Article

Determinants and Challenges of Community Sand Forest
Management in Vietnam
Hoang Huy Tuan 1, * , Nguyen Van Minh 1 , Nguyen Thi Hong Mai 1 , Tran Thi Thuy Hang 1 and Seiji Iwanaga 2
12*

Citation: Tuan, H.H.; Minh, N.V.;
Mai, N.T.H.; Hang, T.T.T.; Iwanaga, S.
Determinants and Challenges ofCommunity Sand Forest
Management in Vietnam. Forests
2022, 13, 561. https://doi.org/
10.3390/f13040561
Academic Editor: Luis Diaz-Balteiro
Received: 11 February 2022

Faculty of Forestry, University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue University, 102 Phung Hung,
Hue 530000, Vietnam; nvminhhuaf@hueuni.edu.vn (N.V.M.); nthmai@hueuni.edu.vn (N.T.H.M.);
tranthithuyhang@hueuni.edu.vn (T.T.T.H.)
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku,
Nagoya 464-8601, Aichi, Japan; iwanagas@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp
Correspondence: hhtuan@hueuni.edu.vn

Abstract: In the inland sandy areas along the central coast of Vietnam, there is a specific type of
ecosystem that local people call a sand forest. Over time, despite many economic, political, andsocial upheavals, local people in some places still maintain these sand forests. In this study, we
aimed to investigate the determinants and challenges of community sand forest management incoastal north central Vietnam. For this purpose, we explore insights regarding the changing roles ofsand forests in community perception, community challenges, and the role of stakeholders in sandforest management. We then discuss policy implications for sustainable sand forest management.
By applying focus group discussions, household surveys, and in-depth interviews, this study foundthat local people have used village conventions to manage the sand forest for hundreds of years
because they have been aware of the role of the sand forest in daily life, especially the spiritual andenvironmental roles of the sand forest. However, sand forest management is confusing and inefficientdue to the neglect of the role of traditional organizations. Along with this, local people face several
challenges, such as conflicts over the use of sand forests, and a lack of recognition of the community’s
legal rights to such forests. Based on these results, some policy implications are proposed, suchas strengthening the participation of related stakeholders, and providing coordination between
traditional organizations and local authorities in forest management and conflict management inforest use. It is necessary to promote the allocation of sand forests to local communities so that they
have the legal rights to effectively manage and protect their forests and to obtain potential benefits inthe future.
Keywords: ecosystem services; policy implications; sand forest management; village conventions;
VietnamAccepted: 29 March 2022
Published: 31 March 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

1. Introduction

with regard to jurisdictional claims in

Community forest management (CFM) was promoted in the Asia-Pacific region in the
1980s–1990s by progressive forest officials and donors in response to community demands
and environmental concerns. In practice, CFM initiatives were inherited from a long
history of customary forest management by the community [1]. This included forest
management based on fallow swidden practices in Southeast Asian countries; traditional
forest management in Nepal; management of forbidden forests near Mount Merapi inIndonesia or the Himachal Pradesh of India; management of common resources in a semiarid environment in South Asia, such as the common resources of forests, trees, and soils
in Gujurat of India; forest management associated with community water resources in
Ifugao, Philippines and Terai, Nepal; and management of “sacred, ghost forests” in many
communities in India, the Philippines, and Thailand [2]. These communities manage theirforests based on traditional rules and management systems [3]. Experience in countries
in the region shows that traditionally managed community forests were highly effective

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Forests 2022, 13, 561

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because all forest resource users have shared rights and obligations regarding an entire
forest and make collective decisions to use resources appropriately [4]. It means that forest
resources have been controlled and used by communities without significant negative
impacts because communities have complied with the regulations set by them and theirneeds, and demand for wood is small compared to reserves [5]. By conducting empiricaltesting in the seven developing countries of Brazil, Honduras, Malawi, Mozambique,
Uganda, Indonesia, and Vietnam, Sunderlin et al. (2007) showed that traditional community
forestry refers to local systems of forest management that can date back many decades or
centuries and is different from introduced community forestry models. The introduced
CFM models are brought into the community by external agents, such as the government,a local non-governmental entity, an international agency, or a combination of these [6].
CFM models in the Asia-Pacific region offer opportunities to improve local livelihoods,
reduce deforestation and improve forest quality, and strengthen good governance [1].
However, some CFM initiatives have failed to deliver their promised expectations because
the empowerment of communities or transfer of management responsibility of forests tothe local community has only been partial [7].
In Vietnam, forms of forest management by communities appeared a long timeago [8,9]. Specifically, before the French colonial period (before the 1880s), forest dwellers
and forest-dependent communities who have long lived on goods and services from forests
staked claims on the resource across the history of its formation and development of theircommunities [10]. In this form, all members of the community participate in planting trees,
keeping forests, conserving trees, and sharing the benefits of forest resources and forest
land use, which are owned by the community by establishing and complying with conventions on forest resource use. However, it is only after the issuance of the Law on Forest
Protection and Management 2004 (replaced by Law on Forestry in 2017) that communities
have been allocated forests to manage and stably use for forestry purposes. Therefore, thelegal status of community forest management has been recognized at the policy level undersuch law. At the practice level, the Vietnamese government has promoted forest allocation
to local communities nationwide. To date, about 7.95% (1,166,470 ha) of the total forest area
(14,677,215 ha), including both natural and plantation forests, has been allocated to local
communities [11].
In conjunction with policy that allocates forests to communities for management, theForestry Law also encourages the integration of village conventions into the developmentof community forest management regulations in areas where forests have been allocated tocommunities [12,13].
Village conventions are mandatory rules of conduct issued by communities andvillages and have been effective in enforcement within the village’s territory [14]. Village
conventions appeared a long time ago, at least under the reign of King Le Thanh Tong
(1460–1497), and are relatively common in Vietnamese villages in the northern delta andmidland, and the north central region [15]. Village conventions are formed based on
unification/agreement between local people [14,16,17]. When change or adjustment isdesired, the convention must be agreed upon by the local people in the village. Previously,
village conventions existed in oral form, and then, they were recorded both orally and in
documentation [16,17].
The sand forest is a specific ecosystem in the inland sandy areas of theoastal northcentral Vietnam. These sand forests are considered to be common-pool resources andhave been governed by village conventions for hundreds of years. Over time and under
the influence of changes to the economic and political institutions and the remaining
resources of the sand forest, the role of the sand forest, and village conventions regarding
the management of sand forest, has changed. Besides, although the allocation of forests tothe community for management was legalized by the state in 2004 [12], such sand forests
have not yet been allocated to villages as recognition of the legal rights over these sandforests. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to clarify the determinants and challenges ofcommunity sand forest management in coastal north central Vietnam. For this purpose,

Forests 2022, 13, 561

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we explore insights regarding the changing roles of sand forests in community perception,community challenges, and the role of stakeholders in sand forest management. We thendiscuss policy implications for sustainable sand forest management.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
Phong Dien is a northern district of the Thua Thien Hue province in coastal northcentral Vietnam, with a total natural area of 95,081 hectares and 87,781 people [18]. Its
terrain decreases from West to East and is divided into 3 main topographical regions: thewestern part is mountainous, followed by a narrow plain between the Bo and O Lau river
basins, and then the coastal region with lowland areas. Inland sand strips are quite flatadjacent to Tam Giang lagoon [19].
The climate of the Phong Dien district is divided into 2 distinct seasons. The dry seasonfrom March to August is influenced by the southwest wind blowing from the continent, so
it is hot and dry, and the average temperature is higher than 25 ◦ C, often causing severe
and prolonged drought. The rainy season from September to February of the next year
is influenced by the northeast monsoon with high humidity and cold temperatures. The
precipitation in this season reaches 2800–3000 mm, in which the precipitation of Octoberand November accounts for 45% of the total rainfall in the year, with many storms andfloods that seriously affect production and people’s lives [19].
Inland sand covers a large area of over 10,470 ha, approximately 11.3% of the total
area of the district [20]. This inland sand area was formed by the natural encroachment
process in the sea and then the long-term impacts of wind and streamflow changed the
topography, but it is still rather flat, which is not like the dunes in coastal areas [19].
The sand forest that formed in Phong Dien district is a lowland forest growing on sandy
soil with a relatively diverse and abundant plant species composition. In general, the treelayer (tree stratum) of the sand barnacle includes major tree species, such as Litsea sebifera,
Mallotus apelta, Garcinia fusca, Castanopsis indica, Shorea vulgaris, Evodia lepta, Elaeocarpus
sp., Quercus platycalyx, Pasania ducampii, Talauma gioi, Sindora cochinchinensis, Tarrietia
javanica, Crotalaria alata, Buchanania florida, Rapanea sp., Carallia integerrima, Shuteria annamica,
Adinandra sp., Fagraea fragrans, Ixora coccinea, Combretum sp., Tarenna sp., Barringtonia
acutangula, Ficus benjamina, and Artocarpus rigidus. These species do not grow strongly inheight but tend to create a wide and thick canopy [21].
Previously, the sand forest area covered most of the inland sand region in the field of
Phong Dien district. Over time, due to the effects of war and other human activities [17], thesand forest area remained at about 460.21 ha, which was concentrated in 5 communes in the
district, including Phong Binh, Phong Hoa, Phong Thu, Dien Huong, and Dien Mon [22].
To analyze the changing roles of the sand forest in community perception and the role ofstakeholders in sand forest management, this study selected two communes, including
Phong Binh commune and Dien Huong commune, to conduct this study in (Figure 1).
Phong Binh and Dien Huong communes were selected as the sand forest areas of the twostudy sites are still relatively large at 246.37 and 96.35 ha, respectively [22].

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4 of 16

Figure 1. Location of the study area.

2.2. Research Methods
2.2. Research Methods
2.2.1. Pilot Trips and Preparation for Field Trips
2.2.1. Pilot Trips and Preparation for Field Trips
Based on the meetings with the Forest Protection Unit (FPU) of the Phong Dien district,
Based onwith
Forest
UnitDocuments(FPU) of the
we selected
thethetwomeetings
communesto thecollect
dataProtection
for the study.
on Phong
naturalDien
anddistrict,we
selectedthetwocommunestocollect
data
for
the
study.
Documents
naturalsocio-economic conditions were collected by the Commune People’s Committeeson(CPCs)
ofandsocio-economic
conditions
werecollected
bytheCommunePeople’sCommittees
the studied communes. Information about the area of different land types and forests and(CPCs)of the studied
communes.
about
area offrom
different
land
types
and
the
management
and protectionof Information
the sand forest
wasthegathered
Phong
Dien
FPU.
forests and the management and protection of the sand forest was gathered from Phong
Dien FPU.
2.2.2.
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)
This method was implemented using semi-structured interviews to collect initial
2.2.2. Focus
Group Discussions(FGDs)
issuesand identify
factors related
to the research topics/contents, which focused on theThis method
implementedusing
semi-structured
interviews
collect
influencing
factorswas
in themanagementof thesand forest. Two
villages towheretheinitialsand
issuesandidentify
factors
relatedtotheresearch
topics/contents,
which
focusedontheforest still covers a relatively large area were selected to conduct the FGDs, namely Pho
influencing
the managementofThanhthe sand
forest.
Two (Dienvillageswhere
the sandTrachvillagefactors(PhonginBinh
commune) andHuong
villageHuongcommune).
foreststill werecoversa relatively
large
area wereselected
toIn
conduct
the FGDs,
namelyteam
Pho
The
FGDs
carriedout from
Februaryto March2021.
each village,
the research
conducted
one(Phong
FGD with
stakeholders,
includinghead(Dienof theHuong
village,commune).
the village
Trach village
Binhvarious
commune)and Thanh
Huongthevillagecouncil,leaders
the sand
forestFebruary
protection
representativesof theThe FGDs
were ofcarriedout fromtoteam,Marchand2021.
In each village,
the villagers.
research
Thequestions
werewith
usedvarious
to clarifychanges related
to theforusingtheteammainconducted
one FGD
stakeholders,
includingthe purposes
head of thevillage,thesandforests,features
of
the
sand
forest,
and
the
form
of
the
conventions(oral
traditionvillage council, leaders of the sand forest protection team, and representatives of theordocumentation),convention
changedor adjusted.
During thevillagers.
The main including
questions how
weretheused
to clarifywaschanges
relatedto the purposesforprocessesof theforests,
FGDs, features
we encouraged
participants
to identify
timelines andtousingthe sandof the sandforest, andthe formtheof mainthe conventions
(oral
share
theiroropinions
regarding including
the above changes
sand forestwas
management.
In adjusted.
addition,tradition
documentation),
how theinconvention
changed orwealso thehelpedmembersof thegroup
unify general
information
ensurethethatmaintheDuringprocessesof theFGDs,
wetoencouraged
participants
to toidentify
obtained
informationwas
accurate.
timelines and to share their opinions regarding the above changes in sand forest
management. In addition, we also helped members of the group to unify general
2.2.3. Household Survey
information to ensure that the obtained information was accurate.
After collecting and classifying information from the FGDs, household interviews
were conducted to collect data related to local people’s perceptions of the roles of the sand

Forests 2022, 13, 561

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forests and stakeholder relations in sand forest management. A total of 177 households
were selected for the survey using a questionnaire, including 87 households in Phong Binhcommune and 90 households in Dien Huong commune (Table 1). The interviews werecarried out from March to May 2021. The criteria used for selecting households to complete
the survey included being villagers, who lived in the two surveyed communes and in thecommunity, with at least 25 years experience in sand forest management. The calculationof the sample size was based on the formula by Asaduzzaman et al. [23]:n=N(1 + N ∗ e2 )where n is the sample size determined for the survey; N is the overall quantity of households
in the selected commune; and e is a margin of error (0.1).
Table 1. Sample structure.
Commune Name

Number of Households

Sample Size

Phong Binh

679

87.2 (87 households)

Dien Huong

852

89.5 (90 households)

Especially, in the interview, we focused on local people’s perceptions of the roles ofsand forests in the period before and after 2005. The reason for focusing on the timeline
before and after 2005 was that the 2004 Law on Forestry Protection and Development was
implemented, and it recognized the legal rights of communities in forest management andprotection by allocating natural forests to communities for management, protection, andbenefits [12]. Changes in the sand forest roles in this period (before and after 2005) werealso recorded from the result of FGDs. Eight out of nine options in the list of questions
were selected through FGDs when defining the role of forests in the period before andafter 2005. The interviews consisted of questions about the main information, such as the
economic values of sand forest (i.e., providing timber, firewood, and medicinal plants),
environmental protection values of sand forest (i.e., preventing sand flying, providing
water for daily life and production, and reducing vulnerability to flood and drought), andthe spiritual value of sand forest (i.e., grave burial place) in the period before and after 2005.
In each question, respondents chose one of two options (yes or no) to confirm the role ofsand forests. Although the period before and after 2005 was quite long ago from when we
conducted the household interviews, all interviewees remembered the events that occurredin that time well. The key event that occurred in 2005 was that villagers established theirforest protection team to prevent firewood exploitation in the sand forest. This was also theperiod when people were no longer allowed to exploit firewood [12], so they voluntarily
contributed rice to support the forest protection team while patrolling and protecting
the sand forests. The role of stakeholders in governing the sand forest was analyzed
using a Likert scale [24]: “not important”, “less important”, “neutral”, “important”, and“very important”.
2.2.4. In-Depth Interviews
After collecting and analyzing data from the household survey, in-depth interviews
were conducted to cross-check the information reported by representatives of the households. On the other hand, these were also used to further explore the personal opinions ofinterviewees on topics related to the roles of the sand forests and the stakeholder relations
in sand forest management recorded from the household survey. A total of 10 interviewees
were selected for the in-depth interviews, including 2 village heads and 4 elderly people
from the Pho Trach and Thanh Huong villages, 2 officers from CPC, and 2 commune
rangers from the Phong Binh and Dien Huong communes. The interviews were carried out
in May 2021.

Forests 2022, 13, 561

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CPC, and 2 commune rangers from the Phong Binh and Dien Huong communes. Theinterviews were carried out in May 2021.
6 of 16

2.2.5. Data Analysis Method
This research combined qualitative and quantitative analysis using the functions of
2.2.5. Data Analysis Method
Excel (Microsoft Co., Ltd., Redmond, DC, USA) or SPSS (BM SPSS statistics for window).
This researchcombinedqualitativeand changes
quantitative
analysisusing
the functionsof
The qualitative
analysis
was used
to explain
in localpeople’s
perceptionsof theExcelof(Microsoft
Co.,TheLtd.,Chi-square
Redmond,(χDC,USA)
or employed
SPSS (BM SPSS
statistics
for there
window).
2) testsroles
sand forests.
were
to assesswhetherwasThe
analysis
was usedperceptions
to explain changes
in local people’sof theany qualitative
difference inlocal people’sof the importantroles ofperceptions
the sand forests
2 ) tests were employed to assess whether there
roles
of
sand
forests.
The
Chi-square(χ
before and after 2005. The role of stakeholders in governing the sand forest identified inwasany differencein local was
people’s
perceptionsof the importantsand forests
the householdinterviews
analyzedusing Likert
scales [24] roles
with ofanthe
interval
score:
before
and
after
2005.
The
role
of
stakeholders
ingoverningthesandforestidentified
in 4.0,thefrom 0.0 to 0.8, from 0.81 to 1.60, from 1.61 to 2.40, from 2.41 to 3.20, or from 3.21 tohouseholdinterviews
wasanalyzedusing
Likertscales[24]
withaninterval
score:
from
0.0
indicating “not important”, “less important”, “neutral”, “important”, and “veryto 0.8, from 0.81
to 1.60, from 1.61 to 2.40, from 2.41 to 3.20, or from 3.21 to 4.0, indicating “notimportant”,
respectively.
important”, “less important”, “neutral”, “important”, and “very important”, respectively.
3. Research Results and Discussions
3. Research Results and Discussions
3.1.
theSand
Sand
ForestRoles
in LocalPeople’s
Perception
and Behavior
3.1. Changes
Changes ofofthe
ForestRoles
in LocalPeople’s
Perception
and Behavior
The
for aa longin theThe sandsand forests
forests have
have existed
existed forlong time
time andand played
played anan essential
essential rolerole inthe local
local
life
in
coastalcentralVietnamingeneralandinthestudiedsites
inparticular(Figure2).
life in coastal central Vietnam in general and in the studied sites in particular (Figure 2). The
The
provisionoftimber,firewood,
andmedicinal
plants
for
local
uses
represented
provision of timber, firewood, and medicinal plants for local uses represented identified
identified
the sand
forest.theAmongthe roles identified
by localthe
people,ofroles of theroles
sandofforest.
Amongroles identified
by local people,
role ofthe
therole
sand
the
sand
in protecting
houses,andgardens,
andfrom
paddiesfrom theeffectsof harsh
forests
in forests
protecting
houses, gardens,
paddies
the effectsof harsh
climatesisclimates
is highly
valuedby localpeople.
Fromthetheirview,
the sand
forests haveformedhighly valued
by localpeople.
Fromtheir view,
sandforests
have formed
naturalbelts
naturalbeltsconsider
that people
considerto actas a shieldduringthe windseasonthesethat people
to actas a shieldduringthe windseasonbecausethesebecause
sand forests
sandforestsarelocatednortheastofthevillage.
The
elder
villagers
who
participatedinare located northeast of the village. The elder villagers who participated in the FGDs and
the
FGDs
and
in-depth
interviews
confirmed
that
“in
the
old
days
when
the
houseswere
in-depth interviews confirmed that “in the old days when the houses were primitive andprimitive
and sandstorms
simple, manysandstorms
werebutvery
but stood
our village
stood
simple, many
werevery terrible,
ourterrible,
village still
strongstill
thankstostrongthanks toof theforest”. This
also foundinthe protectionof the protection
sand forest”.
Thissandinformation
was information
also found inwas
previous
studiesprevious
relatedroles
to sandforests’ roles
in reducing
disastersin thecoastalrelated tostudies
sand forests’in reducing
naturaldisastersnaturalin the coastal
areasof central
Vietnam[16,17,25].
areas of central
Vietnam [16,17,25].

Figure2. Rolesin thethe study
study site.
site.
Figure 2.
Roles ofof thethe sandsand forests
forests in

The results of the FGDs also showed that these sand forests are higher than thesurrounding areas, so villagers often evacuate people, livestock, and poultry to the sandforest when the villages are flooded. According
According to the survey result of Thua Thien Hue
province’s
arearelocatedin theinlandsandsandareasareas[26]. These
lakes
province’s authorities,
authorities,8080natural
naturallakes
lakes
locatedin theinland[26]. These
are concentrated
in the inPhong
Dien andDien districts[26]. In[26].
the Indry
season,manylakes
are concentrated
the Phong
DienQuang
and Quang
Dien districts
thedry season,lakes still
maintainsurfacesurface
water waterand areoften
by forests
while whilesome some
other
many
lakes
still maintainandare surrounded
often surroundedby forests
lakes orlow-lyingareas inthe inland
sandy area
without
sand forest
have
surfaceotherlakes
or low-lying
areas
in the inland
sandy
area without
sandonly
forest
only
have
water
rainytheseason.
Phong
some
other
inlandinsurfaceduring
water theduringrainy Apart
season.from
Apart
fromDien,
Phong
Dien,
some
othersandy
inlandareas
sandy
the neighboring
Quang TriQuang
are alsoTrisimilar[13]. similar
These lakes
sourcesareas
in the neighboring
are also[13]. areThese
lakesthat
areprovide
sourceswaterthatfor dailywater
life andproduction
for local
people.for
Forlocalexample,these
provideforagricultural
daily life andagricultural
production
people.
Forreservoirs
example,provide
water
for
120
hectares
of
rice
in
the
winter-spring
crop,
and
85
hectaresofand
rice 85
inthese reservoirs provide water for 120 hectares of rice in the winter-spring crop,thesummer-autumn
crop
even
thoughtheamountofirrigation
water
has
decreased.
In
hectares of rice in the summer-autumn crop even though the amount of irrigation water
additionto theInmaterial
value,
forests
alsosand
haveforests
significant
spiritualvalue spiritualfor local
hasdecreased.
additionto thesandmaterial
value,
also havesignificant
people because part of the sand forest is used by the villagers as a burial place for the
residents of the villages.
The roles of the sand forests are not constant but have changed over time. The resultsof FGDs showed that the sand forest’s role shifted from the provision of economic values
to the protection of environmental and spiritual values associated with 3 main timelines,

Forests 2022, 13, 561

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including before 1979, from 1979 to 2004, and from 2005 to the present, and these timelines
mainly relate to the purposes of using the sand forest and the convention form (Table 2).
Table 2. The changes in the sand forest’s roles in the studied villages.
PeriodBefore 1979-

The main purpose--

Providing wood and firewood
Protecting water sources andproviding aquatic products
Preventing sand from moving
Providing medicinal plants
Cemetery

Many big trees covered most of
the villages’ inland sandy land
There were many animal
species

The features of thesand forest-

The form of theconventions

The sand forest protection convention
had been propagated by oral tradition

From 1979 to 2004---

Providing firewood
Protecting water sources
Preventing sand frommovingProviding medicinal
plantsCemetery

Many big trees and tree
species were destroyed(mainly by war).
Many animals were lost

The sand forest protection
convention had been
documented by the village

From 2005 Up to Now--

Protecting water sources
Preventing sand frommovingProviding medicinal
plantsCemetery

Very few big trees
Woody shrubs dominate
The sand forest areas haveshrunkThe sand forest protection
convention had been
documented by the village
without official recognition

Source: FGDs, 2021.

During FGDs, participants recognized that in the context of an undeveloped market
and the closed life of the communities around the sand forests, the sand forests played
an important role in providing products, such as firewood, small timber for building thehouse, and medicinal plants for daily subsistence, especially for poor communities. Thisis the main reason for the decrease in the density of tree species reported in previous
studies conducted at the same study site [21,25]. To stop the degradation of the sand forest
caused by war and the daily subsistence demands of villagers, since 1979, the villagers
have agreed to ban the harvesting of timber trees from the sand forests. Furthermore, thevillage convention was also documented at the same time.
Until 2004, the Law on Forest Protection and Development was launched, with legal
recognition of community forest tenure through the allocation of natural forest for local
communities [12]. Although the studied district authorities have not yet legally allocatedthe sand forests to the local communities, district authorities, with the support of the district
Forest Protection Unit, have helped villages located near sand forests to develop forest
protection teams and mobilized local people to stop collecting firewood from the sandforest. On the other hand, local people are also aware of the sand forest’s roles in relation
to environmental protection (preventing sand moving and protecting water sources), sothey also decided to stop collecting firewood since this time. In addition, the country’s
developed economy has also changed the forest use behavior of local people. This situation
has also occurred in other places in the Asia-Pacific Region, caused by large-scale drivers,
where economic growth has allowed many countries in this region to move beyond a
low-income status. Besides, the growth of urban labor markets attracted rural laborers,
which created a flow of people out of agriculture and rural areas, which has reduced thepressure on forests as a source of subsistence [1]. Local people have more relationships andjobs in larger society and the market, and thus people have had more choices regarding
the products for daily life. The products collected from sand forests have been replaced byother more convenient products.
Moreover, in recent decades, the negative effects of the climate have increasingly
affected people’s lives, which has made local people appreciate the importance of the sandforest in protecting their living environment as opposed to the economic benefit (Table 3).

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Table 3. Change in the sand forest’s roles before and after 2005 in the studied communes.
Variable Names

The Sand Forest
Role before 2005

The Sand Forest
Role after 2005

χ2

p-Value

Providing timber

56.5%

0.0%

139.37<0.001 ***Providing firewood

54.8%

0.0%

133.61<0.001 ***Providing medicinal plants

43.5%

6.8%

63.42

<0.001 ***Preventing sandstorms

65.0%

67.2%

0.20

0.653

Providing water for daily life

25.4%

14.1%

7.12

<0.01 **

Providing water for
Agricultural production

75.1%

77.4%

0.25

0.617

Reducing vulnerability toflood and drought

79.7%

89.3%

6.97

<0.01 **

Grave burial place(Graveyard)

94.4%

99.4%

7.60

<0.01 **

Note: **, *** Statistically significant differences between the sand forest roles before and after 2005 (Chi-squaretest) at ** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001.

The result of the household survey showed that the roles of the sand forests in providing timber, firewood, medicinal plants, and water for daily life were different before andafter 2005 (p < 0.01, Table 3). In other words, people no longer depended on the forest forthese needs. The roles of the sand forests as a grave and in reducing vulnerability caused
by natural disasters, such as flood and drought, also had statistically significant differences
before and after 2005 (p < 0.01, Table 3). This meant that the roles of the sand forests havebeen increasingly appreciated by people and are very important currently. Meanwhile, nostatistically significant difference was observed between the past and present sand forest’srole in terms of preventing sand from flying and providing water for production. On
the other hand, there has been no alternative solution for these roles of the sand forest
until now.
3.2. Changing the Role of Stakeholders in Sand Forest Management
People in the inland sandy area of the Phong Dien district had a sand forest management convention when the village was established more than 500 years ago along the Tam
Giang lagoon. Until now, the management, protection, and use of the sand forests have been
undertaken by the communities and local people and guided by the village conventions.
According to local people, in the period before 1979, the sand forests were considered
livelihood sources, places connected to the spiritual life, and an evacuation location in someemergency cases, such as flooding or to avoid war. The sand forest protection convention
was maintained by oral traditions and monitored by the clan heads and village council.
Specifically, a village contains clans, and in each clan, there is a head who collects andmobilizes relatives to undertake common activities in the clan or village [27]. The village
council in the traditional village was established, including villagers with property, titles,
positions, or degrees [28]. Presently, the village council in the studied villages consists of thevillage head and resident cluster heads (sub-village heads). From 1979 to the early 2000s,
due to the pressure of the demands for resources for life and production, the sand forests
became exhausted. Then, the convention was documented by the village and supported by
local authorities, including the Commune People’s Committee (CPC) and District People
Committee (DPC), for implementation in this period. By 2005, the 2004 Law on Forest
Protection and Development was enacted and became the legal basis for adjusting thesand forest management convention through the provisions of the law, which especiallyemphasized the restriction of exploitation of sand forests and enhanced the environmental
protection role of the sand forest.
The results of the focus group discussions and in-depth interviews in the two studied
villages revealed the following common points of the actual village convention in sand

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forest management: (1) local people are not allowed to cut trees or dig roots in the sandforest located in the administrative boundaries of the village; (2) the dead old trees need
to be liquidated and this is decided by the village head; (3) the area within 50m of theresidential area adjacent to forest must be strictly protected, and all activities that negatively
affect the forest must be banned; (4) people in the village are only allowed to collect dry
firewood and are also banned from cutting down live trees; (5) the northern sand forests
must be strictly protected to prevent the cold northeast monsoon winds; (6) the goal ofprotecting reservoirs is always a top priority of the local people to ensure reservoirs containadequate amounts of water for production; (7) people in the village can take medicinal
plants from the sand forests for treatment; and (8) villagers who are living in the village orwork far away are buried in the village’s sand forest (village cemetery) when they die.
On the other hand, the 2004 Law on Forest Protection and Development was also thebasis for the change in the role of stakeholders in sand forest management. The Forest
Protection Unit (FPU), at the district level, is responsible for checking and inspecting theimplementation of the forest protection, and the CPC is assigned the state managerial
responsibility of forests and forest land in the area [25]. CPC also plays an important role inmost activities, especially in supporting villagers to develop village conventions, assigningforest patrols, and preventing and fighting forest fire while the FPU only implements
penalties related to sand forest violations when villagers or CPC report them. In villages,
the village head helps villagers to set up forest protection teams. Furthermore, the roleof the forest protection team is to take charge in patrolling and mobilizing villagers forfire prevention and fighting. Each forest protection team includes about five persons,
including one leader and four members. Change in the personnel of the protection teamis reviewed every two years. The source of payment for the team is contributed by thevillagers. This contribution represents the community’s consensus and willingness to pay
for sand forest protection.
Along with the increase in the role of local authorities (CPC, DPC), in which the village
head is the representative with the lowest level, the roles of the village council and the clan
head tend to be overlooked. In the past, all members of the clan obeyed the orders of theirclan head. In this situation, the role of the clan head was emphasized. The village council
communicated with the heads of the clans to inform their decisions regarding sand forest
management and communication with each household. As this relationship had existed forgenerations, the local people were united and strictly adhered to the regulations regarding
the management and protection of the sand forest. The perceived roles of stakeholders in
the current management of sand withdrawal are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Local people’s perceptions of stakeholders’ roles in sand forest management.

Stakeholders

Development andFacilitation ofVillage
Convention

Assignment for
Sand Forest
PatrolSand Forest Fire
Prevention andFighting

Conflict
Resolution

Penalties for
Violations

Village council

2.16

1.93

1.84

0.68

0.56

Clan head

0.28

0.44

0.20

1.06

0.97

The sand forest
protection team

2.12

2.79

2.27

0.99

0.94

Village head

3.28

2.92

2.93

1.68

1.48

CPC

3.47

3.28

2.05

2.80

3.13

FPU

0.6

0.2

1.4

0.0

3.7

Note: from 0–0.8: not important; from 0.81–1.60: less important; from 1.61–2.40: neutral; from 2.41–3.20: important;from 3.21–4.0: very important.

In general, the roles of the village council and the village head are not legally recognized in sand forest management. Local people perceive that these traditional roles areForests 2022, 13, 561

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still recognized. At the same time, the sand forest is still protected based on the village
convention, without being legally recognized by the state. This may create a premise forthe exclusion of the village council element from community sand forest management,
although it will continue to include the customary element in forest management. Sikor
and Thanh (2007), in a study on CFM in Cham B of the Dak Lak province of Vietnam,
found that the exclusion of some traditional elements may increase the level of conflict andinclusive devolution can reduce the gap between legal regulations and asserted rights byinvolving local actors in the adjustment of rights and responsibilities [29].
Besides, the roles of other stakeholders, such as FPU and CPC, are presented as theirduties, and it seems support for communities from these agencies is absent in the protection
and development of their sand forests, which was indicated in previous studies on thenecessity of other support from these agencies for CFM [8].
3.3. Challenges of the Community in Sand Forest Management
3.3.1. Conflict in Sand Forest Management
Conflict in the use of natural resources often arises when the demand exceeds the
supply capacity of the resource. Conflict in the use of sand forest has existed for a longtime, especially as the sand forest area is shrinking (Table 5).
Table 5. Difference between the community’s awareness of the regulations and the sand forest
management practices.
Villagers
Rights

Inside Commune

Outside Commune

Regulation

Community
Awareness

Practice

Regulation

Community
Awareness

Practice

Regulation

Community
Awareness

Practice

Exploring fresh
firewood

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

Exploring dry
firewood

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

No

Harvesting medicinal
herb

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Burying the dead(graveyard)

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Conflict in the use of sand forest resources is mainly related to the collection of
medicinal herbs and the burial of the dead. Conflict occurs in the use of resources between
different groups as follows: (1) Conflict between villages without sand forest and villages
with sand forest (study sites), which belong to the same commune (‘inside commune’ inTable 5). In the past, conflict arose between the collection of herbs and burial of the dead,but later, under the intervention of the CPC, the sand forests of the study villages wereconsidered a common cemetery of the whole commune; (2) conflict between people outside
the commune with the study villages (‘outside commune’ in Table 5). This means thatconflict occurred when outsiders accessed the sand forest to collect medicinal herbs andbury the dead. Based on local people’s opinion, it is very difficult to prevent outsiders
from using the sand forest, because the village does not have legal ownership rights to thesand forest. So, when outsiders violate sand forests, they will question the community’sownership rights to stop them. People in the same village do not have conflict related theabove two interests (‘villagers’ in Table 5). This finding showed the difference between theawareness of the provisions and the practice. As previous studies on common resource
management in Vietnam showed that for resources that are not owned or are owned but
the owners are incompetent and lack rights, the rights and responsibilities differ between
practices and the law or regulations [30,31].

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3.3.2. Changing Stakeholder Roles in Conflict Management Related to the Use of theSand Forest
Previously, to resolve any conflict in the use of sand forest, the village council andclan heads would play the main role in reaching resolution. Gradually, there has been ashift in the role of the mediator and conflict resolver from the village council and clan head(traditional role) to the village head and CPC (government role). Even in conflict between
villages, the village heads are the representatives that negotiate and resolve the conflict. If
the conflict cannot be resolved, they will ask for the CPC to intervene. The result of thehousehold survey also mentioned that this role had shifted, in which the percentage of local
people confirming the important role of the village head and CPC instead of traditional
actors during conflict management was 55.1% and 55.6%, respectively.
The shifting of stakeholder roles in sand forest management can be seen as a challenge
for sustainable community forest management as the traditional role of local organizations
has disappeared and the local government now resolves conflict or problems in common
resource management. However, this can result in local authorities being overloaded when
they take charge of all activities, including forest management. Furthermore, there aremany internal problems within the community that can arise at any time, during which thetraditional role of the village council and clan heads can be reinstated.
3.3.3. The Lack of Recognition of the Community’s Legal Rights to Forests
Sand forests have been considered as common forests and local people have applied
the village convention to manage the forests. So far, the entire sand forest area has not been
officially allocated to the communities for management in the Phong Dien district. Thisis because the natural characteristics of the sand forests do not meet the criteria for forest
formation outlined in Circular No. 34/2009/TT-BNNPTNT of The Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Development [32]. Specifically, although the criteria regarding the canopy coverand adjacent area are satisfied, the average height of the treetops has not reached 5 m,
and consequently, the sand forests have not been recognized as natural forests on sandy
soils [32]. However, the Vietnamese government recently issued Decree No. 156/2018/NDCP, dated 16 November 2018, which details several articles of the Law on Forestry [33] andreplaces the Circular 34, in which the criteria for natural forests on a rocky mountain, sandy
land, saline water wetland, and forest types in other special ecosystems were adjusted
to allow an average forest tree height of at least 1.0 m. This is an opportunity for local
communities to be allocated sand forests.
Some scholars have defined this kind of sand forest, and fisheries, groundwater basins,and irrigation systems, as common resources [34–37]. Two points of view on common-poolresources exist while the context of common resources is increasingly exhausted. Hardin’s
theory of “tragedy of the commons” stated that the inevitable destruction of common
resources is due to the overuse of resources with free access [11] as he sees common-poolresources as having open access, and that they have no ownership or regulation. In otherscenarios, many scholars pointed out that common pool resource management with community conventions is considered the basis for a successful community forest management
model [38]. Based on both points of view, the lack of legal recognition of forest ownershiphas reduced the effectiveness of the community in managing forests, resolving conflicts,
and overshadowing the traditional role of local organizations. Meanwhile, these traditionalroles still have significant value in rural construction and development in Vietnam andshould be integrated into new rural construction [39] and resource management [12,13].
3.4. Policy Implications for Sand Forest Management
Community forest management in Vietnam has a long tradition. The community
jointly managed the common resources with the conventions established by themselves.
This form not only existed in mountainous areas [40] but also in the coastal communities
along the north central coast [16,41]. Until the beginning of the 21st century, land and forest
allocation has become major policy of the Vietnam government. However, natural forest

Forests 2022, 13, 561

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allocation to the community for management has only been officially recognized since2004 after the government issued the amended Land Law 2003 [42] and the Law on Forest
Protection and Development 2004 [12]. After a period of the implementation of forest
allocation to the community for management, stakeholders and forestry policymakers
have agreed that legal recognition of the community in forest allocation along with rights
strengthened the community’s right to preventing outsiders from affecting the community’s
forest because tenure insecurity has negative consequences. This may create a de facto
open-access situation [43].
Previous studies have indicated that community-managed forests have a rate of
deforestation that is lower than forests managed by other actors [44]. Specifically, research
conducted in 14 countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia found that the legal rights
regarding forest tenure provided to indigenous and local communities will help themto have greater capability in controlling deforestation than if the forests belong to thestate [21,45,46]. The assignment of forests to the community has led to better management,
preventing and deterring acts of illegal deforestation for farming and exploitation [47].
Coastal forests, mangroves, or inland sand forests are considered shields that protect
local communities from extreme weather. This was confirmed not only by local people
in the two studied communes but also in other communes in the coastal area of central
Vietnam [41,48]. Regarding biodiversity conservation, numerous studies have shown thatin many places, forests with high biodiversity have disappeared or are being degraded,especially in impoverished populations [16]. The maintenance of the sand forests at the
study sites is not only meaningful for environmental protection but also in maintaining
and developing the biodiversity of the population living in sand forests in the area.
Moreover, when Vietnam applies the mechanism of payment for forest environment
services (PFES) on a large scale, the land use right certificate can help the community tobenefit from PFES and also receive the proceeds from the mechanism of Reducing Emissions
from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) in the future [49]. Therefore, basedon the adjusted criteria for natural forests on sandy land [33], it is necessary to promote theallocation of sand forests to local communities so that they have the legal rights to actively
manage and protect their forests and to obtain these potential benefits in the future.
Some research has found that for common resources, communities can effectively
and sustainably manage resources themselves with their institutions. Although the convention is old and has been adapted to the new era, the resource users are traditionallythe ones with the most complete knowledge of and experience managing their resources
efficiently [4,50,51]. They have developed their regulations or rules to manage their natural
resources [52]. From the same view, the results of the FGDs showed that the majority of thepeople who participated in the discussion about the community convention understood
the provision of the community forest management regulations well. This is also a positive
point found in this study as previous studies on community forest management in Vietnam have shown that local people were mostly involved in the implementation of forest
management regulations but did not attend the regulation development process [53]. Thismeans that in many cases, forests were allocated to local communities for management, but
the regulations for managing allocated forests were created by FPU officials, with vry low
levels of participation of local people and the communities, which meants the regulations
did not work [53].
In the current context, along with the government’s reform efforts at the macro level,
grassroots governance reform has played a very important role in poverty alleviation andnatural resource management. In addition to allocating forests to communities to increase
community rights regarding effective forest management, Ostrom (1990), McKean (2020),
and Agrawal and Ostrom (2008) emphasized that it is necessary to create a network of andconnections between stakeholders or stakeholders need to have a common opinion about
the values of the allocated forests to create unity [51]. Some studies on the management ofcommon resources in this inland sand forest area found that collective action has helped

Forests 2022, 13, 561

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local people in negotiating with stakeholders to obtain compensation for encroachment on
the dunes from silicate companies and asserted the voices of local people [41,54].
Judicially, the FPU is responsible for checking and inspecting the implementationof forest protection and management legislation; CPC is responsible for organizing themanagement and protection of forest areas that have not yet been allocated [12,13]. In
legality, external stakeholders perform their functions properly. However, local people
perceive that these agencies still have power and a decisive role in all activities related
to sand forest management even though they are not directly involved in sand forest
management activities. With this perception, villagers rate the role of CPC relatively highwhile the role of FPU is underestimated. In addition, the roles of the village council andthe clan heads are also gradually overlooked. On the other hand, all responsibilities areplaced on the shoulders of the village head and the forest protection team. Therefore, it isnecessary to enhance the role of the village council and the clan heads in implementing thevillage convention in sand forest management as the village council has played a role in
the administration of village conventions for many generations, and in mediating conflicts
between clans and households in the village when there was a dispute related to the use of
the sand forest. Moreover, the operation of forest protection teams is quite simple, especiallyas it does not cost a lot of money, and the apparatus is not cumbersome to implement. All
villages in this study site agree with the method in which the whole community manages
the sand forest, and pays forest protection teams to patrol the forest. This is considereda collective action of local people in sand forest management. Simultaneously with thismanagement method, local people are willing to pay for forest management activities.
From the above findings, the legal recognition of forest ownership is very important. This is because without ownership, while the convention is only valid within thecommunity, people outside the community often do not comply with the convention. If
the district government allocates sand forests to the communities, the village convention
for forest management will be institutionalized and legally valid for all stakeholders, so
the management of sand forests will be more effective. In addition, with ownership, thecommunities will have more rights to make decisions and will be proactive at consulting
stakeholders and implementing sand forest development activities when external support
is received.
4. Conclusions
The sand forest is a typical forest ecosystem of inland sandy areas and plays an important role in the lives of people in north central coast Vietnam, from providing materials,
such as timber, firewood, and medicinal plants, for local uses to protecting the living
environment, including houses, gardens, and paddies, from the effects of harsh climates.
In this study, we focused on exploring the determinants and challenges of community sandforest management in coastal north central Vietnam. Based on the above, we assessed
policy implications for sustainable sand forest management.
The main finding of the present study demonstrated that changes in the sand forest
roles have occurred, especially the shifting of the sand forest roles from the provision of
economic values to the protection of environmental and spiritual values. On the other hand,
this study also indicated that there have been many changes in the role of stakeholders insand forest management, in which the roles of district authorities, CPC, FPU, and village
heads have increased while the roles of traditional organizations have gradually been
neglected. Consequently, the community’s resources have not been fully mobilized forsand forest management activities. In addition, local people have faced several challenges,
such as conflict between villages without sand forest and villages with sand forest (study
sites) that belong to the same commune, and the changes in the stakeholder roles inresolving conflict regarding the use of the sand forest. Moreover, the lack of recognition of
the community’s legal rights to such forests has led to a decrease in the effectiveness of sandforest management, especially in resolving conflict over the use of sand forest resources.
Based on the findings of this study and the recently adjusted criteria for natural forests

Forests 2022, 13, 561

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on sandy land [49], it is suggested that promotion of the allocation of sand forests to local
communities is necessary to provide legal rights to effectively manage existing sand forestsand obtain potential benefits in the future.
Author Contributions: All authors contributed extensively to the work. H.H.T., N.V.M. and N.T.H.M.
performed the processing and wrote the manuscript. H.H.T., N.V.M., N.T.H.M. and T.T.T.H. conducted
the field survey. S.I. reviewed the manuscript, and provided comments and suggestions to improvethe manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was financially supported by Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training Grant
Numbers B2019-DHH-07.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to extend our sincere thanks to all the interviewees in Phong
Dien district, Thua Thien Hue province.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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