Canada Warbler
Population Status, Habitat Use, and Stewardship
Guidelines for Northeastern Forests
VINS Technical Report 05-4

© Mike Danzenbaker

J. Daniel Lambert
Steven D. Faccio

Canada Warbler Population Status, Habitat Use, and Stewardship
Guidelines for Northeastern Forests
VINS Technical Report 05-4
J. Daniel Lambert1 and Steven D. Faccio

December 2005

Vermont Institute of Natural Science (VINS), 2723 Church Hill Rd., Woodstock, VT 05091
Corresponding author; email: dlambert@vinsweb.org

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SUMMARY
Canada Warblers are declining throughout the Northeast at rates of 4% to 7% per year. The
causes of the declines are unknown, but loss and degradation of breeding habitat appear to becontributing factors. In this report, we review available information on Canada Warbler habitat
use and introduce new findings that relate habitat characteristics to reproductive success. Canada
Warbler densities are naturally highest in swamps and riparian forests with a well-developed
shrub layer. Moderate numbers occur in old upland forests, especially in association with
canopy gaps. Small openings created by timber harvest may enhance Canada Warbler habitat,but more research is needed to identify a minimum gap size. Even-aged forests between 20 and
75 years old seem to be of low value to this species. Intensive harvest of upland forest may
reduce Canada Warbler abundance in the short term. However, high densities occur 5-20 years
following harvest operations, especially in areas where some overstory trees are retained. A
similar, though somewhat muted, response is observed in areas that are completely clearcut.
Saplings in the 2-6 m height class are a key habitat feature in timber cuts and in natural settings,
therefore removal of shrubs and saplings by thinning or deer browse reduces habitat value.
Canada Warblers inhabit deciduous and coniferous forests, but tend to be more abundant inmixed forests than in pure stands. The species requires large forested tracts for breeding insettled landscapes, but is not area-sensitive in forest-dominated regions.
A recent study indicated that Canada Warblers nesting in regenerating harvest zones achievelevels of pairing and fledging success similar to those breeding in forested wetlands. The wet
forest was more productive overall, because small and overlapping territories enabled the species
to breed in relatively high densities. The small size and packed configuration of wetland
territories could indicate higher resource availability in some wet forests, compared to uplandtimber cuts.
Natural resource professionals can use a variety of land protection and forest management
strategies to help stabilize declining Canada Warbler populations. Land protection efforts aimed
at conserving Canada Warbler habitat should focus on large areas of moist, mixed forest thatfeature a semi-open canopy and dense undergrowth. Stewards of managed forests could employ
a variety of strategies to support this species, including efforts to maintain understory and forestfloor structure, riparian and wetland buffers, mixed forest cover, and large forest reserves inwhich treefall gaps naturally occur. Upland clearcutting with residual tree retention seems to
improve Canada Warbler habitat during a 15-year period beginning about 5 years after harvest.
Partial cuts, like those used in a shelterwood system, also appear to benefit the species. We
suggest that future investigations collect standardized density and demographic data to:1) compare the quality of natural and human-created habitats; and 2) specifically evaluate effectsof small-scale harvests on Canada Warbler populations.
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unknown, however loss of breeding habitat
may be a contributing factor (Conway
1999).

INTRODUCTION
Distribution and Population Status
The
CanadaWarbler(Wilsonia
canadensis) is a Neotropical migratory
songbird that breeds in forests of boreal
Canada, the northeastern United States, andsouth along the Appalachian Mountains toTennessee. It winters in wooded, semiopen, and forest edge habitats of northern
South America, with greatest numbers
observed in and east of the Andes (Conway
1999).
Results from the North American
Breeding Bird Survey indicate nearly four
decades of Canada Warbler decline
throughout the northeastern portion of its
summer range (Table 1). Estimates ofannual population change since 1980 range
between -3.8% and -7.3% (Sauer et al.
2005). The reasons for the declines areConservation Rank
The North American Bird Conservation
Initiative designated the Canada Warbler asa Highest Priority Landbird in Bird
Conservation Region 14 (Atlantic Northern
Forest), citing significant population decline
and high regional responsibility (Dettmers
2003).
The Partners In Flight North
American Landbird Conservation Plan lists
Canada Warbler as a species of highconservation concern in the Northern Forest
region (Rich et al. 2004). The Northeast
Endangered Species and Wildlife Diversity
Technical Committee also recognizes
Canada Warbler as one of the region’s
highest priorities for conservation andresearch (Therres 1999).

Table 1. Canada Warbler population trends in different states and regions, estimated by the North
American Breeding Bird Survey (Sauer et al. 2005).
RegionConnecticut
Maine
Massachusetts
New Brunswick
New Hampshire
New York
Nova Scotia
QuebecRhode Island
Vermont
So. New England
Adirondack Mtns.
No. New EnglandN. Spr.-Hardwoods
Eastern BBS Region
FWS Region 5
United States
CanadaSurvey-wide|-----1966-2004----|
Trend PN
-3.5 0.49 10-2.2 0.15 57-4.6 0.29 12-3.0 0.00 32-4.6 0.03 24-4.7 0.00 54-1.9 0.28 24-3.0 0.14 65-3.2 0.84 2-3.1 0.08 19-4.8 0.17 22-4.9 0.00 23-2.6 0.14 51-2.4 0.03 246-2.0 0.02 494-2.4 0.01 228-1.7 0.01 301-2.2 0.06 201-2.0 0.02 502

2|---1966-1979----|
Trend PN
5.0
0.53 8+5.6 0.18 19-7.4 0.33 9+6.3 0.04 25-10.1 0.00 22-8.3 0.00 39+6.1 0.11 14-4.2 0.35 18-1.9 0.90 2+0.4 0.91 10-0.1 0.99 18-8.0 0.06 19-3.0 0.41 30-2.4 0.41 116-3.3 0.18 247-7.8 0.00 129-5.1 0.00 158-2.6 0.44 89-3.3 0.17 247|---1980-2004----|
Trend PN
-6.9 0.28 8-3.8 0.03 55-5.7 0.05 10-7.3 0.00 27-5.9 0.12 19-5.0 0.00 42-7.0 0.00 19-5.5 0.04 58----5.4 0.12 19-8.0 0.06 14-5.0 0.02 18-6.2 0.00 47-3.9 0.00 220-3.4 0.00 422-2.0 0.12 195-1.7 0.06 261-4.0 0.00 169-3.4 0.00 430

Filling the Information Gap
Despite its prominence among species ofconservation concern, the Canada Warbler
has received little attention from avian
ecologists. It is possible to glean habitat use
data from community-level investigations,but until recently no effort had been made to
identify correlates of reproductive success.
Focused study of marked populations isnecessary to determine stewardship practices
that promote conservation of this vulnerable
species. In this report, we review available
information on Canada Warbler habitat use,and summarize preliminary results ofongoing research. We also assess thepotential of various land-use practices tosupport breeding populations of Canada
Warblers.

Figure 1. The Atlantic Northern Forest or
the North American Bird Conservation
Initiative’s Bird Conservation Region 14(abcbirds.org/nabci).
Previous Studies
Although we found no published studies
that focused solely on Canada Warbler
ecology,severalcommunity-level
investigations have produced habitat
information for this species.
Thoughsometimes contradictory, these studies
indicate that Canada Warblers occur atvarying densities in several habitats.
Highest natural densities occur in swamps
and riparian forests, where wet conditions
limit canopy closure and favor shrub
growth. In the uplands, Canada Warblers
appear to be disturbance specialists, moving
into regenerating forest patches following
wind-throw, ice damage, fire, or timberremoval. The species is relatively abundantin logged areas, especially where someresidual trees remain 5-20 years following
harvest.
Mixed forests appear to suit
Canada Warblers better than hardwood orconifer stands, although the species can befound in all three cover types. In settled
landscapes, Canada Warblers are sensitive tohabitat area, with lowest densities occurringin small forest fragments.

CANADA WARBLER BREEDING
HABITATIn the Atlantic Northern Forest (Fig. 1),
Canada Warbler inhabits several lowland
and upland habitats, including swamps,
streamside thickets, brushy ravines, moist
forests, and regenerating timber cuts (Ellison
1984, Smith 1994, Conway 1999). It also
occurs on reforested talus slopes and in
subalpine forests with adequate deciduous
undergrowth (Sabo 1980). Canada Warblers
forage among shrubs and primarily nest on
the ground. Therefore, they typically inhabit
areas with a well-developed shrub layer anda structurally complex forest floor. Nests
are often concealed beneath or within root
masses, rotting stumps, and mossy
hummocks, but may also be tucked in close
to logs, rocks, or overhanging banks(Conway 1999).

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high in areas of Rhode Island swamps usedby Canada Warblers (Miller 1999).
Canada Warblers capture invertebrate
prey by foliage gleaning, hover gleaning,and hawking (Sabo and Holmes 1983, Sodhi
and Paszkowski 1995). Mosquitoes andflies make up a significant part of their diet
(Bent 1953, Krause 1965). Wet forests teemwith flying insects during the breeding
season, and thus ensure a reliable foodsupply for adults and their growing young.
Feeding of nestlings and fledglings
occurs at the ground level, which is
structurally complex in most wet forests.
Hollows, mossy hummocks, woody debris,and clumps of fern and sedge create
countless niches for concealing nests andweak-flying young. Several observers havenoted the importance of an uneven forest
floor (Ellison 1985, Peck and James 1987,
Smith 1994). Robbins et al. (1989) found apositive relationship between Canada
Warbler abundance and foliage density
between 0.3 m and 1 m. The same study
identified a positive relationship between
tree basal area and Canada Warbler
abundance, evidence that late-successional
forests can be important to this species.

Wet Forests
In the mid-Atlantic forest, Canada
Warblers concentrate in moist areas, such as
floodplains and swamps (Robbins et al.
1989). It is among the most abundant birds
in red maple swamps in Massachusetts(Swift et al. 1984) and Rhode Island (Golet
et al. 2001), where it is restricted to forested
wetlands (Miller 1999). In Quebec, Canada
Warbler densities are two times higher inriparian stands than in upland locations(Larue et al. 1995). Several qualitativedescriptions of Canada Warbler habitat alsoemphasize a primary association with damp
forests (e.g. Ellison 1985, Smith 1994). One
observer noted a preference for “hurricane
wrecked maple swamps or cedar bogs”(Sprunt 1957).
Wet forests feature four main attributes
that could be attractive to Canada Warblers:
exposed song perches, a well developed
shrub layer, an abundance of flying insects,
and a structurally complex forest floor. Wet
forest canopies are frequently broken by
windthrow of shallow-rooted trees and/or bybeaver activity.
Anaerobic conditions
maintained by saturated soils or standing
water also inhibit tree growth and canopy
closure. Gaps in the canopy expose elevatedperches from which Canada Warblers
vocalize (Kendeigh 1945, Lambert andFaccio unpubl. data).
Hydrophilic willows, alders, and otherwetland shrubs typically thrive in canopy
gaps, providing cover and favorable
foraging structure. Two studies of warbler
foraging behavior, conducted in uplandforests of New Hampshire and in Wisconsin,
found that Canada Warblers concentrate
their feeding effort in shrubs and low tree
branches at heights of 3 – 5 m (Sabo andHolmes 1983, Sodhi and Paszkowski 1995).
This range corresponds with the leafy
stratum often formed by wetland shrubs.
Foliage cover in the 2 – 4 m stratum was

Old and Naturally Disturbed Forests
Two Canadian studies have underscoredthe association of Canada Warblers withlate-successional, upland forests, especiallythose structured by natural disturbance.
Schieck and Nietfeld (1995), comparing
three seral stages of Alberta’s aspen andmixed-wood forests, found that Canada
Warblers were most abundant in old forests(≥ 120 years), uncommon in stands 50-65
years old, and absent from forests in the 2030 year age class. They also showed asignificant, positive association with birch
density and snag density > 20 cm dbh, but
found no relationship with shrub/sapling
density, a variable that other studies havefound to be an important predictor of4increased for at least five years beneathwind-created canopy breaks, but returned toprevious levels as the canopy closed (Hall1984). During three years following a
Vermont ice storm, Faccio (2003) foundCanada Warblers in small (0.1-0.2 ha)canopy gaps within an extensively forested
landscape. However, these gaps did notincrease Canada Warbler abundance within
the forest as a whole.
Two other Vermont studies haveexamined effects of patch cuts on forest
songbirds (Lent and Capen 1995, Buford
and Capen 1999).
Both found higher
numbers of Canada Warbler in unharvested
stands, compared to similar areas where tree
removal had created small gaps in the
canopy. In each study, the sample size was
low and the difference statisticallyinsignificant. A West Virginia bird census
revealed an opposite pattern: no Canada
Warblers in an unharvested 65- to 75-yearold forest, but small numbers in an areafrom which individual trees were cut 10
years before the study (Maurer et al. 1981).
Additional research is necessary toassess the potential for small-scale timber
harvests to create Canada Warbler habitat.
If Canada Warblers utilize natural canopy
gaps, can single-tree, group-selection, and/or
patch-cut practices improve conditions forthis species? Although previous studies do
not adequately address this question, theyclearly demonstrate a positive effect ofintensive harvest methods on Canada
Warbler abundance.

Canada Warbler habitat (Titterington et al.
1979). In Quebec, Drapeau et al. (2000)
found Canada Warblers at 43% of survey
stations in a boreal mixed-wood forest
characterized by natural disturbance,compared to 21% of stations in adjacentindustrial timberland. Canada Warbler is
one of several species that have shown apositive, numerical response to outbreaks ofspruce budworm (Crawford and Jennings1989).
DeGraaf (1985) did not detect Canada
Warblers among even-aged sawlogs in New
Hampshire northern hardwoods, but
encountered low numbers in “over-mature”
and uneven-aged stands. King and DeGraaf(2000) observed a positive relationshipbetween Canada Warbler abundance andbasal area of dead trees. Hagan and Meehan(2002) reported that Canada Warbler
presence was positively correlated with deadtree basal area and understory stem density(4-6 m tall).
The value of mature forests to Canada
Warbler is diminished by thinning andheavy deer browse.
In a survey of
Massachusetts oak forests, Canada Warblers
were more common in stands with a natural
understory than in those where understory
trees had been removed. An even greater
contrast occurred between stands with few
deer, where Canada Warbler was abundant,
and stands with many deer, where thespecies was nearly absent (DeGraaf et al.
1991).
Hagan frequently encountered Canada
Warblers in small treefall gaps deep withinlarge blocks of mature forest in Maine(Hagan and Grove 1999). Sprunt (1957)
also noted an association with natural forest
openings in the northern portion of thespecies’ range. Canada Warblers inhabiting
Ohio hemlock ravines occurred in forest
gaps with low tree basal area (Mitchell1999). In red spruce-northern hardwoods ofWest Virginia, Canada Warbler numbers

Regenerating Forests
Several studies have documented
relatively high densities of Canada Warbler
in regenerating harvest zones located within
forested landscapes.
Working in theindustrial forests of Maine, Hagan et al.
(1997) found the species was most abundantin young, scrubby re-growth 6-20 years
following both partial-cuts (0.38 birds/point)and clearcuts (0.26 birds/point), particularly
5and treatments in which 25%, 50%, and
75% of merchantable timber was removed.
However, during 10 years of point countsurveys, a significant decline in Canada
Warbler abundance was detected within the
100% treatment (attributable to maturation),while Canada Warbler numbers remained
relatively stable in the control site and in the
25%, 50% and 75% treatments.
In northern Minnesota, Canada Warblers
were more abundant in pole-sized aspen
stands 7-10 years after mechanical stripthinning than in similar stands that had notbeen thinned (Christian et al. 1996). The
difference was attributed to vigorous shrub
development between the remnant strips. A
second study in the same region foundgreater abundance in 3- to 9-year-old aspen
clearcuts with residual tree clumps,
compared to clearcuts with no trees retained(Merrill et al. 1998).
Canada Warbler habitat that is createdby logging is ephemeral at the stand level,
but could be maintained at the landscapelevel by a rotation of partial and/or clearcut
harvests. Because extensive clearing candegrade forest ecosystems, future studies
should seek to identify a minimum cut size
for Canada Warblers. Canada Warblers
established territories in natural gaps as
small as 0.1-0.2 ha in one Vermont study(Faccio 2003).
Timber management that aims toincrease Canada Warbler numbers should
account for a lag time in response.
Researchers in Alberta found that Canada
Warblers disappeared from clearcut sites forat least three years following harvest of
mature boreal mixed-wood (Tittler et al.
2001). Partially cut sites retained only a few
birds in the first post-harvest year (Nortonand Hannon 1997). Evidence from theNortheast indicates that regenerating forests
are most suitably structured 6-20 years after
harvest (Webb et al. 1977, Titterington et al.
1979, DeGraaf 1985, Hagan et al. 1997). As

when some unharvested trees remained.
Density of understory stems (4-6 m tall) was
an important predictor of the species’
presence (Hagan and Meehan 2002). Thisfinding mirrored results from a previous
study of bird-habitat relations in Maine
timberlands, in which Canada Warblers
were found only in regenerating stands
dominated by stems < 10 cm dbh and > 2 m
in height. Highest counts occurred in areas
where saplings exceeded 4.5 m and whereloggers had left some trees in the overstory(Titterington et al. 1979). In the early study,
Canada Warblers were absent from mature
spruce-fir plots. In the later study, they were
uncommon in mature spruce-fir (0.17 birds
per point), rare in mature mixed-woods(0.07 birds per point) and absent frommature hardwoods (Hagan et al. 1997).
Three studies conducted in New
Hampshire’s White Mountain National
Forest also point toward an association withyoung forests. DeGraaf estimated 3-12 pairs
per 100 acres in 5- to 10-year-old
regenerating hardwoods, increasing to 42
pairs per 100 acres in 15-year-old saplings(1985). Canada Warbler was absent from 04 year-old stands, pole stands, and sawlog
stands. Welsh and Healy (1993) also foundCanada Warblers concentrated in saplings
within six managed forests. Although theycounted only 6 individuals in all, none wasobserved in nearby forest reserves. The
third New Hampshire study counted birds at
10 stations in mature hardwoods, 10 stationsin 3-5 year-old clearcuts, and 20 stations in
3-5 year-old shelterwood cuts. Canada
Warbler did not occur in the mature forest,
but was moderately abundant in both
treatment types (King and DeGraaf 2000).
In northern hardwood stands in New
York’s Adirondack Mountains, Webb et al.
(1977) found that Canada Warblers weretwice as abundant in stands 5-15 years after
100% of the merchantable timber was
removed, compared to an uncut control site6

Canada Warblers preferentially selectconifers for foraging (Sodhi and Paszkowski
1995) and reach maximum abundance where
hardwoods form a low (2-6 m), dense layer(Titterington et al. 1979, Hagan and Meehan2002). Outside of regenerating timber cuts,
mixed forests are most likely to provide thiscombination of features. Therefore, forest
managers in the Northeast should avoid
homogenizing forests that include hardwood
and softwood components. Long rotations
and conifer retention will help maintain amix favorable to Canada Warbler.
The Canada Warbler’s link to mixed
forest may be weaker in western Canada. In
Alberta, Schieck and Nietfeld (1995) foundsimilar levels of abundance in deciduous
stands and in mixed-woods dominated bywhite spruce. In a Saskatchewan study of
mixed, conifer and hardwood stands,
Hobson and Bayne (2000) found Canada
Warbler almost exclusively in pure aspen.
Although mixed stands proved unimportant
to Canada Warbler in this study, they ranked
highest in measures of overall avian
diversity and abundance.

the understory grows above 6 m a stand’ssuitability for Canada Warbler appears to
decline (Hagan and Meehan 2002).
The lag time in Canada Warbler
response to canopy removal could be greaterin the boreal mixed-wood of western
Canada. A study of harvested and burned
stands in Alberta found significantly higher
densities in 22-28 year-old stands, comparedto 1 and 13-15 year-old stands (Hobson andSchieck 1999). The relevance of thesefindings to harvest planning is obscured by
the grouping of disturbance types in the ageclass comparison. Overall, densities ofCanada Warbler were significantly higher inharvested areas than in burned areas, withthe difference most pronounced in theyounger forest age classes.
Forest Type
Canada Warblers inhabit deciduous,coniferous, and mixed forests.
In theNortheast, they are more common in mixed
forests than in pure stands. Researchers in
Maine found higher numbers in mediumaged mixed-woods (20-60 years old) than in
any other mid- to late-successional forest
type. The study’s lowest counts were in
medium-aged and mature hardwoods (60100+ years old; Hagan et al. 1997). Canada
Warbler presence was positively correlatedwith landscape contrast for forest type
(Hagan and Meehan 2002).
Surveysconducted in mature forests of northern
Vermont produced similar results. Canada
Warblers were common in red sprucenorthern hardwood forests, especially near
natural or created ecotones, but absent from
hardwood forests.
Low numbers weredetected in lowland conifer swamps(Lambert 2000). In Canada’s Great LakesSt. Lawrence region, Canada Warblers aremost often found in canopy breaks withindense, mixed forests, where northernhardwoods intersperse with the dominant
species Eastern Hemlock and White Pine
(Clement and Gunn 1957).

Area Sensitivity
Canada Warblers appear to be areasensitive in settled landscapes, but not inforest-dominated regions.
A study
conducted in mid-Atlantic forests foundCanadaWarbler
densitypositively
correlated with forest extent (Robbins et al.
1989). In Rhode Island, the incidence ofCanada Warbler was greatest in large (> 6ha) swamps and where forest covered > 50%of the land within 2 km. They were lesscommon in agricultural or suburban areas,
especially within 300 m of a paved road
(Miller 1999). In Quebec, Canada Warblers
were encountered over three times more
frequently in natural forests (43% of survey
stations) than in areas dominated by humansettlement, farms, and woodlots (13% ofsurvey stations; Drapeau et al. 2000).
Surveys conducted on logging roads in7

(Lewis, VT), and two plots in the Bear Pond
Natural Area (Canaan, NH), a red maplebalsam fir-red spruce swamp, and aregenerating, upland mixed-wood withremnant patches of mature trees.
We have conducted point counts,
delineated male territories, and assessed the
reproductive status of Canada Warblers atthese locations. Results of this work appear
in six separate studies, detailed in Appendix
1. The first two studies (Ueland 2004 andChace et al. 2005) confirmed the importanceof high shrub density in habitat use and also
introduced ground cover (especially ferns)
as a vegetative correlate of patch occupancy.
The next two studies, which comparedvegetation characteristics between territories
of paired and unpaired males, produced
inconsistent results. Chace (2005) found no
structural difference between the twogroups, but Anderson (2005) determinedthat territories of paired males contained
more small shrubs and fewer large shrubs
than unpaired males. This suggests thatfemales evaluate shrub structure whenchoosing mates. Territory size did not differ
between paired and unpaired males in
Vermont (Chace and Bauerle 2005), but
territories placed in cutover uplands in New
Hampshire were 1.5 to 2 times larger thanthose located in a nearby swamp (Hallworth2005). In this case, territory size had no
bearing on pairing status. Upland andwetland birds both exhibited high rates ofpairing and fledging success (86-92%).
Territory density was greater in the swamp,
however, where small and overlapping
territories suggested an ample resource
supply. If reproductive rates are comparable
in managed and natural habitats, thendensity could, in fact, be an appropriate
gauge of habitat quality for these warblers.

northern Vermont detected Canada Warblers
at a level similar to that observed in forest
interiors (Lambert 2001). Hagan et al.
(1997) found no relationship between
Canada Warbler abundance and stand area.
Canada Warbler was likewise unaffected by
the extent of clearcut, young, medium-aged,
or mature forest in the surrounding
timberland.
Density May Not Indicate Habitat Quality
Birds typically select breeding sites
based on structural features to which they
are adapted. In altered landscapes, thesegross cues may belie factors that impair
reproductive success, such as elevated riskof predation (Gates and Gysel 1978).
Therefore, density can be a misleading
indicator of habitat quality (van Horne 1983,
Vickery et al. 1992). Studies that combine
density estimates with measures andreproductive success are preferred, but
unavailable for Canada Warbler.
The
preceding description of Canada Warbler
habitat is limited by reliance on communitylevel abundance studies. Population-levelresearch is necessary to identify predictorsof abundance and reproductive success. Ourcurrent research addresses this need.
Current Research
Since 2001, we have collaborated with
Dr. Jameson Chace (Salve Regina
University) and Dr. Leonard Reitsma(Plymouth State University) on a study ofCanada Warbler breeding ecology. Study
areas include: 36 mature forests surveyed by
the Vermont Forest Bird Monitoring
Program (primarily northern hardwoods), a
red spruce-balsam fir swamp at the Center
for Northern Studies (Wolcott, VT), a
variety of managed forest types in the
Nulhegan Basin Division of the Silvio O.
Conte National Fish and Wildlife Refuge

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STEWARDSHIP GUIDELINES FOR CANADA WARBLER BREEDING HABITAT
Although much remains to be learned about Canada Warbler breeding ecology, our recent
research has begun to fill the information gaps. The rate of population decline demands that we
use the best available information to develop conservation strategies, monitor effects of different
silvicultural approaches, and adapt as new information emerges. We present a variety oftechniques to maintain or create Canada Warbler habitat in the face of threats from wetland loss,
forest fragmentation, and age-class conversion. We suggest that land trusts, private landowners,
foresters, and natural resource agencies adopt these methods to help conserve the Northeast’svulnerable Canada Warbler population. Achieving population stability will require a
combination of land protection and habitat management. Below, we address these areas
separately, but recognize that some protected lands will be managed for multiple values,
including timber production.
Land Protection Strategies
A variety of land protection strategies could be employed to help stabilize the Canada Warbler population.
1. Identify Canada Warbler population centers with assistance of the local birding community, state bird
atlases, and the North American Breeding Bird Survey (www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs).
2. Focus preservation efforts on natural habitats with high Canada Warbler densities.
3. In the absence of Canada Warbler location and abundance data, identify parcels that feature one ormore of the following habitats: forested wetland; riparian forest;
 moist forest;
 old forest subject to canopy breakup (by wind, ice-storm, or insect damage).
4. Target areas characterized by the following attributes, listed in presumed order of importance:
 high shrub density (woody stems measuring 2-6 m in height, < 8cm dbh); high volume of understory foliage (including ferns);
 low level or threat of deer/moose browse;
 low or semi-open canopy;
 emergent trees or tree clumps used for territorial display; structurally complex forest floor (hummocks, root masses, logs, etc.);
 extensive forest cover (especially important in developed landscapes); connectivity to other forested areas; proximity to a continuous supply of 5- to 20-year-old stands that provide additional nesting andpost-fledging cover; a compact configuration (e.g. circle or square) to reduce the amount of interior forest susceptible tonegative edge effects.
5. To locate potentially suitable habitat, refer to National Wetlands Inventory maps (wetlands.fws.gov),
Natural Resource Conservation Service soil maps (websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/), topographic
maps (topozone.com), aerial photos (terraserver.microsoft.com), and state map and aerial photo
resources (gisuser.com/content/view/2379 or www.gap.uidaho.edu/Projects/States). For additional
assistance, contact a county forester or regional planning commission.
6. To access knowledge of local habitats, consult a land surveyor, forester, or sporting club active in thearea of interest.

9

Land Protection Strategies (cont.)
7. Work with local government to support land use regulations that: curb sprawl (e.g. return abandoned public highways to private ownership); concentrate growth (e.g. establish commercial and residential zones);
 protect wetland and riparian habitat (e.g. require adequate buffers);
 maintain natural forest hydrology (e.g. best engineering and construction practice); conserve forest lands (e.g. current use taxation for managed and natural areas); control deer numbers (e.g. permit hunting on town lands).
8. Protect large tracts of working forest with intent to pursue one or more of the management strategies
described below.

Forest Management Strategies
Nearly 70% of the total land area of New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine meet the U.S.
Forest Service’s definition of timberland: productive forest land on which harvesting is not prohibited(North East State Foresters Association 2004). This area represents 6,650 square miles. Timberlands canplay a significant role in the recovery of Canada Warbler populations because: 1) they reduce the threat ofhabitat loss and fragmentation by keeping the landscape forested; and 2) they present an opportunity tocreate habitat where it does not currently exist. Of the following recommended practices, several apply toconserved properties that permit or restrict timber harvest.
1. Ensure continuous supply of old, uneven-aged, and/or regenerating stands. Even-aged forests 20-75
years old appear to be of low value to Canada Warblers.
2. Maintain large, contiguous areas of unmanaged forest. Such areas are more likely than age-classmosaics to experience large natural disturbance that could benefit Canada Warbler. These areas also
harbor unique biological communities and serve as valuable benchmarks for assessing forest
management effects.
3. Plan for and tolerate natural disturbances that create gaps in the canopy and/or increase invertebrate
food supply, such as: spruce budworm outbreaks, hurricanes, and beaver activity. For example, lay out
roads where they are unlikely to be flooded by construction of a new beaver dam.
4. Maintain or restore mixed forest cover at the stand level.
To maintain/restore conifers in hardwood dominated sites: plant conifer among regenerating hardwoods; use long rotations that favor slow-growing, shade-tolerant conifers (e.g. balsam fir, hemlock,
red spruce); retain young and mature conifers well dispersed throughout the harvest zone (preferably inclumps); take extra care to retain conifer seed trees; control exotic pests (e.g. hemlock woolly adelgid).
To retain/restore hardwoods in conifer-dominated sites: avoid management practices, such as herbicide and thinning, that reduce broad-leafedcomponent of regenerating softwoods; retain young and mature hardwoods well dispersed throughout the harvest zone (preferably inclumps); take extra care to retain hardwood seed trees.
5. Maintain or restore mix of forest types at landscape level.
6. Promote reforestation of isolated forest tracts. This can be achieved by replanting or through natural
succession.

10Forest Management Strategies (cont.)
7. Maintain a well-developed woody and herbaceous understory by observing the following practices: retain/encourage vigorous understory growth including herbaceous plants (especially ferns) andshrubs/saplings (2-6 m tall, < 8 cm dbh);
 if thinning can not be avoided, delay it until the stand reaches a mid-successional stage (> 6 mhigh);
 restrict use of all-terrain vehicles;
 limit removal of understory vegetation when creating ski glades in mountain forests;
 limit removal of understory vegetation when maintaining sugar bushes; avoid damage to understory during harvest and skidding operations; control browsing by ungulates. White-tailed deer pose the greatest threat to birds that dwell in theunderstory, however grazing by moose and livestock can also have severe local impacts.
8. Maintain or enhance forest floor structure for Canada Warbler nests:
 harvest in winter to avoid compaction of hummocks, root masses, rotting logs and stumps, which
add structure to the forest floor; avoid moist areas where ferns and moss offer suitable nesting cover; leave woody debris on site.
9. Apply silvicultural treatments known to provide nesting habitat. Clearcuts with residual tree retention(a.k.a. wildlife clearcuts) and open shelterwood cuts appear to have the greatest potential to create
temporary habitat. The response of Canada Warblers will lag five or more years behind the treatment,
during a period of sapling development. Peak abundance is typically achieved between 5 and 20 years
post-harvest, when dense regeneration provides cover for nesting and foraging. Clearcutting without
residual tree retention fails to provide song perches for territorial display and elevates the risk of
converting a mixed forest to a pure stand.
10. Evaluate Canada Warbler response to lighter prescriptions (dense wildlife shelterwood, single-tree,
and small-group selection cuts) in order to ascertain their value to this species.
11. When logging, control damage to the understory by: directional felling; winching instead of skidding from each stump;
 using a feller-buncher with a boom, restricted to a designated trail; working around shrubby pockets; harvesting when a heavy snow pack is present.
12. Conserve riparian buffers and avoid logging wooded ravines. For buffers, a 100 m distance fromshoreline or wetland edge is adequate to encompass a typical Canada Warbler territory (Lambertunpubl. data). A 200 m buffer is advisable to avoid crowding or loss of forest interior species(Lambert and Hannon 2000, Hannon et al. 2002).
13. Restrict tree removal between the dates of Canada Warbler territory establishment (May 20) andfledging (July 31).
14. Employ best management practices in timber cutting and road construction to safeguard water quality,
maintain natural hydrological regime, and protect the structural and nutritional integrity of the soil.
15. Think big. Take a landscape perspective when managing songbird habitat. Consider the availability
and configuration of habitat both within the management unit and beyond its boundaries.
16. Think long. Plan for the long term in order to build on gains made in the short term.
17. Balance goal of providing Canada Warbler habitat with other ecological considerations, including theneeds of songbirds that require large tracts of mature forest.

11

density and demographic data are required
from young, old, and wet forests to assess
their value during different phases of thebreeding cycle. In particular, we need“estimates of adult and brood survival,
nesting success, frequency of renesting
following failure, site fidelity, andrecruitment” (Conway 1999). We also lackbasic information on timing and duration ofdifferent phases of breeding: nest
construction, egg-laying, incubation, andnestling development.
Advances are needed in two additional
fields of inquiry: area requirements in settled
landscapes (suburban and agricultural) andthe habitat improvement potential of singletree and group-selection cuts.
Moreknowledge in these areas would help guidedecisions that affect this vulnerable species.

Perils of Migration
Canada Warblers that migrate throughthe Northeast face the risk of collision with
television towers, tall buildings, power lines,
and other stationary structures. A chimneyin Kingston, Ontario killed 325 Canada
Warblers over 10 years, including 131
individuals in a single night (Weir 1989).
The risk of bird collisions can be reduced byproper lighting and careful site selection.
Since migration risk is beyond the scope of
this document, we refer the reader to The
Fatal Light Awareness Program (flap.org),
Towerkill.com, and the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service’s Guidance on the Siting,Construction,
Operation
andDecommissioningofCommunications
Towers, available from the Division ofMigratory
Bird
Management(fws.gov/migratorybirds).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
PRIORITIES FOR FUTURE BREEDINGGROUND RESEARCH

We gratefully acknowledge funding
support from the Charles E. and Edna T.
Brundage
ScientificandWildlife
Conservation Foundation, the Davis
Conservation Foundation, the A. V. Stout
Fund, Sweet Water Trust, and the William
P. Wharton Trust. We also thank ourcollaborators Jim Chace and Len Reitsma.
Jim Chace, Mike Hallworth, Kent
McFarland, Len Reitsma, and Chris Rimmer
provided helpful comments on an earlier
draft of this report.

Studies are urgently needed to determine
the causes of Canada Warbler population
declines.
While some work must be
conducted on the species’ wintering
grounds, limiting factors on the breeding
grounds could be equally important. Forest
maturation, wetland habitat loss, andenvironmental contaminants (e.g., mercury)warrant special attention as potential
contributors to declines.
Standardized

12

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16

Appendix 1. Abstracts from recent Canada Warbler research conducted in Vermont and New
Hampshire.
Canada Warbler Habitat Use in Vermont: Influence of Forest Community Type, Canopy
structure and Understory Density
Jameson F. Chace, Steven D. Faccio, and Abraham Chacko
Canada Warblers were detected within 50 m of 31 of the 134 census points of the Forest Bird
Monitoring Project coordinated by the Vermont Institute of Natural Science. Based on themeasurements of 25 vegetative characteristics from four 11.3 m radius plots around each bird
census point, we found that Canada Warblers occupy sites that have lower average canopy heightand higher coverage of ground cover, principally shrubs and ferns in the understory. The lower
canopy height perhaps permits greater sunlight penetration of the forest floor, which promotes ahigher density of shrubs, saplings and ferns in the understory. These results are limited todetermining the vegetative correlates of patch occupancy; they do not provide any information
on whether the birds inhabiting these patches were breeders or nonbreeders, or if they weresuccessful in fledging any young. These results do suggest that Canada Warblers in Vermont are
dependent on small canopy disturbances that allow greater sunlight penetration to the forest
floor. All of these data were collected from sites where such disturbances are natural events. To
determine the response of warblers to small canopy removal by harvesting would require further
study and evaluation.
Habitat Selection of Canada Warblers in a Forested Wetland in Canaan, NH
Amy Ueland
Canada Warblers (Canadensis wilsonia) are known to be associated with cool, moist areas that
contain a layer of shrubby undergrowth. To determine any habitat selection patterns in Canada
Warblers, fifteen vegetation variables were measured in 99 0.04-ha circular plots in a forested
wetland in Canaan, New Hampshire. Prior to vegetation analysis, the warblers were mist-netted,
banded, and observed in three fifteen-day intervals. Vegetation in 81 0.04-ha circular plots wasmeasured in Canada Warbler breeding territories and compared to vegetation in 18 randomly
generated, nonterritory plots. Univariate analysis indicated a difference between 4 of the 15
vegetation variables (shrubs and saplings < 2.5 cm dbh, shrubs and saplings > 2.5cm dbh, grasses
and sedges, and ferns). A principal components analysis was computed on all vegetation
variables and indicated that shrubs and saplings < 8 cm dbh are a key descriptor in habitat usedby the warblers.
Vegetation correlates of reproductive success of the Canada Warbler in the Nulhegan
Basin, VT
Jameson F. Chace
I measured the habitat characteristics of 31 Canada Warbler territories (21 paired and 10
unpaired) and 20 random points near those territories in the same habitat type at three locationsin the Nulhegan Basin of the Silvio O. Conte Fish and Wildife Refuge in northeastern Vermont.
Clearly, Canada Warbler males choose territories with a greater density of large shrubs andsaplings (> 2.5 cm diameter at boot height) and a greater percent ground cover of moss than theunoccupied “random” sites. Females, however, showed no preference for male territories by anyof the 25 vegetative characteristics. Females probably choose males on these sites by more
17

subtle habitat cues combined with behavioral and morphological characteristics of the males
themselves; all of which are beyond the scope of this work to date. For the refuge manager, theprotection or creation of areas of high stem density in lowland forested wetlands might maintainor create more opportunities for these semi-colonial warbler subpopulations to persist in the
refuge.
Habitat characteristics of paired and unpaired male Canada Warblers (Wilsonia
canadensis) in a forested wetland in Canaan, NH
Erik A. Anderson
Canada Warblers (Wilsonia canadensis) were studied to determine if any habitat differences
occurred between territories of males that successfully paired and males that did not successfully
pair. Multiple vegetation variables were measured in 100 vegetation plots within 26 paired maleterritories and 30 vegetation plots within 8 unpaired male territories in a forested wetland in
Canaan, New Hampshire. Before vegetation analysis, territorial males were mist netted, banded,and observed for six continuous 30-min observation periods in three fifteen-day intervals fromthe beginning to the post-fledgling stage of the breeding cycle. Each vegetation plot was a 0.04ha circular plot. Univariate analyses indicated a difference between ten of the vegetation
variables. Paired male territories contained greater stem densities of Red Spruce (Picea rubens)< 23 cm dbh and Red Maple (Acer rubrum) shrubs < 2.5 cm dbh. Unpaired male territories
contained greater stem densities of dead trees 8-23 cm dbh, Balsam Fir trees (Abies balsamea)
2.5-38 cm dbh, Red Maple trees 8-23 cm dbh, and Yellow Birch trees (Betula alleghaniensis) 823 cm dbh. A principal components analysis and a discriminant function analysis werecomputed on vegetation components for all but plant species specific measurements. This
analysis indicated that shrubs < 2.5 cm dbh might be a key descriptor in habitats of males thatfind a female mate, and shrubs 2.5-8 cm dbh and trees 8-23 cm dbh are key descriptors inhabitats of males that did not find a female mate. While it is known that Canada Warblers prefer
thick, shrub-infested habitat, this study may indicate that breeding success is significantly
correlated with territories of males containing high densities of small shrubs. Knowing thepreferences of females may influence habitat management practices that are aimed at theconservation of this species. More data are needed concerning other male qualities that females
may use to select males such as voice, displays, plumage, and territory size.
Canada Warbler Home Range, Territory Size and Breeding Behavior in the Nulhegan
Basin, VT
Jameson F. Chace and Sarah Bauerle
Canada Warblers establish breeding territories in late May in Vermont. By early June females
have paired with some males, but not others. We explored the differences in territory size andbreeding behavior among 20 paired and 9 unpaired males using territorial observations in 30-min
focal periods within 3 h of sunrise. Using radio telemetry we measured the home range of paired
and unpaired males. We found no difference in territory size between paired and unpaired males(mean size 0.38 ha), although males appear to have much larger home ranges (2 ha) thandefended territories. Some, unpaired, floater, males were found to range widely (7 ha) over thecourse of a day. Males that return between years return to the same territory, even when pairing
was unsuccessful the year before. Given the high site fidelity and rather large home ranges,
conservation of this species in the Nulhegan Basin rests on identifying and conserving the habitatof productive subpopulations.
18

Canada Warbler Reproductive Success and Territory Size in a Natural Wetland andManaged Forest in Canaan, NH
Michael Hallworth and Len Reitsma
During the summer of 2005, we tracked and mapped 14 male Canada Warblers in a red maplebalsam fir-red spruce swamp, plus another 10 in a nearby, regenerating mixed forest withresidual tree retention. Inhabitants of the natural wetland exhibited high pairing and fledging
success (93% and 92%, respectively). Males occupying the cutover forest were also successful
in finding mates (90%) and fledging young (86%). Kernel home range (KHR) estimates ofterritory size showed that territories in the harvest zone were 1.5 to 2 times larger than those in
the wetland. The 95% KHR estimate was 1.46 ha in the managed forest, compared to 0.97 ha in
the swamp. The 50% KHR estimate measured 0.27 in the harvest zone, and just 0.13 in theswamp. Smaller and overlapping territories in the wetland resulted in a higher overall density ofCanada Warblers in this habitat, compared to the adjacent upland. Differences in the size andconfiguration of territories between the wetland and upland forests suggest that key resources(e.g. prey, nest sites, song perches), may be limited in the upland harvest zone. This study showsthat Canada Warblers can achieve natural levels of nesting success in managed forests.
However, more densely settled wetlands could be more productive overall.

19