in Freierean ideology of humanization and liberation. Thus, we stress hope for higher education
instruction to engender revolutionary and transformative education that will extend our
individual and collective endeavors toward humanization and liberation.

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Corresponding author: Hyunjin Jinna Kim
Email: hyunjinjinnak@gmail.com

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Effects of Board Game with Different Debriefing Preferences on
Cyberbullying Prevention
Sasipim Poompimol
Mahidol University
Thailand
Patcharin Panjaburee
Khon Kaen University
ThailandPratchayapong Yasri
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi
Thailand
Khajornsak Buaraphan
Mahidol University
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Abstract
The collaborative board game was predicted to be a potential game-based learning environment
to improve students’ knowledge of cyberbullying and prevent cyberbullying behaviors. The
games with the debriefing method could enhance the quality of the learning environment for
improving the cognitive domain. Scholars pointed out that the well-designed debriefing method
has been less explored during cyberbullying-related game playing. This study examines
students’ cyberbullying knowledge and affection and the effects of debriefing preferences on
the game. This study used a repeated measure quasi-experimental research method to explore
124 primary school students with different preferences of debriefing methods focusing on
multimedia and non-multimedia functions. The two-way repeated measures ANOVA test was
conducted to compare the knowledge and affection between groups of debriefing preferences.
The findings of this study reveal that the students have slightly improved knowledge andaffection. The collaborative multimedia debriefing group students showed the highest
knowledge progression among the four groups. Meanwhile, students in the individual
scaffolded debriefing group showed the most development of empathy and intention to defend.
Students also had positive debriefing experiences with their methods and perceived that thelearning environment helped them to improve their cyberbullying knowledge and encouraged
their upstanding behaviors.
Keywords: debriefing methods, digital citizenship, game-based learning, life-long learning,
quality education

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Scholars have revealed the adverse effects of cyberbullying on youth’s mental health andpersonality development (John et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2019; Kırcaburun et al., 2019; Lee etal., 2018; Okumu et al., 2020; Torres et al., 2020). According to UNICEF (2019), one-third of
young people in thirty countries are accused of being a victim of online bullying. It has raised
growing concern about children’s cyber-wellbeing and demand for serious action to prevent
bullying in online society. Due to the developmental factors and the necessity to access theInternet as a tool for learning and socializing, early adolescents and teens between 10–18
become the most vulnerable to engaging in inappropriate Internet behaviors (MacHimbarrena,2021). Nevertheless, a previous study revealed that younger children (ages 9–12) tend to be
more open-minded and responsive to adults’ guidance in understanding cyberbullying (Ho etal., 2017). Hence, cyberbullying could be taught from a young age for youths to extend theircyberbullying coping knowledge and better develop decent long-term cyberbullying behaviors
in the future. Therefore, scholars have suggested conducting well-designed instruction topromote students’ knowledge and essential skills regarding cyberbullying (Mardianto et al.,2021; Tapingkae et al., 2020).
Using board games has been recognized as an effective supplement to in-class learning
activities. Research across disciplines reveals that well-designed board game helps enhancelearners’ cognitive achievements through their abilities to motivate and engage students in thelearning process across different age groups (Boghian et al., 2019; Cavalho et al., 2019; Lin &Cheng, 2022). It also helps practice appropriate behaviors, facilitates face-to-face interactions
among people, decreases aggression, and increases empathy (Eriksson et al., 2021; Noda et al.,2019; Riggs & Young, 2016), especially when combined with effective debriefing. Debriefing
has been recognized as a vital step in in-game and simulation-based learning. It can be
described as a process where players reflect on their emotions and develop behavioral changes.
It also connects in-game experiences and reality (Crookall, 2014; Fanning & Gaba, 2007; Kriz,
2003; Peters & Vissers, 2004). The debriefing session also includes reflecting on what players
have experienced and resolving misconceptions (Van der Meij et al., 2013). Accordingly, aboard game with a debriefing method has been practically used to support students in learning
cyberbullying prevention since empathy plays an essential role in cyberbullying perpetration(Steffgen et al., 2011; Zych et al., 2019) and upstanding behavior (Sierksma et al., 2015).
Nevertheless, how the different debriefing methods influence primary school students’knowledge and affection of cyberbullying has not been well clarified in the digitalcitizenship/digital literacy field. This study draws on the above game with the debriefing
method. Therefore, the current study developed and implemented a cyberbullying board gameamong the different debriefing methods with primary school students. That is to say, the noveltyof this study is not only the development of cyberbullying board games but also empiricalguidelines on the effective utilization of educational board games to enhance knowledge anddesired affective behaviors, leading to sustainable cyberbullying prevention.

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Related Work
Theoretical Background and Empirical Evidence of Board Game-Assisted Learning
The board game is a traditional type described as an activity in which players participate bymoving or removing pieces on a board that utilizes a game format marked with patterns (Nodaet al., 2019). The trend of board game-enhanced learning has risen from the growing attentionof computer games in game-based learning research (Chang & Hwang, 2019) and othermodern-day popular cultures (Bayeck, 2020). The board game does not require advanced
technology, making it cost-effective and possible for novice designers. Moreover, it contains
every core mechanism that fosters motivation and engagement, enabling learning andfacilitating interactions between people (Plass et al., 2015; Poole et al., 2019; Zagal et al.,2006). Within the board game environment, the learners can experience, acquire, and try out
their knowledge safely and enjoyably through simulations (DeKanter, 2005). Additionally, aboard game can be played collaboratively, as a collaborative board game, in which the players
coordinately overcome the challenges together. Collaboration in the game can reduce
aggressiveness and increase empathy (Ewoldsen et al., 2012; Jerabeck & Ferguson, 2013).
According to Greitemeyer and colleagues (2012), team playing increases feelings of cohesion
as players assist each other in achieving a common goal. Plus, collaborative mechanisms canencourage the players to be concerned for the well-being of others.
Previous research showed the effectiveness of board games on students’ learning achievements
in science and technology education (Cardinot & Fairfield, 2019; Lin et al., 2019), as well as
proven to be an effective tool in practicing good character and teaching social issue awareness(Anggraeni et al., 2022; Mostowfi et al., 2016). For example, Kuo and Hsu (2020) implemented
an unplugged computational thinking board game called “Robot City” to teach seventh-gradestudents computational thinking and programming concepts. The results found that board
games significantly helped students improve their learning achievements. In addition, thestudents who worked collaboratively gained higher scores than those who worked
competitively against other groups. Zhang and colleagues (2021) created “CheMakers”, theorganic reaction mechanisms collaborative board game, to evoke undergraduate students’meaningful verbal interactions in organic chemistry class. The research results indicated thatthe board game successfully provided a meaningful learning experience for students andpromoted their interest in the content subject. Cheng and colleagues (2019) developed an issuesituation-based board game named “Water Ark” to enhance the high school and above
participants’ knowledge, responsibility, empathy, and value of public benefits on climatechange and water resource adaptation. The findings revealed that participants’ behaviors
regarding water resource adaption improved sustainably after playing the board game. Syahrialand colleagues (2022) implemented an Indonesian traditional board game with primary school
students in classroom teaching to facilitate the development of students’ good characteristics.
The board game activity improved students’ positive character values regarding love for thehomeland, caring for the environment, and tolerance. However, less study investigates thepotential of board games on the student’s cognitive and affective impacts on the cyberbullying

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topic. Therefore, it is worth showing the potential of well-designed board games to promotestudents’ desired behaviors and prevent undesirable cyberbullying.
Theoretical Background and Empirical Evidence of Debriefing Methods
Debriefing is a systematic assessment process where learners make meaning of prior learning
experiences by recalling, evaluating, and connecting those experiences to the real-worldcontext (Fanning & Gaba, 2007; Kriz, 2003; Lederman, 1992; Peters & Vissers, 2004). It plays
a crucial role in experiential learning, where actual learning occurs (Crookall, 2014; Reed etal., 2013). Regarding the experiential learning theory, knowledge is constructed via grasping
and transforming experience (Kolb, 1984). Kolb and colleagues’ (2014) model of theexperiential learning cycle presents two modes of grasping experience: concrete experienceand abstract conceptualization. Meanwhile, two modes of transforming experience arereflective observation and active experimentation. Concrete experience is gained throughobservations and reflections, which later assimilate into abstract concepts in which new
inferences for action arise. These implications can be tested in real-world contexts and used asa guideline for creating new experiences. Kolb’s experiential learning cycle expanded tovarious frameworks that provided debriefing stages with structured questions (Kriz, 2010;
Lederman, 1992; Sims, 2002; Thiagarajan, 1994). Petranek’s (1994) seven Es debriefing is oneof the distinctive frameworks that cover all of Kolb’s experiential phases. The model includes
events, emotions, empathy, explanations, daily employment, and evaluation.
Debriefing is primarily provided in the learning activity as both formative and summative
assessment depends on the purpose (Meguerdichian et al., 2019; Rudolph et al., 2008), as it
makes misconceptions visible and often solved through the forms of guided discussion (Grund& Schelkle, 2020). Debriefing can be conducted as a team or individual (Tannenbaum &Cerasoli, 2012). Thus, grouping becomes another interesting factor studied in previous
research. In a game-based learning context, scholars suggested that the effectiveness ofdebriefing based on group depends on how the game is played. Collaborative debriefing seems
more efficient when gaming activity is undertaken as a team (Kriz, 2010). Individual debriefing
might be enough if the gaming activity is designed to be played individually (Peters & Vissers,
2004). Nevertheless, both debriefing approaches yielded similar effects on learning in theprevious research (Tannenbaum & Cerasoli, 2012). The other study found that individualdebriefing increased students’ knowledge more significantly than collaborative debriefing (Vander Meij et al., 2013), whereas team debriefing outperformed personal debriefing regarding
self-efficacy and motivation (Bilgin et al., 2015). However, Verkuyl and colleagues (2019)conducted a study comparing the debriefing experience of nursing students after the clinicalvirtual gaming simulation whose work revealed that the students who debriefed by themselves
had the least debriefing experiences compared to those who debriefed in groups. Hence, theeffects of different debriefing methods on students’ learning remain unclear in the existing
literature, especially in game-based learning and cyberbullying education. Debriefing session
in game-based primary teaching was often carried out through teacher-led discussions orinterviews (Cheng et al., 2016; Piu et al., 2016), and some employed written or oral selfdebriefing with scaffolded guidelines based on various debriefing models. For example, Bilgin

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and colleagues (2015) provided the students with scaffolded questions of the EIAG experiential
model, aiming to ignite their memories of past gameplay experiences through group discussion
and individual writing, which helped them improve their game strategies.
However, Lennon (2010) discovered that the primary students largely responded to the oral
debriefing in more detail than written debriefing. Moreover, few studies have highlighted theeffects of different debriefing methods on primary school students’ knowledge and affection of
cyberbullying. Therefore, this study aims to cope with this shortcoming. The following
research questions helped to frame this study:
RQ1: Does the preference for debriefing methods influence primary school students’knowledge, attitude, empathy, and intention to defend themselves regarding
cyberbullying behaviors?
RQ2: Does the preference for debriefing methods influence primary school students’debriefing experiences?
The Current Development of Cyberbullying Board Game
In this study, the collaborative board game environment for fostering good behaviors andpreventing cyberbullying was laid on by the above principles, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Principles and their Relationships of Cyberbullying Instructional Design of the Proposed
Game Environment
Principle and definition
Board game:An activity in which players
participate by moving or removing
pieces on a board that utilizes agame format marked with patterns(Noda et al., 2019)
Collaborative learning:
A learning approach where students
work in a group of two or more andmutually seek knowledge orsolutions through a joint problemsolving task by sharing informationand learning goals, neverthelesscompleting the learning tasks
individually (McInnerney &Roberts, 2009; Smith & Macgregor,1992).

Characteristics of the proposed game environment
Utilizing game board, pieces movements, and game rules.

Collaborative board game:
A board game activity in which thegame conditions and mechanic¾ The gameplay takes place on the game board (space).

The students play the board game together in a group of 2 to
6, in which each player works on individual learning tasks
to complete the game’s main objective as a team byacquiring and sharing information and resources to solve theproblems.

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Principle and definition
forces the players to work andcommunicate to win the game
together by completing individualtasks. The collaborative gamecondition includes (Oksanen &Hämäläinen, 2014; Szewkis et al.,2011):¾ common goal
¾ positive interdenpendence¾ coordination andcommunication¾ individual accountability¾ awareness¾ joint rewards
Collaborative game mechanic
includes (Schell, 2008):¾ space¾ objects, attributes, and states¾ actions¾ rules¾ skill¾ chance

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Characteristics of the proposed game environment¾ Rules of the game, such as consequences, constraintsof action, and goal, were designed and implemented(rules).
¾ Provides persistent game tasks, allowing players topractice appropriate behaviors connected tocyberbullying and empathy (skill).
¾ The players play the game by manipulating gamecards and pawns (objects, attributes, and states) to
overcome problems and tasks (actions) or unforeseen
and uncertain events in the game (chance).
¾ The players work together toward the same goal andwill win or lose the game as a team (common goal andpositive interdependence).
¾ The game board provides the players with a learningspace for discussion and information sharing. The
players must constantly communicate to plan
strategies to complete the game tasks (coordinationand communication).

¾ Each player plays a different role with different
abilities, which can benefit the team in achieving
shared goals. A player’s actions in each turn can affectthe other players’ condition in the next turn and overall
results. (Individual accountability).

¾ Each player holds a pawn and profile card indicating
their current status (e.g., health, resources, location)and can be shown to the teammates (awareness).

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Principle and definition

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Characteristics of the proposed game environment¾ The proposed board game contains group rewards orpunishments to reinforce the sense ofcollaborativeness (joint rewards).

The board game used in this study was designed and developed to cover cyberbullying,including cyberbullying concepts, elements, types, impacts, coping strategies, and empathy.
According to the mechanism, we utilized collaborative gaming conditions (Oksanen &Hämäläinen, 2014; Schell, 2008; Szewkis et al., 2011) to optimize team cohesion andinteractions between the team players. Moreover, the game design also implemented roleplaying, non-playable characters (NPCs), and storytelling strategies to foster the students’perspective-taking and empathy. In the end, “Dysturbia” is a serious 2–6 multiplayer board
game for students aged ten years and older. The game duration is around 30–40 minutes.
The game story occurs in a fantasy world where the main villain intends to invade the world
with cyberbullies. The players play the role of six characters with different perks and special
abilities. Each player is required to go through other situational challenges based on luck or
decisions while working together to collect the treasure cards and resources to complete thegame. Each player must randomly select the character to play to start the game. They will
receive a character card and inventory card matching their selected character, which states theirprofile, special abilities, mental health status, and experience level. Before starting the game,the players determine their playing orders and play the game turn by turn, respectively. The
game board is defined as the gaming space that the players can explore, whereas the explorable
tiles have different levels of challenges. The players can call to challenge the situation on thetile they step on and draw a card from the situation card deck. Through this process, the players
will learn about cyberbullying characteristics, types of cyberbullying, and coping strategies byinteracting with the situations presented in the situation cards. Situation cards contain examples
of cyberbullying situations that the players must read aloud to their teammates. It requires
coping strategies to win the situations, making decisions (whether to help or ignore), and seeing
the consequences of their decisions (getting rewards or points if they helped, or losing healthor points if they ignored). To deal with in-game situations, the players must successfully standup to the cyberbully and help a victim by matching forms of cyberbullying with the correct214

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defense card as it represents the appropriate coping strategies. Every successful challenge will
activate a bystander symbolized by a blue cube token. Bystanders can combine into an
upstander represented by blue column tokens, marking that tile as a safe zone from bullies. On
the contrary, if the player fails the challenge, a black cube token representing a cyberbully will
be added to the tile. It would cause the players who step on the tile to lose their health. Thismechanic introduced the cyberbullying system and the roles of bullies, victims, bystanders,and upstanders.
In addition, with collaborative game mechanisms, “Dysturbia” allows the players to work as ateam and share the same goal as they win or lose the game together. The players can help theirteammates by healing, sharing resources, using their special abilities for their friends’ sake, or
equipping a power card designed to enhance the sense of empathy in the game. The players
have to corporately plan, discuss gaming strategies, and actively contribute helpful information
as they apply the content they have learned to advance problem-solving methods. The gamewas created with an interactive how-to-play video and handbook explaining the game rules toassist the students in playing the game or when a problem occurs.
Research Methodology
Participants
The participants in this study were 124 11–12-year-old students in four classrooms of a primaryschool in Thailand. They all enrolled in a science and technology course that included digitalawareness topics based on Thailand’s basic education core curriculum standard. All
experimental procedures in this study involving human participants followed the ethicalstandards of the Institutional Review Board, Institute for Population and Social Research,
Mahidol University (IPSR-IRB), Thailand (COA. No. 2020/12-431). Students who
participated in this study were initially recruited based on the school administration board
agreement. Informed consent forms were obtained from the student’s parents or caregivers. All
students were allowed to withdraw their participation during the experimental process. The
participants comprised 55 boys (44.40%) and 69 girls (55.60%).
On the other hand, the inconsistent outcomes of the debriefing methods in the game-basedlearning literature suggest that more studies should be conducted to demonstrate which method
properly improves learning regarding cognitive and affective domains, especially when usedin collaborative board game environments. Therefore, in this study, the participants were asked
for preferences for the debriefing method (DM) as follows:
DM1: The collaborative scaffolded debriefing method was designed based on Kolb’s(1984) experiential learning cycle and Petranek’s (1994) seven Es of the debriefing
model to provide the students with guidelines to reflect their thoughts with scaffolded
open-ended questions (See Figure 1). In the concrete experience phase, the students
were prompted to recall the situations and their feelings during the game. Next, thestudents observed and reflected upon the experience themselves and others in the215

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reflective observation phase. Through active reflections, the students constructed the
new concepts of what they had just learned, called abstract conceptualization. Lastly,in the active experiment phase, the students were encouraged with questions to connect
how the newly learned concepts can be transferred to the real world and test theirknowledge in other hypothetical scenarios before summarizing and suggesting theproper future actions. Therefore, the students were asked to discuss in their group theexperiences they faced in the game after finishing playing the collaborative board game.
Then, they identified their learning and answered the scaffolded debriefing questions
by writing them down on the paper.
Figure 1
Debriefing Phases and Scaffolded Debriefing Questions

DM2: The collaborative multimedia debriefing method in which the video presentationof the in-game content summary was designed based on the same sequence of Kolb’s(1984) experiential learning cycle and Petranek’s (1994) seven Es of the debriefing
model. The flow of the multimedia debriefing video is presented in Figure 2. The
students in the experimental group with the collaborative multimedia debriefing wereasked to watch the multimedia video after playing the collaborative board game andthen discuss in their groups what they had just learned from the video and write down
their conclusion on a paper.

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Figure 2
The Flow of Debriefing Stages in the Multimedia Debriefing Video

DM3: The mixed debriefing method integrates the collaborative scaffolded andmultimedia methods. After finishing the collaborative board game, the students
received the multimedia debriefing first. Later, they were asked to collaboratively
discuss their gaming experiences in their groups and summarize the answers to theprovided scaffolded debriefing questions by writing on the paper.
DM4: The individual scaffolded debriefing method is laid on a self-debriefing
procedure. The students played the collaborative board game as a team, but they were
debriefed separately as individuals. The students reflected on themselves, guided byscaffolded debriefing questions of Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle andPetranek’s (1994) seven Es of the debriefing model. Afterward, the students wrote
down the answers to the scaffolded questions on the paper.
Experimental Design
At the beginning of the activity, students were required to take the pre-test to evaluate theirprior knowledge of cyberbullying behavior. After that, the researcher explained how to play217

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the collaborative board game for 10 minutes. The participants were then divided into 5 to 6
players based on their preferences to play the game, as the researcher monitored the process
and ensured that the students followed the rules. The activity duration lasted for four weeks,
60 minutes per week. The data collection of mid-test scores was collected at the end of thesecond week using the same cyberbullying behaviors questionnaire. At the end of week 4, after
playing the collaborative board game for 20 minutes, the debriefing sessions were conducted.
That is to say, this study could divide the students based on their preferences into four groups:
32 DM1, 30 DM2, 30 DM3, and 32 DM4 students. Figure 3 presents the experimental processof this study.
Figure 3
The Research Design of the Repeated Measure Experiment

Right after the debriefing activities, all participants responded to the evaluation of
cyberbullying behaviors as a post-test and the debriefing experience scale questionnaire inweek 4. To observe the improvement of the students in within-group and between-group, thestudents’ cyberbullying behaviors pre-test, mid-test, and post-test scores were collected for
two-way repeated measures ANOVA analysis. Meanwhile, students’ debriefing experience
scores were compared among four groups.

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Measurement Tools
A cyberbullying behaviors questionnaire was applied to measure students’ learning outcomesto answer RQ1. The items were adopted from the bullying assessment tool (Nieh & Wu, 2018)
and modified to fit the cyberbullying context, as shown in Appendix A. The questionnaire
consists of 50 items covering cyberbullying behaviors in four aspects included with 20 items
for cyberbullying knowledge aimed to evaluate students’ understandings in terms ofcyberbullying concepts using yes or no questions (e.g., cyberbullies are more likely lack of
empathy) with Cronbach’s α=0.73, 10 items in the aspect of attitude focused on exploring
students’ feelings toward cyberbullying using 5-point Likert scale range from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (e.g., standing up to help the cyberbullied victim will getyourself into trouble) with Cronbach’s α=0.66, 10 items aimed to assess empathy for victims
using 5-point Likert scale items range from 1 (not at all uncomfortable) to 5 (veryuncomfortable) (e.g., seeing someone was ridiculed on the Internet) with Cronbach’s α=0.92,
and 10 items on the aspect of intention to defend measuring students’ degree of willingness tostand up for those who were cyberbullied using 5-point Likert scale items range from 1 (totally
unwilling) to 5 (totally willing) (e.g., how willing are you to find a way to help a cyberbullied
victim) with Cronbach’s α=0.91. The Cronbach’s alpha of the overall questionnaire was 0.88.
The students’ debriefing experience questionnaire was modified from the Debriefing
Experience Scale (DES) (Verkuyl et al., 2019) to answer RQ2. It was translated to Thai by the
researchers and performed back translation by domain experts regarding content validity, as
shown in Appendix B. The scale consists of 15 five-point Likert scale items describing thestudents’ experience during the debriefing process, and the importance of those experiencesfrom students’ perspectives ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (e.g.,
debriefing helped me to analyze my thoughts). The scale’s reliability in this current version
was calculated with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.92.
Results
Comparisons of Students’ Scores Based on the Debriefing Preferences
To determine whether the students’ cyberbullying behaviors of each group changed during andafter the learning activity, the participants’ cyberbullying pretest, mid-test, and post-test scores
were compared using repeated-measures ANOVA. In this process, the negative reverse scoring
items were reversed, and the normality of the data was tested to ensure there was no violationof the statistic assumptions. The mean scores of students’ cyberbullying behaviors in terms ofknowledge, attitude toward cyberbullying, empathy for victims, and intention to defend thevictims, including the F-values and effect sizes of each dimension, are presented in Table 2.

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Table 2Comparison of Students’ Cyberbullying Behaviors Mean Scores among Pre-, Mid-, and PostTest
Term of
Cyberbullying
behaviors

Group

N

Knowledge

DM1

32

DM2

30

DM3

30

DM4

32

DM1

32

DM2

30

DM3

30

DM4

32

DM1

32

DM2

30

DM3

30

DM4

32

DM1

32

DM2

30

DM3

30

DM4

32

AttitudeEmpathy

Intention to
defendPretestM(SD)
9.56(3.56)
10.27(3.05)
11.18(4.30)
10.97(3.04)
36.03(4.12)
36.43(3.58)
37.20(5.02)
34.13(4.90)
31.12(8.32)
29.47(8.76)
28.63(8.64)
24.25(6.15)
35.16(7.51)
32.50(8.28)
31.73(8.85)
27.84(8.40)

Midtest
M
(SD)
11.13
(3.81)
12.10(3.48)
12.20(3.62)
10.56(2.54)
35.53(5.39)
37.70(3.86)
37.41(3.93)
34.62(4.67)
31.69(6.88)
28.37(7.53)
28.20(8.18)
27.81(7.44)
32.28(8.67)
33.43(7.41)
30.93(7.43)
30.59(6.73)

Posttest
M (SD)

F

Partial Eta Pairwise
Squaredcomparison

12.31(3.68)
13.58(3.43)
14.12(4.72)
11.49(4.41)
36.37(5.09)
37.24(5.59)
38.84(4.62)
36.39(5.99)
34.62(9.27)
31.21(10.19)31.79(11.02)32.35(9.57)
35.10(8.87)
33.99(8.11)
36.68(8.85)
33.72(9.27)

6.70*.18

Pre < Post

9.17*

.24

Pre < Post

5.09*

.15

Pre < Post

0.99

.03

0.39

.01

0.76

.03

1.58

.05

2.28

.07

2.16

.07

1.02

.03

1.37

.05

17.15*

.36

2.11

.06

0.42

.01

5.07*

.15

7.82*

.20

Pre < Mid <Post

Pre < Post;
Mid < Post
Pre < Mid;Pre < Post

*p < .05.

As shown in Table 2, regarding the aspect of cyberbullying knowledge, a significant
improvement was found across the pre-, mid-, and post-test data in DM1 (F=6.70, p<0.05,
ES=.18), DM2 (F=9.17, p<0.05, ES=.24), and DM3 (F=5.09, p<0.05, ES=.15). It indicates thesmall to medium magnitude of the improvement from pre-test to post-test of the three groups.
The affective aspects include attitude toward cyberbullying, empathy, and intention to defend
despite no significant differences between pre-, mid-, and post-test scores regarding students’attitudes. Students’ empathy scores of DM4 showed significant differences among pre-, mid-,
and post-test scores (F=17.15, p<0.05, ES=.36). A pairwise comparison further determined thatthe students’ empathy significantly raised after the mid-test, then later continued to improve220

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after the debriefing session. The partial eta squared value was 0.36, suggesting a medium
magnitude of empathy improvement.
The repeated measures analysis further revealed the significant changes in the students’intention to defend over pre-, mid-, and post-test scores in DM3 (F=5.07, p<0.05, ES=.15) andDM4 (F=7.82, p<0.05, ES=.20). A post hoc test unveiled that the post-test scores in DM3 weresignificantly higher than pre- and mid-test scores, indicating a significant increase in students’intention to defend after the collaborative mixed-method debriefing session. Meanwhile, theDM4 students’ mid-test scores of intention to defend were significantly higher than the pre-test
after students participated in the learning activities for two weeks. The intention to defend posttest scores also remained higher than the pre-test scores in the DM4 students, meaning they
developed their intention to defend the cyberbullying victims significantly more than before
the learning intervention.
Moreover, the two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was performed to compare the students’
pre-, mid-, and post-test scores among four preferences (i.e., DM1, DM2, DM3, DM4). The
groups were compared and explored the overtime changes and between-group differences ofthe four debriefing methods from pre-, mid-, and post-test. Regarding the term of knowledge,
the main effect of time shows a small effect size regarding the students’ cyberbullying
knowledge (F(2,240)=18.62, p<0.05, ES=.13). However, there was no significant effect on
students’ scores among the four debriefing methods (F(3,120)=1.65, p>0.05, ES=.06). There wasalso no significant interaction between the gains of the four debriefing methods among the
cyberbullying knowledge pre-, mid-, and post-test (F(6,240)=1.53, p>0.05, ES=.04). These
results suggest that the four groups had similarly progressed their knowledge aboutcyberbullying as time went on, all debriefing methods were similarly effective on thecollaborative board game. There were also significant effects of the debriefing methods on
students’ attitude (F(3,120)=3.90, p<0.05, ES=.09). However, there was no significant main
effects on time on students’ attitude scores (F(2,240)=3.17, p>0.05, ES=.03), as well as no
significant interaction among students’ pre-, mid-, post-test scores at different time points(F(6,240)=0.70, p>0.05, ES=.02). That is to say, the method students were debriefed after
learning about cyberbullying made a small difference in their attitudes, but as time went on,
their attitudes did not change much, regardless of the debriefing method used. The interaction
between the method and the time was also not significant, indicating that no particular
combination of method and timing was notably effective in changing attitudes. Similarly, it
indicates a significant main effect of time (F(2,240)=10.81, p<0.05, ES=.08) and four preferencegroups on students’ empathy scores (F(3,120)=2.92, p<0.05, ES=.07). It confirmed that thestudents’ empathy gains overtime were comparable among the four methods. Moreover, time
had a significant main effect on the student’s intention to defend. The students of four groups
manifested a significant change of intention to defend overtime (F(3,360)=6.31, p<0.05, ES=.05).
However, there was no significant interaction among the four groups and the students’ pre-,mid-, and post- intention to defend scores (F(3,360)=2.41, p>0.05, ES=.09). These results
indicates that the students generally became more empathetic over time. This increase wassimilar no matter which group they were in. The methods used in the four groups affected
empathy, but the difference was small. It also revealed that the student’s willingness to221

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intervene in defense of others increased over time, but this increase was not significantly
different among the four groups, nor did it depend on the combination of group and time. Insummary, there are different results among the four groups on knowledge, attitudes, empathy,
and intention to defend against cyberbullying, as shown in Table 3. The mean scores of the fourgroups increased over time (i.e., pre-, mid-, and post-test). It is highlighted that even though
the four groups have shown a homogeneous development of overall cyberbullying behaviors,
the groups who received the debriefing methods with collaborative elements (i.e., DM1, DM2,
DM3) manifested a significant development of cyberbullying knowledge in whichcollaborative multimedia debriefing outperformed the other debriefing methods. Meanwhile,the individual scaffolded debriefing (DM4) exhibited outstanding results regarding empathy
and intention to defend scores. The similar results among the four groups are attitude changes,
empathy, and intention to defend improvement in the collaborative debriefing groups.
Table 3
Summary of Cyberbullying Behaviors for the Four Groups over Time
Term of cyberbullying
behavior
Knowledge
Attitudes
Empathy
Intention to defend*p < .05.

F-value
Within group
DM1
DM2
6.70*
9.17*
0.39
0.76
2.16
1.02
2.11
0.42

DM3
5.09*
1.58
1.37
5.07*

DM4
0.99
2.28
17.15*
7.82*

Between groups
Pre-test
Mid-test
1.37
1.68
2.71*
3.33*
4.28*
1.82
4.28*
0.90

Post-test
2.65
1.44
0.56
0.71

Comparisons of Students’ Debriefing Experience Scores
To investigate the students’ debriefing experience, students’ debriefing experience data wereanalyzed and presented by descriptive statistics. It was found that the DM1 students rated theirdebriefing experience slightly higher than the other groups (M=3.72, SD=0.56), followed by
the DM3 students (M=3.57, SD=0.77), and the DM2 students (M=3.56, SD=0.72) respectively.
Meanwhile, the DM4 students showed only neutral agreement toward the debriefing method(M=3.38, SD=0.50). However, the ANOVA results yielded no significant difference among thedebriefing experiences of the students in the four different groups (F(3,123)=1.52, p>0.05). That
is to say, four debriefing methods were definitively rated better or worse than the others by thestudents. The students manifested high to medium agreement, meaning that each debriefing
method helped them understand more about the cyberbullying content from the game and makea connection to the real-life context. Interestingly, the groups with collaborative debriefing
elements (i.e., DM1, DM2, DM3) rated the overall debriefing experience high.
Discussions and Conclusions
The present study investigated the effects of a collaborative board game with different
debriefing methods on students’ behavioral changes in knowledge, attitudes towardcyberbullying, empathy for cyberbullying victims, and intention to defend. Moreover, we

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examined the debriefing experiences of the students who participated in the learningintervention.
To answer and discuss RQ1, the repeated measures experimental results revealed that thestudents who preferred the collaborative debriefing features showed significant improvement
in cyberbullying knowledge scores after the debriefing session with a large effect size. This
result indicates that the collaboratively structured debriefing supported students in developing
their cyberbullying knowledge. That is because knowledge acquisition is supported throughdiscussion in a collaborative debriefing environment. Instead of reflecting on the newly learned
knowledge and trying to make sense of it alone, the groups can learn from reflecting on theirexperiences and emotions while observing others and comparing those of others with theirown, leading to the justification of knowledge and a better understanding of the information
being shared (Dillenbourg & Schneider, 1995). Moreover, the collaborative multimedia
debriefing group (DM2) showed a high progression of knowledge with the largest effect size
among the four groups. In addition, in terms of the affective aspects, the utmost development
of behaviors such as empathy and intention to defend was seen in the individual scaffolded
debriefing group (Table 1). This finding conversed with our hypothesis from previous research(Kriz, 2010; Verkuyl et al., 2019). The reason could be that affective behaviors are internalfeelings that require an individual’s emotional regulation and judgment (Gerdes & Segal,2009). Consequently, such cognitive processing could be fostered more effectively when thelearners have an appropriate time and space to independently reflect on the learning
experiences. Consistent with the finding of Van der Meij et al. (2013) that with individualdebriefing, the students were not distracted by the opinions of others and could be more focusedon reflecting on their feelings and understanding of the game features.
Therefore, this study answers RQ1 that the preference for debriefing methods influenced
students’ knowledge, attitude, empathy, and intention to defend regarding cyberbullying
behaviors. That is to say, DM3 using multimedia elements in presenting the learning content
based on the structured scaffolding phases of Kolb (1984) and Petranek (1994) outstandingly
helped support the students’ knowledge gains about cyberbullying. The previous researchbacked up this, uncovering that the use of multiple media, such as text, audio, video, andanimation, could facilitate students’ cognitive information processing, relieve the cognitive
loads, and enhance learning rather than a static medium (Altinpulluk et al., 2020; Mayer, 2007).
Bainbridge and colleagues (2022) also supported that animated learning materials can improvestudents’ meaningful and transferable learning.
Regarding RQ2, the preference for debriefing methods influenced students’ debriefing
experiences. That is to say, the students who learned with the cyberbullying collaborative board
game and different debriefing preferences had positive debriefing experiences. The high levelof agreement toward each item reflected that most students considered the debriefing sessions
a helpful tool that helped them better comprehend the game’s meaning and connect the in-gamecontent and reality. That is because debriefing is the purposeful reflection to reflect, evaluate,
and discuss the different perspectives of players’ emotions and behaviors during the game andrelate in-game experiences to the real-world context (Crookall, 2014; Fanning & Gaba, 2007;

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Kriz, 2010; Peters & Vissers, 2004). After the gaming experience, the students need a way tohelp them consider the meaning behind those experiences more deeply, making in-gamecontent more understandable and transferable. In this current study, we apply structured selfdebriefing methods to prompt the students to organize their feelings and systematically reflect
on their learning after the gaming experience. Moreover, the students who were debriefing withthe collaborative debriefing methods expressed higher acceptance of the debriefing session
than those who were debriefed individually. It conforms to the research conducted by Verkuyl
and colleagues (2019), who started the idea that collaborative debriefing should be more
beneficial in supporting the learners with opportunities to exchange and get a deeper
understanding through discussion and better their performance by learning from othermembers’ experiences than those who learn by individual debriefing.
As mentioned above, this study highlighted that using multimedia materials and scaffolding
questions provided the adequacy of resources that enhanced the convenience of the learnercentered learning process and reduced the complexity of board game mechanics andcomplicated rules. Equipping the students with only self-directed learning resources without
any clear directions and guidance on how to debrief themselves, the students will be more
likely to depend on their own individual learning experiences and reflection skills alone(Fanning & Gaba, 2007; Lapum et al., 2019; Verkuyl et al., 2019). The quality of debriefing
could differ based on students’ self-reflective abilities. To assure the best possible learning
outcome from game-based learning, this study suggests that a well-structured debriefing
principle should be delivered together with well-designed learning material that facilitates thestudents to recall and reflect on their learning through game experiences. Furthermore,combining collaborative and individual debriefing in the gaming learning activity may convey
greater learning benefits.
Contributions
Cyberbullying is a crucial worldwide issue. This research designed a cyberbullying board gamebased on collaborative game mechanics and developed debriefing materials to assist students’
self-debriefing experiences. Moreover, we investigated the different effects of debriefing
methods to bridge the gaps in the existing literature and gain further insight into students’ good
behavior development and how they perceive their improvement throughout learning activities.
The study’s findings provided a valuable guideline in the design and practice for educational
game designers, teachers, and educators in fostering social issue knowledge and awareness that
leads to sustainable solutions. Even though the results revealed the insignificant effects ofdebriefing methods over others, this study helped clarify the pros and cons of each method for
future practice. Most importantly, it paves the path to more study effective debriefing methods
within a game-based environment. This study provided empirical validation of the game-basedlearning approach to teaching cyberbullying. It proposed the integration of game-basedlearning and a collaborative gaming approach in designing a cyberbullying board game witheffective self-debriefing strategies that can be used instead of the skilled debriefers if thedebriefers are unavailable. Collaborative scaffolded debriefing in parallel with multimedia
debriefing video can help stimulate students’ discussions, and the combination was considered224

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the most effective debriefing method for knowledge improvement. For the improvement of
attitudes, empathy, and intention to defend, individual scaffolded debriefing was considered
the most effective one. However, the individual debriefing group students showed the lowest
debriefing experiences. To ensure the debriefing quality and good experience, this study
suggests that the students should be allowed to discuss with peers, together with enough time
to reflect on the knowledge they learned.
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
Although the recent study has uncovered the uninvestigated area regarding debriefing methods
for learning about cyberbullying with board games, some aspects have not yet been explored.
According to the outstanding outcome of the individual scaffolded debriefing in developing
students’ affective behaviors, multimedia material combined with scaffolded debriefing
questions should be further studied to support students’ reflective process. The factors that may
interfere with game-based learning performance should be identified and included in the study(e.g., gender, gaming experiences, and learning motivations). In practical application,
collaborative board game mechanics may take a long time to learn and comprehend in aclassroom setting. Therefore, the game’s complexity must be simplified and optimized to suit
students of different ages and classroom contexts. Finally, the data collection of this study was
obtained and interpreted from only self-reported ratings. Hence, alternative ways of datacollection, such as peer-reported or teacher-reported surveys, learning logs, and behavioral
learning pattern analysis, could be used to deepen the understanding of students’ learning
behaviors.

Acknowledgment
This research and innovation activity is supported by the National Research Council ofThailand (NRCT).

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Corresponding author: Patcharin Panjaburee
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Appendix A
The cyberbullying behaviors questionnaire items
Aspects

Items

Knowledge(20
items) 1. People who cyberbully others are not malicious but just for fun.
(Cronbach’s α=0.73)
2. Cyberbullies are more likely to lack empathy.
3. Being cyberbullied makes a person stronger.
4. Most people feel uncomfortable seeing cyberbullying.
5. Sharing or commenting on cyberbullying messages is considered
encouraging cyberbullying.
6. Cyberbullying can affect people’s lives.
7. Cyberbullying prevention will be the most effective if everyone
ignores and works together to solve the problem.
8. Typing sarcastic messages online for fun and making the targeted
person uncomfortable is considered cyberbullying.
9. Cyberbullies can be changed.
10. Cyberbullying is not as serious as face-to-face bullying, so there
is no need to stop it specifically.
11. Being cyberbullied can affect us psychologically.
12. The cyberbullied person because they are too sensitive oroverthinks.
13. Everyone has the possibility of being cyberbullied.
14. Passive bystanders can make cyberbullying worse.
15. As long as you are willing to lend a helping hand, you have theopportunity to stop cyberbullying.
16. The victim must find a way to save themselves instead of asking
for help.
17. Deliberately preventing/blocking a specific person from achatroom to make them feel uncomfortable is a kind of bullying.
18. Cyberbullying incidents can be prevented.
19. Criticising others maliciously on the internet is also
cyberbullying.
20. Cyberbullying incidents affect bullies, victims, and bystanders.
Attitude(10
items) 1. Standing up to help the victim will get you into trouble.
(Cronbach’s α=0.66)
2. These cyberbullying incidents are just rants between classmates.
3. After a cyberbullying incident occurs, it is more beneficial for the
students to deal with it by themselves than the teacher or parents.
4. If someone is cyberbullied, you should find a way to help thevictim.
5. Everyone is equal; no one should be cyberbullied.
6. The cyberbullying incident will increase the cohesion among
students.
7. Not informing teachers or parents after a cyberbullying incident is
best.
8. Cyberbullies are usually very powerful.
9. The person being cyberbullied has problems.
10. Cyberbullying incidents are bound to happen.

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Empathy(10
items) 1. Seeing someone was ridiculed on the internet.
(Cronbach’s α=0.92)
2. Seeing someone posting a sad status online.
3. Seeing an actor was begrudged nicknames on the internet.
4. Seeing someone was intentionally blocked from an open chatroom
or an online game.
5. Seeing someone say bad things about them behind their back in the
online community.
6. Seeing someone’s photo was posted online without the owner’s
permission.
7. Seeing someone was scolded on the internet.
8. Seeing a friend being teased on social media.
9. Seeing the news of someone trying to commit suicide due to being
cyberbullied.
10. Seeing someone was impersonated online.
Intention to defend (10 1. How willing are you to find a way to help a cyberbullied victim?
items) (Cronbach’s α=0.91) 2. How willing are you to stop the bullies from cyberbullying people?
3. How willing are you to report cyberbullying?
4. How willing are you to be a peacemaker and try to mediate acyberbullying situation?
5. How willing are you to accompany the victim?
6. How willing are you to comfort the victim?
7. How willing are you to find a trusted adult to help the victim?
8. How willing are you to tell people not to join cyberbullying others?
9. How willing are you to seek help if you were cyberbullied?
10. How willing are you to tell teachers or trusted adults if you werecyberbullied?

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Appendix B
Debriefing Experience Scale (DES)
Item
1. Debriefing helped me to analyze my thoughts.
2. Debriefing confirmed the decisions I made in the game.
3. The debriefing environment was physically comfortable.
4. Unsettled feelings from the game were resolved by debriefing.
5. Debriefing helped me to make connections in my learning.
6. Debriefing helped make sense of the game.
7. Debriefing provided me with a learning opportunity.
8. Debriefing helped me to find meaning in the game.
9. My questions from the game were answered by debriefing.
10. Debriefing helped me to become more aware of helping cyberbullying victims.
11. Debriefing helped me to become more aware of not cyberbullying others.
12. Debriefing helped me to clarify problems.
13. Debriefing helped me to make connections between theory and practice.
14. There was sufficient guidance during the debriefing session.
15. Debriefing allowed me to reflect on my actions during the game.
16. I had enough time to debrief thoroughly.

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Reviewers: Volume 11 – Issue 3
The editorial team would like to thank the following reviewers for their contributions to thepeer review for this issue of the journal. Their dedication and assistance are greatly appreciated.
Senior Reviewers
Dr Adebisi Thomas Ajibade
Dr Tyrone Bynoe
Dr Ivy Chia
Dr Luisa Daniele
Dr Heloisa Delgado
Dr Habsah Hussin
Dr Andrew Leichsenring
Dr Thelma Manansala
Dr Leonardo Munalim
Dr Jacinta Ifeoma Obidile
Dr Cornelius Riordan
Dr Ilaria De Santis
Dr Suja NairDr Elena Raevskikh
Dr Ilana Klima Ronen
Dr Akihiro Saito
Dr Meliha Simsek
Dr Randy A. Tudy
Dr Mary George Varghese
Dr Stephanie Wendt
Dr Huiyuan Ye

Reviewers
Dr Supamit Chanseawrassamee
Dr Ana Garcia-Diaz
Dr Blessing Dwumah Manu
Dr Sainbayar Gundsambu
Dr Cuong Huu Nguyen
Dr Queen Ogbomo
Dr Ruben Sanchez
Dr Maria Staton
Dominika Provázková Stolinská
Mirella Ramacciotti
Dr Kyle Whitfield
Dr Mukesh Yadav

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IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 11 – Issue 3 – 2023

236

the iafor

journal of education

ISSN: 2187-0594