in association with

Two-Phase vs Single-Phase
Immersion Cooling Fluids:
Deconstructing Myths
with Science
May 2022

SUMMARY AND KEY TAKEAWAYS
There are many myths and misconceptions in the data center
industry surrounding two-phase immersion cooling (2-PIC),
particularly regarding fluid cost, safety, toxicity, sustainability
and reliability.
Some of the negative perception around 2-PIC comes froma now obsolete, but frequently cited 2016 study by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). The LBNL study
was conducted with a fluid that had not been previously or
sufficiently tested and validated for use with IT hardware. Since
the early LBNL study, fluid material compatibility testing has
evolved tremendously and approximately one thousand 2-PIC
systems have been installed successfully around the world. In
addition, new 2-PIC fluids with superior sustainability profiles
and IT hardware compatibility are currently being evaluated by
the industry.
This white paper tries to set the record straight while comparing two-phase immersion cooling and single-phase immersion
cooling (1-PIC) across several categories:

2Categories for Comparison
SafetySustainability

Operating Expenses and Upfront Costs

2-PIC uses fluorinated fluids which are volatile

2-PIC technology, when combined with new ultra-

Although initial fluid costs and fluid loss expenses(“volatility” describes how easily a substance will

low Global Warming Potential (GWP) fluids, is thecan be higher for 2-PIC, these are offset by lower

turn into a gas or vapor), non-flammable and very

most sustainable cooling solution known today,

cooling infrastructure and energy costs whensafe to handle when used within the manufactur-

providing the lowest CO2 equivalent emissions andcompared to 1-PIC. Fluid costs can be further

er’s recommendations. Hydrocarbon-based oils

overall energy consumption. .

reduced by increasing IT power density.

Heat Removal Performanceand Power Density

Overclocking Enablement

Hardware Reliability

1-PIC is a great upgrade to air cooling but has limited

Overclocking: A Performance Assessment of Air,

2-PIC relies on constant temperature phase change

heat transfer capabilities compared to 2-PIC. By taking

Cold Plates, and Two-Phase Immersion Cooling,for heat removal which prevents temperature strat-

advantage of phase change, 2-PIC provides 2 tohas shown that 2-PIC can not only enable reliable

ification found in 1-PIC tanks and keeps hardware

3 times more heat removal capacity than 1-PIC

overclocking, but improve sustainability, improvecooler for greater longevity and reliability. Bothand enables significantly higher power density

reliability, and reduce total cost of ownership.

1-PIC and 2-PIC technologies require adequate

especially as more and more servers are designed

contaminant controls and proper selection ofaround the technology.

typically used in 1-PIC are non-volatile but combustible, and can become a significant fire hazard.

A research paper published in 2022 by IEEE, CPU

2-PIC Fluids
Legacy 2-PIC fluids such as perfluorocarbons (PFCs),

cabling materials to minimize any hardware issues.
Mechanisms of potential hardware failure in 2-PIC

System Complexity & Reliabilityhydrofluoroethers (HFEs) and fluoroketones (FKs)are preventable and well understood today.

The absence of fluid pumps and Coolant Distribution

have been safely and successfully used in 2-PIC

Units (CDUs) make 2-PIC technology less complex

systems. A new innovative family of fluids, called

than 1-PIC. Having fewer mechanical components inhydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), is also under evaluation.

2-PIC systems also reduces the number of potential
failure points versus 1-PIC, providing superior
overall reliability.

3

INTRODUCTION
Data centers are used for everything from Artificial Intelligence to gaming, crypto-

Single-phase immersion cooling (1-PIC), in which thecurrency mining and solving complex algorithms. The harder data center servers

dielectric fluid cools hot server parts by direct contact but

work, the more heat they generate, and the more cooling is required.

remains in liquid phase while its temperature increases.
Pumps are required to enable proper heat removal and to

In traditional data centers, this heat is removed by air cooling, which requires massive

circulate the dielectric liquid to an external heat exchanger,

resources including high-capacity chillers, cooling towers and an enormous number

where it is cooled and cycled back into the tank.

of fans. Traditional air-cooled data centers also consume immense amounts of energy
and water for cooling because of their low energy efficiency and the inherently
poor heat removal capabilities of air.
Two-phase immersion cooling (2-PIC), in which the
For many years, the data center industry has been evaluating and deploying new

dielectric liquid boils when in direct contact with hot server

cooling technologies. The most sustainable, energy efficient and cost effective ofparts and turns into vapor. Vapor rises and condenses on

those is immersion cooling, where IT hardware is placed inside a tank and submergeda heat exchanger (condenser) above the surface, returningin an electrically insulating liquid, called a dielectric fluid. Servers, chips and electricallyto a liquid state in a perpetual and passive cycle. Liquidcharged components can be safely submerged in direct contact with a dielectric

temperature remains constant. There is no need for pumps

liquid and function normally.

for the cooling process – only a small auxiliary pump is used
to circulate the fluid through a filter.

Immersion cooling keeps IT hardware much cooler because dielectric fluids offer
superior heat removal capabilities. More importantly, while air-cooled data centerstypically use about 70% of IT power for cooling (as per ARPA-e DOE), with immersion
technology this number can be as low as 2% while consuming little to no water.
There are two basic methods of immersion cooling:

The logical question is: which one is the better
immersion cooling technology?

4There is plenty of debate within the data center industry
around the pros and cons of 1-PIC and 2-PIC. With debate
comes plenty of misinformation, which has been particularly
focused on the safety, cost and sustainability aspects of thefluids used in 2-PIC. However, 2-PIC fluids are designed to be:
1. Safe to handle when used within the manufacturer’s
recommendations;
2. Non-flammable and non-combustible;
3. Non-ozone depleting – some have close to zero global
warming potential (GWP);
4. Superior to single-phase liquids in terms of heat transfer
and simplicity.
This white paper aims to provide a science-based discussion
on the pros and cons of 1-PIC and 2-PIC technologies. It also
addresses the major myths and misconceptions about 2-PIC
fluids, and includes information that can be found in publicrecords such as agency approvals and Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDS).

5

Immersion Fluids
1-PIC and 2-PIC use different types of fluids with unique properties and chemistry.

SINGLE-PHASE IMMERSION FLUIDS

However, their high-viscosity “oily” nature can makeTWO-PHASE IMMERSION FLUIDS

for messy handling, lengthy maintenance of IT gear
Oils are typically used in 1-PIC because of their high(degreasing) and can be difficult to pump or pour,All dielectric liquids used in 2-PIC are fluorine- based

boiling point and good thermal characteristics.

particularly in lower temperatures. Oil can drip duringand have lower boiling points (typically in the range

Commonly used mineral oils are hydrocarbon- based

maintenance and become a slip hazard, thereforeof 40 to 60°C) than their 1-PIC counterparts inand produced from fossil fuels. In addition, thererubber floor matting is required to reduce risks.

order to enable phase-change cooling.

are synthetic hydrocarbon (HC) oils such as poly-Oil ‘blooms’ are also common with 1-PIC immersion

alphaolefins (PAO) which are produced throughcooling. This happens when oil residue accumu-

2-PIC fluorinated fluids are often perceived as

chemical reactions. While HC oils – synthetic orlates on neighboring surfaces, typically within a 1

technologically sophisticated since they typicallymineral – may be considered inherently biodegradable,

meter to 3 meter radius of the 1-PIC device. Anotheroperate in closed systems not visible to the naked

they may not be readily biodegradable and aremajor concern with HC oils is flammability; HCs oils

eye while water, glycols and oils routinely used intypically not bio-based. Depending on the source,

are combustible, have low flash points, and canmany cooling applications are more familiar to theHC oils may also contain sulfur, which can interact

become a significant fire hazard.

average person. However, fluorinated fluids are justwith, and even corrode, sensitive IT components.

as common. They are safely used every day in air
Fluorinated fluids – synthetic compounds con-conditioning systems, household refrigerators,

HC oils have attributes such as good dielectric

taining fluorine – can also be used in 1-PIC. They

supermarket cabinets, cosmetics, inhalers,

properties, low toxicity, and low fluid loss.

typically have boiling points above 100°C, areinsulating foam – and many other places.

non-flammable, and have lower viscosity than oils.
However, 1-PIC fluorinated fluids may have less

In addition to lower boiling points, fluorinated fluids

favorable thermal properties, such as lower liquidhave low viscosity, are non-flammable, have highthermal conductivity. Some of them, including well-chemical/thermal stability and are supplied with very

known PFPEs (perfluorinated polyethers) and PFCs

high purity.

(Perfluorocarbons), have very high Global Warming
Potential (GWP), as much as 10,000.
6

Their volatile nature means that in case of a spill,

Fluoroketones (FKs)they will quickly evaporate, which has both pros

FKs are also used in 2-PIC, particularly Novec 649,

(the server dries very quickly and is clean and readywhich is non-flammable, has better dielectric

for maintenance upon removal from the tank) andproperties than HFEs, as well as an ultra-low GWP

cons (potential greater fluid losses) related to im-of about 1. However, when compared to other fluids,

mersion cooling. They can be subdivided into four

Novec 649 typically requires more stringent filtrationgroups, of which the first three are legacy fluids:

and fluid hygiene to improve hardware reliability.

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)

Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs)

PFCs have been used for decades. They are

HFOs are a new innovative family of fluorinatednon-flammable, chemically simple, compatible

fluids introduced in the last decade. They havewith most materials and have very good dielectric

ultra-low GWP and are considered long-term sus-

properties. However, well known PFCs such as FC-

tainable solutions in many applications such as air

72 and FC-3284 have a very high GWP (~ 9000), so

conditioning, foams, and personal care products.

they come with elevated sustainability concerns.

HFO dielectric coolants are now also under consideration for 2-PIC, with several evaluations by the

Hydrofluoroethers (HFEs)

industry underway. In addition to a very favorable

Also commonly used for electronic cooling, HFEs havesustainability profile, HFOs are typically non-flam-

good thermal properties and much lower GWP (aroundmable, have high chemical stability, excellent mate-300-500) than PFCs. HFEs are non-flammable, butrial compatibility and dielectric properties.

do not have as good dielectric properties compared
to PFCs, which leads to some application limitations.

7This paper will now focus on comparing 1-PIC and 2-PIC withparticular focus on dielectric fluids. We will make every attempt
to provide an objective analysis on the following topics:
1. Safety
2. Hardware Reliability and Fluid Aging
3. Sustainability
4. Heat Removal Performance and Power Density
5. System Complexity
6. Operating Expenses and Upfront Costs
7. Overclocking Enablement8Safety
Flammability

Toxicity

Flammability is a key concern when it comes to

Another important safety category is toxicity.

2-PIC fluids will naturally have a higher concentration

safety. HC-based oils are combustible and have

Any new chemical that is introduced to the mar-of vapors when the tank is opened for maintenancelow flash points. That means a flame or spark can

ket must go through rigorous toxicity testing inbecause of their higher vapor pressure. However,cause the vapor above the liquid to ignite in theaccordance with international protocols to identify

this vapor is considerably denser than air, so whenair. HC-based oils also have low fire points (theand characterize its inherent hazards. Dielectric

the lid of a DataTank™ is opened, most of the vapor

temperature above which a fluid can sustain a fireliquids accepted for commercial use also undergo

will stay within the tank unless agitated. Some tankwhen ignited). The fire hazard of HC-based oils

a very thorough review process by government

manufacturers have also developed innovative

could impact risk assessments, increase complexity,

agencies. These comprehensive reviews consider

technology to significantly reduce vapor loss (e.g.

installation costs, and hazard insurance premiums.

both short and long-term exposure to humans andduring installation or removal of IT gear) even if

relevant environmental receptors; potential needthe dielectric fluid is agitated . When vapor is lost,

Fluorinated dielectric fluids, on the other hand,for exposure mitigation controls such as person-

the concentration around the tank can be further

are considered non-flammable. The liquid has noal protective equipment; ventilation/exhaust air;

reduced with ventilation typical for conditioned

flash point and the vapor is also non-flammable. In

and emission control equipment and procedures.

spaces, namely with Make-up Air Units (MAUs).

fact, some fluorinated dielectric fluids can act as

Derived health-based occupational exposure limits

Since MAUs are required to meet human safety

flame suppressants and are commonly used in data

(OELs) are often communicated in Safety Datarequirements in data center whitespace, no special

centers for this purpose.

Sheets and/or technical guidance documents.

equipment or ventilation is typically required toBased on robust toxicology testing and risk as-

implement 2-PIC fluids for immersion cooling of

sessments, 2-PIC fluids, when used according toIT equipment.

their respective manufacturer’s recommendations,have been demonstrated to be very safe for use in

During normal operation with a closed lid and when

their respective applications.

the coolant is not pressurized (most commercial
tanks operate at atmospheric pressure), fluid loss
and vapor exposure are little to none.

9Hardware Reliability
and Fluid Aging
Fluorinated fluids are inherently more stable andBoth 1-PIC and 2-PIC systems need to maintain

Both types of immersion cooling improve hardware

have a longer life than HC oils due to the presence

fluid hygiene to ensure hardware longevity andreliability because the server boards are fullyof fluorine. HC oils are also more sensitive to heat

optimal performance. In 2-PIC systems, because

submerged and temperature controlled. The tanks

degradation and oxidation, which can generate athe liquid dielectric is boiling, dissolved impurities

also keep out dust, particulates and contaminantssludge if not properly maintained.

can be deposited on hot surfaces by distillation.

that are otherwise prevalent in air cooled data centers.

Filtering the liquid early in the system deployment

In a 1-PIC or 2-PIC system, the server fans are

Hardware reliability depends on the chemical com-

can help ensure any dissolved impurities are

removed which reduces moving parts and minimizes

patibility between fluid and server materials, as wellremoved and do not impact system performance.

failure points. Due to the superior heat removal ca-

as proper filtration and fluid hygiene. Both 1-PIC and

Therefore, in a 2-PIC system, the filter element ispabilities and thermal stability of 2-PIC versus 1-PIC

2-PIC fluids have their specific challenges related

often replaced after the first 1-2 weeks of operation

however, IT hardware operates much cooler which

to material compatibility, which are well explained(following start-up) to ensure proper operation andfurther improves its reliability and longevity.

by the Open Compute Project annual reports on

predictable outcomes. Usually, the performance

immersion cooling. Those issues should be addressed

impact on a system without proper filtration is

on a per fluid, per material basis while working

limited to distillation of impurities on boiling surfaces,

closely with fluid, server, and tank manufacturers.

which can be reversed by introducing new filters toclean the liquid.

10

Sustainability
When it comes to sustainability, a number of critical factors must be considered, such as
CO2 emissions, energy consumption, fluid losses and water use, among others.

CO2 EQUIVALENT EMISSIONSIn addition, immersion cooling lowers CO2 emissions

2-PIC fluorinated fluids can also be reclaimed andby reducing material consumption for IT hardware

eventually re-used with few losses. Reclaim-and-CO2 emissions associated with cooling a dataand electrical, cooling and building infrastructure.

recycle is fairly common in the refrigeration and air

center are mostly a result of:conditioning industry. It is more environmentally

Fluid losses

friendly and can reduce the cost of replenishing theEnergy consumption

2-PIC fluids are volatile by nature and can be acci-

fluid. LiquidStack has also developed fluid cleaning

When energy is generated by fossil fuel power

dentally released into the atmosphere. The higher

systems which can restore reclaimed fluid to aplants, CO2 is released to the atmosphere. The

the fluid GWP – the measure of how many times

state that approaches virgin condition.

higher the data center energy consumption, thethe fluid is a more powerful greenhouse gas thanhigher its CO2 emissions. Data centers that use

CO2 – the higher its CO2 equivalent emissions. Fluid

In 1-PIC, although HC oils could be recycled at end

more energy from fossil fuel power plants and lesslosses typically occur during server maintenance orof life, re-refining for reuse may not be economical,

from renewables will generate more CO2. Both 1-PIC

because of ongoing leaks through poorly designed

and wasted HC oils may end up being incinerated,and 2-PIC have very low PUEs (Power Usage Effec-

or manufactured tanks. Checking and keeping

generating CO2 emissions.

tiveness) compared to air cooling, which means thethe seals in good condition and ensuring the lid isamount of energy used for cooling the servers islocked will significantly reduce fluid loss. During

very small – typically 2% to 8% of the total IT power.

maintenance, the lid should be kept closed when-

2-PIC offers slightly better partial PUE (1.02 to 1.04)

ever possible. With good practices, annual 2-PIC

when compared to 1-PIC (1.05 to 1.07).

fluid losses can be lower than 2%, which will result in
lower CO2 equivalent emissions and operating costs.

11

TOTAL CO2 EMISSIONS ESTIMATES
Here we carry out an exercise of estimating the total lifetime CO2 equivalent emissions for different data center cooling technologies (Table 1).
Three sources of emissions are included: cooling energy emissions, ongoing fluid losses and end-of-life fluid emissions.

TABLE 1 – TOTAL LIFETIME CO2 EMISSIONS

Today's
Air Cooling

1-PIC

2-PIC

HC OilPFC

HFE

HFOs / FKs

PUE (Typical/Average in the US)*

1.57

1.06

1.03

1.03

1.03

Maximum GWP of fluid and refrigerants

1,924

<10

9,000

300

<10

Average Cooling Annual Energy Consumption for a 10MW Data center [GWh]

25

2.6

1.3

1.3

1.3

CO2 Emissions due to Cooling Energy Use at 0.42 kg CO2/kWh [Tons of CO2]

10,500

1,100

550

550

550

Annual CO2 Emissions due to fluid losses, 2%/year [Tons of CO2]400

014,250450

1510,9001,100

14,8001,000

565

15-year CO2 Emissions [kTons of CO2]

163

17

222

15

8.5

End of Life emissions at 20% loss of fluid [Tons of CO2]

4

0**

135

5

0.2

15-year total Emissions [kTons of CO2]

167

17

357

20

8.7

Annual CO2 Emissions due to fluid losses and cooling energy [Tons of CO2]

* Uptime Institute, 2021** Potential emissions from oil loss or oil disposition at end of life were not taken into account12

KEY TAKEAWAYS• 1-PIC with HC oil leads to a significant

WATER CONSUMPTION, PHYSICALFOOTPRINT AND POTENTIAL FOR WASTEHEAT RECOVERY

reduction in CO2 emissions versus air
cooling even though potential emissions

Both 1-PIC and 2-PIC technologies are well known

from oil loss or oil disposition at end of life

for low water consumption compared to air cooling.

were not taken into account;

Immersion cooling systems typically leverage muchhigher water temperatures to cool or condense the• With lower GWP fluids such as an HFE,

dielectric coolant, which means heat can be rejected

2-PIC has very low total CO2 emissions,to high outside ambient temperatures with very

similar to 1-PIC;

little to no evaporative cooling, or can be recoveredfor other purposes. 2-PIC can operate at even higher• Finally, ultra-low GWP fluids such as

water temperatures than 1-PIC, thus reducing the

HFOs and FKs can lead to the lowest

use of water to zero in most geographical locations

total CO2 emissions.

as well as increasing the energy efficiency andreducing the physical size of waste heat recovery
systems. Both 1-PIC and 2-PIC data centers are also
known for having much smaller physical footprints.
However, 2-PIC immersion cooling can reduce
whitespace requirements by as much as 69% anddata center site plots by up to 61% due to superior
fluid thermal properties and higher compute density.
According to a 2022 case study by Page, 2-PIC can
reduce physical footprint per kW of power by at least
another 20% compared to 1-PIC.

13

Heat Removal Performanceand Power Density
2-PIC has several advantages in heat removal over 1-PIC.

a. The heat transfer performance in 2-PIC is atc. In 2-PIC, the hotter the IT component becomes

Although power density values for 1-PIC and 2-PIC

least 10-20 times higher than that of 1-PIC.

or the more heat that is rejected, the higher

racks are much higher than air-cooled racks, two-

As a result, more heat can be removed in thethe heat transfer performance. In other words,

phase immersion has the potential to double or evensame CPU / GPU footprint, and chips will have

two-phase heat transfer by boiling is naturally

triple the heat rejection (IT power density) versus

far lower junction temperature.

more effective when it is needed most. Boilingsingle-phase as more IT, storage and networkingof 2-PIC fluids is only constrained at very highhardware is designed around the technology. 2-PIC

b. To offset lower heat transfer performance ofheat rejection values. In contrast, single-phasealso allows for much greater server design flexibility

single-phase fluids, bulky extended surfaces,

fluids need a significant increase in pump flow

due to uniform fluid temperatures in the tank.

such as heat sinks, may have to be attached toor lower coolant temperature in order to meet

CPUs and GPUs limiting compaction. For poolcooling demands.

boiling, low-profile compact boiler plates andboiling enhancement coatings(BEC) can bed. Another concern with 1-PIC is temperatureused. Typical BECs are approximately 1mm instratification inside the tank—i.e., some parts

height. Together with the required removal ofof the server and the tank will become hotter

the IT equipment fans, this allows for up to an

than others. With two-phase systems, the fluid

84% reduction in IT server size by volume whenboils at a constant temperature, so all liquid

leveraging 2-PIC immersion cooling.

inside the tank has a uniform temperature.

14

System Complexity
Two-phase systems are not more complex than their singlephase counterparts. They simply have a few differences:a. 1-PIC systems require a pump (or pumps) to circulate
the dielectric fluid. In the event of pump(s) failure,
the system must rely on natural convection, and

1-PIC vs 2-PIC

server temperatures can quickly rise. 1-PIC heatremoval is therefore more complex than 2-PIC as the
1-PIC systems must be carefully designed to ensurethat a fresh supply of dielectric fluid is constantly
pumped to the heat generating IT components.
b. 2-PIC systems are passive – they don’t require a pump
to remove heat. The liquid boils, the vapor naturally
rises, and then it condenses back to liquid when incontact with condenser tubes positioned in thevapor zone.
A properly built 2-PIC system uses a vapor management
system to retain fluid inside the tank to keep annual leakrate below 2%.
Both 1-PIC and 2-PIC need filtration systems as well asheat exchangers to cool or condense the dielectric fluid.

15

Operating Expenses
and Upfront Costs
Operating expenses are driven by typical mechanical

Fluid costs can be reduced by taking advantage ofand general maintenance, fluid replacement andthe space-saving benefit of 2-PIC, allowing muchenergy costs. For 2-PIC, fluid replacement costs

higher power density per Rack Unit space versus air

represent less than 5% of the annual maintenancecooling, conductive cooling (cold plates), and 1-PIC

costs, which are offset by its lower energy costs

cooling. This means server OEMs and integrators(higher energy efficiency compared to single phase).

are no longer limited to traditional “U” space and can

As discussed, good practices and high-qualitytransform it from ‘mostly air’ to mostly hardware.

tanks can further reduce fluid loss expenses. It is

Bulky heat sinks can be removed and server layouts

important to mention that the fluid losses reported

can be optimized to place boards very close to eachby the 2016 LBNL study – above 10% – do not reflect

other, with as little as 2.5mm pitch, thus drasticallythe current state of the 2-PIC technology, which is

reducing fluid volume.

typically less than 2% per year.
For example, in a scenario where 2-PIC fluid costs
A common concern of 2-PIC relates to upfront

four times more per gallon than 1-PIC, but enables

CAPEX due to higher fluid costs compared with HC

four times more power density, the total fluid costoils. While this is true, independent case studies

per kW would be the same.

show that higher initial 2-PIC fluid costs are offset bylower piping, pump and cooling infrastructure costs

Furthermore, overclocking capabilities and better

when compared to 1-PIC.

containment of fluid evaporation losses also tilt thescale in favor of 2-PIC.

16

Overclocking
Enablement
Microsoft’s Zissou recently published the results of• While overclocking increases power consumption

a comprehensive study exploring 2-PIC technology

substantially, immersion cooling provides powerand how it enables overclocking without adversely

savings that offset higher energy requirements.

affecting the hardware performance or lifespan.
Zissou’s research argues that 2-PIC has significant• 2-PIC can compensate for degradation caused

advantages over 1-PIC, Direct-to-Chip (cold plates)by overclocking. When overclocking with 2-PIC,

and other liquid cooling methods. Here a few high-the server lifetime equals that of an air-cooled

lights of Zissou’s research:server with no overclocking.
• Added costs such as 2-PIC tanks and fluid areoffset by lower data center PUE, which enables
use of the reclaimed power towards adding
more servers and thereby amortizing all costs(construction, energy, IT, operations) acrossmore cores.
• Overclockable 2-PIC data centers reduce TCO
by 4% when compared to the non-overclockable
air-cooled datacenter.

17

CONCLUSION
2-phase immersion cooling technology has a very favorable
environmental, health and safety profile while using fluidsthat are low-toxicity, non-flammable, non-corrosive andcan have a very low GWP. These fluids offer wide operating
temperature ranges, have excellent compatibility with mostmaterials and are simple to maintain. And they do all thiswhile significantly increasing power density, enabling
overclocking and reducing CAPEX, OPEX and TCO. This
makes two-phase immersion cooling a superior alternative toair, water or 1-PIC systems.

18

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