casuality and emptiness

The Wisdom of Nagarjuna
Dr Peter Della Santina

BO

S

B

e
DHANET'UD

O K LIB R A RYE-mail: bdea@buddhanet.net
Web site: www.buddhanet.net

Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc.

causality and emptiness

The Wisdom of Nagarjuna
Peter Della Santina

causality and emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna
Copyright © 2002, Peter Della Santina

Buddhist
Research
Societysingapore

Published by the Buddhist Research Society,No. 2 & 4, Lorong 24A Geylang
Singapore 398526
Year 2002
ISBN 981-04-5657-3 (pbk)
Printed in Singapore by
C.W. Printing
For free distribution

causality and emptiness

The Wisdom of Nagarjuna
Peter Della Santina

causality and emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna
Copyright © 2002, Peter Della Santina

Buddhist
Research
Societysingapore

Published by the Buddhist Research Society,No. 2 & 4, Lorong 24A Geylang
Singapore 398526
Year 2002
ISBN 981-04-5657-3 (pbk)
Printed in Singapore by
C.W. Printing
For free distribution

I dedicate this book to the late Khenpo
Migmar Tsering, principal of the Sakya
Institute of Higher Buddhist Studies, Rajpur,
Dehra Dun, India.
His wisdom, compassion and genuine good
humour are greatly missed by his students
and friends.

Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Author's Preface

Part Four : Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
viiPart One: The Good Hearted Letter
Section One: An Introduction to Nagarjuna's
The Good Hearted Letter
Section Two: The Good Hearted Letter with
Explanatory Notes

8

49
60
62

Part Three : Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Section One: An Introduction to Nagarjuna's
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Section Two: Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Section Three: An Explanation of Reasoning:
The Sixty Stanzas Based on
Candrak$rti's Commentary

137
147
157

3

Part Two: The Heart of Interdependent
Origination
Section One: An Introduction to Nagarjuna's Heartof Interdependent Origination
Section Two: The Stanzas of The Heart ofInterdependent Origination
Section Three: Nagarjuna's Commentary to The
Heart of Interdependent Origination

Section One: An Introduction to Nagarjuna's
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
Section Two: Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
Section Three: Nagarjuna's Commentary to
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

69
76
84

Notes

183

Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Author's Preface

Part Four : Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
viiPart One: The Good Hearted Letter
Section One: An Introduction to Nagarjuna's
The Good Hearted Letter
Section Two: The Good Hearted Letter with
Explanatory Notes

8

49
60
62

Part Three : Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Section One: An Introduction to Nagarjuna's
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Section Two: Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Section Three: An Explanation of Reasoning:
The Sixty Stanzas Based on
Candrak$rti's Commentary

137
147
157

3

Part Two: The Heart of Interdependent
Origination
Section One: An Introduction to Nagarjuna's Heartof Interdependent Origination
Section Two: The Stanzas of The Heart ofInterdependent Origination
Section Three: Nagarjuna's Commentary to The
Heart of Interdependent Origination

Section One: An Introduction to Nagarjuna's
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
Section Two: Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
Section Three: Nagarjuna's Commentary to
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

69
76
84

Notes

183

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Author's Preface
GenesisIn the early seventies when I first went to India to study
Buddhism, I soon came into contact with H.H. Sakya Trizin theforty first hierarch of the Sakya Order of Tibetan Buddhism and the
Sakya community of scholars and monks which surrounded Him at
Dehra Dun and Mussoorie. It was H.H. who first introduced Jay
Goldburg and myself to N@g@rjuna's The Good Hearted Letter.1 That
happy event eventually led to a Translation of the letter which has
been much appreciated over the years by students of Buddhism.
Not long afterwards, I began to work on translations ofsome of N@g@rjuna's shorter texts
which were then still
untranslated. The first was very short indeed, N@g@rjuna's The
Heart of Interdependent Origination.2 Despite of its brevity
however, it proved to have more than enough in it to keep a young
scholar occupied with it for sometime. It still seems to me to be ofindispensible for understanding the Buddhist conception ofInterdependent Origination.
The next work to attract my interest was N@g@rjuna's
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas.3 It was of a totally different orderfrom The Heart of Interdependent Origination. In the first place, it
was considerably longer than the former. In addition, the subject
matter was more difficult since it dealt with the key applications of
the Philosophy of Emptiness. The translation of this text,
accomplished with the help of Tibetan scholars of the Gelukpa andSakya traditions, took place over a period of several years.
During the course of the translation of Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas, I became increasingly interested in studying
1Suh=llekha

another of N@g@rjuna's shorter texts, Reasoning: the Sixty Stanzas.4
Finally, in 1985 when I was in Singapore working for the Ministry of
Education, the opportunity to work on N@g@rjuna's Reasoning: The
Sixty stanzas came my way. I was able to make a translation of thetext with the Help of a Sakya scholar who was then resident at the
Sakya center there. Later I was also able to consult Candrak$rti's
commentary to the work. In the course of time, I was able toconstruct an English rendering of the major themes of thecommentary.
The translation of the texts that appear in this booktherefore were completed over a period of twenty years from 1971 to
1991. Two of the text included in this book have in fact appeared
before in print. The first to do so was The Heart of Interdependent
Origination. It was published in 1974 in the Journal of Buddhist
Studies of the University of Delhi. The next to appear was thetranslation of N@g@rjuna's The Good Hearted Letter in 1978. The
remaining two translations have never been published. Of the twothat have appeared earlier, the translation of The Heart ofInterdependent Origination has remained largely unchanged
although the introduction has been considerably expanded. In thecase of N@g@rjuna's The Good Hearted Letter the translation has
been revised at many places and the commentary completely
rewritten.
N@g@rjuna declares that the Two Truths, the conventional
and the ultimate, represent the profound Truth of Buddhism. The
conventional truth is constituted by the practice of the path in
conformity with the laws of cause and effect. The ultimate truth isnone other than Emptiness. The four texts included in this booktherefore represent the whole gamut of N@g@rjuna's Wisdom fromthe first practical steps to be taken on the path to Enlightenment to
the final ending of all stress and bondage. N@g@rjuna's The Good
Hearted letter has been used for centuries in India, Tibet andMongolia as a basic manual of instruction for following the Buddhist
way of life. In The Heart of Interdependent Origination N@g@rjuna

2Prat$tyasamutp@dah=dayak@rik@
3/#nyat@saptati

4Yukti&a&tik@

vii

viii

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Author's Preface
GenesisIn the early seventies when I first went to India to study
Buddhism, I soon came into contact with H.H. Sakya Trizin theforty first hierarch of the Sakya Order of Tibetan Buddhism and the
Sakya community of scholars and monks which surrounded Him at
Dehra Dun and Mussoorie. It was H.H. who first introduced Jay
Goldburg and myself to N@g@rjuna's The Good Hearted Letter.1 That
happy event eventually led to a Translation of the letter which has
been much appreciated over the years by students of Buddhism.
Not long afterwards, I began to work on translations ofsome of N@g@rjuna's shorter texts
which were then still
untranslated. The first was very short indeed, N@g@rjuna's The
Heart of Interdependent Origination.2 Despite of its brevity
however, it proved to have more than enough in it to keep a young
scholar occupied with it for sometime. It still seems to me to be ofindispensible for understanding the Buddhist conception ofInterdependent Origination.
The next work to attract my interest was N@g@rjuna's
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas.3 It was of a totally different orderfrom The Heart of Interdependent Origination. In the first place, it
was considerably longer than the former. In addition, the subject
matter was more difficult since it dealt with the key applications of
the Philosophy of Emptiness. The translation of this text,
accomplished with the help of Tibetan scholars of the Gelukpa andSakya traditions, took place over a period of several years.
During the course of the translation of Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas, I became increasingly interested in studying
1Suh=llekha

another of N@g@rjuna's shorter texts, Reasoning: the Sixty Stanzas.4
Finally, in 1985 when I was in Singapore working for the Ministry of
Education, the opportunity to work on N@g@rjuna's Reasoning: The
Sixty stanzas came my way. I was able to make a translation of thetext with the Help of a Sakya scholar who was then resident at the
Sakya center there. Later I was also able to consult Candrak$rti's
commentary to the work. In the course of time, I was able toconstruct an English rendering of the major themes of thecommentary.
The translation of the texts that appear in this booktherefore were completed over a period of twenty years from 1971 to
1991. Two of the text included in this book have in fact appeared
before in print. The first to do so was The Heart of Interdependent
Origination. It was published in 1974 in the Journal of Buddhist
Studies of the University of Delhi. The next to appear was thetranslation of N@g@rjuna's The Good Hearted Letter in 1978. The
remaining two translations have never been published. Of the twothat have appeared earlier, the translation of The Heart ofInterdependent Origination has remained largely unchanged
although the introduction has been considerably expanded. In thecase of N@g@rjuna's The Good Hearted Letter the translation has
been revised at many places and the commentary completely
rewritten.
N@g@rjuna declares that the Two Truths, the conventional
and the ultimate, represent the profound Truth of Buddhism. The
conventional truth is constituted by the practice of the path in
conformity with the laws of cause and effect. The ultimate truth isnone other than Emptiness. The four texts included in this booktherefore represent the whole gamut of N@g@rjuna's Wisdom fromthe first practical steps to be taken on the path to Enlightenment to
the final ending of all stress and bondage. N@g@rjuna's The Good
Hearted letter has been used for centuries in India, Tibet andMongolia as a basic manual of instruction for following the Buddhist
way of life. In The Heart of Interdependent Origination N@g@rjuna

2Prat$tyasamutp@dah=dayak@rik@
3/#nyat@saptati

4Yukti&a&tik@

vii

viii

Author's Preface

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

explains the key Buddhist concepts of interdependent origination,
not-self and rebirth, while in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas andEmptiness: The Seventy Stanzas he expounds the profound truth of
Emptiness.

translations of the same texts. This has indeed been shown to be thecase, for we have already several translations of N@g@rjuna's The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.5
In terms of the material covered by the translations, it has
also to be pointed out that while Prof. Lidtner has translated The

Heart of Interdependent Origination, Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Justification
In the past twenty five years many books have appeared on
the subject of N@g@rjuna's Philosophy. New English translations ofmany of his texts have also appeared. Indeed, it could be said thatspecially in the past few years N@g@rjuna has become a favorite
topic for scholars from many fields within and without Buddhist
Studies. Under these circumstances, it would seem correct to ask
what is the justification for the publication of another book oftranslations of N@g@rjuna's works. In the case of this particular
book, the question obviously requires an answer in the light of thefact that translations of the texts included here have appeared
elsewhere, most evidently in Prof. C. Lidtner's Nagarjuniana.
Let me answer the question beginning first with the actual
chronology of the translations. All of the translations which appear
in this book were completed before the publication of Prof. Lidtner'sbook. When I learned of the publication of Nagarjuniana, I naturally
procured a copy as soon as possible from its author and studied it
carefully. I must admit that in some instances I amended mytranslations in the light of Prof. Lidtner's work. In many otherinstances, I decided to retain my own original rendering. The
translations therefore although they are of the same texts treated by
Prof. Lidtner were made independently. If we recall that severaltranslations of the original Sanskrit texts were made by the
Tibetans centuries ago, and that even now various translations exist
in Tibetan in various editions of the Ten Gyur, it seems hardly
necessary to observe that in our present state of knowledge of thePhilosophy of N@g@rjuna, there is certainly room for severalix

and Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, no translations of thecommentaries appear. This is a significant omission, because there
exist auto-commentaries to the first and last of the above which
supply much valuable information necessary for a proper
understanding of the texts. In the case of Reasoning: The Sixty
Stanzas too, the present book supplies extensive explanatory notes
based on Candrak$rti's authoritative commentary, while othertranslations of the work do not. Consequently, I think it is fare toclaim that the material presented in this book is substantiallygreater than that found in other available translations.
Again there are clearly different approaches
to thetranslation and interpretation of Buddhist texts. Prof. Lidtner is aclassical scholar in the European mold. However, there are otherapproaches which are equally appropriate to the study of
N@g@rjuna's thought. One such approach is clearly that provided by
the Indo-Tibetan tradition of Buddhist scholarship. Indeed, it might
be suggested that such an indigenous tradition can provide a morereliable guide to N@g@rjuna's thought, precisely because it has been
most closely concerned with the study and interpretation of theteaching of the Master.
Finally, in presenting the material, I have tried to limit theuse of Sanskrit technical terms as far as possible. I do not expect myreader to be proficient in Sanskrit in order to understand thetranslations. I have tried to make the translations as readable aspossible, and I have also avoided the use of extensive foot notes. In
the final analysis, the wish to convey N@g@rjuna's message to myreader as clearly and simply as possible has taken precedence overother considerations. For the forgoing reasons, I believe this book
5M#lamadhyamakak@rik@xAuthor's Preface

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

explains the key Buddhist concepts of interdependent origination,
not-self and rebirth, while in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas andEmptiness: The Seventy Stanzas he expounds the profound truth of
Emptiness.

translations of the same texts. This has indeed been shown to be thecase, for we have already several translations of N@g@rjuna's The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.5
In terms of the material covered by the translations, it has
also to be pointed out that while Prof. Lidtner has translated The

Heart of Interdependent Origination, Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Justification
In the past twenty five years many books have appeared on
the subject of N@g@rjuna's Philosophy. New English translations ofmany of his texts have also appeared. Indeed, it could be said thatspecially in the past few years N@g@rjuna has become a favorite
topic for scholars from many fields within and without Buddhist
Studies. Under these circumstances, it would seem correct to ask
what is the justification for the publication of another book oftranslations of N@g@rjuna's works. In the case of this particular
book, the question obviously requires an answer in the light of thefact that translations of the texts included here have appeared
elsewhere, most evidently in Prof. C. Lidtner's Nagarjuniana.
Let me answer the question beginning first with the actual
chronology of the translations. All of the translations which appear
in this book were completed before the publication of Prof. Lidtner'sbook. When I learned of the publication of Nagarjuniana, I naturally
procured a copy as soon as possible from its author and studied it
carefully. I must admit that in some instances I amended mytranslations in the light of Prof. Lidtner's work. In many otherinstances, I decided to retain my own original rendering. The
translations therefore although they are of the same texts treated by
Prof. Lidtner were made independently. If we recall that severaltranslations of the original Sanskrit texts were made by the
Tibetans centuries ago, and that even now various translations exist
in Tibetan in various editions of the Ten Gyur, it seems hardly
necessary to observe that in our present state of knowledge of thePhilosophy of N@g@rjuna, there is certainly room for severalix

and Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, no translations of thecommentaries appear. This is a significant omission, because there
exist auto-commentaries to the first and last of the above which
supply much valuable information necessary for a proper
understanding of the texts. In the case of Reasoning: The Sixty
Stanzas too, the present book supplies extensive explanatory notes
based on Candrak$rti's authoritative commentary, while othertranslations of the work do not. Consequently, I think it is fare toclaim that the material presented in this book is substantiallygreater than that found in other available translations.
Again there are clearly different approaches
to thetranslation and interpretation of Buddhist texts. Prof. Lidtner is aclassical scholar in the European mold. However, there are otherapproaches which are equally appropriate to the study of
N@g@rjuna's thought. One such approach is clearly that provided by
the Indo-Tibetan tradition of Buddhist scholarship. Indeed, it might
be suggested that such an indigenous tradition can provide a morereliable guide to N@g@rjuna's thought, precisely because it has been
most closely concerned with the study and interpretation of theteaching of the Master.
Finally, in presenting the material, I have tried to limit theuse of Sanskrit technical terms as far as possible. I do not expect myreader to be proficient in Sanskrit in order to understand thetranslations. I have tried to make the translations as readable aspossible, and I have also avoided the use of extensive foot notes. In
the final analysis, the wish to convey N@g@rjuna's message to myreader as clearly and simply as possible has taken precedence overother considerations. For the forgoing reasons, I believe this book
5M#lamadhyamakak@rik@xAuthor's Preface

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

offers a valuable additional resource to the student of N@g@rjuna's
thought.

appreciation to my wife, Krishna Ghosh, who has worked tirelessly
along side me in the preparation of this book and to my son
Siddhartha who has contributed the cover design and who formatted
the book for publication. Without the contributions of all of theabove, this book would not have been possible.

Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to express my very special
thanks to His Holiness Sakya Trizin for His wise and compassionate
support throughout the preparation of these translations. In
addition, many people have taken part in the realization of thetranslations included here. Above all, I have to extend my gratitude
to Lobsang Jamspal who not only translated with me The Heart ofInterdependent Origination and Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
and their commentaries, but who also contributed his own
extemporized translation of Candrak$rti's commentary to Reasoning:
The Sixty stanzas with the help of which I prepared my explanatory
notes to the text. I must also express my indebtedness to Ven.
Khenpo Appy the first Prinsipal of the Sakya Institute of Higher
Buddhist Studies in Rajpur, Dehra Dun, India for lending me his
help and that of some of his ablest students in the course of thereview and revision of the translations of Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas and its commentary. Among the latter, I particularly want
to recognize the contribution of Ven. Nyima Zangpo whose untimely
death surely deprived the Tibetan community and the world at largeof a gifted young scholar. I would also like to thank Ven. Jamyang
Lekshe, a graduate of the Sakya Institute and presently Abbot of
the Sakya Center, Rajpur, who translated with me Reasoning: The
Sixty Stanzas.
Again, I would like to express my gratitude to my friends fromthe Sakya centers in Minnesota, in the United States and in
Canberra and Sydney in Australia for their generous finincial
contributions to the project. I am also specially grateful to Ven. B.
Dhammaratana Thera and the Buddhist Research Society ofSingapore for undertaking the publication of this book. Finally, Last
but certainly not least, I would like to express my immensexiPeter Della Santina
Singapore, January 2002

xii

Author's Preface

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

offers a valuable additional resource to the student of N@g@rjuna's
thought.

appreciation to my wife, Krishna Ghosh, who has worked tirelessly
along side me in the preparation of this book and to my son
Siddhartha who has contributed the cover design and who formatted
the book for publication. Without the contributions of all of theabove, this book would not have been possible.

Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to express my very special
thanks to His Holiness Sakya Trizin for His wise and compassionate
support throughout the preparation of these translations. In
addition, many people have taken part in the realization of thetranslations included here. Above all, I have to extend my gratitude
to Lobsang Jamspal who not only translated with me The Heart ofInterdependent Origination and Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
and their commentaries, but who also contributed his own
extemporized translation of Candrak$rti's commentary to Reasoning:
The Sixty stanzas with the help of which I prepared my explanatory
notes to the text. I must also express my indebtedness to Ven.
Khenpo Appy the first Prinsipal of the Sakya Institute of Higher
Buddhist Studies in Rajpur, Dehra Dun, India for lending me his
help and that of some of his ablest students in the course of thereview and revision of the translations of Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas and its commentary. Among the latter, I particularly want
to recognize the contribution of Ven. Nyima Zangpo whose untimely
death surely deprived the Tibetan community and the world at largeof a gifted young scholar. I would also like to thank Ven. Jamyang
Lekshe, a graduate of the Sakya Institute and presently Abbot of
the Sakya Center, Rajpur, who translated with me Reasoning: The
Sixty Stanzas.
Again, I would like to express my gratitude to my friends fromthe Sakya centers in Minnesota, in the United States and in
Canberra and Sydney in Australia for their generous finincial
contributions to the project. I am also specially grateful to Ven. B.
Dhammaratana Thera and the Buddhist Research Society ofSingapore for undertaking the publication of this book. Finally, Last
but certainly not least, I would like to express my immensexiPeter Della Santina
Singapore, January 2002xii

I dedicate this book to the late Khenpo
Migmar Tsering, principal of the Sakya
Institute of Higher Buddhist Studies, Rajpur,
Dehra Dun, India.
His wisdom, compassion and genuine good
humour are greatly missed by his students
and friends.

Part One

The Good Hearted Letter

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Section One
An Introduction to Nagarjuna's
The Good Hearted Letter[c@rya N@g@rjuna holds an almost unequaled place among
the ranks of those Buddhist saints who expounded the teaching of
the Buddha /@kyamuni for the benefit of the world. [c@rya
N@g@rjuna revolutionized the interpretation of the doctrine of the
Enlightened One which was current at his time and lent it a vitalityand dynamism which has continued to sustain it even to our day
among the votaries of the Mah@y@na. The revolution which [c@rya
N@g@rjuna accomplished within the fold of Buddhism was not aradical departure from the original doctrine of the Buddha/@kyamuni. On the contrary, the adherents of the Madhyamaka
school are undoubtedly justified in asserting that theirinterpretation represents the true import of the doctrine of the
Buddha and the essence of Buddhism.
Given the majesty of [c@rya N@g@rjuna's name and theimportance of the role which he played in the development of
Buddhist thought, it is not surprising that the story of his life andachievements should partake of the fabulous and the legendary. In
recounting the life of the [c@rya, his biographers have invariably
included elements which are difficult to establish historically. Whilean English translation of one of the many biographies of [c@rya
N@g@rjuna which are extant in the Tibetan language is certainly
desirable, it is a task of no small magnitude. Hence for the purposeof introduction to this present work we have chosen to confine
ourselves to a brief account of the life of the [c@rya based upon facts
which can be established with relative certainty, drawing upon the3accounts of the traditional biographers only in so far as they do notcontradict these facts.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna lived sometime during the last quarter ofthe first century C.E. and the first quarter of the second century
C.E. This is evident from his acknowledged friendship with a king of
the /atav@hana line of Andhra. The king, Gautam$putra /@takar%i,son of queen Bala /r$, was the only one of his line to embrace
Buddhism, and it was for him that [c@rya N@g@rjuna wrote The
Good Hearted Letter (Suh=llekha) and The Jewel Garland(Ratn@val$). That the king in question reigned at about the time
indicated is certain from the evidence of present archaeologicaldiscoveries.1 The traditional biographers agree that the [c@rya wasborn in a brahmin family of South India. The Tibetan accounts
state that at his birth, astrologers prophesied that the child would
not live beyond the age of seven. Unable to bear the sight of his
premature death, the accounts tell us, his parents sent the boy to a
Buddhist monastery, where by reciting the Aparamit@yudh@ra%i he succeeded in escaping his fate. The account given by Kum@raj$va
of [c@rya N@g@rjuna's early life differ substantially from that of the
Tibetan biographers. Kum@raj$va writes that in his youth [c@rya
N@g@rjuna was overcome with lust and through the art ofinvisibility seduced women in the royal palace. Once, however, henarrowly escaped death at the hands of the guards, an experience
which led him to dwell upon the Buddha's teaching that desire is
the foremost cause of suffering. As a result, according toKum@raj$va, the [c@rya entered the Buddhist Order. Thereafter,
the Tibetan accounts state, N@g@rjuna became a student of
R@hulabhadra2 who was then the abbot of the great university atN@land@.
Virtually all the traditional biographers agree that [c@rya
N@g@rjuna procured some Praj~@p@ramit@ S#tras from the world of
the N@gas. Finally, [c@rya N@g@rjuna seems to have spent thelatter part of his life at the monastery built for him by his friend andpatron, King Gautam$putra at /r$ Parvata. Although the accounts
given of the manner of the [c@rya's death differ with regard to
4

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Section One
An Introduction to Nagarjuna's
The Good Hearted Letter[c@rya N@g@rjuna holds an almost unequaled place among
the ranks of those Buddhist saints who expounded the teaching of
the Buddha /@kyamuni for the benefit of the world. [c@rya
N@g@rjuna revolutionized the interpretation of the doctrine of the
Enlightened One which was current at his time and lent it a vitalityand dynamism which has continued to sustain it even to our day
among the votaries of the Mah@y@na. The revolution which [c@rya
N@g@rjuna accomplished within the fold of Buddhism was not aradical departure from the original doctrine of the Buddha/@kyamuni. On the contrary, the adherents of the Madhyamaka
school are undoubtedly justified in asserting that theirinterpretation represents the true import of the doctrine of the
Buddha and the essence of Buddhism.
Given the majesty of [c@rya N@g@rjuna's name and theimportance of the role which he played in the development of
Buddhist thought, it is not surprising that the story of his life andachievements should partake of the fabulous and the legendary. In
recounting the life of the [c@rya, his biographers have invariably
included elements which are difficult to establish historically. Whilean English translation of one of the many biographies of [c@rya
N@g@rjuna which are extant in the Tibetan language is certainly
desirable, it is a task of no small magnitude. Hence for the purposeof introduction to this present work we have chosen to confine
ourselves to a brief account of the life of the [c@rya based upon facts
which can be established with relative certainty, drawing upon the3accounts of the traditional biographers only in so far as they do notcontradict these facts.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna lived sometime during the last quarter ofthe first century C.E. and the first quarter of the second century
C.E. This is evident from his acknowledged friendship with a king of
the /atav@hana line of Andhra. The king, Gautam$putra /@takar%i,son of queen Bala /r$, was the only one of his line to embrace
Buddhism, and it was for him that [c@rya N@g@rjuna wrote The
Good Hearted Letter (Suh=llekha) and The Jewel Garland(Ratn@val$). That the king in question reigned at about the time
indicated is certain from the evidence of present archaeologicaldiscoveries.1 The traditional biographers agree that the [c@rya wasborn in a brahmin family of South India. The Tibetan accounts
state that at his birth, astrologers prophesied that the child would
not live beyond the age of seven. Unable to bear the sight of his
premature death, the accounts tell us, his parents sent the boy to a
Buddhist monastery, where by reciting the Aparamit@yudh@ra%i he succeeded in escaping his fate. The account given by Kum@raj$va
of [c@rya N@g@rjuna's early life differ substantially from that of the
Tibetan biographers. Kum@raj$va writes that in his youth [c@rya
N@g@rjuna was overcome with lust and through the art ofinvisibility seduced women in the royal palace. Once, however, henarrowly escaped death at the hands of the guards, an experience
which led him to dwell upon the Buddha's teaching that desire is
the foremost cause of suffering. As a result, according toKum@raj$va, the [c@rya entered the Buddhist Order. Thereafter,
the Tibetan accounts state, N@g@rjuna became a student of
R@hulabhadra2 who was then the abbot of the great university atN@land@.
Virtually all the traditional biographers agree that [c@rya
N@g@rjuna procured some Praj~@p@ramit@ S#tras from the world of
the N@gas. Finally, [c@rya N@g@rjuna seems to have spent thelatter part of his life at the monastery built for him by his friend andpatron, King Gautam$putra at /r$ Parvata. Although the accounts
given of the manner of the [c@rya's death differ with regard to
4

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

detail, they agree in that N@g@rjuna consented to his own death at
the hands of the son of King Gautam$putra.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna was an accomplished master of Buddhist
doctrine. He wrote voluminously on almost every aspect of Buddhist
philosophy and religion. Although [c@rya N@g@rjuna has rightly
won widespread acclaim as the foremost exponent of the 'middle
way', or Madhyamapratipad, and as a master of dialectic, his
writings also include works on Vinaya, on Tantra, on the career ofthe Bodhisattva, and on the practice of the P@ramit@y@na. Amongthe latter are counted the S#trasamuccaya and others. [c@rya
N@g@rjuna also wrote works of a highly devotional character, suchas the Catu*stava.
The Goodhearted Letter of [c@rya N@g@rjuna is a concise andcomprehensive summery of Buddhist teaching. It can generally besaid to belong to a class of texts which later came to be called, inTibet, those of the "Graduated Path". The works of N@g@rjuna, mostespecially the S#trasamuccaya but also to a lesser degree The Good
Hearted Letter, were the forerunners of a multitude of texts which
can be classed under the name of the "Graduated Path". They
include such works as the /ik&@samuccaya of /@ntideva, The Jewel
Ornament of Liberation of Sgam-po-pa and The Clarification of the
Sage's Intent of Sakya Pandita. It is not surprising that the concisestyle and comprehensive content of a work like N@g@rjuna's The
Good Hearted Letter should have rendered it so popular as avehicle for conveying in brief the teaching of Buddhism. That The
Good Hearted Letter enjoyed such popularity even in India isevident from the account of the Chinese pilgrim I-Tsing who visited
India in the seventh century, for he writes, "In India, students learn
this letter in verse early in the course of instruction, but the mostdevout make it their special object of study throughout their lives."3Today, also The Good Hearted Letter enjoys widespread popularity
among Tibetans who use it with regularity as a basic manual forteaching Buddhism. Hence, its English translation cannot help but
be of use to those modern readers who wish to gain a basic grasp of
the practice of Buddhism. The comprehensive character of thework, though short, makes it highly suitable for use as an

introduction to the whole of Buddhism. Since it was written
principally for lay people, addressed as it was to the King withwhom N@g@rjuna shared a lifelong friendship, the teachings it
contains can be appreciated by a wide spectrum of readers withvarying interests. Those who desire a concise and comprehensive
manual of instruction in the theory and practice of Buddhism will
surely not be disappointed by it.
Though The Goodhearted Letter contains a few elements
which belong specifically to the Mah@y@na tradition, most of its
contents comprise a common foundation which is shared by all the
Buddhist schools. The letter begins with an invocation to cultivate
faith in that which is pre-eminent and exalted such as the Buddha,Dharma and Sa`gha. There follows a lengthy summery of ethicaland religious precepts which, if adhered to, result in rebirth in thefortunate realms of men and gods, as [c@rya N@g@rjuna writes"...Morality is said to be the foundation of all virtues, just as theearth is (the support of both) animate and inanimate things". The
injunctions and prohibitions set forth in the text are accompanied bypractices which are to be used to counteract non-virtuous
propensities. Of equal importance is the portion of the text designed
to remove erroneous views produced from ignorance, for morality
practiced in ignorance does not result in liberation. However,through the combination of morality and wisdom, liberation is won.
Death, impermanence and the opportune conditions form thesubject matter of the subsequent verses of the text. Since life istransient like a bubble of water caught by the wind, N@g@rjuna
encourages the reader to strive for liberation without delay. If thishuman birth is not properly used, then one will continue toexperience the sufferings of the six realms of Sa`s@ra which arethen described by the author. Such descriptions are commonly foundin texts of this kind. They are designed to produce a revulsion forexistence in the world and a desire for liberation. Since the highest
goal of freedom and enlightenment cannot be achieved unless anduntil attachment to the world is relinquished, the detailed
descriptions of the manifold sufferings experienced are necessary inorder to produce renunciation. It should be remembered that the56The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

detail, they agree in that N@g@rjuna consented to his own death at
the hands of the son of King Gautam$putra.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna was an accomplished master of Buddhist
doctrine. He wrote voluminously on almost every aspect of Buddhist
philosophy and religion. Although [c@rya N@g@rjuna has rightly
won widespread acclaim as the foremost exponent of the 'middle
way', or Madhyamapratipad, and as a master of dialectic, his
writings also include works on Vinaya, on Tantra, on the career ofthe Bodhisattva, and on the practice of the P@ramit@y@na. Amongthe latter are counted the S#trasamuccaya and others. [c@rya
N@g@rjuna also wrote works of a highly devotional character, suchas the Catu*stava.
The Goodhearted Letter of [c@rya N@g@rjuna is a concise andcomprehensive summery of Buddhist teaching. It can generally besaid to belong to a class of texts which later came to be called, inTibet, those of the "Graduated Path". The works of N@g@rjuna, mostespecially the S#trasamuccaya but also to a lesser degree The Good
Hearted Letter, were the forerunners of a multitude of texts which
can be classed under the name of the "Graduated Path". They
include such works as the /ik&@samuccaya of /@ntideva, The Jewel
Ornament of Liberation of Sgam-po-pa and The Clarification of the
Sage's Intent of Sakya Pandita. It is not surprising that the concisestyle and comprehensive content of a work like N@g@rjuna's The
Good Hearted Letter should have rendered it so popular as avehicle for conveying in brief the teaching of Buddhism. That The
Good Hearted Letter enjoyed such popularity even in India isevident from the account of the Chinese pilgrim I-Tsing who visited
India in the seventh century, for he writes, "In India, students learn
this letter in verse early in the course of instruction, but the mostdevout make it their special object of study throughout their lives."3Today, also The Good Hearted Letter enjoys widespread popularity
among Tibetans who use it with regularity as a basic manual forteaching Buddhism. Hence, its English translation cannot help but
be of use to those modern readers who wish to gain a basic grasp of
the practice of Buddhism. The comprehensive character of thework, though short, makes it highly suitable for use as an

introduction to the whole of Buddhism. Since it was written
principally for lay people, addressed as it was to the King withwhom N@g@rjuna shared a lifelong friendship, the teachings it
contains can be appreciated by a wide spectrum of readers withvarying interests. Those who desire a concise and comprehensive
manual of instruction in the theory and practice of Buddhism will
surely not be disappointed by it.
Though The Goodhearted Letter contains a few elements
which belong specifically to the Mah@y@na tradition, most of its
contents comprise a common foundation which is shared by all the
Buddhist schools. The letter begins with an invocation to cultivate
faith in that which is pre-eminent and exalted such as the Buddha,Dharma and Sa`gha. There follows a lengthy summery of ethicaland religious precepts which, if adhered to, result in rebirth in thefortunate realms of men and gods, as [c@rya N@g@rjuna writes"...Morality is said to be the foundation of all virtues, just as theearth is (the support of both) animate and inanimate things". The
injunctions and prohibitions set forth in the text are accompanied bypractices which are to be used to counteract non-virtuous
propensities. Of equal importance is the portion of the text designed
to remove erroneous views produced from ignorance, for morality
practiced in ignorance does not result in liberation. However,through the combination of morality and wisdom, liberation is won.
Death, impermanence and the opportune conditions form thesubject matter of the subsequent verses of the text. Since life istransient like a bubble of water caught by the wind, N@g@rjuna
encourages the reader to strive for liberation without delay. If thishuman birth is not properly used, then one will continue toexperience the sufferings of the six realms of Sa`s@ra which arethen described by the author. Such descriptions are commonly foundin texts of this kind. They are designed to produce a revulsion forexistence in the world and a desire for liberation. Since the highest
goal of freedom and enlightenment cannot be achieved unless anduntil attachment to the world is relinquished, the detailed
descriptions of the manifold sufferings experienced are necessary inorder to produce renunciation. It should be remembered that the56The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna'truth of suffering' is the first of the Four Noble Truths and the very
cornerstone of the Buddhist religion.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna's letter concludes with a description of thepath and the unequaled result to be gained through its practice.
Morality, concentration and the wisdom arising from theunderstanding of the precious doctrine of Interdependent
Origination comprise the path resulting in the exalted state of a
Bodhisattva or Buddha.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna's The Good Hearted Letter provides theaspirant who wishes to be acquainted with the essentials of the
Buddhist path to liberation with a comprehensive summary of theprinciples of the Buddhist religion. The foundation of correct moral
conduct and right understanding of the truth free from the
obscurations of ignorance results in a transcendent mode of being inwhich not only is freedom from bondage and ignorance achieved, butalso the capacity to nurture and mature all living beings that they
may also attain enlightenment.

Section Two
The Good Hearted Letterwith Explanatory Notes
I. O righteous and worthy one endowed with virtues, it is fitting you
hear these few Noble verses which I have composed so that you may
aspire to the merit which arises from the Sugata's1 words.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna begins his letter to the King by urging him,
to pay careful attention to the teaching contained in this message as
it concerns the holy Dharma. The Dharma if practiced properly willlead first to happiness and prosperity and then eventually toliberation. Therefore, it is well worth the attention of the King
notwithstanding his busy schedule.
II. For example, an image of the Sugata, if it be made of wood orwhatever it be like, is worshipped by wise men. Likewise though
this poem of mine lacks grace, do not despise it since it is based
upon a discussion of the holy Dharma.
Do not disregard these words even though they may not be
beautiful, because they contain a very important message. For, wise
men worship an image of the Buddha whether it be made of gold,
stone, wood or clay, whether it be beautiful or unattractive, orwhether it be valuable or not.
III. However much of the Great Sage's words you may have listened
to and may have even comprehended, still is not a white-painted(mansion) made whiter by the midnight moon?

78

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna'truth of suffering' is the first of the Four Noble Truths and the very
cornerstone of the Buddhist religion.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna's letter concludes with a description of thepath and the unequaled result to be gained through its practice.
Morality, concentration and the wisdom arising from theunderstanding of the precious doctrine of Interdependent
Origination comprise the path resulting in the exalted state of a
Bodhisattva or Buddha.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna's The Good Hearted Letter provides theaspirant who wishes to be acquainted with the essentials of the
Buddhist path to liberation with a comprehensive summary of theprinciples of the Buddhist religion. The foundation of correct moral
conduct and right understanding of the truth free from the
obscurations of ignorance results in a transcendent mode of being inwhich not only is freedom from bondage and ignorance achieved, butalso the capacity to nurture and mature all living beings that they
may also attain enlightenment.

Section Two
The Good Hearted Letterwith Explanatory Notes
I. O righteous and worthy one endowed with virtues, it is fitting you
hear these few Noble verses which I have composed so that you may
aspire to the merit which arises from the Sugata's1 words.
[c@rya N@g@rjuna begins his letter to the King by urging him,
to pay careful attention to the teaching contained in this message as
it concerns the holy Dharma. The Dharma if practiced properly willlead first to happiness and prosperity and then eventually toliberation. Therefore, it is well worth the attention of the King
notwithstanding his busy schedule.
II. For example, an image of the Sugata, if it be made of wood orwhatever it be like, is worshipped by wise men. Likewise though
this poem of mine lacks grace, do not despise it since it is based
upon a discussion of the holy Dharma.
Do not disregard these words even though they may not be
beautiful, because they contain a very important message. For, wise
men worship an image of the Buddha whether it be made of gold,
stone, wood or clay, whether it be beautiful or unattractive, orwhether it be valuable or not.
III. However much of the Great Sage's words you may have listened
to and may have even comprehended, still is not a white-painted(mansion) made whiter by the midnight moon?

78

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

This letter is worthy of study even by the person who isfamiliar with the teaching of the Buddha in order to clarify his
understanding still further. This is even true for one who, like theking, knows and practises the Buddha's teaching.

Just as the earth is the basis of everything in the world, so
morality is the foundation of all worldly and beyond worldly
achievements. Morality is also essential for the subsequentdevelopment of concentration and wisdom, therefore cultivate it
well.

IV. You should bring to mind the six objects of recollection: theEnlightened One, His Teaching, the Noble Assembly, giving,
morality, and gods; the heap of qualities of each of these were welltaught by the Conqueror.
Take refuge in the Triple Gem daily and remember the six
objects of recollection just as they were taught by the Buddha.
V. Always practise the path of the ten virtuous deeds (performed)
through body, voice and mind; refrain from alcohol, and also delightin a wholesome livelihood.
Avoid these ten non-virtuous actions: three of body- killing,stealing, sexual misconduct; four of voice- lying, slander, malicious
speech, idle talk; three of mind- covetousness, malevolence anderroneous views.
VI. Knowing that wealth is unstable and devoid of essence, rightly
bestow gifts upon monks, br/hma%as, the poor and friends; so forthe next life there is no more excellent a kinsman than giving.
Give to monks and holy men because of their qualities; toparents, teachers and friends because of their kindness; and tohungry and sick people because of their need.
VII. You should practise morality which is unimpaired, blameless,not mixed and unsullied - for morality is said to be the foundation of
all virtues, just as the earth is (the support of both) animate andinanimate things.

9

VIII. Increase the measureless Perfections of giving, morality,
patience, energy, meditation and wisdom, and thus become the Lordof Conquerors who has reached the further shore of the ocean ofexistence.
The six perfections (p@ramit@) are divided into two groups
called the accumulation of merit which includes: giving, morality
and patience and the accumulation of knowledge which includes:concentration and wisdom. Energy is included in both groups as it isneeded for both accumulations.
The Bodhisattva, through the perfections of giving, morality,
patience and energy dwells in happiness in the world. He has
accumulated merit and has access to the Terrestrial body
(Nirm@%ak@ya) and to the Celestial body (Sambhogak@ya) bymeans of which he fulfills the needs of living beings. Moreover, theBodhisattva has attained knowledge by means of the perfections ofenergy, concentration and wisdom and therefore dwells in freedom.
He has access to the Transcendental Body (Dharmak@ya) and isconsequently not bound to the world.
IX. The race of one who worships father and mother is in thecompany of that of Brahm/ and that of preceptors; throughrevering them one will win fame and later will attain the higher
realms.
Respect your parents, because they have been kind to you inthis life. Those who respect their parents are gentle and happy andwill develop many good qualities in this life and in the next.

10The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

This letter is worthy of study even by the person who isfamiliar with the teaching of the Buddha in order to clarify his
understanding still further. This is even true for one who, like theking, knows and practises the Buddha's teaching.

Just as the earth is the basis of everything in the world, so
morality is the foundation of all worldly and beyond worldly
achievements. Morality is also essential for the subsequentdevelopment of concentration and wisdom, therefore cultivate it
well.

IV. You should bring to mind the six objects of recollection: theEnlightened One, His Teaching, the Noble Assembly, giving,
morality, and gods; the heap of qualities of each of these were welltaught by the Conqueror.
Take refuge in the Triple Gem daily and remember the six
objects of recollection just as they were taught by the Buddha.
V. Always practise the path of the ten virtuous deeds (performed)
through body, voice and mind; refrain from alcohol, and also delightin a wholesome livelihood.
Avoid these ten non-virtuous actions: three of body- killing,stealing, sexual misconduct; four of voice- lying, slander, malicious
speech, idle talk; three of mind- covetousness, malevolence anderroneous views.
VI. Knowing that wealth is unstable and devoid of essence, rightly
bestow gifts upon monks, br/hma%as, the poor and friends; so forthe next life there is no more excellent a kinsman than giving.
Give to monks and holy men because of their qualities; toparents, teachers and friends because of their kindness; and tohungry and sick people because of their need.
VII. You should practise morality which is unimpaired, blameless,not mixed and unsullied - for morality is said to be the foundation of
all virtues, just as the earth is (the support of both) animate andinanimate things.

9

VIII. Increase the measureless Perfections of giving, morality,
patience, energy, meditation and wisdom, and thus become the Lordof Conquerors who has reached the further shore of the ocean ofexistence.
The six perfections (p@ramit@) are divided into two groups
called the accumulation of merit which includes: giving, morality
and patience and the accumulation of knowledge which includes:concentration and wisdom. Energy is included in both groups as it isneeded for both accumulations.
The Bodhisattva, through the perfections of giving, morality,
patience and energy dwells in happiness in the world. He has
accumulated merit and has access to the Terrestrial body
(Nirm@%ak@ya) and to the Celestial body (Sambhogak@ya) bymeans of which he fulfills the needs of living beings. Moreover, theBodhisattva has attained knowledge by means of the perfections ofenergy, concentration and wisdom and therefore dwells in freedom.
He has access to the Transcendental Body (Dharmak@ya) and isconsequently not bound to the world.
IX. The race of one who worships father and mother is in thecompany of that of Brahm/ and that of preceptors; throughrevering them one will win fame and later will attain the higher
realms.
Respect your parents, because they have been kind to you inthis life. Those who respect their parents are gentle and happy andwill develop many good qualities in this life and in the next.

10The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

X. Forsake killing, theft, sexual misconduct, lying, alcohol,
attachment to food at improper times, enjoyment of high seats andbeds, and all kinds of songs, dances and garlands.

A<gulim@la who was addicted to violence, Aj@ta^atru who killed his
father, and Udayana who killed his mother, had all done unvirtuous
actions and had little inclination to become better. However, theirstories prove that anyone can change.

Although it is generally very difficult for lay people to observe
these eight precepts, nonetheless, they should
be observed
occasionally, such as on the day commemorating the Buddha's
Enlightenment. The benefit of observing these eight is shown in thefollowing verse.
XI. If you possess these eight features which resemble an Arhat's
morality, then, nourished by the religious vows, you will bestow on
men and women the pleasant form of the gods of the realm of desire.
Observance of these special precepts will lay the foundation of
the renunciation of an Arhat or otherwise to the happiness ofhigher realms such as those of the gods.
XII. Look upon these as enemies: miserliness, cunning, deceit,
attachment to property, laziness, pride, sexual attachment, hatred,
and arrogance of caste, form, learning, youth, and great power.
Avoid these thirteen faults of character that diminish yourmoral worth and are unbecoming. Although they apparently serve
your own purpose, they are in fact inimical to your real interests.
XIII -XIV. The Sage said that heedfulness is the source of thedeathless and heedlessness is the source of death ; hence to increase
your virtue, devotedly remain heedful. One who has formerly been
heedless, but later becomes heedful - like Nanda, A>gulim/la,
Aj/ta=atru and Udayana - will also be resplendent like the moon
free from clouds.
Even if you have done non-virtuous acts in the past, thatshould not stop you from becoming mindful now and changing yourways. For example, Nanda who was obsessed by sexual desire,11

XV. Since there is no penance like patience, you must give anger noopportunity to arise. The Buddha said that by giving up anger, onewill attain the irreversible stage.
The practice of austerities and extreme forms of asceticism
are not conducive to gaining happiness and freedom. Inflicting pain
upon the body in various ways, eating poor food or starving oneself,
wearing rags and the like cannot even guarantee a higher rebirth,
let alone liberation. The greatest penance is patience, so do not give
way to anger even when unwanted events occur, but practicepatience instead.
XVI. "I was abused by these (people), bound by them, defeated bythem, they have snatched away my property". Thus harboring
enmity produces quarrels, but one who gives up harboring enmity
sleeps happily.
Abandon resentment even towards those who have caused
one harm. Harboring enmity in this fashion only provokes further
conflict and causes more suffering thereby adding to the harmalready done. Consequently, give up such ways of thinking andsleep peacefully.
XVII. Recognize the mind to be like a drawing made on water, earthor stone; The first among these is excellent for those possessing theafflictions, and the last for those who desire religion.
The mind's nature is to retain ideas for different lengths oftime, just as writing on water, earth or stone endures for a short,
middling or long time respectively. Strive to let go of unwholesome

12

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

X. Forsake killing, theft, sexual misconduct, lying, alcohol,
attachment to food at improper times, enjoyment of high seats andbeds, and all kinds of songs, dances and garlands.

A<gulim@la who was addicted to violence, Aj@ta^atru who killed his
father, and Udayana who killed his mother, had all done unvirtuous
actions and had little inclination to become better. However, theirstories prove that anyone can change.

Although it is generally very difficult for lay people to observe
these eight precepts, nonetheless, they should
be observed
occasionally, such as on the day commemorating the Buddha's
Enlightenment. The benefit of observing these eight is shown in thefollowing verse.
XI. If you possess these eight features which resemble an Arhat's
morality, then, nourished by the religious vows, you will bestow on
men and women the pleasant form of the gods of the realm of desire.
Observance of these special precepts will lay the foundation of
the renunciation of an Arhat or otherwise to the happiness ofhigher realms such as those of the gods.
XII. Look upon these as enemies: miserliness, cunning, deceit,
attachment to property, laziness, pride, sexual attachment, hatred,
and arrogance of caste, form, learning, youth, and great power.
Avoid these thirteen faults of character that diminish yourmoral worth and are unbecoming. Although they apparently serve
your own purpose, they are in fact inimical to your real interests.
XIII -XIV. The Sage said that heedfulness is the source of thedeathless and heedlessness is the source of death ; hence to increase
your virtue, devotedly remain heedful. One who has formerly been
heedless, but later becomes heedful - like Nanda, A>gulim/la,
Aj/ta=atru and Udayana - will also be resplendent like the moon
free from clouds.
Even if you have done non-virtuous acts in the past, thatshould not stop you from becoming mindful now and changing yourways. For example, Nanda who was obsessed by sexual desire,11

XV. Since there is no penance like patience, you must give anger noopportunity to arise. The Buddha said that by giving up anger, onewill attain the irreversible stage.
The practice of austerities and extreme forms of asceticism
are not conducive to gaining happiness and freedom. Inflicting pain
upon the body in various ways, eating poor food or starving oneself,
wearing rags and the like cannot even guarantee a higher rebirth,
let alone liberation. The greatest penance is patience, so do not give
way to anger even when unwanted events occur, but practicepatience instead.
XVI. "I was abused by these (people), bound by them, defeated bythem, they have snatched away my property". Thus harboring
enmity produces quarrels, but one who gives up harboring enmity
sleeps happily.
Abandon resentment even towards those who have caused
one harm. Harboring enmity in this fashion only provokes further
conflict and causes more suffering thereby adding to the harmalready done. Consequently, give up such ways of thinking andsleep peacefully.
XVII. Recognize the mind to be like a drawing made on water, earthor stone; The first among these is excellent for those possessing theafflictions, and the last for those who desire religion.
The mind's nature is to retain ideas for different lengths oftime, just as writing on water, earth or stone endures for a short,
middling or long time respectively. Strive to let go of unwholesome

12

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

ways of thinking quickly as if they were written on water, while
retaining wholesome attitudes as if they were written on stone.

Examine the character of people before accepting them as
friends or associates. People may be likened to mangos in thefollowing way.
(i) Their intentions are not good, but their actions are good.
(ii) Their intentions are good, but their actions are not good.
(iii) Neither their intentions nor their actions are good.
(iv) Both their intentions and their actions are good.
Strive to be of the last type and to have friends with a similar
character.

XVIII. The Conqueror declared that pleasant, truthful and wrong
are the three kinds of speech possessed by people - such words arelike honey, flowers and filth. Abandon the last of these.
Pleasant speech makes others happy because it is sweet likehoney. Truthful speech is beautiful like a flower and moreover, it isbeneficial to others. On the other hand, wrong speech is
unwholesome like excrement. Cultivate the first two forms of speech
and avoid the last.
XIX. Four categories of persons are seen (who move) from: light togreat light, dark to great dark, light to great dark, and dark to great
light; be the first among these.
(i) Light to great light: someone who has acted virtuously in thepast and therefore enjoys fortunate circumstances now, and who
continues to act virtuously in the present life.
(ii) Dark to great dark: someone born in states of woe because of
unwholesome acts done in the past, and who continues to act
unvirtuously in the present life.
(iii)
Light to great dark: someone who enjoys fortunate
circumstances now because of merit collected in the past, but acts
non-virtuously in the present and consequently falls into
unfortunate states.
(iv) Dark to great light: someone who although born in lessfortunate circumstances, nonetheless applies himself and performs
virtuous acts leading to birth in happier states.
XX. Persons should be understood to be like mango fruits which are:unripened yet seemingly ripened, ripened but seemingly unripened,
unripened and appearing to be unripened, and ripened ones which
also appear to be ripened.

13

XXI. Do not look upon another's wife; however, should you see her,think of her according to her age - thus as mother, daughter orsister. If lust persists, then meditate well on impurity.
Control the afflictions by being watchful of your mind. Don't
hanker after others' wives. Remember the evil consequences ofdesire in this life and the next. Overcome desire for the wives ofothers' by regarding them according to their age as mother,daughter or sister. Meditate on impermanence and impurity if you
are still unable to abandon lust for the wives of others'.
XXII. Protect the unsteady mind just as (you would protect)learning, a son, a treasure, or life; withdraw the mind from sensualpleasures just as (you would withdraw) from a vicious (serpent),
poison, a weapon, an enemy or fire.
Your mind is the most valuable thing you possess. The mind
can make you happy or miserable according to how you treat it. If
you owned a valuable house, car or painting, you would take goodcare of it and do your best to keep it from being damaged. If you
have children, you know how careful you are to protect them andkeep them out of harm's way. The same applies to your mind,
therefore take good care of your mind and do not let it get
entangled in harmful distractions and unwholesome ways.

14

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

ways of thinking quickly as if they were written on water, while
retaining wholesome attitudes as if they were written on stone.

Examine the character of people before accepting them as
friends or associates. People may be likened to mangos in thefollowing way.
(i) Their intentions are not good, but their actions are good.
(ii) Their intentions are good, but their actions are not good.
(iii) Neither their intentions nor their actions are good.
(iv) Both their intentions and their actions are good.
Strive to be of the last type and to have friends with a similar
character.

XVIII. The Conqueror declared that pleasant, truthful and wrong
are the three kinds of speech possessed by people - such words arelike honey, flowers and filth. Abandon the last of these.
Pleasant speech makes others happy because it is sweet likehoney. Truthful speech is beautiful like a flower and moreover, it isbeneficial to others. On the other hand, wrong speech is
unwholesome like excrement. Cultivate the first two forms of speech
and avoid the last.
XIX. Four categories of persons are seen (who move) from: light togreat light, dark to great dark, light to great dark, and dark to great
light; be the first among these.
(i) Light to great light: someone who has acted virtuously in thepast and therefore enjoys fortunate circumstances now, and who
continues to act virtuously in the present life.
(ii) Dark to great dark: someone born in states of woe because of
unwholesome acts done in the past, and who continues to act
unvirtuously in the present life.
(iii)
Light to great dark: someone who enjoys fortunate
circumstances now because of merit collected in the past, but acts
non-virtuously in the present and consequently falls into
unfortunate states.
(iv) Dark to great light: someone who although born in lessfortunate circumstances, nonetheless applies himself and performs
virtuous acts leading to birth in happier states.
XX. Persons should be understood to be like mango fruits which are:unripened yet seemingly ripened, ripened but seemingly unripened,
unripened and appearing to be unripened, and ripened ones which
also appear to be ripened.

13

XXI. Do not look upon another's wife; however, should you see her,think of her according to her age - thus as mother, daughter orsister. If lust persists, then meditate well on impurity.
Control the afflictions by being watchful of your mind. Don't
hanker after others' wives. Remember the evil consequences ofdesire in this life and the next. Overcome desire for the wives ofothers' by regarding them according to their age as mother,daughter or sister. Meditate on impermanence and impurity if you
are still unable to abandon lust for the wives of others'.
XXII. Protect the unsteady mind just as (you would protect)learning, a son, a treasure, or life; withdraw the mind from sensualpleasures just as (you would withdraw) from a vicious (serpent),
poison, a weapon, an enemy or fire.
Your mind is the most valuable thing you possess. The mind
can make you happy or miserable according to how you treat it. If
you owned a valuable house, car or painting, you would take goodcare of it and do your best to keep it from being damaged. If you
have children, you know how careful you are to protect them andkeep them out of harm's way. The same applies to your mind,
therefore take good care of your mind and do not let it get
entangled in harmful distractions and unwholesome ways.

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The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

XXIII. The Lord of Conquerors declared desires to be like the kimbu
fruit, for they are the cause of misery; since these iron chains bindworldly people in the prison of Sa^s/ra, renounce them.

only increases your thirst. Therefore try to free your mind fromdesire for the pleasures of the world, because they only lead to more
suffering in the long run.

The careless pursuit of pleasure only creates trouble in thelong run. At first, worldly pleasures, like the kimbu fruit appear to
be attractive and enjoyable, but once you have become addicted tothem, you find that they are poisonous and lead to disaster.

XXVII. Be skilled in rightly perceiving things with theunderstanding of the Ultimate (Truth), for there is no other practicepossessing comparable quality.

XXIV. (In choosing) between the one who conquers (attachment to)
the ever unsteady and momentary objects of the six sense- organs
and the one who conquers the enemy's army in battle, the wiseknow the first to be a far greater hero.
Do not allow your senses to become entangled in the
afflictions. If you fight the afflictions by avoiding objects that
inflame them, then, you have won the battle. If you can succeed inthis, then you are more heroic than a victor on the battle field.
XXV. Look upon the body of a young woman apart from ornaments(and clothing) like a totally impure vessel covered with skin,difficult to satisfy, bad smelling, and with impurities issuing fromthe nine (bodily) doors.
Consider the remedy for the desire for others. Although a man
or woman may appear beautiful, reflect on impurity. The body of aman or woman is just a heap of flesh, bones, blood, and the like.
Therefore such a body is really similar to a beautiful vase filledwith impurities.
XXVI. Know that just as the insect - ridden leper wholly depends onfire for the sake of happiness, similarly clinging to desires will bringno peace.
The more you indulge in worldly pleasures, the more youwant them. You are like a thirsty man who drinks salt water which
15

Examine all factors of existence. Whether you search among
the aggregates of the personality or among the objects found in theworld at large, not a single atom really exists. Meditate on
emptiness to destroy the afflictions and purify Karma.
XXVIII. The person possessing high caste, beautiful form andlearning is not respected if he lacks wisdom and morality; however,one who possesses these two qualities, even though lacking theother qualities, is worshipped.
A person is not considered worthy of worship, just because hecomes from a good family, is wealthy, famous or even learned. Only
the person who possesses wisdom and morality is worthy of worship.
XXIX. O knower of the world, the eight worldly dharmas - gain, loss,
happiness, unhappiness, fame, notoriety, praise and blame - should
be regarded equally as (they) are not worthy of your mind.
Of the 'eight worldly dharmas', the four which ordinary
people hope for are:(i) gain,(ii) happiness,(iii) fame,(iv) praise.
Upon obtaining any of these four, people become overjoyed.
The four which people fear are:(i) loss,(ii) suffering,
16The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

XXIII. The Lord of Conquerors declared desires to be like the kimbu
fruit, for they are the cause of misery; since these iron chains bindworldly people in the prison of Sa^s/ra, renounce them.

only increases your thirst. Therefore try to free your mind fromdesire for the pleasures of the world, because they only lead to more
suffering in the long run.

The careless pursuit of pleasure only creates trouble in thelong run. At first, worldly pleasures, like the kimbu fruit appear to
be attractive and enjoyable, but once you have become addicted tothem, you find that they are poisonous and lead to disaster.

XXVII. Be skilled in rightly perceiving things with theunderstanding of the Ultimate (Truth), for there is no other practicepossessing comparable quality.

XXIV. (In choosing) between the one who conquers (attachment to)
the ever unsteady and momentary objects of the six sense- organs
and the one who conquers the enemy's army in battle, the wiseknow the first to be a far greater hero.
Do not allow your senses to become entangled in the
afflictions. If you fight the afflictions by avoiding objects that
inflame them, then, you have won the battle. If you can succeed inthis, then you are more heroic than a victor on the battle field.
XXV. Look upon the body of a young woman apart from ornaments(and clothing) like a totally impure vessel covered with skin,difficult to satisfy, bad smelling, and with impurities issuing fromthe nine (bodily) doors.
Consider the remedy for the desire for others. Although a man
or woman may appear beautiful, reflect on impurity. The body of aman or woman is just a heap of flesh, bones, blood, and the like.
Therefore such a body is really similar to a beautiful vase filledwith impurities.
XXVI. Know that just as the insect - ridden leper wholly depends onfire for the sake of happiness, similarly clinging to desires will bringno peace.
The more you indulge in worldly pleasures, the more youwant them. You are like a thirsty man who drinks salt water which
15

Examine all factors of existence. Whether you search among
the aggregates of the personality or among the objects found in theworld at large, not a single atom really exists. Meditate on
emptiness to destroy the afflictions and purify Karma.
XXVIII. The person possessing high caste, beautiful form andlearning is not respected if he lacks wisdom and morality; however,one who possesses these two qualities, even though lacking theother qualities, is worshipped.
A person is not considered worthy of worship, just because hecomes from a good family, is wealthy, famous or even learned. Only
the person who possesses wisdom and morality is worthy of worship.
XXIX. O knower of the world, the eight worldly dharmas - gain, loss,
happiness, unhappiness, fame, notoriety, praise and blame - should
be regarded equally as (they) are not worthy of your mind.
Of the 'eight worldly dharmas', the four which ordinary
people hope for are:(i) gain,(ii) happiness,(iii) fame,(iv) praise.
Upon obtaining any of these four, people become overjoyed.
The four which people fear are:(i) loss,(ii) suffering,
16The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(iii) notoriety,(iv) blame.
When these four occur, people become down hearted. However
this attitude is not recommended for someone wishing to practise
religion. On the contrary, such a person ought to regard the eightwith equanimity.

These seven virtues are very beneficial. Although you may not
be rich in gold and silver, still if you possess these seven, you havesomething of far greater value, the best among all possible
treasures. Besides, the seven are conditions conducive to attaining
the supreme happiness of Nirv@%a.

XXX. Do not commit sins for the sake of br/hma%as, monks, gods,
guests, parents, sons, queen, or attendants, because there is notanyone to share the result of hell.
Avoid collecting unwholesome actions for your own ends or forthe sake of others, no matter whether they be preceptors, gods,
relatives or consorts. Even though an unwholesome action may bedone for another, its consequences are still borne by you and not byanyone else.
XXXI. Though some unwholesome deeds performed will not wound
you immediately like a weapon, still any effect (arising) from thoseunwholesome actions will become manifest when the time of death
befalls.
Immediate retribution may not be experienced, but eventually
the effects of unwholesome acts will appear. Such effects may
appear within this very life, however, should they fail to appear inthis life time, they will surely appear after death. If they should still
fail to appear even in the next life, nonetheless, rest assured thatthey will manifest themselves after several life times. No wholesomeor unwholesome action is ever lost, but is certain to produce its
effect.
XXXII. The Sage said that faith, morality, giving, study, modesty,
humility, and wisdom are the seven unblemished properties;
recognize other common properties to be meaningless.

17

XXXIII. Abandon these six which result in loss of fame and birth inevil states: gambling, participation in fairs, laziness, association
with sinful friends, alcohol, and walking in the night.
The six patterns of behavior which can destroy the 'seven
noble wealths' are:(i) gambling,(ii) attendance at fairs,(iii) laziness,(iv) association with non-virtuous friends who contribute to one's
bad habits,(v) drinking alcohol, and(vi) roaming around in the night without any reason.
These six forms of behavior will be a cause for one to lose ones
good name in this life, as well as a cause for rebirth into lower
realms.
XXXIV. The Preceptor of gods and men said that satisfaction is themost excellent among all riches, so always be satisfied; if content
through possessing no wealth, one is truly rich.
Always be satisfied with whatever you have. Greed will
always cause dissatisfaction and unhappiness. Moreover, stress will
occur from the desire to acquire more wealth, protect and eventuallyloose it. Even if a person be poor, if he is content with what he has,then he possesses the greatest happiness.
XXXV. O gracious king, just as the most excellent of N/gas suffersin accordance with the number of heads he has acquired, just so one
18The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(iii) notoriety,(iv) blame.
When these four occur, people become down hearted. However
this attitude is not recommended for someone wishing to practise
religion. On the contrary, such a person ought to regard the eightwith equanimity.

These seven virtues are very beneficial. Although you may not
be rich in gold and silver, still if you possess these seven, you havesomething of far greater value, the best among all possible
treasures. Besides, the seven are conditions conducive to attaining
the supreme happiness of Nirv@%a.

XXX. Do not commit sins for the sake of br/hma%as, monks, gods,
guests, parents, sons, queen, or attendants, because there is notanyone to share the result of hell.
Avoid collecting unwholesome actions for your own ends or forthe sake of others, no matter whether they be preceptors, gods,
relatives or consorts. Even though an unwholesome action may bedone for another, its consequences are still borne by you and not byanyone else.
XXXI. Though some unwholesome deeds performed will not wound
you immediately like a weapon, still any effect (arising) from thoseunwholesome actions will become manifest when the time of death
befalls.
Immediate retribution may not be experienced, but eventually
the effects of unwholesome acts will appear. Such effects may
appear within this very life, however, should they fail to appear inthis life time, they will surely appear after death. If they should still
fail to appear even in the next life, nonetheless, rest assured thatthey will manifest themselves after several life times. No wholesomeor unwholesome action is ever lost, but is certain to produce its
effect.
XXXII. The Sage said that faith, morality, giving, study, modesty,
humility, and wisdom are the seven unblemished properties;
recognize other common properties to be meaningless.

17

XXXIII. Abandon these six which result in loss of fame and birth inevil states: gambling, participation in fairs, laziness, association
with sinful friends, alcohol, and walking in the night.
The six patterns of behavior which can destroy the 'seven
noble wealths' are:(i) gambling,(ii) attendance at fairs,(iii) laziness,(iv) association with non-virtuous friends who contribute to one's
bad habits,(v) drinking alcohol, and(vi) roaming around in the night without any reason.
These six forms of behavior will be a cause for one to lose ones
good name in this life, as well as a cause for rebirth into lower
realms.
XXXIV. The Preceptor of gods and men said that satisfaction is themost excellent among all riches, so always be satisfied; if content
through possessing no wealth, one is truly rich.
Always be satisfied with whatever you have. Greed will
always cause dissatisfaction and unhappiness. Moreover, stress will
occur from the desire to acquire more wealth, protect and eventuallyloose it. Even if a person be poor, if he is content with what he has,then he possesses the greatest happiness.
XXXV. O gracious king, just as the most excellent of N/gas suffersin accordance with the number of heads he has acquired, just so one
18The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

suffers in accordance with the number of possessions acquired;however, it is not so for one with few desires.

watch of the night with the thought of making sleep too a part of thepath.

You will suffer in proportion to the amount of superfluous
possessions you acquire. This truth is exemplified by the N@ga2
kings who suffer in accordance with the number of heads they
possess. Therefore, be watchful of your inclinations to acquire morepossessions.

XL. Always meditate rightly on love, compassion, joy, andequanimity; even if the supreme (state) is not gained in this way,
still the happiness of the world of Brahm/ will be attained.

XXXVI-XXXVII. Avoid these three kinds of wives: one who, like an
executioner, is naturally associated with the enemy; one who, like aqueen, disrespects the husband; and one who, like a thief, steals
even small things. (The type of wife) to revere as a family deity is
the one who is kind like a sister, one who is dear like a friend, one
who wishes your benefit like a mother, or one who is subject to you
like a servant.
N@g@rjuna gives this advice to his patron, the King, to help
him choose a wife wisely.
XXXVIII. Understanding food to be like medicine, neither use itwith hatred, nor attachment, nor for might, pride or beauty, butsolely for maintaining the body.
Keeping in mind that food is only medicine for the illness ofhunger, always eat moderately. Avoid eating with attachment oraversion towards the food. Eat simply for the purpose of sustaining
the body so as to be able to practise the Dharma.
XXXIX. O righteous one, after (usefully) spending the whole day andthe beginning and end of the night, mindfully sleep only in the
middle (watch), so even the time of sleep will not be fruitless.
With a great revulsion for Sa`s@ra, strive constantly forenlightenment. Waste neither day nor night, but use all of your time
for practising the path leading to liberation. Sleep in the middle
19

The limitless or immeasurable meditations include thefollowing:(i) Love, the wish for all sentient beings to be happy and to have thecause of happiness:(ii) Compassion, the wish for all sentient beings to be free from
suffering and the cause of suffering;(iii) Joy, the wish for all sentient beings to experience the joy that is
free from sorrow;(iv) Equanimity, the wish that all sentient beings dwell inequanimity, free from attachment towards near ones and aversion
towards far. The causes of happiness and suffering are wholesome
and unwholesome actions respectively.
XLI. Having given up the pleasures, joys and sufferings of the realmof desire by means of the four concentrations, the fortunate levels of
the gods - Brahm/, ;bh/svara, Subhak_tsna and B_hatphala- will be obtained.
By means of the five factors of absorption: initial application,
sustained application, interest, happiness and one-pointedness, one
ascends the four levels of concentration and transcends the realm of
desire. The application of the five factors enable you to progressively
eliminate the five hindrances: sloth and torpor, doubt, aversion,
restlessness and worry and attachment.
XLII. From the foundation of these five great factors- persistence,
intention, unopposed, endowed with qualities, and beneficiariesvirtuous and non-virtuous deeds arise (in great measure); therefore,
strive to do virtuous actions.
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The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

suffers in accordance with the number of possessions acquired;however, it is not so for one with few desires.

watch of the night with the thought of making sleep too a part of thepath.

You will suffer in proportion to the amount of superfluous
possessions you acquire. This truth is exemplified by the N@ga2
kings who suffer in accordance with the number of heads they
possess. Therefore, be watchful of your inclinations to acquire morepossessions.

XL. Always meditate rightly on love, compassion, joy, andequanimity; even if the supreme (state) is not gained in this way,
still the happiness of the world of Brahm/ will be attained.

XXXVI-XXXVII. Avoid these three kinds of wives: one who, like an
executioner, is naturally associated with the enemy; one who, like aqueen, disrespects the husband; and one who, like a thief, steals
even small things. (The type of wife) to revere as a family deity is
the one who is kind like a sister, one who is dear like a friend, one
who wishes your benefit like a mother, or one who is subject to you
like a servant.
N@g@rjuna gives this advice to his patron, the King, to help
him choose a wife wisely.
XXXVIII. Understanding food to be like medicine, neither use itwith hatred, nor attachment, nor for might, pride or beauty, butsolely for maintaining the body.
Keeping in mind that food is only medicine for the illness ofhunger, always eat moderately. Avoid eating with attachment oraversion towards the food. Eat simply for the purpose of sustaining
the body so as to be able to practise the Dharma.
XXXIX. O righteous one, after (usefully) spending the whole day andthe beginning and end of the night, mindfully sleep only in the
middle (watch), so even the time of sleep will not be fruitless.
With a great revulsion for Sa`s@ra, strive constantly forenlightenment. Waste neither day nor night, but use all of your time
for practising the path leading to liberation. Sleep in the middle
19

The limitless or immeasurable meditations include thefollowing:(i) Love, the wish for all sentient beings to be happy and to have thecause of happiness:(ii) Compassion, the wish for all sentient beings to be free from
suffering and the cause of suffering;(iii) Joy, the wish for all sentient beings to experience the joy that is
free from sorrow;(iv) Equanimity, the wish that all sentient beings dwell inequanimity, free from attachment towards near ones and aversion
towards far. The causes of happiness and suffering are wholesome
and unwholesome actions respectively.
XLI. Having given up the pleasures, joys and sufferings of the realmof desire by means of the four concentrations, the fortunate levels of
the gods - Brahm/, ;bh/svara, Subhak_tsna and B_hatphala- will be obtained.
By means of the five factors of absorption: initial application,
sustained application, interest, happiness and one-pointedness, one
ascends the four levels of concentration and transcends the realm of
desire. The application of the five factors enable you to progressively
eliminate the five hindrances: sloth and torpor, doubt, aversion,
restlessness and worry and attachment.
XLII. From the foundation of these five great factors- persistence,
intention, unopposed, endowed with qualities, and beneficiariesvirtuous and non-virtuous deeds arise (in great measure); therefore,
strive to do virtuous actions.
20Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

The Good Hearted Letter

The five conditions that modify the weight of Karma are thefollowing:(i) persistence, actions done repeatedly over a long period of time;(ii) intention, actions done with great will or determination;(iii) unopposed, actions done without any hesitation, doubt or regret;(iv) endowed with qualities, actions done for persons or thingsendowed with special qualities such as the Triple Gem;(v) beneficiaries, actions done for benefactors, such as parents andreligious teachers;
Actions done modified by any or all of these five conditions
are the foundation of the accumulation of virtue and non-virtue ingreat measure.
XLIII. Understand that a small measure of salt changes the taste ofa little water while not that of the Ganges River; similarly, a small
unwholesome deed (will not spoil) a vast root of virtue.
Avoid non-virtuous actions and do as many importantvirtuous ones as possible. A small measure of salt in a little water
gives the water a salty taste, but the same measure of salt cannotchange the taste of a great river. Similarly, small non-virtuous
deeds cannot be made innocuous by a small amount of virtue, while
the same small non-virtuous acts are made negligible by great
virtuous actions.
XLIV. Be aware that these five hindrances are thieves which steal
the wealth of virtue : restlessness and worry, aversion, sloth andtorpor, attachment, and doubt.
The five hindrances are:(i) Restlessness and worry, preoccupied with worldly matters, one is
distracted by restlessness and worry.
(ii) Aversion, ill-will towards ones enemies and distaste for thepractice of the Dharma;

21(iii) Sloth and torpor, heaviness of body and mind, and no interest in
virtue.
(iv) Attachment, lust and greed for material objects and sensory
stimulation;(v) Doubt, vacillation of mind and uncertainty regarding the Triple
Gem and the law of Karma.
These five are hindrances upon the path to liberation.
XLV. Assiduously perform the five most excellent practices - faith,energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. These are calledstrength, power, and also the attained summit.
The five factors leading to spiritual progress are:(i) Faith, confidence in the Triple Gem, the law of Karma and thepossibility of liberation;(ii) Energy, effort and enthusiasm for the practice;(iii) Mindfulness, observation and recognition of mental states
enabling you to maintain your equilibrium on the path;(iv) Concentration, one-pointedness of mind free from distraction;(v) Wisdom, understanding the real nature of the personality and of
phenomena.
The five factors are known either as faculties or as powers
depending on the degree of their development. Initially, the five arecalled faculties and may be likened to the sense organs since they
enable you to apprehend reality. Later, when they become fully
developed, they are called powers, because they then become
unshakable. The transformation of the factors from faculties topowers indicates the passage of a practitioner from the level of an
ordinary person to the level of an extraordinary one on the thresholdof supra mundane being.
XLVI. "Thus actions done by oneself (are the cause) of not passing
beyond disease, old age, death and separation from the dear."Arrogance will not arise by means of the corrective of this repeatedthought.

22

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

The Good Hearted Letter

The five conditions that modify the weight of Karma are thefollowing:(i) persistence, actions done repeatedly over a long period of time;(ii) intention, actions done with great will or determination;(iii) unopposed, actions done without any hesitation, doubt or regret;(iv) endowed with qualities, actions done for persons or thingsendowed with special qualities such as the Triple Gem;(v) beneficiaries, actions done for benefactors, such as parents andreligious teachers;
Actions done modified by any or all of these five conditions
are the foundation of the accumulation of virtue and non-virtue ingreat measure.
XLIII. Understand that a small measure of salt changes the taste ofa little water while not that of the Ganges River; similarly, a small
unwholesome deed (will not spoil) a vast root of virtue.
Avoid non-virtuous actions and do as many importantvirtuous ones as possible. A small measure of salt in a little water
gives the water a salty taste, but the same measure of salt cannotchange the taste of a great river. Similarly, small non-virtuous
deeds cannot be made innocuous by a small amount of virtue, while
the same small non-virtuous acts are made negligible by great
virtuous actions.
XLIV. Be aware that these five hindrances are thieves which steal
the wealth of virtue : restlessness and worry, aversion, sloth andtorpor, attachment, and doubt.
The five hindrances are:(i) Restlessness and worry, preoccupied with worldly matters, one is
distracted by restlessness and worry.
(ii) Aversion, ill-will towards ones enemies and distaste for thepractice of the Dharma;

21(iii) Sloth and torpor, heaviness of body and mind, and no interest in
virtue.
(iv) Attachment, lust and greed for material objects and sensory
stimulation;(v) Doubt, vacillation of mind and uncertainty regarding the Triple
Gem and the law of Karma.
These five are hindrances upon the path to liberation.
XLV. Assiduously perform the five most excellent practices - faith,energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. These are calledstrength, power, and also the attained summit.
The five factors leading to spiritual progress are:(i) Faith, confidence in the Triple Gem, the law of Karma and thepossibility of liberation;(ii) Energy, effort and enthusiasm for the practice;(iii) Mindfulness, observation and recognition of mental states
enabling you to maintain your equilibrium on the path;(iv) Concentration, one-pointedness of mind free from distraction;(v) Wisdom, understanding the real nature of the personality and of
phenomena.
The five factors are known either as faculties or as powers
depending on the degree of their development. Initially, the five arecalled faculties and may be likened to the sense organs since they
enable you to apprehend reality. Later, when they become fully
developed, they are called powers, because they then become
unshakable. The transformation of the factors from faculties topowers indicates the passage of a practitioner from the level of an
ordinary person to the level of an extraordinary one on the thresholdof supra mundane being.
XLVI. "Thus actions done by oneself (are the cause) of not passing
beyond disease, old age, death and separation from the dear."Arrogance will not arise by means of the corrective of this repeatedthought.

22

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Create the conditions for destroying the afflictions. To
accomplish this, calm and insight are necessary. Remember thatyou are always subject to the suffering of disease, old age anddeath. Remember too that any virtuous or non - virtuous action done
will affect you alone. By recollecting this again and again, generate
the remedy for the afflictions.

form does not dwell in the self", in this manner also understand thefour remaining aggregates as empty.

To obtain a higher birth in a future life, or to attainliberation, the foundation of all the highest qualities which is "rightview" must be developed. The law of Karma, the 'right conventional
view' and the Emptiness of all dharmas, the 'right ultimate view'
have to be understood. Otherwise, awful consequences will follow
even though merit has been accumulated.

(i) The form or the physical body is not the self or the soul, because
when the form perishes, then the self would also perish. Therefore,
the form is not the self.
(ii) The form is not owned by the self. The self does not own theform, because the body acts of its own accord or as the result ofvarious factors even against the will of the self.
(iii) The self does not dwell in the form. Examine the body, and you
will not find the self anywhere within the physical form.
(iv) The form does not abide in the self. If you think the form dwellsin the self, then you will first have to find the self in which the form
might dwell, but nowhere can you find the self. In addition, the self
would then have to be different from the form, but nowhere apartfrom the form and the other aggregates can it be found. The same
analysis can be applied to the remaining mental aggregates.

XLVIII. Know that in reality human beings are unhappy,
impermanent, devoid of self, and impure; those who forsake
mindfulness are ruined through wrongly viewing these four.

L. Know that the aggregates originated neither from chance, time,nature, intrinsic being, God, nor without cause, but from ignorantdeeds and craving.

If you examine carefully the nature of the human condition,
you will see that people are usually dissatisfied and discontented.
You will observe the following four:(i) suffering,(ii) impermanence,(iii) impersonality or not-self,(iv) impurity.
If you think the opposite, then you hold the four wrong views.
Therefore, never allow mindfulness to leave the doorway of themind. If it should, recollect and earnestly meditate upon themiseries of the states of woe.

The aggregates or the psycho-physical personality did not
originate from God, chance, time or any such erroneous causes.
however, they also did not originate without a cause, otherwise theywould always exist or not.
Karma accumulated through ignorance and the otherafflictions are the causes of the appearance of the aggregates.
Ignorance is the soil that allows the seeds of craving and the like togrow, thereby leading to repeated rebirth in Sa`s@ra.

XLVII. Follow the right view if heaven and liberation are desired,for even persons doing meritorious deeds through the wrong view
will have all awful consequences.

XLIX. Thus it has been said: "The form is not the self, the self does
not possess the form, the self does not dwell in the form, and the23

LI. Understand these three to be fetters (to Sa^s/ra) and obstacles
to the gates of the city of liberation: adhering solely to morality andasceticism, the mistaken view of real individuality and doubt.
These three fetters are fundamental obstacles to liberation.
24

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Create the conditions for destroying the afflictions. To
accomplish this, calm and insight are necessary. Remember thatyou are always subject to the suffering of disease, old age anddeath. Remember too that any virtuous or non - virtuous action done
will affect you alone. By recollecting this again and again, generate
the remedy for the afflictions.

form does not dwell in the self", in this manner also understand thefour remaining aggregates as empty.

To obtain a higher birth in a future life, or to attainliberation, the foundation of all the highest qualities which is "rightview" must be developed. The law of Karma, the 'right conventional
view' and the Emptiness of all dharmas, the 'right ultimate view'
have to be understood. Otherwise, awful consequences will follow
even though merit has been accumulated.

(i) The form or the physical body is not the self or the soul, because
when the form perishes, then the self would also perish. Therefore,
the form is not the self.
(ii) The form is not owned by the self. The self does not own theform, because the body acts of its own accord or as the result ofvarious factors even against the will of the self.
(iii) The self does not dwell in the form. Examine the body, and you
will not find the self anywhere within the physical form.
(iv) The form does not abide in the self. If you think the form dwellsin the self, then you will first have to find the self in which the form
might dwell, but nowhere can you find the self. In addition, the self
would then have to be different from the form, but nowhere apartfrom the form and the other aggregates can it be found. The same
analysis can be applied to the remaining mental aggregates.

XLVIII. Know that in reality human beings are unhappy,
impermanent, devoid of self, and impure; those who forsake
mindfulness are ruined through wrongly viewing these four.

L. Know that the aggregates originated neither from chance, time,nature, intrinsic being, God, nor without cause, but from ignorantdeeds and craving.

If you examine carefully the nature of the human condition,
you will see that people are usually dissatisfied and discontented.
You will observe the following four:(i) suffering,(ii) impermanence,(iii) impersonality or not-self,(iv) impurity.
If you think the opposite, then you hold the four wrong views.
Therefore, never allow mindfulness to leave the doorway of themind. If it should, recollect and earnestly meditate upon themiseries of the states of woe.

The aggregates or the psycho-physical personality did not
originate from God, chance, time or any such erroneous causes.
however, they also did not originate without a cause, otherwise theywould always exist or not.
Karma accumulated through ignorance and the otherafflictions are the causes of the appearance of the aggregates.
Ignorance is the soil that allows the seeds of craving and the like togrow, thereby leading to repeated rebirth in Sa`s@ra.

XLVII. Follow the right view if heaven and liberation are desired,for even persons doing meritorious deeds through the wrong view
will have all awful consequences.

XLIX. Thus it has been said: "The form is not the self, the self does
not possess the form, the self does not dwell in the form, and the23

LI. Understand these three to be fetters (to Sa^s/ra) and obstacles
to the gates of the city of liberation: adhering solely to morality andasceticism, the mistaken view of real individuality and doubt.
These three fetters are fundamental obstacles to liberation.
24

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(i) Adhering solely to morality and asceticism refers to the belief
that mere observance of moral precepts and the practice ofausterities is sufficient to achieve liberation.
(ii) Belief in real individuality refers to the view that persons andobjects have true substantial existence.
(iii) Doubt refers to absence of confidence regarding the goal of thereligious path, the Triple Gem and the Law of Karma.
The three fetters are the first obstacles to be overcome inachieving the status of a Stream Winner or Noble Person.

substance; understand that, in reality, everything is without a selfand empty.
(iii) absorption, is the subject of the S#tra, the discourses in which
the practice of meditation and the means of gaining higher statesof concentration is explained.
All the practices needed to tread the path to liberation are
included in these three categories.

LII. Since liberation depends upon oneself and not on any help fromothers, cultivate the fourfold truth through possessing study,
morality and concentration.
Achieving liberation depends upon you alone. Free your mind
from the afflictions by nurturing study, morality and concentration.
Study the teaching of the Buddha, particularly the Four Noble
Truths. Observe the moral code and develop concentration of mind
in order to understand directly the Four Noble Truths of Sufferingand so forth.
(i) Understand Suffering;(ii) Abandon the Cause of Suffering, that is Craving;(iii) Experience the End of Suffering or Nirv@%a;(iv) Practice the Noble Eightfold Path.
LIII. Always be disciplined in the highest morality, highest wisdomand highest absorption;
more than one hundred and fifty
disciplines3 are verily included within these three.
Study well the three divisions of practice.
(i) morality, is the subject of the Vinaya the guide book of moral
conduct; different codes of conduct apply to different people such as
lay people and monks.
(ii) wisdom, is the subject of the Abhidharma, the books ofpsychology and philosophy; all factors are devoid of self and

25

LIV. O lord, mindfulness regarding the body was taught to be theonly path (to liberation) by the Sugata. Since the loss of mindfulness
will destroy all virtues, guard it well through steadfastness.
Maintain mindfulness when performing any bodily action,
whether sitting, standing, walking or lying down. All the Buddhas
have stressed the importance of mindfulness. Therefore,
mindfulness is the foundation of all progress upon the path toliberation.
LV. Life is impermanent since (it is beset by) many misfortunes likea bubble of water caught by the wind; that one inhales after
exhaling and awakens from sleep is wonderful.
Recollect impermanence and death in order to remain
mindful. Attachment to one's life and body is inappropriate, because
life is impermanent and the body is insubstantial. There are many
internal and external factors which can cause death, such as
diseases, disorders, accidents and attacks from enemies.
LVI. Know that the insubstantial body at the end - becoming ashes,
dried, putrid or foul - will be completely destroyed and despoiled(and) its constituents dispersed.
Remember that one day your own body will be buried,burned, dismembered or the like. Therefore, there is no cause to be
attached to this particular body.

26

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(i) Adhering solely to morality and asceticism refers to the belief
that mere observance of moral precepts and the practice ofausterities is sufficient to achieve liberation.
(ii) Belief in real individuality refers to the view that persons andobjects have true substantial existence.
(iii) Doubt refers to absence of confidence regarding the goal of thereligious path, the Triple Gem and the Law of Karma.
The three fetters are the first obstacles to be overcome inachieving the status of a Stream Winner or Noble Person.

substance; understand that, in reality, everything is without a selfand empty.
(iii) absorption, is the subject of the S#tra, the discourses in which
the practice of meditation and the means of gaining higher statesof concentration is explained.
All the practices needed to tread the path to liberation are
included in these three categories.

LII. Since liberation depends upon oneself and not on any help fromothers, cultivate the fourfold truth through possessing study,
morality and concentration.
Achieving liberation depends upon you alone. Free your mind
from the afflictions by nurturing study, morality and concentration.
Study the teaching of the Buddha, particularly the Four Noble
Truths. Observe the moral code and develop concentration of mind
in order to understand directly the Four Noble Truths of Sufferingand so forth.
(i) Understand Suffering;(ii) Abandon the Cause of Suffering, that is Craving;(iii) Experience the End of Suffering or Nirv@%a;(iv) Practice the Noble Eightfold Path.
LIII. Always be disciplined in the highest morality, highest wisdomand highest absorption;
more than one hundred and fifty
disciplines3 are verily included within these three.
Study well the three divisions of practice.
(i) morality, is the subject of the Vinaya the guide book of moral
conduct; different codes of conduct apply to different people such as
lay people and monks.
(ii) wisdom, is the subject of the Abhidharma, the books ofpsychology and philosophy; all factors are devoid of self and

25

LIV. O lord, mindfulness regarding the body was taught to be theonly path (to liberation) by the Sugata. Since the loss of mindfulness
will destroy all virtues, guard it well through steadfastness.
Maintain mindfulness when performing any bodily action,
whether sitting, standing, walking or lying down. All the Buddhas
have stressed the importance of mindfulness. Therefore,
mindfulness is the foundation of all progress upon the path toliberation.
LV. Life is impermanent since (it is beset by) many misfortunes likea bubble of water caught by the wind; that one inhales after
exhaling and awakens from sleep is wonderful.
Recollect impermanence and death in order to remain
mindful. Attachment to one's life and body is inappropriate, because
life is impermanent and the body is insubstantial. There are many
internal and external factors which can cause death, such as
diseases, disorders, accidents and attacks from enemies.
LVI. Know that the insubstantial body at the end - becoming ashes,
dried, putrid or foul - will be completely destroyed and despoiled(and) its constituents dispersed.
Remember that one day your own body will be buried,burned, dismembered or the like. Therefore, there is no cause to be
attached to this particular body.

26

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

The Good Hearted Letter
LVII. Since not even ash will remain as all things - the earth,
Mount Sumeru and the ocean - will be consumed by the flames ofthe seven suns,4 what need to say anything of very frail men.
Even immense and enduring phenomena like mountains,rivers, oceans, continents, the earth, planets and stars arise andperish. Everything is impermanent, so your frail and fragile bodywill certainly be destroyed.
LVIII. O best of men, since everything is impermanent, devoid ofself, refugeless, protectorless, and homeless, free your mind fromSa^s/ra which is like the pithless plantain tree.
Just as your own body is impermanent, so also the whole
universe is impermanent. The wheel of cyclical existence continually
goes round and round, without substance, soul or prospect ofbetterment. Therefore resolve to renounce the world.
LIX. O lord of men, make this (human life) fruitful by practising theHoly Dharma, for it is more difficult to obtain a human birth fromanimal states than for a tortoise to place (its neck) in the opening ina wooden yoke present in the same ocean.
Think of how difficult it is to obtain a human birth and how
rare the eighteen opportune conditions5 needed for the practice of
the Dharma are.
Imagine that the universe is an ocean on the surface of which
is a wooden yoke blown about by the wind and tossed by the waves.
And, imagine that on the bottom of this ocean lives a blind tortoisethat once every one hundred years comes to the surface. It is evenmore difficult to obtain a human birth than it is for the blind
tortoise to place its neck through the opening in the yoke.
There is no example adequate to illustrate the difficulty ofobtaining a human birth together with the eighteen opportune
conditions. Therefore do not waste this human life, but use it topractice the Dharma.
27

LX. Having obtained a human birth, one who commits unwholesome
actions is more foolish than one who fills a jewel adorned goldenvase with vomit.
There is no greater fool than one who fails to take advantage
of a human life to practice the Dharma and to strive for liberation.
LXI. You possess the four great conditions: dwelling in a suitable
place, relying upon the Holy Ones, having religiously applied
yourself in former (lives), and collected merit.
In addition to human life and the eighteen opportune
conditions, there are also four other special conditions:(i) birth in a good family which facilitates entry into the noble path;(ii) access to holy persons who can assist you to practice;(iii) freedom from the necessity to work for your daily maintenance;(iv) accumulation of merit in the past that has brought you human
life, the opportune conditions and the preceding three special
conditions.
LXII. The Sage said that reliance upon a spiritual friend completes
the path to holiness. Since very many (people) obtained peace
through relying upon the Conqueror, rely upon the Holy Ones.
The Buddha said that a virtuous friend is the cause of gaining
the path to happiness and freedom. Therefore, consult such a friend
before making any important decision.
LXIII. - LXIV. Whoever is born as a heretic, animal, hungry ghost,hell being, barbarian, fool, long-lived deity or where there is noteaching from a Buddha, is declared to be born in the eight faulty
and unfavorable (states). Having gotten the opportunity to be freefrom them, then strive to put an end to birth.

28

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

The Good Hearted Letter
LVII. Since not even ash will remain as all things - the earth,
Mount Sumeru and the ocean - will be consumed by the flames ofthe seven suns,4 what need to say anything of very frail men.
Even immense and enduring phenomena like mountains,rivers, oceans, continents, the earth, planets and stars arise andperish. Everything is impermanent, so your frail and fragile bodywill certainly be destroyed.
LVIII. O best of men, since everything is impermanent, devoid ofself, refugeless, protectorless, and homeless, free your mind fromSa^s/ra which is like the pithless plantain tree.
Just as your own body is impermanent, so also the whole
universe is impermanent. The wheel of cyclical existence continually
goes round and round, without substance, soul or prospect ofbetterment. Therefore resolve to renounce the world.
LIX. O lord of men, make this (human life) fruitful by practising theHoly Dharma, for it is more difficult to obtain a human birth fromanimal states than for a tortoise to place (its neck) in the opening ina wooden yoke present in the same ocean.
Think of how difficult it is to obtain a human birth and how
rare the eighteen opportune conditions5 needed for the practice of
the Dharma are.
Imagine that the universe is an ocean on the surface of which
is a wooden yoke blown about by the wind and tossed by the waves.
And, imagine that on the bottom of this ocean lives a blind tortoisethat once every one hundred years comes to the surface. It is evenmore difficult to obtain a human birth than it is for the blind
tortoise to place its neck through the opening in the yoke.
There is no example adequate to illustrate the difficulty ofobtaining a human birth together with the eighteen opportune
conditions. Therefore do not waste this human life, but use it topractice the Dharma.
27

LX. Having obtained a human birth, one who commits unwholesome
actions is more foolish than one who fills a jewel adorned goldenvase with vomit.
There is no greater fool than one who fails to take advantage
of a human life to practice the Dharma and to strive for liberation.
LXI. You possess the four great conditions: dwelling in a suitable
place, relying upon the Holy Ones, having religiously applied
yourself in former (lives), and collected merit.
In addition to human life and the eighteen opportune
conditions, there are also four other special conditions:(i) birth in a good family which facilitates entry into the noble path;(ii) access to holy persons who can assist you to practice;(iii) freedom from the necessity to work for your daily maintenance;(iv) accumulation of merit in the past that has brought you human
life, the opportune conditions and the preceding three special
conditions.
LXII. The Sage said that reliance upon a spiritual friend completes
the path to holiness. Since very many (people) obtained peace
through relying upon the Conqueror, rely upon the Holy Ones.
The Buddha said that a virtuous friend is the cause of gaining
the path to happiness and freedom. Therefore, consult such a friend
before making any important decision.
LXIII. - LXIV. Whoever is born as a heretic, animal, hungry ghost,hell being, barbarian, fool, long-lived deity or where there is noteaching from a Buddha, is declared to be born in the eight faulty
and unfavorable (states). Having gotten the opportunity to be freefrom them, then strive to put an end to birth.

28

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

You enjoy the great good fortune not to be hampered byconditions inimical to the Dharma, therefore take up the practice ofthe path without further delay. Renounce Sa`s@ra which isimpermanent, and insubstantial, and abandon the fruitless pursuitof worldly ends.

Having enjoyed some of the pleasure of existence, you wantmore of it and are never satisfied. Everyone has been in Sa`s@ra
since beginningless time and has drunk more mothers' milk than
the water in the four oceans. Now, if you do not follow the path toliberation, but continue to follow the ways of foolish common people
bewildered by the darkness of ignorance, then you will have to drink
still more mothers' milk in the future.

LXV. Grieve over Sa^s/ra which is the source of manifold
suffering, such as destitution of (what is) desired, death, disease, oldage, etc., and also listen to some of its faults.
Remember the unsatisfactory nature of Sa`s@ra. People
suffer because they cannot get the things they want. On thecontrary, all sorts of unwanted things happen to them. Even if
people are lucky enough to enjoy a relatively happy life, they will
eventually have to part from the persons and things they love.
Consequently, suffering cannot in any case be avoided in Sa`s@ra.
Therefore cultivate renunciation by meditating upon theunsatisfactory nature of Sa`s@ra.
LXVI. There are no certainties in Sa^s/ra, because fathers become
sons, mothers wives, and enemies friends; likewise, it can happen
conversely.
Everything in Sa`s@ra is uncertain and impermanent. In
successive life- times your son may become your father, and yourfather may become your son; your enemies may become yourfriends, and your friends may become your enemies. Therefore
abandon aversion towards enemies and attachment towards friends.
Do not make distinctions among living beings, for at one
moment, a person may be a friend, and at the next, he may be an
enemy.
LXVII. Everyone has drunk more (mothers') milk than the four
oceans; since worldlings follow after the common herd, they will
have to drink still more than this.
29

LXVIII. Everyone has had a heap of bones so great as to equal or
surpass Mount Sumeru; also, the earth would not suffice to countpellets as big as the seeds of the Juniper tree to equal the mothers(one has had).
Think of the number of times you have died. If each living
being were to collect all the bones he has had from his past births,
then the heap of bones would surpass even Mount Sumeru. So how
many more bones will you collect if you do not follow the path toliberation.
Think too of the number of times you have been born. If you
were to try to count the mothers you have had in the past, it would
be impossible. Even if you were to make small pellets of soil, each as
big as a juniper seed, the whole earth would not be enough.
LXIX. Having become Indra, deserving the reverence (of) the world,(one) will again fall to the earth on account of the force of (previous)
deeds; even having become an universal monarch, (one) will becomea servant of a servant in Sa^s/ra.
Living beings transmigrate from higher states to lower ones.
The king of the gods, Indra, is worshipped by the whole universe.
But when his death occurs he will transmigrate to lower states perhaps even to the hells - due to his previous bad actions. An
universal monarch can also transmigrate into lower states, like thatof a servant's servant. You can never be certain of your place inSa`s@ra.
30

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

You enjoy the great good fortune not to be hampered byconditions inimical to the Dharma, therefore take up the practice ofthe path without further delay. Renounce Sa`s@ra which isimpermanent, and insubstantial, and abandon the fruitless pursuitof worldly ends.

Having enjoyed some of the pleasure of existence, you wantmore of it and are never satisfied. Everyone has been in Sa`s@ra
since beginningless time and has drunk more mothers' milk than
the water in the four oceans. Now, if you do not follow the path toliberation, but continue to follow the ways of foolish common people
bewildered by the darkness of ignorance, then you will have to drink
still more mothers' milk in the future.

LXV. Grieve over Sa^s/ra which is the source of manifold
suffering, such as destitution of (what is) desired, death, disease, oldage, etc., and also listen to some of its faults.
Remember the unsatisfactory nature of Sa`s@ra. People
suffer because they cannot get the things they want. On thecontrary, all sorts of unwanted things happen to them. Even if
people are lucky enough to enjoy a relatively happy life, they will
eventually have to part from the persons and things they love.
Consequently, suffering cannot in any case be avoided in Sa`s@ra.
Therefore cultivate renunciation by meditating upon theunsatisfactory nature of Sa`s@ra.
LXVI. There are no certainties in Sa^s/ra, because fathers become
sons, mothers wives, and enemies friends; likewise, it can happen
conversely.
Everything in Sa`s@ra is uncertain and impermanent. In
successive life- times your son may become your father, and yourfather may become your son; your enemies may become yourfriends, and your friends may become your enemies. Therefore
abandon aversion towards enemies and attachment towards friends.
Do not make distinctions among living beings, for at one
moment, a person may be a friend, and at the next, he may be an
enemy.
LXVII. Everyone has drunk more (mothers') milk than the four
oceans; since worldlings follow after the common herd, they will
have to drink still more than this.
29

LXVIII. Everyone has had a heap of bones so great as to equal or
surpass Mount Sumeru; also, the earth would not suffice to countpellets as big as the seeds of the Juniper tree to equal the mothers(one has had).
Think of the number of times you have died. If each living
being were to collect all the bones he has had from his past births,
then the heap of bones would surpass even Mount Sumeru. So how
many more bones will you collect if you do not follow the path toliberation.
Think too of the number of times you have been born. If you
were to try to count the mothers you have had in the past, it would
be impossible. Even if you were to make small pellets of soil, each as
big as a juniper seed, the whole earth would not be enough.
LXIX. Having become Indra, deserving the reverence (of) the world,(one) will again fall to the earth on account of the force of (previous)
deeds; even having become an universal monarch, (one) will becomea servant of a servant in Sa^s/ra.
Living beings transmigrate from higher states to lower ones.
The king of the gods, Indra, is worshipped by the whole universe.
But when his death occurs he will transmigrate to lower states perhaps even to the hells - due to his previous bad actions. An
universal monarch can also transmigrate into lower states, like thatof a servant's servant. You can never be certain of your place inSa`s@ra.
30

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

LXX. Having long tasted the happiness of caressing the waists andbreasts of the heavenly maidens, once again the very terrible touchof the devices which crush and cut (one's) organs in hell will have to
be endured.

Do not rely upon the pleasure of the heavenly gardens. You
can be born there, but again, you can be reborn in hell. In heaven,you play in The Leisurely Flowing, Mand@kin$ river, and enjoy thecompany of goddesses, yet you can be reborn in hell where The
Unfordable, Vaitara%$ river, is of molten iron.

You can never trust the pleasures of Sa`s@ra. You can beborn in heaven where you enjoy various pleasures: the divine
flowers and scents, and the beautiful goddesses. However, as aresult of past actions you can then be reborn in the burning hells
where you are tortured by heated irons.
Therefore, no pleasure in the world lasts forever, and so itcannot be depended upon, because you can be born into the hells at
any time.
LXXI. Having long dwelt at the summit of Mount Sumeru (where
one's) feet encounter a comfortable and compliant (surface), consider
that again the terrible misery of walking in burning embers andupon decomposed corpses will be experienced.
You cannot depend upon the pleasure which results fromparticular places. You can be born in heaven in a jeweled palace
where the ground is composed of gems and you walk in the luxury ofsoftness. All of your wishes are fulfilled. However, the very
enjoyments derived from these surroundings can result in birth in
the hells where you will have to endure various terrible sufferings.
Therefore, you cannot depend upon anything in Sa`s@ra, for you
can find yourself anywhere within its realms.
LXXII. - LXXIII. Having reached the beautiful gardens and joyfully
played with the heavenly maidens who attend (one), again (one's)feet, hands, ears and nose will be severed by the sword - like leaves
that are in the gardens (of hell). Having entered the celestial
maidens' Mand/kin$ River which is beautiful and endowed withgolden lotuses, once again the salty, difficult to bear and hot
Vaitara%$ River will have to be entered.
31

LXXIV. - LXXV. Having obtained the very great happiness of thegods of the sphere of desire or the dispassionate happiness ofBrahm/,6 again the continuous suffering of having become fuel for
Av$ci's fire will have to be endured. Having attained the state of
the sun or moon and illuminated the whole world by the light of
one's own body, once again having entered into the dense, black
darkness one's own outstretched hand will not be seen.
Do not rely upon either the lower or higher heavenly
pleasures. Born in the heavens you will enjoy more happiness andfreedom than ordinary people because of your religious
accomplishments in the past. Still, because of previous
unwholesome actions you can be born in the worst of the hells, Av$ci.
LXXVI. (Since you) will have to suffer thus, take up the bright lampof the threefold virtue; (otherwise), you alone will have to enter theendless darkness which is not destroyed by sun or moon.
Everything is impermanent, so you might die at any moment.
When the time comes to die, you must go alone, without any help
from relatives or friends. Therefore, if you have the chance topractise virtuous deeds of body, voice and mind, then do so at once.
LXXVII. Living beings who commit offences will always suffer in thehells: Sa^j$va, K/las#tra, Prat/pana, Sa^gh/ta, Raurava,
Av$ci, etc.
Whoever has committed cruel and violent actions through thethree doors, that is, body, speech and mind) will be born in the eight
hot hells:
32

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

LXX. Having long tasted the happiness of caressing the waists andbreasts of the heavenly maidens, once again the very terrible touchof the devices which crush and cut (one's) organs in hell will have to
be endured.

Do not rely upon the pleasure of the heavenly gardens. You
can be born there, but again, you can be reborn in hell. In heaven,you play in The Leisurely Flowing, Mand@kin$ river, and enjoy thecompany of goddesses, yet you can be reborn in hell where The
Unfordable, Vaitara%$ river, is of molten iron.

You can never trust the pleasures of Sa`s@ra. You can beborn in heaven where you enjoy various pleasures: the divine
flowers and scents, and the beautiful goddesses. However, as aresult of past actions you can then be reborn in the burning hells
where you are tortured by heated irons.
Therefore, no pleasure in the world lasts forever, and so itcannot be depended upon, because you can be born into the hells at
any time.
LXXI. Having long dwelt at the summit of Mount Sumeru (where
one's) feet encounter a comfortable and compliant (surface), consider
that again the terrible misery of walking in burning embers andupon decomposed corpses will be experienced.
You cannot depend upon the pleasure which results fromparticular places. You can be born in heaven in a jeweled palace
where the ground is composed of gems and you walk in the luxury ofsoftness. All of your wishes are fulfilled. However, the very
enjoyments derived from these surroundings can result in birth in
the hells where you will have to endure various terrible sufferings.
Therefore, you cannot depend upon anything in Sa`s@ra, for you
can find yourself anywhere within its realms.
LXXII. - LXXIII. Having reached the beautiful gardens and joyfully
played with the heavenly maidens who attend (one), again (one's)feet, hands, ears and nose will be severed by the sword - like leaves
that are in the gardens (of hell). Having entered the celestial
maidens' Mand/kin$ River which is beautiful and endowed withgolden lotuses, once again the salty, difficult to bear and hot
Vaitara%$ River will have to be entered.
31

LXXIV. - LXXV. Having obtained the very great happiness of thegods of the sphere of desire or the dispassionate happiness ofBrahm/,6 again the continuous suffering of having become fuel for
Av$ci's fire will have to be endured. Having attained the state of
the sun or moon and illuminated the whole world by the light of
one's own body, once again having entered into the dense, black
darkness one's own outstretched hand will not be seen.
Do not rely upon either the lower or higher heavenly
pleasures. Born in the heavens you will enjoy more happiness andfreedom than ordinary people because of your religious
accomplishments in the past. Still, because of previous
unwholesome actions you can be born in the worst of the hells, Av$ci.
LXXVI. (Since you) will have to suffer thus, take up the bright lampof the threefold virtue; (otherwise), you alone will have to enter theendless darkness which is not destroyed by sun or moon.
Everything is impermanent, so you might die at any moment.
When the time comes to die, you must go alone, without any help
from relatives or friends. Therefore, if you have the chance topractise virtuous deeds of body, voice and mind, then do so at once.
LXXVII. Living beings who commit offences will always suffer in thehells: Sa^j$va, K/las#tra, Prat/pana, Sa^gh/ta, Raurava,
Av$ci, etc.
Whoever has committed cruel and violent actions through thethree doors, that is, body, speech and mind) will be born in the eight
hot hells:
32

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(i) Reviving Hell, (ii) Black Thread Hell, (iii) Crushing Hell, (iv)
Howling Hell, (v) Great Howling Hell, (vi) Hot Hell, (vii) Great Hot
Hell, (viii) Unremitting Hot Hell.
In addition to the hot hells, there are also Cold Hells andNeighboring Hells. There, the sufferings are long and violent. Onlya few examples are given of the many sufferings experienced inthese hells.

LXXXV. - LXXXVI. As surely as freedom from attachment produces
the most excellent happiness among all happiness, so surely thevery dreadful suffering of Av$ci hell (is the worst) among all
suffering. The suffering that (one sustains) from the violent thrustsof three hundred spears in one day in this world cannot even becompared to a fraction, or a small measure, of hell's suffering.

LXXVIII. There some are pressed like sesamum; similarly, others
are ground into fine powder; some are cut by saws; likewise, others
are split by the very sharp blades of terrible axes.

LXXXVII. Thus, one will experience very terrible suffering for ahundred million years, for as long as (the force of) those nonvirtuous (deeds) is not exhausted, so long will one not be freed fromlife (in the hells).

LXXIX. While a burning stream of thick, molten bronze is poured
into others, some are completely transfixed by heated barbed ironspears.

LXXXVIII. Therefore, by your own skill try not to acquire even an
atom of fault - the seed of these fruits of non-virtue - through yourconduct of body, speech and mind.

LXXX - LXXXI Some with hands outstretched towards the sky are
overpowered by fierce dogs with iron fangs; while others, powerless,are torn asunder by ravens with terrible claws and sharp ironbeaks. Some, being eaten, writhe and utter lamentations when
attacked by various worms and beetles, flesh-flies and tens of
thousands of black bees which cause large terrible wounds.

The sufferings of the hells described above are the effects ofcruel and violent actions of body, speech and mind. Therefore avoid
such actions at all cost. The Master N@g@rjuna recommended thedaily recollection of the hot and cold hells in order to dissuadepeople from committing cruel and violent actions whose effects are
rebirth in the hells.

LXXXII. Again, some with mouths agape are constantly charred inheaps of burning embers; while some, thrust head down, are cooked
like a mass of rice in great cauldrons made of iron.

LXXXIX. Those who abandon the virtue resulting in peace (will beborn) in animal realms where there are also various dreadfulsufferings, such as eating one another, killing, binding, beating, etc.

LXXXIII. - LXXXIV. Having listened to the measureless sufferingof hell, evil-doers, whose nature is adamant, are not shattered into a
thousand pieces; (yet) only the time between the beginning and endof a breath separates them (from hell). As fear arises throughmaking images or seeing pictures of hell, reading, remembering or
hearing about hell - so if one should experience the terrible
consequences, then what need (is there) to say any thing (more)?

33

XC. Some are killed for pearls, wool, bones, meat, or skin; whileothers, powerless, are employed by kicking, striking, whipping or
prodding with iron hooks.
Animals are beaten, abused, maltreated and killed. In
addition, animals are generally ignorant of virtuous actions that
can help them avoid suffering in the future.
34

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(i) Reviving Hell, (ii) Black Thread Hell, (iii) Crushing Hell, (iv)
Howling Hell, (v) Great Howling Hell, (vi) Hot Hell, (vii) Great Hot
Hell, (viii) Unremitting Hot Hell.
In addition to the hot hells, there are also Cold Hells andNeighboring Hells. There, the sufferings are long and violent. Onlya few examples are given of the many sufferings experienced inthese hells.

LXXXV. - LXXXVI. As surely as freedom from attachment produces
the most excellent happiness among all happiness, so surely thevery dreadful suffering of Av$ci hell (is the worst) among all
suffering. The suffering that (one sustains) from the violent thrustsof three hundred spears in one day in this world cannot even becompared to a fraction, or a small measure, of hell's suffering.

LXXVIII. There some are pressed like sesamum; similarly, others
are ground into fine powder; some are cut by saws; likewise, others
are split by the very sharp blades of terrible axes.

LXXXVII. Thus, one will experience very terrible suffering for ahundred million years, for as long as (the force of) those nonvirtuous (deeds) is not exhausted, so long will one not be freed fromlife (in the hells).

LXXIX. While a burning stream of thick, molten bronze is poured
into others, some are completely transfixed by heated barbed ironspears.

LXXXVIII. Therefore, by your own skill try not to acquire even an
atom of fault - the seed of these fruits of non-virtue - through yourconduct of body, speech and mind.

LXXX - LXXXI Some with hands outstretched towards the sky are
overpowered by fierce dogs with iron fangs; while others, powerless,are torn asunder by ravens with terrible claws and sharp ironbeaks. Some, being eaten, writhe and utter lamentations when
attacked by various worms and beetles, flesh-flies and tens of
thousands of black bees which cause large terrible wounds.

The sufferings of the hells described above are the effects ofcruel and violent actions of body, speech and mind. Therefore avoid
such actions at all cost. The Master N@g@rjuna recommended thedaily recollection of the hot and cold hells in order to dissuadepeople from committing cruel and violent actions whose effects are
rebirth in the hells.

LXXXII. Again, some with mouths agape are constantly charred inheaps of burning embers; while some, thrust head down, are cooked
like a mass of rice in great cauldrons made of iron.

LXXXIX. Those who abandon the virtue resulting in peace (will beborn) in animal realms where there are also various dreadfulsufferings, such as eating one another, killing, binding, beating, etc.

LXXXIII. - LXXXIV. Having listened to the measureless sufferingof hell, evil-doers, whose nature is adamant, are not shattered into a
thousand pieces; (yet) only the time between the beginning and endof a breath separates them (from hell). As fear arises throughmaking images or seeing pictures of hell, reading, remembering or
hearing about hell - so if one should experience the terrible
consequences, then what need (is there) to say any thing (more)?

33

XC. Some are killed for pearls, wool, bones, meat, or skin; whileothers, powerless, are employed by kicking, striking, whipping or
prodding with iron hooks.
Animals are beaten, abused, maltreated and killed. In
addition, animals are generally ignorant of virtuous actions that
can help them avoid suffering in the future.
34

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

XCI. Also among hungry ghosts continuous, unallayed suffering is
produced through the lack of desired objects. Very terrible(sufferings) created by fear, hunger, thirst, cold, heat and wearinesswill have to be endured.

Hunger, thirst, cold, heat and weariness. Their sufferings are theresult of avarice and miserliness practised in former lives. Those
who are wealthy, but who refuse to share with others, and who can
only think of accumulating more and more for themselves, are liable
to be born as hungry ghosts. Even if they escape suffering in therealm of hungry ghosts, and are born among human beings, they arelikely to be very poor.

The realm of the hungry ghosts is one of the three lower
realms, and like the hells and the realm of animals, various horrible
sufferings are experience there. The suffering experienced by thehungry ghosts is the effect of avarice and miserliness.
XCII. Some, troubled by hunger, are not even able to eat a little
discarded, coarse, or foul (food), (for each has) a mouth as big as theeye of a needle and a stomach the size of a mountain.
XCIII. Some, like the upper reaches of a dried palmyra tree, arenaked with bodies of skin and bones; while some, with flamesnightly (issuing) from (their) mouths, devour food of burning sandwhich has fallen into (their) mouths.
XCIV. Some poor ones cannot even find impure (food) like pus,
excrement, blood, etc., so, striking one another's faces, (they) eat thepus of ripened goitres growing from (their fellows') throats.
XCV. For them even the moon is hot in the summertime, while eventhe sun is cold in the winter; trees become fruitless and rivers dry
up if only looked upon by them.
XCVI. Having endured uninterrupted suffering, some individuals securely bound by the noose of evil deeds committed - will not die forfive or even ten thousand years.
XCVII. The Buddha said, "Though the sufferings which areexperienced by hungry ghosts are various, they are of one taste; thecause is the avarice, miserliness and ignobility of people".
In general, the sufferings of hungry ghosts are:35

XCVIII. Also, (as a result) of the great pleasures in the heavens, thesuffering of death and transmigration is greater; having
contemplated thus, nobles should not crave for heaven which will
come to an end.
The gods enjoy so much wealth, pleasure and peace that they
never think of death or of practicing religion. However, theirposition is not permanent. At the time of their approaching death,they experience great mental anguish. They can see the sufferingthat will befall them in the near future. Consequently, theirsuffering is even greater than the physical suffering of the lower
realms.
XCIX. - C. Their bodies' complexion becomes ugly, they do not like tosit, their garlands of flowers wither, their clothes become soiled, andsweat appears on their bodies - (all of which) never happened before.
Just as on earth the signs of dying foretell man's approaching death,so these five former signs presage the death and transmigration of
the gods dwelling in heaven.
When the gods are about to die, these five signs appear.
(i) They lose their great beauty and become ugly for the first time.
(ii) They become bored and restless for the first time.
(iii) Their flower garlands wither and die for the first time.
(iv) Their clothing becomes soiled for the first time.
(v) Their bodies become soiled and sweaty for the first time.
Then the gods know that they are about to die, and theyrealize that they have never thought about religion. They see the36The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

XCI. Also among hungry ghosts continuous, unallayed suffering is
produced through the lack of desired objects. Very terrible(sufferings) created by fear, hunger, thirst, cold, heat and wearinesswill have to be endured.

Hunger, thirst, cold, heat and weariness. Their sufferings are theresult of avarice and miserliness practised in former lives. Those
who are wealthy, but who refuse to share with others, and who can
only think of accumulating more and more for themselves, are liable
to be born as hungry ghosts. Even if they escape suffering in therealm of hungry ghosts, and are born among human beings, they arelikely to be very poor.

The realm of the hungry ghosts is one of the three lower
realms, and like the hells and the realm of animals, various horrible
sufferings are experience there. The suffering experienced by thehungry ghosts is the effect of avarice and miserliness.
XCII. Some, troubled by hunger, are not even able to eat a little
discarded, coarse, or foul (food), (for each has) a mouth as big as theeye of a needle and a stomach the size of a mountain.
XCIII. Some, like the upper reaches of a dried palmyra tree, arenaked with bodies of skin and bones; while some, with flamesnightly (issuing) from (their) mouths, devour food of burning sandwhich has fallen into (their) mouths.
XCIV. Some poor ones cannot even find impure (food) like pus,
excrement, blood, etc., so, striking one another's faces, (they) eat thepus of ripened goitres growing from (their fellows') throats.
XCV. For them even the moon is hot in the summertime, while eventhe sun is cold in the winter; trees become fruitless and rivers dry
up if only looked upon by them.
XCVI. Having endured uninterrupted suffering, some individuals securely bound by the noose of evil deeds committed - will not die forfive or even ten thousand years.
XCVII. The Buddha said, "Though the sufferings which areexperienced by hungry ghosts are various, they are of one taste; thecause is the avarice, miserliness and ignobility of people".
In general, the sufferings of hungry ghosts are:35

XCVIII. Also, (as a result) of the great pleasures in the heavens, thesuffering of death and transmigration is greater; having
contemplated thus, nobles should not crave for heaven which will
come to an end.
The gods enjoy so much wealth, pleasure and peace that they
never think of death or of practicing religion. However, theirposition is not permanent. At the time of their approaching death,they experience great mental anguish. They can see the sufferingthat will befall them in the near future. Consequently, theirsuffering is even greater than the physical suffering of the lower
realms.
XCIX. - C. Their bodies' complexion becomes ugly, they do not like tosit, their garlands of flowers wither, their clothes become soiled, andsweat appears on their bodies - (all of which) never happened before.
Just as on earth the signs of dying foretell man's approaching death,so these five former signs presage the death and transmigration of
the gods dwelling in heaven.
When the gods are about to die, these five signs appear.
(i) They lose their great beauty and become ugly for the first time.
(ii) They become bored and restless for the first time.
(iii) Their flower garlands wither and die for the first time.
(iv) Their clothing becomes soiled for the first time.
(v) Their bodies become soiled and sweaty for the first time.
Then the gods know that they are about to die, and theyrealize that they have never thought about religion. They see the36The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

lower realms into which they are about to fall and the suffering they
will experience.
CI. If there is not any merit remaining when transmigrating fromthe worlds of the gods, then, powerless, (they) will dwell as either
animals, hungry ghosts or denizens of hell.
The gods will fall from higher realms to lower ones. If themerit they have accumulated in former lives is completely
exhausted, they will be reborn even in the realms of woe. Then thesuffering of the gods will indeed be great.
CII. Also among the demigods, there is great mental suffering
because of natural hostility toward the splendor of the gods; though
they are also intelligent the truth is not seen (by them) due to theveil of (their) Karma.
The realm of the demigods is permitted by mental suffering.
The demigods are envious of the gods, because they cannot equalthem in wealth and splendor. Although the demigods are wiser
than human beings, they are so thoroughly conditioned by this strife
that they cannot see the truth.
CIII.
Sa^s/ra is thus (as explained above), therefore birth isunfortunate among gods, human beings, denizens of hell, hungry
ghosts and animals. Realize that birth is a receptacle of many ills.
Reflect upon the unsatisfactory nature of Sa`s@ra. The
afflictions and Karma are the cause of rebirth in the six realms.
Therefore to avoid rebirth in Sa`s@ra, the afflictions and Karma
have to be eliminated.
CIV. (As you would) extinguish a fire if it suddenly caught hold of
your clothes or head, just so strive to put an end to rebirth throughrenouncing Karma for there is no other aim more excellent than
this.
37

Attaining Nirv@%a is a big project, so begin as soon as
possible. Put into practice the path which can lead to release fromSa`s@ra without wasting another moment.
CV. Through morality, wisdom and concentration gain the peaceful,subdued and untainted state of Nirv/%a which is ageless,deathless, inexhaustible, and devoid of earth, water, fire, air, sunand moon.
These three are the principal divisions of the Noble Eightfold
Path. Practice them, put an end to the afflictions and Karma andattain Nirv@%a which is transcendental. Various epithets are
traditionally used to indicate the extraordinary nature of Nirv@%a.
Therefore, it is said to be peaceful and the like, or it is said to be
beyond the four material elements: earth and so forth.
CVI. These seven limbs of enlightenment - mindfulness,investigation, energy, interest, tranquillity, concentration, andequanimity- are the accumulation of virtue which is the cause of
attaining Nirv/%a.
The seven limbs of Enlightenment were taught by the
Buddha and have long been regarded as important keys to achieving
the ultimate goal of Buddhism.
(i) Mindfulness leads the group, because it is with mindfulness thatthe way to Nirv@%a begins.
(ii) Investigation of factors (dharmas) preserves vigilance on thepath.
(iii) Energy is needed to maintain progress on the path.
(iv) Interest is characterized by joy and lends enthusiasm to thepractice.
(v) Tranquillity of mind is the fruit of eliminating the afflictions.
(vi) Concentration is synonymous with one-pointedness of mind.
(vii) Equanimity is an integrated state of mind free from chronic
instability.
38The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

lower realms into which they are about to fall and the suffering they
will experience.
CI. If there is not any merit remaining when transmigrating fromthe worlds of the gods, then, powerless, (they) will dwell as either
animals, hungry ghosts or denizens of hell.
The gods will fall from higher realms to lower ones. If themerit they have accumulated in former lives is completely
exhausted, they will be reborn even in the realms of woe. Then thesuffering of the gods will indeed be great.
CII. Also among the demigods, there is great mental suffering
because of natural hostility toward the splendor of the gods; though
they are also intelligent the truth is not seen (by them) due to theveil of (their) Karma.
The realm of the demigods is permitted by mental suffering.
The demigods are envious of the gods, because they cannot equalthem in wealth and splendor. Although the demigods are wiser
than human beings, they are so thoroughly conditioned by this strife
that they cannot see the truth.
CIII.
Sa^s/ra is thus (as explained above), therefore birth isunfortunate among gods, human beings, denizens of hell, hungry
ghosts and animals. Realize that birth is a receptacle of many ills.
Reflect upon the unsatisfactory nature of Sa`s@ra. The
afflictions and Karma are the cause of rebirth in the six realms.
Therefore to avoid rebirth in Sa`s@ra, the afflictions and Karma
have to be eliminated.
CIV. (As you would) extinguish a fire if it suddenly caught hold of
your clothes or head, just so strive to put an end to rebirth throughrenouncing Karma for there is no other aim more excellent than
this.
37

Attaining Nirv@%a is a big project, so begin as soon as
possible. Put into practice the path which can lead to release fromSa`s@ra without wasting another moment.
CV. Through morality, wisdom and concentration gain the peaceful,subdued and untainted state of Nirv/%a which is ageless,deathless, inexhaustible, and devoid of earth, water, fire, air, sunand moon.
These three are the principal divisions of the Noble Eightfold
Path. Practice them, put an end to the afflictions and Karma andattain Nirv@%a which is transcendental. Various epithets are
traditionally used to indicate the extraordinary nature of Nirv@%a.
Therefore, it is said to be peaceful and the like, or it is said to be
beyond the four material elements: earth and so forth.
CVI. These seven limbs of enlightenment - mindfulness,investigation, energy, interest, tranquillity, concentration, andequanimity- are the accumulation of virtue which is the cause of
attaining Nirv/%a.
The seven limbs of Enlightenment were taught by the
Buddha and have long been regarded as important keys to achieving
the ultimate goal of Buddhism.
(i) Mindfulness leads the group, because it is with mindfulness thatthe way to Nirv@%a begins.
(ii) Investigation of factors (dharmas) preserves vigilance on thepath.
(iii) Energy is needed to maintain progress on the path.
(iv) Interest is characterized by joy and lends enthusiasm to thepractice.
(v) Tranquillity of mind is the fruit of eliminating the afflictions.
(vi) Concentration is synonymous with one-pointedness of mind.
(vii) Equanimity is an integrated state of mind free from chronic
instability.
38

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

The Good Hearted Letter

CVII. Without wisdom there is no concentration, and, again,
without concentration there is no wisdom; but for one who has thesetwo, the ocean of existence is made to be like (the water in) a cow's
hoof-print.
The union of concentration and wisdom or calm and insighthave always been regarded as essential for understanding the truth
about reality and attaining freedom. The Buddha united
concentration and wisdom on the night of His enlightenment andperceived directly interdependent origination. Thereby, he became
the Enlightened One, the teacher of gods and men who knew how
things arise and how they cease. Ever since, Buddhist masters haveemphasized the importance of joining concentration and wisdom.
Without concentration, it's impossible to develop wisdom, because a
distracted and agitated mind is not a fit instrument forunderstanding the truth. However, concentration without wisdom isa vain achievement since it only brings about temporary relief from
suffering and not a permanent solution to the real problems of life.
However a practitioner who develops concentration and achieves acalm and steady mind and conjoins it with wisdom - theunderstanding of the interdependence and emptiness of all things,
will gain mastery over the afflictions and Karma and will reduce theocean of Sa`s@ra to insignificance.
CVIII. These fourteen pronouncements which were declared by the
Kinsman of the Sun to be inexpressible in the world are notconducive to peace of mind, so do not speculate upon them.
Do not worry about the fourteen theories which do not lead toliberation. The fourteen are like shackles, a wilderness or a fever.
They are not conducive to release from Sa`s@ra because they are
misleading and obscure the path to Nirv@%a. They are the fourteen
propositions put to the Buddha and to which the Buddha refused toascent.

39(i) the universe is (a) eternal, (b) not eternal, (c) both eternal andnot eternal, and (d) neither eternal nor not eternal.
(ii) That the universe is (a) finite, (b) infinite, (c) both finite andinfinite, and (d) neither finite nor infinite.
(iii) That the Tath@gata (a) exists after death, (b) does not exist after
death, (c) both exists and does not exist after death, and (d) neither
exists nor does not exist after death.
(iv) That the soul is (a) identical with the body, or (b) different fromthe body.
CIX. - CXI. The Sage declared, "From ignorance originate volitions,from the latter consciousness, from consciousness originate nameand form, from name and form originate the six sense organs, fromthe sense organs contact, from contact originates feeling, from thefoundation of feeling originates craving, from craving grasping, fromgrasping originates becoming, from becoming birth occurs - if there
is birth, then a very great heap of suffering ensues, such as sorrow,disease, old age, frustration, fear of death, etc.; however, by putting
an end to birth, all these will cease."
CXII. This (doctrine of) Interdependent Origination is the profoundand precious treasure of the teaching of the Conqueror; who rightly
sees this (Interdependent Origination) sees the most excellent
Buddha, the Knower of Reality.
The Buddha has been universally revered as the teacher ofInterdependent Origination. Ordinary people are bound in Sa`s@ra,because they fail to understand Interdependent Origination. Whenthey understand Interdependent Origination, they will know thetruth. They will see the insubstantiality of the self and theemptiness of all factors of existence, and will gain freedom. They
will realize that all factors of experience are like the moon's
reflection in water, neither existent nor non-existent.7

40

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

The Good Hearted Letter

CVII. Without wisdom there is no concentration, and, again,
without concentration there is no wisdom; but for one who has thesetwo, the ocean of existence is made to be like (the water in) a cow's
hoof-print.
The union of concentration and wisdom or calm and insighthave always been regarded as essential for understanding the truth
about reality and attaining freedom. The Buddha united
concentration and wisdom on the night of His enlightenment andperceived directly interdependent origination. Thereby, he became
the Enlightened One, the teacher of gods and men who knew how
things arise and how they cease. Ever since, Buddhist masters haveemphasized the importance of joining concentration and wisdom.
Without concentration, it's impossible to develop wisdom, because a
distracted and agitated mind is not a fit instrument forunderstanding the truth. However, concentration without wisdom isa vain achievement since it only brings about temporary relief from
suffering and not a permanent solution to the real problems of life.
However a practitioner who develops concentration and achieves acalm and steady mind and conjoins it with wisdom - theunderstanding of the interdependence and emptiness of all things,
will gain mastery over the afflictions and Karma and will reduce theocean of Sa`s@ra to insignificance.
CVIII. These fourteen pronouncements which were declared by the
Kinsman of the Sun to be inexpressible in the world are notconducive to peace of mind, so do not speculate upon them.
Do not worry about the fourteen theories which do not lead toliberation. The fourteen are like shackles, a wilderness or a fever.
They are not conducive to release from Sa`s@ra because they are
misleading and obscure the path to Nirv@%a. They are the fourteen
propositions put to the Buddha and to which the Buddha refused toascent.

39(i) the universe is (a) eternal, (b) not eternal, (c) both eternal andnot eternal, and (d) neither eternal nor not eternal.
(ii) That the universe is (a) finite, (b) infinite, (c) both finite andinfinite, and (d) neither finite nor infinite.
(iii) That the Tath@gata (a) exists after death, (b) does not exist after
death, (c) both exists and does not exist after death, and (d) neither
exists nor does not exist after death.
(iv) That the soul is (a) identical with the body, or (b) different fromthe body.
CIX. - CXI. The Sage declared, "From ignorance originate volitions,from the latter consciousness, from consciousness originate nameand form, from name and form originate the six sense organs, fromthe sense organs contact, from contact originates feeling, from thefoundation of feeling originates craving, from craving grasping, fromgrasping originates becoming, from becoming birth occurs - if there
is birth, then a very great heap of suffering ensues, such as sorrow,disease, old age, frustration, fear of death, etc.; however, by putting
an end to birth, all these will cease."
CXII. This (doctrine of) Interdependent Origination is the profoundand precious treasure of the teaching of the Conqueror; who rightly
sees this (Interdependent Origination) sees the most excellent
Buddha, the Knower of Reality.
The Buddha has been universally revered as the teacher ofInterdependent Origination. Ordinary people are bound in Sa`s@ra,because they fail to understand Interdependent Origination. Whenthey understand Interdependent Origination, they will know thetruth. They will see the insubstantiality of the self and theemptiness of all factors of existence, and will gain freedom. They
will realize that all factors of experience are like the moon's
reflection in water, neither existent nor non-existent.7

40

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

CXIII. In order to attain peace practice these eight parts of thePath: right view, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness,right concentration, right speech, right action and right thought.
There are various arrangements of the parts of the Noble
Eightfold Path. A common division has the parts of the patharranged in three groups: morality - right action, speech andlivelihood, Meditation - right effort, mindfulness and concentrationand Wisdom - right view and right thought. Here however the partsof the Path are arranged in four groups as follows.
(i) Right view investigates the nature of the Ultimate Truth.
(ii) Right thought reveals manifold objects.
(iii) Right livelihood, speech and action cause others to produce
faith.
(iv) Right mindfulness, concentration and effort correct theafflictions.
CXIV. - CXV. This birth is suffering; craving is called the great
origin of that (suffering); its cessation is liberation; and the path toattain that (liberation) is the Noble Eightfold Path. Therefore
always try to realize the Four Noble Truths, for even lay people
dwelling in the lap of prosperity cross the river of the afflictions by
this knowledge.
Birth, sickness, old age and death are suffering. The
afflictions: ignorance, craving and so forth and Karma are the cause.
Nirv@%a, the end of all suffering is cessation. The Noble Eightfold
Path is the way to the end of suffering. Therefore, know suffering;
remove the cause; attain cessation and practice the Path. You do nothave to be a monk to attain Nirv@%a. Even lay people like theBuddha's own father attained liberation just by knowing the Four
Noble Truths.
CXVI. Those who realized the Truth neither fell from the sky nor
sprang up from the womb of the earth like grain, as they wereformerly persons subject to the afflictions.
41

Liberated people have left behind the first two Truths andhave attained the latter two. Formerly, they suffered and were
subject to the afflictions just like ordinary people. However, they
resolved to change their situation, consulted religious authorities,
practiced the Path and attained the highest goal. Therefore, anyone
can become an Arhat, Bodhisattva or a Buddha if only he or she
decides to apply themselves.
CXVII. Oh fearless one, the Blessed One said that the mind is theroot of virtue, so discipline your mind; this is beneficial and usefuladvice, so what need (is there) to say anything more.
As things stand now, you are controlled by your mind, and inturn your mind is subject to the afflictions and distractions. No
wonder then that you are unhappy and distressed, affected by allsorts of troubles. But if only you could control your mind, then you
could realize peace, happiness and freedom. The mind is the key toradically changing your way of experiencing the world and your own
state of being. The Buddha and Buddhist masters have always
emphasized the importance of the mind. Therefore, concentrate
upon disciplining your own mind, and you will see a definite
improvement in the quality of your life.
CXVIII. It is difficult even for a monk in isolation to follow thecounsel which has been given to you: (yet) make this life meaningful
through cultivating the quality of the essence of any of thesepractices.
Even if you can't follow all the advice given in this letter, doyour best to practice as much of it as you can. Then your life will nothave been wasted, but will have been worthwhile. You will certainly
achieve greater happiness and prosperity now and in the future, andeventually you will gain freedom.

42

The Good Hearted Letter

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

CXIII. In order to attain peace practice these eight parts of thePath: right view, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness,right concentration, right speech, right action and right thought.
There are various arrangements of the parts of the Noble
Eightfold Path. A common division has the parts of the patharranged in three groups: morality - right action, speech andlivelihood, Meditation - right effort, mindfulness and concentrationand Wisdom - right view and right thought. Here however the partsof the Path are arranged in four groups as follows.
(i) Right view investigates the nature of the Ultimate Truth.
(ii) Right thought reveals manifold objects.
(iii) Right livelihood, speech and action cause others to produce
faith.
(iv) Right mindfulness, concentration and effort correct theafflictions.
CXIV. - CXV. This birth is suffering; craving is called the great
origin of that (suffering); its cessation is liberation; and the path toattain that (liberation) is the Noble Eightfold Path. Therefore
always try to realize the Four Noble Truths, for even lay people
dwelling in the lap of prosperity cross the river of the afflictions by
this knowledge.
Birth, sickness, old age and death are suffering. The
afflictions: ignorance, craving and so forth and Karma are the cause.
Nirv@%a, the end of all suffering is cessation. The Noble Eightfold
Path is the way to the end of suffering. Therefore, know suffering;
remove the cause; attain cessation and practice the Path. You do nothave to be a monk to attain Nirv@%a. Even lay people like theBuddha's own father attained liberation just by knowing the Four
Noble Truths.
CXVI. Those who realized the Truth neither fell from the sky nor
sprang up from the womb of the earth like grain, as they wereformerly persons subject to the afflictions.
41

Liberated people have left behind the first two Truths andhave attained the latter two. Formerly, they suffered and were
subject to the afflictions just like ordinary people. However, they
resolved to change their situation, consulted religious authorities,
practiced the Path and attained the highest goal. Therefore, anyone
can become an Arhat, Bodhisattva or a Buddha if only he or she
decides to apply themselves.
CXVII. Oh fearless one, the Blessed One said that the mind is theroot of virtue, so discipline your mind; this is beneficial and usefuladvice, so what need (is there) to say anything more.
As things stand now, you are controlled by your mind, and inturn your mind is subject to the afflictions and distractions. No
wonder then that you are unhappy and distressed, affected by allsorts of troubles. But if only you could control your mind, then you
could realize peace, happiness and freedom. The mind is the key toradically changing your way of experiencing the world and your own
state of being. The Buddha and Buddhist masters have always
emphasized the importance of the mind. Therefore, concentrate
upon disciplining your own mind, and you will see a definite
improvement in the quality of your life.
CXVIII. It is difficult even for a monk in isolation to follow thecounsel which has been given to you: (yet) make this life meaningful
through cultivating the quality of the essence of any of thesepractices.
Even if you can't follow all the advice given in this letter, doyour best to practice as much of it as you can. Then your life will nothave been wasted, but will have been worthwhile. You will certainly
achieve greater happiness and prosperity now and in the future, andeventually you will gain freedom.

42

The Good Hearted Letter
CXIX. - CXXa. Having rejoiced in the virtues of all (living beings),
having also dedicated your threefold good conduct to the attainmentof Buddhahood, and having mastered the whole of yoga, then you
will have countless births in the realms of gods and human beings
through this heap of merit.
CXXb. - CXXI. Born like ;rya Avalokite=vara aiding through(his) conduct many stricken people and dispelling disease, old age,
attachment and hatred, for limitless lifetimes like the Protector of
the world, the Blessed One Amit/bha in His Buddha-field.
Through practicing the path, become like Avalokite^vara - theGreat Bodhisattva - who born of his own free will in Sa`s@ra,
relieves the suffering of all living beings and encourages them totread the path to happiness and liberation. Become too likeAmit@bha - the Heavenly Buddha - who dwells eternally in his
Buddha-field,8 The Happy land or Western Paradise where henurtures the religious capacities of living beings so that they may
attain to the final goal.
CXXII. - CXXIII. Having spread to the gods' realms, the sky and on
the earth (your) great unblemished fame arising from wisdom,
morality and giving, and having surely subdued the delight of gods
in heaven and men on earth in the enjoyment of good young women,
and having gained the Lordship of the Conquerors extinguishing thearising of fear and death for multitudes of living beings oppressedby the afflictions, attain the faultless, ageless, fearless state (whichis) peaceful, only a name and transcendent.
Master the wisdom of the conventional and ultimate truths.
Practice the perfections of the Bodhisattva, giving and the like. In
this way you will become an example to all in the world and inheaven. When you have become a great Bodhisattva or Buddha, youwill exist as long as living beings exist to relieve their suffering andto show them the way to happiness and freedom.
43

Part Two

The Heart of Interdependent
Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

The Heart of Interdependent Originationcommentary. The Sanskrit text of The Heart of Interdependent
Origination is no longer extant, therefore the text we used for thetranslation is the Tibetan version which appears in the Tan Gyur
(mDo XVII). The Tibetan translation was made in the first quarter

Section One
An Introduction to Nagarjuna's Heart ofInterdependent Origination
All Buddhist schools have denied the existence of the self as
an identical permanent and immutable substance which experiences
the results of former actions. They have also universally rejected thenotion of a supreme god. They have however accepted the relative
reality of pre-existence and subsequent rebirth as well as theprovisional efficiency of actions (Karma). Those who adhere to thedoctrine of the self have opposed this view, because as they contend,
denial of an identical permanent and immutable self controverts theefficiency of actions and the doctrine of rebirth. The Buddhist
schools have replied to this objection with the doctrine ofInterdependent Origination.
The doctrine of Interdependent Origination has been
expounded at length by the Buddha in numerous discourses, mostnotably in the /@listambas#tra1 wherein the famous and often cited
example of the Interdependent Origination of the sprout appears.
Commentaries to the discourse were composed by Buddhist masters,such as N@g@rjuna and Kamala^$la. As the Madhyamaka system isbased upon an interpretation of Interdependent Origination, this
doctrine has been central to its inception and development.
N@g@rjuna, the foremost exponent of the Madhyamaka, has written
extensively on the subject of Interdependent Origination. Among his
works are counted his commentary to the /@listambas#tra,[rya^@listambak@rik@n@mamah@y@nas#trat$k@ and the twentysixth chapter of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, and its
commentary the Dv@das@<gaparik&@n@masa}vi`^atiprakara%a aswell as The Heart of Interdependent Origination and its auto47of the ninth century by Jinamitra, D@na^$la, /$lendrabodhi and Yeshes-sde under the patronage of the then Tibetan king, Khri-sdesrong-tsan. The Heart of Interdependent Origination is widely
attributed to N@g@rjuna. In this case, the traditional attribution has
been largely accepted by modern scholars, not least on the strengthof the fact that Candrak$rti cites a stanza and a half from the workin The Clearly Worded (Prasannapad@) his commentary to The

Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.

Nonetheless, it seems reasonable to assume that only the first
five of the seven stanzas which currently constitute the text in the
Tibetan Canon actually belong to the original. This assumption
follows from the fact that the auto-commentary covers only the first
five stanzas, and from the fact that the sixth and seventh stanzas
may be found in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas and in The
Ornament of the Special Commitments (Abhisamay@la`k@ra).
The Heart of Interdependent Origination, although short, isundoubtedly an important work, because of the axiological nature of
the topic which it treats. The value of a declamatory and didactic
statement on the part of N@g@rjuna with regard to the central
doctrine of the Buddhist tradition, Interdependent Origination, canscarcely be questioned given the polemical nature of works like The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way and Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas. Therefore, the treatment accorded to the doctrineof Interdependent Origination by N@g@rjuna in The Heart ofInterdependent Origination has to be seen as having a formative
function for the whole of the Mah@y@na tradition.
The doctrine of Interdependent Origination has from the very
first been of paramount importance for practitioners of the Buddhist
faith. In the /@listambas#tra, the Lord, the Buddha has said, "Themonk who sees Interdependent Origination, sees the Dharma. He
who sees the Dharma, sees the Buddha." While all the schools of
Buddhism have without exception accepted the teaching of48

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

The Heart of Interdependent Originationcommentary. The Sanskrit text of The Heart of Interdependent
Origination is no longer extant, therefore the text we used for thetranslation is the Tibetan version which appears in the Tan Gyur
(mDo XVII). The Tibetan translation was made in the first quarter

Section One
An Introduction to Nagarjuna's Heart ofInterdependent Origination
All Buddhist schools have denied the existence of the self as
an identical permanent and immutable substance which experiences
the results of former actions. They have also universally rejected thenotion of a supreme god. They have however accepted the relative
reality of pre-existence and subsequent rebirth as well as theprovisional efficiency of actions (Karma). Those who adhere to thedoctrine of the self have opposed this view, because as they contend,
denial of an identical permanent and immutable self controverts theefficiency of actions and the doctrine of rebirth. The Buddhist
schools have replied to this objection with the doctrine ofInterdependent Origination.
The doctrine of Interdependent Origination has been
expounded at length by the Buddha in numerous discourses, mostnotably in the /@listambas#tra1 wherein the famous and often cited
example of the Interdependent Origination of the sprout appears.
Commentaries to the discourse were composed by Buddhist masters,such as N@g@rjuna and Kamala^$la. As the Madhyamaka system isbased upon an interpretation of Interdependent Origination, this
doctrine has been central to its inception and development.
N@g@rjuna, the foremost exponent of the Madhyamaka, has written
extensively on the subject of Interdependent Origination. Among his
works are counted his commentary to the /@listambas#tra,[rya^@listambak@rik@n@mamah@y@nas#trat$k@ and the twentysixth chapter of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, and its
commentary the Dv@das@<gaparik&@n@masa}vi`^atiprakara%a aswell as The Heart of Interdependent Origination and its auto47of the ninth century by Jinamitra, D@na^$la, /$lendrabodhi and Yeshes-sde under the patronage of the then Tibetan king, Khri-sdesrong-tsan. The Heart of Interdependent Origination is widely
attributed to N@g@rjuna. In this case, the traditional attribution has
been largely accepted by modern scholars, not least on the strengthof the fact that Candrak$rti cites a stanza and a half from the workin The Clearly Worded (Prasannapad@) his commentary to The

Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.

Nonetheless, it seems reasonable to assume that only the first
five of the seven stanzas which currently constitute the text in the
Tibetan Canon actually belong to the original. This assumption
follows from the fact that the auto-commentary covers only the first
five stanzas, and from the fact that the sixth and seventh stanzas
may be found in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas and in The
Ornament of the Special Commitments (Abhisamay@la`k@ra).
The Heart of Interdependent Origination, although short, isundoubtedly an important work, because of the axiological nature of
the topic which it treats. The value of a declamatory and didactic
statement on the part of N@g@rjuna with regard to the central
doctrine of the Buddhist tradition, Interdependent Origination, canscarcely be questioned given the polemical nature of works like The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way and Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas. Therefore, the treatment accorded to the doctrineof Interdependent Origination by N@g@rjuna in The Heart ofInterdependent Origination has to be seen as having a formative
function for the whole of the Mah@y@na tradition.
The doctrine of Interdependent Origination has from the very
first been of paramount importance for practitioners of the Buddhist
faith. In the /@listambas#tra, the Lord, the Buddha has said, "Themonk who sees Interdependent Origination, sees the Dharma. He
who sees the Dharma, sees the Buddha." While all the schools of
Buddhism have without exception accepted the teaching of48

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Interdependent
Origination,
it
has
been
interpreted
characteristically by the various schools. The Mah@y@na Buddhist
accepts the interpretation of Interdependent Origination as it was
expounded by N@g@rjuna and Asa<ga, the founders of the Middle
Way (madhyamaka) and the Mind Only (cittam@tra) schools
respectively. Both adopt the threefold cyclical classification of thetwelve constituents of Interdependent Origination from The
Discourse of the Ten Stages (Da^abh#mikas#tra).2 In The Heart ofInterdependent Origination, N@g@rjuna explains that the twoalternatives of permanence and annihilation or the denial ofcontinuity are avoided through the teaching of Interdependent
Origination. N@g@rjuna, moreover, declares that Interdependent
Origination is equivalent to Emptiness. Therefore Interdependent
Origination is the very foundation of N@g@rjuna's conception of theultimate truth.
The text, particularly if read along with the auto-commentary
as the stanzas alone are extremely schematic, reveals an orientation
rather different from that of Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas andEmptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. It is also markedly different in its
object and purpose from other well known works of N@g@rjuna like
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way. Firstly, it is clear that
The Heart of Interdependent Origination is an elementary text
meant to introduce the rank novice to the central doctrine of
Buddhism specially as it is understood by the Mah@y@na tradition.
In so far as it is elementary in nature, it is not primarily directedagainst the views of the Buddhist Realists. On the other hand theother texts included in this book as well as The Foundation Stanzas
are clearly aimed at establishing theof the Middle Way
Madhyamaka philosophy in the minds of the pre-Madhyamaka
Buddhists.
The Heart of Interdependent Origination is directed at a
general audience hardly, if at all, familiar with Buddhist tenets.
This much is obvious from a number of important clues. In the firstplace, there appears a lengthy list of erroneous causes of the worldof experience which includes the favorite doctrines of several nonBuddhist schools. The S@`khya doctrine of origination of the world

through the interaction of primordial matter and spirit is alluded toas is the doctrine of the Materialists who maintained that chance
was the prime mover in the creative process. The doctrine of theNaiy@yikas who were also known as advocates of time, K@lav@dins
is also mentioned. A similar list of erroneous causes of theorigination of the world also appears in N@g@rjuna's The Good
Hearted Letter but there too the text is admittedly an elementaryand introductory one.
Later, we find a rhetorical question posed regarding theidentity of the self and the ostensible creative function of a supreme
self or god. Thereby with a single deft stroke, N@g@rjuna manages toreply both to the doctrine of an identical self and to that of a creatorgod. Both doctrines were undoubtedly popular, but neither can in
any way be identified with any Buddhist school. Even the muchmaligned Personalists (Pudgalav@dins) of the middle period of thedevelopment of the final Buddhist conception of personality cannot
be supposed to be the object of this critique, particularly as neither
they nor any other Buddhist school ever went so far as to advocate
the creative function of a supreme self. In the light of these
considerations, it seems apparent that the text is chiefly meant toestablish the Buddhist doctrine of Interdependent Origination
implying as it does from the Madhyamaka standpoint, thecontinuity of cause and effect, the avoidance of alternative views
and ultimately Emptiness. A case can also be made for assertingthat The Refutation of Objections (Vigrahavy@vartan$) is also
largely directed against non-Buddhist. In the case of that text, theopponent is usually thought to be a Naiy@yika because of thefrequent appearance of the Ny@ya categories of logic. However, it
should be recalled that The Refutation of Objections also contains
references to wholesome and unwholesome factors which would
seem to implicate the Buddhist realist system of soteriology.
Perhaps the most important message of the text is to be foundin its insistence upon the cyclical nature of the twelve constituentsof Interdependent Origination. This, it seems to us, is a significant
improvement upon the linear scheme which is found in mostAbhidharma or Vigrahavy@vartan$ treatments of the subject. There,

49

50

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Interdependent
Origination,
it
has
been
interpreted
characteristically by the various schools. The Mah@y@na Buddhist
accepts the interpretation of Interdependent Origination as it was
expounded by N@g@rjuna and Asa<ga, the founders of the Middle
Way (madhyamaka) and the Mind Only (cittam@tra) schools
respectively. Both adopt the threefold cyclical classification of thetwelve constituents of Interdependent Origination from The
Discourse of the Ten Stages (Da^abh#mikas#tra).2 In The Heart ofInterdependent Origination, N@g@rjuna explains that the twoalternatives of permanence and annihilation or the denial ofcontinuity are avoided through the teaching of Interdependent
Origination. N@g@rjuna, moreover, declares that Interdependent
Origination is equivalent to Emptiness. Therefore Interdependent
Origination is the very foundation of N@g@rjuna's conception of theultimate truth.
The text, particularly if read along with the auto-commentary
as the stanzas alone are extremely schematic, reveals an orientation
rather different from that of Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas andEmptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. It is also markedly different in its
object and purpose from other well known works of N@g@rjuna like
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way. Firstly, it is clear that
The Heart of Interdependent Origination is an elementary text
meant to introduce the rank novice to the central doctrine of
Buddhism specially as it is understood by the Mah@y@na tradition.
In so far as it is elementary in nature, it is not primarily directedagainst the views of the Buddhist Realists. On the other hand theother texts included in this book as well as The Foundation Stanzas
are clearly aimed at establishing theof the Middle Way
Madhyamaka philosophy in the minds of the pre-Madhyamaka
Buddhists.
The Heart of Interdependent Origination is directed at a
general audience hardly, if at all, familiar with Buddhist tenets.
This much is obvious from a number of important clues. In the firstplace, there appears a lengthy list of erroneous causes of the worldof experience which includes the favorite doctrines of several nonBuddhist schools. The S@`khya doctrine of origination of the world

through the interaction of primordial matter and spirit is alluded toas is the doctrine of the Materialists who maintained that chance
was the prime mover in the creative process. The doctrine of theNaiy@yikas who were also known as advocates of time, K@lav@dins
is also mentioned. A similar list of erroneous causes of theorigination of the world also appears in N@g@rjuna's The Good
Hearted Letter but there too the text is admittedly an elementaryand introductory one.
Later, we find a rhetorical question posed regarding theidentity of the self and the ostensible creative function of a supreme
self or god. Thereby with a single deft stroke, N@g@rjuna manages toreply both to the doctrine of an identical self and to that of a creatorgod. Both doctrines were undoubtedly popular, but neither can in
any way be identified with any Buddhist school. Even the muchmaligned Personalists (Pudgalav@dins) of the middle period of thedevelopment of the final Buddhist conception of personality cannot
be supposed to be the object of this critique, particularly as neither
they nor any other Buddhist school ever went so far as to advocate
the creative function of a supreme self. In the light of these
considerations, it seems apparent that the text is chiefly meant toestablish the Buddhist doctrine of Interdependent Origination
implying as it does from the Madhyamaka standpoint, thecontinuity of cause and effect, the avoidance of alternative views
and ultimately Emptiness. A case can also be made for assertingthat The Refutation of Objections (Vigrahavy@vartan$) is also
largely directed against non-Buddhist. In the case of that text, theopponent is usually thought to be a Naiy@yika because of thefrequent appearance of the Ny@ya categories of logic. However, it
should be recalled that The Refutation of Objections also contains
references to wholesome and unwholesome factors which would
seem to implicate the Buddhist realist system of soteriology.
Perhaps the most important message of the text is to be foundin its insistence upon the cyclical nature of the twelve constituentsof Interdependent Origination. This, it seems to us, is a significant
improvement upon the linear scheme which is found in mostAbhidharma or Vigrahavy@vartan$ treatments of the subject. There,

49

50

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

as is well known, the twelve are also divided into three categories,
however the division is much less sophisticated and also lesssatisfactory for a number of reasons which we will attempt to detail.
The rather simplistic schematization of the twelve
constituents essayed by the Buddhist Realists merely assigns thefirst two constituents, ignorance and volitions, to the past life. The
next eight from consciousness to becoming to the present life andthe final two, birth and old age and death, to the future life. This
linear and serial arrangement leaves several questions unanswered.
Firstly, what happens next? Are we to assume that after birth andold age and death which as we have seen belong to the future life,
ignorance and volitions simply take over again and so repeat thethree lives procedure? Then what about the present life? Is it
reasonable to suppose that ignorance and volitions which are said tobelong to the past life simply disappear?
Although scholastic
solutions may have been proposed in an attempt to solve any or allof these problems, on the whole, we cannot help but conclude thatthe three lives scheme is at best rather artificial.
On the other hand, the division of the twelve into the three
categories of afflictions, actions and sufferings which removes themfrom a serial progression and thereby detemporalizes themaltogether has definite logical and psychological advantages. wewould argue that the doctrine of Interdependent Origination isessentially synonymous with that of the Four Noble Truths, andmost patently with the first two, the truths of suffering and its
origin. The latter two truths, cessation and the path can be easily
extrapolated from the constituents of Interdependent Origination
merely by deconstructing them. In as much as the movement toward
liberation is agreed to be a negative process, that is to say, an
undoing of the knot of Sa`s@ra rather than the achievement ofanything concrete, this is perfectly plausible. If our assumption iscorrect, then the truth of the cause of suffering is expressly stated toconsist of afflictions and actions, and so N@g@rjuna's scheme is incomplete harmony with this conception. Besides, let us take a look
for a moment at how afflictions and actions function to produce
suffering. The afflictions: ignorance, craving and clinging, in thecase of the twelve, are states of intellectual and emotional
obscuration and perturbation. The absence of aversion or ill will
which often occurs listed along side ignorance and craving or
attachment need not bother us, because craving and clinging which
are states of emotional attachment are obviously complimented bytheir opposite, that is aversion, ill will or anger. These states ofintellectual and emotional confusion naturally impel one to actions,for the simple reason that an intellectual and emotional imbalance
as a matter of course leads to volitional or intentional actions meant
to secure the misapprehended objects of desire, or alternatively,
remove the equally misapprehended objects of aversion. The first of
the components of actions according to the scheme of the twelve
presented in The Heart of Interdependent Origination are volitions.
Even taken by themselves, volitions have a static as well as adynamic facet. The static and dynamic aspects are reflected in thealternative translations of the original term sa`sk@ra: mental
formations, predispositions, volitions etc. Taken together withbecoming which here represents the critical force which impels one
to continued rebirth, the actions category clearly constitutes the
specific cause of particular forms of experience, all of which taken
together may be classified as sufferings. Now if we examine for a
moment the seven constituents which
comprise the category of
sufferings in N@g@rjuna's scheme we will see that it includes:
consciousness, name and form, the six sense spheres, contact,
feeling, birth and old age and death. All of the foregoing clearlymake up the stuff of ordinary experience, the conscious as opposedto the unconscious, or semi conscious categories of afflictions andactions. The effect, in general, of such experience is to reinforce, notto dissolve the causes of the experience of suffering. Therefore, it isentirely reasonable to suppose that from these seven, in turn, three
originate,3 that is to say, the experience of ordinary sentient beings,
if left unchecked by appropriate techniques, naturally contributes tothe perpetuation of the wheel of existence, the circle of Sa`s@ra.
In The Heart of Interdependent Origination, N@g@rjuna
firmly establishes causality as the basis of the phenomenal world,
but this affirmation is emphatically linked with the declaration of51

52

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

as is well known, the twelve are also divided into three categories,
however the division is much less sophisticated and also lesssatisfactory for a number of reasons which we will attempt to detail.
The rather simplistic schematization of the twelve
constituents essayed by the Buddhist Realists merely assigns thefirst two constituents, ignorance and volitions, to the past life. The
next eight from consciousness to becoming to the present life andthe final two, birth and old age and death, to the future life. This
linear and serial arrangement leaves several questions unanswered.
Firstly, what happens next? Are we to assume that after birth andold age and death which as we have seen belong to the future life,
ignorance and volitions simply take over again and so repeat thethree lives procedure? Then what about the present life? Is it
reasonable to suppose that ignorance and volitions which are said tobelong to the past life simply disappear?
Although scholastic
solutions may have been proposed in an attempt to solve any or allof these problems, on the whole, we cannot help but conclude thatthe three lives scheme is at best rather artificial.
On the other hand, the division of the twelve into the three
categories of afflictions, actions and sufferings which removes themfrom a serial progression and thereby detemporalizes themaltogether has definite logical and psychological advantages. wewould argue that the doctrine of Interdependent Origination isessentially synonymous with that of the Four Noble Truths, andmost patently with the first two, the truths of suffering and its
origin. The latter two truths, cessation and the path can be easily
extrapolated from the constituents of Interdependent Origination
merely by deconstructing them. In as much as the movement toward
liberation is agreed to be a negative process, that is to say, an
undoing of the knot of Sa`s@ra rather than the achievement ofanything concrete, this is perfectly plausible. If our assumption iscorrect, then the truth of the cause of suffering is expressly stated toconsist of afflictions and actions, and so N@g@rjuna's scheme is incomplete harmony with this conception. Besides, let us take a look
for a moment at how afflictions and actions function to produce
suffering. The afflictions: ignorance, craving and clinging, in thecase of the twelve, are states of intellectual and emotional
obscuration and perturbation. The absence of aversion or ill will
which often occurs listed along side ignorance and craving or
attachment need not bother us, because craving and clinging which
are states of emotional attachment are obviously complimented bytheir opposite, that is aversion, ill will or anger. These states ofintellectual and emotional confusion naturally impel one to actions,for the simple reason that an intellectual and emotional imbalance
as a matter of course leads to volitional or intentional actions meant
to secure the misapprehended objects of desire, or alternatively,
remove the equally misapprehended objects of aversion. The first of
the components of actions according to the scheme of the twelve
presented in The Heart of Interdependent Origination are volitions.
Even taken by themselves, volitions have a static as well as adynamic facet. The static and dynamic aspects are reflected in thealternative translations of the original term sa`sk@ra: mental
formations, predispositions, volitions etc. Taken together withbecoming which here represents the critical force which impels one
to continued rebirth, the actions category clearly constitutes the
specific cause of particular forms of experience, all of which taken
together may be classified as sufferings. Now if we examine for a
moment the seven constituents which
comprise the category of
sufferings in N@g@rjuna's scheme we will see that it includes:
consciousness, name and form, the six sense spheres, contact,
feeling, birth and old age and death. All of the foregoing clearlymake up the stuff of ordinary experience, the conscious as opposedto the unconscious, or semi conscious categories of afflictions andactions. The effect, in general, of such experience is to reinforce, notto dissolve the causes of the experience of suffering. Therefore, it isentirely reasonable to suppose that from these seven, in turn, three
originate,3 that is to say, the experience of ordinary sentient beings,
if left unchecked by appropriate techniques, naturally contributes tothe perpetuation of the wheel of existence, the circle of Sa`s@ra.
In The Heart of Interdependent Origination, N@g@rjuna
firmly establishes causality as the basis of the phenomenal world,
but this affirmation is emphatically linked with the declaration of51

52

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

the equivalence of causality and Emptiness. From factors (whichare) only empty, empty factors originate.4
This brief andunelaborated declaration reveals the central theme of N@g@rjuna's
philosophy.
The commentary discusses the Emptiness of factors in termsof the absence in them of self and that which pertains to a self(@tma-@tm$ya). The first term is generally understood by all who
have had some experience with Buddhist thought, but the latter issometimes a source of puzzlement. In fact, the term really refers to
the aggregates or general constituents which are believed tocompose the personality. If we look even closer at the meaning of thephrase, "that which pertains to a self", we will see that it also
implies the manifold of factors (dharmas). The eighteenth chapter of
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, for instance, bears thetitle [tmadharmapar$k&@ in the Tibetan and Chinese renderings ofthe name of the chapter. The fact is that the aggregates are justwhat the name implies, that is aggregates of factors, and so thefactors are just fragments of experience which collectively receive
the name aggregates. Therefore, the insubstantiality of the self inthe context of this text is not restricted to the not-self of early
Buddhism, but is also extended to include the insubstantiality offactors (dharmanair@tmya) or Emptiness itself.
Although N@g@rjuna does not allow any misapprehension toenter the mind of his interlocutor regarding the emptiness offactors, his concern in The Heart of Interdependent Origination isto emphasize the equipoise between causality and Emptiness on thephenomenal level and particularly, in the sphere of psychologicaland even moral reality. While the factors are empty, they
nonetheless do originate after a fashion. If they did not, and therelationship between cause and effect were wholly discarded, itwould result in the extreme alternative of nihilism which is morally
and existentially abhorrent, because it leads to aggravated states ofsuffering. Therefore, in the world, factors originate from causes. The
advocates of an identical self which may be assumed to belong by
and large to the Brahmanical or priestly tradition in Indianphilosophy would argue for the existence of an identical self which

could, in their view, safeguard the psychological and moral
continuity of a series of existences, but this is equally untenable. An
identical self could never respond to the contortions imposed upon
the personality by the effects of intentional actions. As Candrak$rti
was to put it later, "Such an identical self would necessarily be a
non-entity, a flower growing in the sky" with no relevance to action
and consequence.
But what then exactly is the relationship between the empty
factors which function as causes and the equally empty factors
which appear as effects? N@g@rjuna supplies a list of examples bymeans of which the unfathomable but all too familiar phenomenon
is to be understood. The list includes such well known favorites as
the instance of the kindling of a lamp from a flame, but it also
introduces some rather novel examples such as the first, that of oral
instructions which is elaborated in the commentary. The example
has a peculiar relevance if we recall that the whole text is set in thecontext of a master's instruction of a disciple. The conclusion is thatfrom a cause, an effect originates, but whether cause and effect are
identical or different is inexpressible.
The notion of inexpressibility is central to the concluding
portions of the text, although it is perhaps not as obvious in
N@g@rjuna's other works. So much so that an outstanding scholar of
Madhyamaka philosophy some years ago was lead to state in printthat "unlike the Ved@nta, the Madhyamaka never sets up
inexpressibility as a truth value." According to him, N@g@rjuna opts
for absolute negation instead. The statement would of course nothave been made if the author had been familiar with and had
accepted the very clear declaration in The Heart of Interdependent
Origination. Actually, the advocacy of inexpressibility in so far as
the functioning of cause and effect in the phenomenal world isconcerned isn't all that strange to the Madhyamaka. Candrak$rti, in
elucidating phenomenal causality, and causality can of course only
be phenomenal, describes the Madhyamaka point of view by
likening it to that of the man in the street or the farmer in the field.
Such a person simply takes cognizance of the fact that having
formerly planted a seed, a son is born, or alternatively, a tree has

53

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The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

the equivalence of causality and Emptiness. From factors (whichare) only empty, empty factors originate.4
This brief andunelaborated declaration reveals the central theme of N@g@rjuna's
philosophy.
The commentary discusses the Emptiness of factors in termsof the absence in them of self and that which pertains to a self(@tma-@tm$ya). The first term is generally understood by all who
have had some experience with Buddhist thought, but the latter issometimes a source of puzzlement. In fact, the term really refers to
the aggregates or general constituents which are believed tocompose the personality. If we look even closer at the meaning of thephrase, "that which pertains to a self", we will see that it also
implies the manifold of factors (dharmas). The eighteenth chapter of
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, for instance, bears thetitle [tmadharmapar$k&@ in the Tibetan and Chinese renderings ofthe name of the chapter. The fact is that the aggregates are justwhat the name implies, that is aggregates of factors, and so thefactors are just fragments of experience which collectively receive
the name aggregates. Therefore, the insubstantiality of the self inthe context of this text is not restricted to the not-self of early
Buddhism, but is also extended to include the insubstantiality offactors (dharmanair@tmya) or Emptiness itself.
Although N@g@rjuna does not allow any misapprehension toenter the mind of his interlocutor regarding the emptiness offactors, his concern in The Heart of Interdependent Origination isto emphasize the equipoise between causality and Emptiness on thephenomenal level and particularly, in the sphere of psychologicaland even moral reality. While the factors are empty, they
nonetheless do originate after a fashion. If they did not, and therelationship between cause and effect were wholly discarded, itwould result in the extreme alternative of nihilism which is morally
and existentially abhorrent, because it leads to aggravated states ofsuffering. Therefore, in the world, factors originate from causes. The
advocates of an identical self which may be assumed to belong by
and large to the Brahmanical or priestly tradition in Indianphilosophy would argue for the existence of an identical self which

could, in their view, safeguard the psychological and moral
continuity of a series of existences, but this is equally untenable. An
identical self could never respond to the contortions imposed upon
the personality by the effects of intentional actions. As Candrak$rti
was to put it later, "Such an identical self would necessarily be a
non-entity, a flower growing in the sky" with no relevance to action
and consequence.
But what then exactly is the relationship between the empty
factors which function as causes and the equally empty factors
which appear as effects? N@g@rjuna supplies a list of examples bymeans of which the unfathomable but all too familiar phenomenon
is to be understood. The list includes such well known favorites as
the instance of the kindling of a lamp from a flame, but it also
introduces some rather novel examples such as the first, that of oral
instructions which is elaborated in the commentary. The example
has a peculiar relevance if we recall that the whole text is set in thecontext of a master's instruction of a disciple. The conclusion is thatfrom a cause, an effect originates, but whether cause and effect are
identical or different is inexpressible.
The notion of inexpressibility is central to the concluding
portions of the text, although it is perhaps not as obvious in
N@g@rjuna's other works. So much so that an outstanding scholar of
Madhyamaka philosophy some years ago was lead to state in printthat "unlike the Ved@nta, the Madhyamaka never sets up
inexpressibility as a truth value." According to him, N@g@rjuna opts
for absolute negation instead. The statement would of course nothave been made if the author had been familiar with and had
accepted the very clear declaration in The Heart of Interdependent
Origination. Actually, the advocacy of inexpressibility in so far as
the functioning of cause and effect in the phenomenal world isconcerned isn't all that strange to the Madhyamaka. Candrak$rti, in
elucidating phenomenal causality, and causality can of course only
be phenomenal, describes the Madhyamaka point of view by
likening it to that of the man in the street or the farmer in the field.
Such a person simply takes cognizance of the fact that having
formerly planted a seed, a son is born, or alternatively, a tree has

53

54

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

sprung up. He by no means goes into the abstract and quite uselessbusiness of speculating about whether the seed and the son or tree
are identical or different. The problem however did not go away
altogether and teachers of Buddhism have always had to resort toexamples of a similar kind to illustrate the continuity of causality inthe absence of identity. An Empress of China, for instance, is said tohave been convinced of the doctrine only when shown the
progression of flames appearing in individual lamps lit successively
and then being asked whether the first and last flame were identicalor different. What answer could there be other thaninexpressibility?
The auto commentary to The Heart of Interdependent
Origination also contains, early on, two more analogies which we
think it worth calling to the attention of the reader. Not because
they are altogether unknown, although the first is better known
than the second, but rather because they illustrate twocomplimentary currents in the development of Buddhist thought.
The first belongs to the analytical current characteristic of much of
the Buddhist Realist tradition and perhaps best represented in thefirst book of the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka, The Collection of Factors(Dhammasangani). It is the example of a chariot, or better, theconstituents of a chariot. It is best known as a stock analogy for
explaining the doctrine of not-self in the context of the theory of theaggregates or factors. It appears in The Questions of King Milinda
for this very purpose and it represents those analytical, or to use amodern expression, reductionist tendencies in Buddhist philosophy.
The second and less well known analogy is that of the roof
beams of a house which depend one upon another. This analogy
reflects the relational or synthetic current in Buddhist philosophy.
Like the analytical current, it has its Canonical origins, in this case,in The Book of Relations (Patth@na) the last of the seven books of
the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka. In modern terms, it represents areaction to a totally analytical or reductionist approach to reality
and introduces an holistic vision which comes more and more to thefore in Mah@y@na and Madhyamaka philosophy. The appearance of
these two analogies in the auto commentary, almost casually as it

would seem, is nonetheless significant, because it signals theimportance of these two currents in Buddhist thought, currents
which not to put too fine a point on it, were hardly duplicated in theWest until the Twentieth century.
In conclusion, perhaps a word or two about the style of thecomposition of the text might be in order. In keeping with theelementary nature of the work, the style is hardly as complex or
technical as that of texts like Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas not
to mention The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way. The greaterpart of the text is strictly didactic, and it is in this manner that thethreefold division supported by N@g@rjuna is presented.
Nonetheless, the latter portions of the work do contain a couple ofarguments ad absurdum and the use of simile or example also
features as it does so prominently in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas.
It might almost be said that the text taken as a whole
together with its auto commentary is Upanishadic in tone. However
it would be a mistake to read too much into this resemblance.
Although the style and content of the text may appear at first glance
similar to the famous Upanishadic dialogue wherein the notion ofactions and their effects in future lives, in other words, Karma, isfirst introduced into the Brahmanical tradition, the rigorously
logical and analytical approach of the Buddhist thinker remains
unmistakable. Notwithstanding its elementary character, The Heartof Interdependent Origination is still a work of systematic
philosophy, or if the reader prefers, psychology belonging to the
Abhidharmic tradition.
The text was first translated by me together with an old andvalued colleague many many years ago, and we must admit that ingeneral we have not made any significant changes to the originaltranslation. The text is simply too precise and concise to in its form
to allow for any creative transformation as the euphemism goes.
Despite the consistency of the version presented here with earliertranslations of the text done by us, we would like to underline thefact that each time we look at The Heart of Interdependent
Origination again, we find new levels of meaning, new possible
implications and new pregnant suggestions. All of this is an

55

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The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

sprung up. He by no means goes into the abstract and quite uselessbusiness of speculating about whether the seed and the son or tree
are identical or different. The problem however did not go away
altogether and teachers of Buddhism have always had to resort toexamples of a similar kind to illustrate the continuity of causality inthe absence of identity. An Empress of China, for instance, is said tohave been convinced of the doctrine only when shown the
progression of flames appearing in individual lamps lit successively
and then being asked whether the first and last flame were identicalor different. What answer could there be other thaninexpressibility?
The auto commentary to The Heart of Interdependent
Origination also contains, early on, two more analogies which we
think it worth calling to the attention of the reader. Not because
they are altogether unknown, although the first is better known
than the second, but rather because they illustrate twocomplimentary currents in the development of Buddhist thought.
The first belongs to the analytical current characteristic of much of
the Buddhist Realist tradition and perhaps best represented in thefirst book of the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka, The Collection of Factors(Dhammasangani). It is the example of a chariot, or better, theconstituents of a chariot. It is best known as a stock analogy for
explaining the doctrine of not-self in the context of the theory of theaggregates or factors. It appears in The Questions of King Milinda
for this very purpose and it represents those analytical, or to use amodern expression, reductionist tendencies in Buddhist philosophy.
The second and less well known analogy is that of the roof
beams of a house which depend one upon another. This analogy
reflects the relational or synthetic current in Buddhist philosophy.
Like the analytical current, it has its Canonical origins, in this case,in The Book of Relations (Patth@na) the last of the seven books of
the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka. In modern terms, it represents areaction to a totally analytical or reductionist approach to reality
and introduces an holistic vision which comes more and more to thefore in Mah@y@na and Madhyamaka philosophy. The appearance of
these two analogies in the auto commentary, almost casually as it

would seem, is nonetheless significant, because it signals theimportance of these two currents in Buddhist thought, currents
which not to put too fine a point on it, were hardly duplicated in theWest until the Twentieth century.
In conclusion, perhaps a word or two about the style of thecomposition of the text might be in order. In keeping with theelementary nature of the work, the style is hardly as complex or
technical as that of texts like Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas not
to mention The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way. The greaterpart of the text is strictly didactic, and it is in this manner that thethreefold division supported by N@g@rjuna is presented.
Nonetheless, the latter portions of the work do contain a couple ofarguments ad absurdum and the use of simile or example also
features as it does so prominently in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas.
It might almost be said that the text taken as a whole
together with its auto commentary is Upanishadic in tone. However
it would be a mistake to read too much into this resemblance.
Although the style and content of the text may appear at first glance
similar to the famous Upanishadic dialogue wherein the notion ofactions and their effects in future lives, in other words, Karma, isfirst introduced into the Brahmanical tradition, the rigorously
logical and analytical approach of the Buddhist thinker remains
unmistakable. Notwithstanding its elementary character, The Heartof Interdependent Origination is still a work of systematic
philosophy, or if the reader prefers, psychology belonging to the
Abhidharmic tradition.
The text was first translated by me together with an old andvalued colleague many many years ago, and we must admit that ingeneral we have not made any significant changes to the originaltranslation. The text is simply too precise and concise to in its form
to allow for any creative transformation as the euphemism goes.
Despite the consistency of the version presented here with earliertranslations of the text done by us, we would like to underline thefact that each time we look at The Heart of Interdependent
Origination again, we find new levels of meaning, new possible
implications and new pregnant suggestions. All of this is an

55

56

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

eloquent testimony to the depth of N@g@rjuna's thought and to his
skill in expressing profound and far reaching intuitions in a very
few words.

Section Two
The Stanzas of
The Heart of Interdependent Origination
Salutations to Ma~ju^r$ The Youthfully Transformed.
I. The twelve individual constituents of Interdependent Origination
which were taught by the Sage are wholly included in three:afflictions, actions and suffering.
II. The first, eighth and ninth are afflictions, the second and tenth
are actions, and the remaining seven are sufferings. Thus thetwelve factors are included in three.
III. From the three, two originate; from the two, seven originate;
and from these seven, in turn, the three originate. Thus the wheel ofexistence revolves again and again.
IV. The whole world is cause and effect; excluding this, there is nosentient being. From factors (which are) only empty, empty factors
originate.
V. Through the examples of: oral instruction, a lamp, a mirror, aseal, a sun-crystal, a seed, sourness and sound, the wise should
understand the non-transmigration as well as the re-emergence of
the aggregates.
VI. Those who impute origination even in regard to very subtle
entities, being unwise, have not seen the meaning of conditioned
origination.

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The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

eloquent testimony to the depth of N@g@rjuna's thought and to his
skill in expressing profound and far reaching intuitions in a very
few words.

Section Two
The Stanzas of
The Heart of Interdependent Origination
Salutations to Ma~ju^r$ The Youthfully Transformed.
I. The twelve individual constituents of Interdependent Origination
which were taught by the Sage are wholly included in three:afflictions, actions and suffering.
II. The first, eighth and ninth are afflictions, the second and tenth
are actions, and the remaining seven are sufferings. Thus thetwelve factors are included in three.
III. From the three, two originate; from the two, seven originate;
and from these seven, in turn, the three originate. Thus the wheel ofexistence revolves again and again.
IV. The whole world is cause and effect; excluding this, there is nosentient being. From factors (which are) only empty, empty factors
originate.
V. Through the examples of: oral instruction, a lamp, a mirror, aseal, a sun-crystal, a seed, sourness and sound, the wise should
understand the non-transmigration as well as the re-emergence of
the aggregates.
VI. Those who impute origination even in regard to very subtle
entities, being unwise, have not seen the meaning of conditioned
origination.

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The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

VII. Hence, there is nothing to be denied and nothing to be affirmed.
See the real rightly, (for) one who sees the real is released.
The Heart of Interdependent Origination of [c@rya N@g@rjuna iscomplete herein.

Section Three
Nagarjuna's Commentary to The Heart ofInterdependent Origination
The disciple who possesses renunciation and is desirous ofhearing, attentive, retentive, appreciative and able to dispel
imputation, having drawn near to the master, asked thus about thedoctrine of the Tath@gata. In what are The twelve individual
constituents of Interdependent Origination which were taught by
the Sage included, for I beg to see and study (them). The master,
having understood him to ask about the essence of those (twelve)factors, thus spoke these lucid words from the stanza, (these twelve)
are wholly included in three: afflictions, actions and sufferings.
Thus, twelve is ten plus two. Constituents alone areindividual as the constituents of a chariot have been shown to be,
therefore, individual constituents. The Sage, because mighty ofbody, voice and mind, (while) taught by the Sage is synonymouswith demonstrated and elucidated (by him).
The twelve constituents do not originate from causes (like):space, primordial matter, natural order, spirit, nor throughdependence upon others, god, time, intrinsic being,5 chance,
circumstance, free will and so on. They are interdependently
originated. As the roof beams of a house depend upon one another,so these twelve individual constituents are wholly included in three:afflictions, actions and sufferings. Wholly, means all without
remainder.
Which are afflictions, which actions and which sufferings?
How and in what (categories) are these constituents ofInterdependent Origination included?
II. The first, eighth and ninth are afflictions. Of the twelve
constituents, the first is ignorance, the eighth craving and the ninth

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The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

VII. Hence, there is nothing to be denied and nothing to be affirmed.
See the real rightly, (for) one who sees the real is released.
The Heart of Interdependent Origination of [c@rya N@g@rjuna iscomplete herein.

Section Three
Nagarjuna's Commentary to The Heart ofInterdependent Origination
The disciple who possesses renunciation and is desirous ofhearing, attentive, retentive, appreciative and able to dispel
imputation, having drawn near to the master, asked thus about thedoctrine of the Tath@gata. In what are The twelve individual
constituents of Interdependent Origination which were taught by
the Sage included, for I beg to see and study (them). The master,
having understood him to ask about the essence of those (twelve)factors, thus spoke these lucid words from the stanza, (these twelve)
are wholly included in three: afflictions, actions and sufferings.
Thus, twelve is ten plus two. Constituents alone areindividual as the constituents of a chariot have been shown to be,
therefore, individual constituents. The Sage, because mighty ofbody, voice and mind, (while) taught by the Sage is synonymouswith demonstrated and elucidated (by him).
The twelve constituents do not originate from causes (like):space, primordial matter, natural order, spirit, nor throughdependence upon others, god, time, intrinsic being,5 chance,
circumstance, free will and so on. They are interdependently
originated. As the roof beams of a house depend upon one another,so these twelve individual constituents are wholly included in three:afflictions, actions and sufferings. Wholly, means all without
remainder.
Which are afflictions, which actions and which sufferings?
How and in what (categories) are these constituents ofInterdependent Origination included?
II. The first, eighth and ninth are afflictions. Of the twelve
constituents, the first is ignorance, the eighth craving and the ninth

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The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

clinging. Know these three to be afflictions. If it is asked, which areactions? (Then) the second and tenth are actions. the second isvolitions and the tenth becoming. Know these two factors to be
included in actions. And the remaining seven are sufferings. (Five)constituents are included in afflictions and actions. Know the seven
which remain to be included in sufferings. Thus, consciousness,name and form, the six sense spheres, contact, feeling, birth and old
age and death. The word, and, (serves) to include (sufferings which
are not listed among the seven constituents), that is, the sufferingsof separation from the loved, meeting with the despised and of
frustrated desires. Thus, the twelve factors are included in three.
Therefore know these twelve factors as afflictions, actions andsufferings. The (Tibetan) particle ni (which occurs between theword factors) and the phrase are included in three thus indicatesthat there remains part of the sentence (which is wanting), that is,the constituents demonstrated in the discourse are complete herein.
Thus, it has been determined that there are none apart from these.
Just so, but please demonstrate what these afflictions, actions andsufferings originate from.
III. From the three, two originate. From the three which areafflictions: ignorance, craving and clinging, two which are actions,volitions and becoming, originate. From the two (which are actions)seven originate. Thus (those seven) sufferings demonstrated above,(that is: consciousness, name and form, the six sense spheres,contact, feeling, birth and old age and death). From these seven, inturn, the three originate which are afflictions. Thus again, from thethree (which are) afflictions originate two (which are) actions. Thus
the wheel of existence revolves again and again.
(In the world of) becoming there are three (spheres): (those of)desire, form and the formless (sphere). Ordinary people have become
like a wheel which revolves without rest. The (Tibetan) particle, ni,(which occurs between the phrase the wheel of existence and thephrase revolves again and again) thus indicates a sense of
uncertainty. That is, while a wheel revolves serially (each point on
the circumference following upon the preceding one), in the threespheres, it (does) not happen thus. (Therefore) uncertainty is

indicated. Who is called the sentient being,6 the god of all individual
beings? How is his creation?
IV. The whole world is cause and effect, excluding
superimposition, there is no sentient being. That which issuperimposed does not exist when examined, so it is not fitting thatwhat is just nominally existent should exist substantially.
If so, then who transmigrates from this world to the next?
From this to the next world, not so much as an atom transmigrates,
however, from factors (which are) only empty, empty factors
originate. Entities are without self and that pertaining to a self,7thus, afflictions and actions have become the causes. From these
five factors (ignorance, craving, clinging, volitions and becoming)
which are empty, originate sufferings without self and thatpertaining to a self. The seven empty factors (consciousness, nameand form, the six sense spheres, contact, feeling, birth and old age
and death) are alleged8 to be effects. Such is the purport.
Thus, what is without self and that pertaining to a self isneither self nor that pertaining to a self. However, from factors
without self originate factors in their intrinsic being without self.
Thus, understand it as it has been demonstrated.
From factors in their intrinsic being without self originate
only factors in their intrinsic being without self. What are examplesof these?
V. Through the examples of: oral instructions, a lamp, amirror, a seal, a sun-crystal9 a seed, sourness and sound, know also
(what is in its) intrinsic being without self, as well as thesubsequent existence. For instance, if there were transference of the
instructions from the master's mouth to the disciple, then themaster would become deprived of the instructions. Therefore, there
is no transference. Nor are the instructions of the disciple from anyother (source),because if so they would be without cause. As with the
instructions from the masters mouth, so in a like manner, at the
point of death, the mind does not transmigrate to the subsequent
existence, because the error of permanence would follow. Nor does
the subsequent existence originate from any other (source), because
the error of being without a cause would follow. As the master's

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

clinging. Know these three to be afflictions. If it is asked, which areactions? (Then) the second and tenth are actions. the second isvolitions and the tenth becoming. Know these two factors to be
included in actions. And the remaining seven are sufferings. (Five)constituents are included in afflictions and actions. Know the seven
which remain to be included in sufferings. Thus, consciousness,name and form, the six sense spheres, contact, feeling, birth and old
age and death. The word, and, (serves) to include (sufferings which
are not listed among the seven constituents), that is, the sufferingsof separation from the loved, meeting with the despised and of
frustrated desires. Thus, the twelve factors are included in three.
Therefore know these twelve factors as afflictions, actions andsufferings. The (Tibetan) particle ni (which occurs between theword factors) and the phrase are included in three thus indicatesthat there remains part of the sentence (which is wanting), that is,the constituents demonstrated in the discourse are complete herein.
Thus, it has been determined that there are none apart from these.
Just so, but please demonstrate what these afflictions, actions andsufferings originate from.
III. From the three, two originate. From the three which areafflictions: ignorance, craving and clinging, two which are actions,volitions and becoming, originate. From the two (which are actions)seven originate. Thus (those seven) sufferings demonstrated above,(that is: consciousness, name and form, the six sense spheres,contact, feeling, birth and old age and death). From these seven, inturn, the three originate which are afflictions. Thus again, from thethree (which are) afflictions originate two (which are) actions. Thus
the wheel of existence revolves again and again.
(In the world of) becoming there are three (spheres): (those of)desire, form and the formless (sphere). Ordinary people have become
like a wheel which revolves without rest. The (Tibetan) particle, ni,(which occurs between the phrase the wheel of existence and thephrase revolves again and again) thus indicates a sense of
uncertainty. That is, while a wheel revolves serially (each point on
the circumference following upon the preceding one), in the threespheres, it (does) not happen thus. (Therefore) uncertainty is

indicated. Who is called the sentient being,6 the god of all individual
beings? How is his creation?
IV. The whole world is cause and effect, excluding
superimposition, there is no sentient being. That which issuperimposed does not exist when examined, so it is not fitting thatwhat is just nominally existent should exist substantially.
If so, then who transmigrates from this world to the next?
From this to the next world, not so much as an atom transmigrates,
however, from factors (which are) only empty, empty factors
originate. Entities are without self and that pertaining to a self,7thus, afflictions and actions have become the causes. From these
five factors (ignorance, craving, clinging, volitions and becoming)
which are empty, originate sufferings without self and thatpertaining to a self. The seven empty factors (consciousness, nameand form, the six sense spheres, contact, feeling, birth and old age
and death) are alleged8 to be effects. Such is the purport.
Thus, what is without self and that pertaining to a self isneither self nor that pertaining to a self. However, from factors
without self originate factors in their intrinsic being without self.
Thus, understand it as it has been demonstrated.
From factors in their intrinsic being without self originate
only factors in their intrinsic being without self. What are examplesof these?
V. Through the examples of: oral instructions, a lamp, amirror, a seal, a sun-crystal9 a seed, sourness and sound, know also
(what is in its) intrinsic being without self, as well as thesubsequent existence. For instance, if there were transference of the
instructions from the master's mouth to the disciple, then themaster would become deprived of the instructions. Therefore, there
is no transference. Nor are the instructions of the disciple from anyother (source),because if so they would be without cause. As with the
instructions from the masters mouth, so in a like manner, at the
point of death, the mind does not transmigrate to the subsequent
existence, because the error of permanence would follow. Nor does
the subsequent existence originate from any other (source), because
the error of being without a cause would follow. As the master's

61

62

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

instructions are the cause of those of the disciple, (but whether)those (of the disciple) are identical with those (of the master) or
different, is inexpressible. So in a like manner, (whether) the mind
at the point of death and the mind which belongs to (thesubsequent) birth are identical or different is inexpressible.
Similarly, from a flame, an oil lamp (is kindled); from a form, animage is produced in a mirror; from a seal, an impression, from asun-crystal, fire, from a seed, a sprout, from the juice of a sour fruit,saliva is engendered (even in the mouths of others'); or yet again
from a sound, an echo is produced. Thus, the wise should
understand the non-transmigration as well as the re-emergence of
the aggregates.
There are aggregates of form, feeling, perception, volitions
and consciousness. Their re-emergence means that from an
extinguished cause another effect originates, (but) from this world tothe next, not so much as an atom transmigrates. Therefore thewheel of becoming is produced by the propensity for erroneous
imagination. The phrase "as well as" indicates opposition. (That is),the opposite of the re-emergence of the aggregates should (also) be
understood. One who understands entities to be impermanent, fullof suffering, empty and insubstantial will not be deluded in regard
to entities. Free from delusion, attachment will not originate; freefrom attachment, aversion will not originate; free from aversion,actions will not be performed; free from actions, clinging to entities
will not originate; free from clinging to entities, becoming will not beengendered; free from becoming, rebirth will not occur; and freefrom rebirth suffering of the body and mind will not originate. Thus
the erroneous views, the alternatives of permanence andannihilation etc., are dispelled. (In this regard) there are twostanzas.
VI. Those who impute origination even in regard to very
subtle entities, being unwise, have not seen the meaning ofconditioned origination.
VII. Hence, there is nothing to be denied and nothing to beaffirmed. See the real rightly, (for) one who sees the real is released.

The commentary to The Heart of Interdependent Origination iscomplete herein.

63

Translated and corrected by the Indian master Jinamitra,

D@na^$la, /$lendrabodhi and (the Tibetan translator) Bande Ye-

shes-sde etc.

64

The Heart of Interdependent Origination

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

instructions are the cause of those of the disciple, (but whether)those (of the disciple) are identical with those (of the master) or
different, is inexpressible. So in a like manner, (whether) the mind
at the point of death and the mind which belongs to (thesubsequent) birth are identical or different is inexpressible.
Similarly, from a flame, an oil lamp (is kindled); from a form, animage is produced in a mirror; from a seal, an impression, from asun-crystal, fire, from a seed, a sprout, from the juice of a sour fruit,saliva is engendered (even in the mouths of others'); or yet again
from a sound, an echo is produced. Thus, the wise should
understand the non-transmigration as well as the re-emergence of
the aggregates.
There are aggregates of form, feeling, perception, volitions
and consciousness. Their re-emergence means that from an
extinguished cause another effect originates, (but) from this world tothe next, not so much as an atom transmigrates. Therefore thewheel of becoming is produced by the propensity for erroneous
imagination. The phrase "as well as" indicates opposition. (That is),the opposite of the re-emergence of the aggregates should (also) be
understood. One who understands entities to be impermanent, fullof suffering, empty and insubstantial will not be deluded in regard
to entities. Free from delusion, attachment will not originate; freefrom attachment, aversion will not originate; free from aversion,actions will not be performed; free from actions, clinging to entities
will not originate; free from clinging to entities, becoming will not beengendered; free from becoming, rebirth will not occur; and freefrom rebirth suffering of the body and mind will not originate. Thus
the erroneous views, the alternatives of permanence andannihilation etc., are dispelled. (In this regard) there are twostanzas.
VI. Those who impute origination even in regard to very
subtle entities, being unwise, have not seen the meaning ofconditioned origination.
VII. Hence, there is nothing to be denied and nothing to beaffirmed. See the real rightly, (for) one who sees the real is released.

The commentary to The Heart of Interdependent Origination iscomplete herein.

63

Translated and corrected by the Indian master Jinamitra,

D@na^$la, /$lendrabodhi and (the Tibetan translator) Bande Ye-

shes-sde etc.

64

I dedicate this book to the late Khenpo
Migmar Tsering, principal of the Sakya
Institute of Higher Buddhist Studies, Rajpur,
Dehra Dun, India.
His wisdom, compassion and genuine good
humour are greatly missed by his students
and friends.

Part Three
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Section One
An Introduction to
Nagarjuna's Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas is unique among the shorter
texts of N@g@rjuna. It occupies a central place in the philosophicalopus of the author and is second in importance to The Foundation
Stanzas of the Middle Way. The style of the composition of the text
is noticeably different from that in either The Heart ofInterdependent Origination or Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. It
differs markedly also from the style of the great work, The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way which Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas somewhat resembles. Reasoning: The Sixty
Stanzas is less dry, polemical and rhetorical than any of the texts ofN@g@rjuna so far mentioned.
It makes very extensive use of simile throughout the course of
the work. Not that simile does not appear in the other texts named,
but in them, it is a supplement to manifold arguments, or protosyllogisms mostly of the reductio ad absurdum variety. In
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas, the roles of simile and argument
seem to have been inverted, and many well known similes common
to Mah@y@na literature appear often. The magical man, the circle of
the whirling fire brand, the fairy city, dream and the mirage occur
as well as the compelling simile of the moon's reflection in thewater.
The presence of so many similes makes the text particularlyaccessible to the ordinary reader. After all, the simile is a part of thelanguage and experience of the man in the street. The early
M@dhyamikas and Prasa<gikam@dhyamikas always accepted theopinion of the man in the street in regard to the reality of the67

everyday world. Besides, as the saying of dubious origins but not so
dubious meaning goes, "A picture is worth a thousand words."
Of course N@g@rjuna's extensive use of simile in this and evenin other texts is not the result of a peculiar stylistic bent on his part.
The use of simile formed a recognized part of the Indian religious
scholar's arsenal of didactic and polemical weapons. It reflects thelegitimate use of comparison (upam@na), which was an acceptedmeans of knowledge (pram@%a) in India. Later, the Buddhist
logicians, Dign@ga and Dharmak$rti rejected it, but it was always
accepted by the early and later M@dhyamikas. Western scholars ofphilosophy have sometimes disparaged comparison, or simile as avalid means of knowledge.
However, the attitude of the
Madhyamaka to the problematic of communication and persuasion
was always chiefly influenced by the criterion of effectiveness. The
M@dhyamikas like N@g@rjuna and Candrak$rti never troubled
themselves overly much about strict and largely arbitrary
conceptual rules regarding the process of cognition andcomprehension.
No doubt, there may be a real question about the worth ofcomparison if one takes the case of the classical Ny@ya example ofit. There, an interlocutor is told that an unknown animal never seen
by him resembles a cow, and by means of this suggestion, he issupposed to produce an indirect cognition of the unseen animal. The
similes appearing in Buddhist texts which speak of Nirv@%a assimilar to happiness or peace might fall into this category inasmuch
as the unpracticed novice can hardly be expected to produce anadequate cognition of Nirv@%a on the basis of such comparisons.
However, most of the examples of similes which occur in
Madhyamaka literature are not of this kind. Rather than comparing
something unknown, like an unseen animal or an unattained
Nirv@%a with something known, like a cow or happiness which areor may be relatively familiar to the interlocutor, they compare
something quite well known to him with something else equallywell known to him. They merely point out the similarity between
the two phenomena which may well have hither to remained
unnoticed by the unaware individual. For example, the everyday
68Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Section One
An Introduction to
Nagarjuna's Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas is unique among the shorter
texts of N@g@rjuna. It occupies a central place in the philosophicalopus of the author and is second in importance to The Foundation
Stanzas of the Middle Way. The style of the composition of the text
is noticeably different from that in either The Heart ofInterdependent Origination or Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. It
differs markedly also from the style of the great work, The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way which Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas somewhat resembles. Reasoning: The Sixty
Stanzas is less dry, polemical and rhetorical than any of the texts ofN@g@rjuna so far mentioned.
It makes very extensive use of simile throughout the course of
the work. Not that simile does not appear in the other texts named,
but in them, it is a supplement to manifold arguments, or protosyllogisms mostly of the reductio ad absurdum variety. In
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas, the roles of simile and argument
seem to have been inverted, and many well known similes common
to Mah@y@na literature appear often. The magical man, the circle of
the whirling fire brand, the fairy city, dream and the mirage occur
as well as the compelling simile of the moon's reflection in thewater.
The presence of so many similes makes the text particularlyaccessible to the ordinary reader. After all, the simile is a part of thelanguage and experience of the man in the street. The early
M@dhyamikas and Prasa<gikam@dhyamikas always accepted theopinion of the man in the street in regard to the reality of the67

everyday world. Besides, as the saying of dubious origins but not so
dubious meaning goes, "A picture is worth a thousand words."
Of course N@g@rjuna's extensive use of simile in this and evenin other texts is not the result of a peculiar stylistic bent on his part.
The use of simile formed a recognized part of the Indian religious
scholar's arsenal of didactic and polemical weapons. It reflects thelegitimate use of comparison (upam@na), which was an acceptedmeans of knowledge (pram@%a) in India. Later, the Buddhist
logicians, Dign@ga and Dharmak$rti rejected it, but it was always
accepted by the early and later M@dhyamikas. Western scholars ofphilosophy have sometimes disparaged comparison, or simile as avalid means of knowledge.
However, the attitude of the
Madhyamaka to the problematic of communication and persuasion
was always chiefly influenced by the criterion of effectiveness. The
M@dhyamikas like N@g@rjuna and Candrak$rti never troubled
themselves overly much about strict and largely arbitrary
conceptual rules regarding the process of cognition andcomprehension.
No doubt, there may be a real question about the worth ofcomparison if one takes the case of the classical Ny@ya example ofit. There, an interlocutor is told that an unknown animal never seen
by him resembles a cow, and by means of this suggestion, he issupposed to produce an indirect cognition of the unseen animal. The
similes appearing in Buddhist texts which speak of Nirv@%a assimilar to happiness or peace might fall into this category inasmuch
as the unpracticed novice can hardly be expected to produce anadequate cognition of Nirv@%a on the basis of such comparisons.
However, most of the examples of similes which occur in
Madhyamaka literature are not of this kind. Rather than comparing
something unknown, like an unseen animal or an unattained
Nirv@%a with something known, like a cow or happiness which areor may be relatively familiar to the interlocutor, they compare
something quite well known to him with something else equallywell known to him. They merely point out the similarity between
the two phenomena which may well have hither to remained
unnoticed by the unaware individual. For example, the everyday
68Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

world of experience which is well known to the unpractised person
may be compared to the state of dream, another phenomenon also
well known to him. The similarity between the two which he hashither to ignored may be brought home to him by means of the useof comparison. Admittedly, the example of dream is an old favoriteof philosophers who take a Mentalist line, but it remains very
compelling, and recent developments in science and psychology
would appear to support its relevance.
The fact remains that notwithstanding the technicality ofpart of the foregoing considerations and the difficulty of some of thesubjects treated in the text, Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas remains
a highly readable an even entertaining text. This quality is
accounted for not only by the extensive use of simile to which I havealready alluded, but also to a certain colorful character of thelanguage of the work in general. Therefore, we would particularly
recommend it to readers who may not have a taste for the more
cryptic and polemical works.
The principal subject treated by N@g@rjuna in Reasoning: The
Sixty Stanzas is Interdependent Origination. Interdependent
Origination is of course also the subject treated in The Heart ofInterdependent Origination, and its identification as the subject of
this work gives us some indication of the importance of the text.
Interdependent Origination is the real heart of Buddhism in generaland Buddhist soteriological philosophy in particular. While The
Heart of Interdependent Origination presents an ingenious scheme
for understanding the twelve constituents, and establishes theimpossibility of the alternative views of eternalism and nihilism, it
only touches briefly on the Emptiness of the elements ofInterdependent Origination. Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas, on theother hand, is mainly concerned with the demonstration of the factthat Interdependent Origination does not really originate. The
centrality of the theme of Interdependent Origination to Reasoning:
The Sixty Stanzas is evident in the benedictory stanza where
N@g@rjuna acknowledges the Buddha's special achievement inteaching Interdependent Origination. Incidentally, the stanza
closely resembles that which precedes The Foundation Stanzas of

the Middle Way. Candrak$rti, in his commentary, is also keen to
point out the significance of the mention of the Buddha in thecontext of the teaching of Interdependent Origination, and he also
unequivocally declares Interdependent Origination to be theprimary subject of the text.
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas may be seen to occupy a sort of
middle ground between The Heart of Interdependent Origination on
the one hand and Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas on the other.
That is precisely why I decided to place it second in this series oftranslations of three of N@g@rjuna's shorter works. While The Heartof Interdependent Origination gives a rather elementary althoughextremely valuable account of the Mah@y@na version of the doctrineof Interdependent Origination, Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
emphasizes the unoriginated reality of the conventional causal
condition. This leaves the way clear for a rigorous demonstration of
Emptiness, the real state of things.
In addition to the primary theme of Interdependent
Origination, the text also contains some very frank and somewhat
novel discussion of a number of ideas which although they may havebeen treated elsewhere in the body of N@g@rjuna's work emerge
very clearly in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas. One is the question of
the status of Nirv@%a. This subject has a chapter dedicated to it in
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way1 and N@g@rjuna also
treats it briefly in Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, but here thetreatment is particularly clear because the author and his
illustrious commentator express themselves without reservation on
the subject.
The familiar alternatives of existence and non-existence andboth existence and non-existence are presented and rejectedaccording to recognizable patterns, but the case for the relativity
and illusory nature of Nirv@%a is stated without caution orequivocation. Following the spirit of the analogy found in The Lotus
S#tra, (Saddharmapu%}ar$kas#tra) the text explains that Nirv@%a
is just an antidote taught by the Buddhas in order to lure ordinary
people away from their attachment to the world of existence. It has
no independent status at all either as an entity or a non-entity.

69

70

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

world of experience which is well known to the unpractised person
may be compared to the state of dream, another phenomenon also
well known to him. The similarity between the two which he hashither to ignored may be brought home to him by means of the useof comparison. Admittedly, the example of dream is an old favoriteof philosophers who take a Mentalist line, but it remains very
compelling, and recent developments in science and psychology
would appear to support its relevance.
The fact remains that notwithstanding the technicality ofpart of the foregoing considerations and the difficulty of some of thesubjects treated in the text, Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas remains
a highly readable an even entertaining text. This quality is
accounted for not only by the extensive use of simile to which I havealready alluded, but also to a certain colorful character of thelanguage of the work in general. Therefore, we would particularly
recommend it to readers who may not have a taste for the more
cryptic and polemical works.
The principal subject treated by N@g@rjuna in Reasoning: The
Sixty Stanzas is Interdependent Origination. Interdependent
Origination is of course also the subject treated in The Heart ofInterdependent Origination, and its identification as the subject of
this work gives us some indication of the importance of the text.
Interdependent Origination is the real heart of Buddhism in generaland Buddhist soteriological philosophy in particular. While The
Heart of Interdependent Origination presents an ingenious scheme
for understanding the twelve constituents, and establishes theimpossibility of the alternative views of eternalism and nihilism, it
only touches briefly on the Emptiness of the elements ofInterdependent Origination. Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas, on theother hand, is mainly concerned with the demonstration of the factthat Interdependent Origination does not really originate. The
centrality of the theme of Interdependent Origination to Reasoning:
The Sixty Stanzas is evident in the benedictory stanza where
N@g@rjuna acknowledges the Buddha's special achievement inteaching Interdependent Origination. Incidentally, the stanza
closely resembles that which precedes The Foundation Stanzas of

the Middle Way. Candrak$rti, in his commentary, is also keen to
point out the significance of the mention of the Buddha in thecontext of the teaching of Interdependent Origination, and he also
unequivocally declares Interdependent Origination to be theprimary subject of the text.
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas may be seen to occupy a sort of
middle ground between The Heart of Interdependent Origination on
the one hand and Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas on the other.
That is precisely why I decided to place it second in this series oftranslations of three of N@g@rjuna's shorter works. While The Heartof Interdependent Origination gives a rather elementary althoughextremely valuable account of the Mah@y@na version of the doctrineof Interdependent Origination, Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
emphasizes the unoriginated reality of the conventional causal
condition. This leaves the way clear for a rigorous demonstration of
Emptiness, the real state of things.
In addition to the primary theme of Interdependent
Origination, the text also contains some very frank and somewhat
novel discussion of a number of ideas which although they may havebeen treated elsewhere in the body of N@g@rjuna's work emerge
very clearly in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas. One is the question of
the status of Nirv@%a. This subject has a chapter dedicated to it in
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way1 and N@g@rjuna also
treats it briefly in Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, but here thetreatment is particularly clear because the author and his
illustrious commentator express themselves without reservation on
the subject.
The familiar alternatives of existence and non-existence andboth existence and non-existence are presented and rejectedaccording to recognizable patterns, but the case for the relativity
and illusory nature of Nirv@%a is stated without caution orequivocation. Following the spirit of the analogy found in The Lotus
S#tra, (Saddharmapu%}ar$kas#tra) the text explains that Nirv@%a
is just an antidote taught by the Buddhas in order to lure ordinary
people away from their attachment to the world of existence. It has
no independent status at all either as an entity or a non-entity.

69

70

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Nirv@%a is therefore ultimately an illusion. The remark containedin Candrak$rti's commentary to the effect that "if there wereanything more excellent than Nirv@%a, it too would be an illusion" isparticularly revealing. It sums up the radical and absolute integrityof the M@dhyamika philosopher who can throw away the mostsacred truths of his conventional faith in the interest of liberationfrom all points of view.
Another very remarkable element to be found in the text is a
specially forthright declaration in favour of the primacy of
consciousness. I have argued in Madhyamaka Schools in India andelsewhere in various articles2 that the philosophy of theVij~@nav@da or Yog@c@ra is very largely anticipated in its
essentials in N@g@rjuna's and even in Candrak$rti's works. Thereare enough suggestions in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle
Way and in The Jeweled Garland (Ratn@val$) as well as in The
Clearly Worded (Prasannapad@) of Candrak$rti to draw theappropriate conclusions. However, in The Sixty Stanzas, there is astraightforward proclamation that the supposed material elementsof the world are to be included in consciousness, although thestatement is qualified in the very same stanza by a reference to thesoteriological benefit of this assumption of a provisional perspective
affirming the primacy of consciousness. The provisional nature of
the affirmation of Mind Only (cittam@tra), I believe, is beyond doubt
even according to the works of the early founders of the school,Asa<ga and Vasubandhu.
Again, there is a interesting discussion of the process ofdebate and persuasion in the text. N@g@rjuna is a passed master at
the art of debate as he has shown not only in The Refutation of
Objections3, but also in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way
and in Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. In The Refutation of
Objections, he disavows the commitments of conventional logicians
who are not enlightened by the vision of non-duality which inspires
the M@dhyamika4. Nonetheless, he handles logical devices with
consummate skill and it would seem relish. In the present text,
N@g@rjuna seems almost willing to relegate debate and disputation
to the status of a secondary effect of the afflictions. He stresses theabsence of any objective position and admonishes Buddhists not tofall into the trap of affirming entities in disputation. It is almost as
if the silence of the anonymous Taoist sage or Tantric adept has
begun to tempt the great dialectician. Of course, there are many
passages in the text where the importance of the task of
constructive engagement in conceptual activity and conventional
usage for the benefit of others is emphasized.
The concluding portions of the text increasingly underline thetheme, already encountered earlier in the work, of the ensnaring
character of the apprehension - in the sense of appropriation - of anentity, objective position or support. Although the original terms aredifferent, and the difference has been reflected in the English
translations of each, they have a common quality. They speak of theconceptual commitment made unconsciously by most to a particular
scheme of the world or even to a set of fragmented opinions, oragain to the elements or objects of experience. Affirmation andappropriation of such schemes, opinions and objects condemns one
to living out ones existence in a world of dreams where one cannever achieve freedom. The point is rather to liberate oneself fromthe entanglements of such mental commitments to the illusions of
the world, be they ever so elevated, and achieve a state of total
vacuity. Total vacuity might sound empty and hollow, but it is not
the case. Once more, conceptions and expressions obscure the actual
nature of the real.
Candrak$rti's commentary is also full of novel ideas and lively
discussion. There is far too much material in fact, given mylimitations of time and space, to be dealt with exhaustively. The
explanatory notes consequently present approximate renderings in
English of important passages and particularly clarifying
elaborations.
Candrak$rti's commentary is spirited and lucid and once
again, the style of the original seems more relaxed than, forinstance, that of Candrak$rti's commentary to The Foundation
Stanzas of the Middle Way, The Clearly Worded. This however does
not mean that Candrak$rti's commentary to The Sixty Stanzas was
not held in the highest esteem by prominent scholars who followed

71

72

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Nirv@%a is therefore ultimately an illusion. The remark containedin Candrak$rti's commentary to the effect that "if there wereanything more excellent than Nirv@%a, it too would be an illusion" isparticularly revealing. It sums up the radical and absolute integrityof the M@dhyamika philosopher who can throw away the mostsacred truths of his conventional faith in the interest of liberationfrom all points of view.
Another very remarkable element to be found in the text is a
specially forthright declaration in favour of the primacy of
consciousness. I have argued in Madhyamaka Schools in India andelsewhere in various articles2 that the philosophy of theVij~@nav@da or Yog@c@ra is very largely anticipated in its
essentials in N@g@rjuna's and even in Candrak$rti's works. Thereare enough suggestions in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle
Way and in The Jeweled Garland (Ratn@val$) as well as in The
Clearly Worded (Prasannapad@) of Candrak$rti to draw theappropriate conclusions. However, in The Sixty Stanzas, there is astraightforward proclamation that the supposed material elementsof the world are to be included in consciousness, although thestatement is qualified in the very same stanza by a reference to thesoteriological benefit of this assumption of a provisional perspective
affirming the primacy of consciousness. The provisional nature of
the affirmation of Mind Only (cittam@tra), I believe, is beyond doubt
even according to the works of the early founders of the school,Asa<ga and Vasubandhu.
Again, there is a interesting discussion of the process ofdebate and persuasion in the text. N@g@rjuna is a passed master at
the art of debate as he has shown not only in The Refutation of
Objections3, but also in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way
and in Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. In The Refutation of
Objections, he disavows the commitments of conventional logicians
who are not enlightened by the vision of non-duality which inspires
the M@dhyamika4. Nonetheless, he handles logical devices with
consummate skill and it would seem relish. In the present text,
N@g@rjuna seems almost willing to relegate debate and disputation
to the status of a secondary effect of the afflictions. He stresses theabsence of any objective position and admonishes Buddhists not tofall into the trap of affirming entities in disputation. It is almost as
if the silence of the anonymous Taoist sage or Tantric adept has
begun to tempt the great dialectician. Of course, there are many
passages in the text where the importance of the task of
constructive engagement in conceptual activity and conventional
usage for the benefit of others is emphasized.
The concluding portions of the text increasingly underline thetheme, already encountered earlier in the work, of the ensnaring
character of the apprehension - in the sense of appropriation - of anentity, objective position or support. Although the original terms aredifferent, and the difference has been reflected in the English
translations of each, they have a common quality. They speak of theconceptual commitment made unconsciously by most to a particular
scheme of the world or even to a set of fragmented opinions, oragain to the elements or objects of experience. Affirmation andappropriation of such schemes, opinions and objects condemns one
to living out ones existence in a world of dreams where one cannever achieve freedom. The point is rather to liberate oneself fromthe entanglements of such mental commitments to the illusions of
the world, be they ever so elevated, and achieve a state of total
vacuity. Total vacuity might sound empty and hollow, but it is not
the case. Once more, conceptions and expressions obscure the actual
nature of the real.
Candrak$rti's commentary is also full of novel ideas and lively
discussion. There is far too much material in fact, given mylimitations of time and space, to be dealt with exhaustively. The
explanatory notes consequently present approximate renderings in
English of important passages and particularly clarifying
elaborations.
Candrak$rti's commentary is spirited and lucid and once
again, the style of the original seems more relaxed than, forinstance, that of Candrak$rti's commentary to The Foundation
Stanzas of the Middle Way, The Clearly Worded. This however does
not mean that Candrak$rti's commentary to The Sixty Stanzas was
not held in the highest esteem by prominent scholars who followed

71

72

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjunain the tradition of the M@dhyamikas. Indeed, Sonam Senge, a noteworthy Tibetan scholar of the fifteenth century who wrote
numerous works on Madhyamaka philosophy considered it one of
the foremost works of the author. He names it as one of the three socalled "great commentaries" composed by Candrak$rti along with
The Clearly Worded and the auto-commentary to The Entry into
The Middle Way (Madhyamak@vat@rav=tti).
It is not surprising that the commentary should have been
held in such high regard. The text contains a rich variety of
elucidations of the themes presented in the stanzas. Consequently,
Candrak$rti's commentary succeeds remarkably well in the task ofgiving even greater form and color to an already rich and vivid text.

Section Two
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Obeisance to Ma~ju^r$, the Youthfully Transformed.
I offer obeisance to the Lord of the Sages (The Buddha) who
proclaimed Interdependent Origination, and who thereby avoided
origination and destruction.
I. Those whose intellects have gone well beyond existence and nonexistence and do not dwell (anywhere), perfectly meditate upon themeaning of the conditioned which is profound and without asupport.
II. (The alternative of) non-existence, the source of all defects has
been utterly rejected. Do listen (as) the reasoning by which
existence too is to be rejected (is explained).
III. As according to the first thought of ordinary people, entities
truly exist, why is not their non-existence accepted to be the causeof liberation?
IV. (The view of) existence does not achieve liberation frombecoming, nor does (the view of) non-existence. The Great Person is
freed through the complete understanding of (the interdependenceof) existence and non-existence.
V. Those who do not see suchness are attached to the world andNirv/%a, but those who see suchness are not attached to the world
and Nirv/%a.

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjunain the tradition of the M@dhyamikas. Indeed, Sonam Senge, a noteworthy Tibetan scholar of the fifteenth century who wrote
numerous works on Madhyamaka philosophy considered it one of
the foremost works of the author. He names it as one of the three socalled "great commentaries" composed by Candrak$rti along with
The Clearly Worded and the auto-commentary to The Entry into
The Middle Way (Madhyamak@vat@rav=tti).
It is not surprising that the commentary should have been
held in such high regard. The text contains a rich variety of
elucidations of the themes presented in the stanzas. Consequently,
Candrak$rti's commentary succeeds remarkably well in the task ofgiving even greater form and color to an already rich and vivid text.

Section Two
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
Obeisance to Ma~ju^r$, the Youthfully Transformed.
I offer obeisance to the Lord of the Sages (The Buddha) who
proclaimed Interdependent Origination, and who thereby avoided
origination and destruction.
I. Those whose intellects have gone well beyond existence and nonexistence and do not dwell (anywhere), perfectly meditate upon themeaning of the conditioned which is profound and without asupport.
II. (The alternative of) non-existence, the source of all defects has
been utterly rejected. Do listen (as) the reasoning by which
existence too is to be rejected (is explained).
III. As according to the first thought of ordinary people, entities
truly exist, why is not their non-existence accepted to be the causeof liberation?
IV. (The view of) existence does not achieve liberation frombecoming, nor does (the view of) non-existence. The Great Person is
freed through the complete understanding of (the interdependenceof) existence and non-existence.
V. Those who do not see suchness are attached to the world andNirv/%a, but those who see suchness are not attached to the world
and Nirv/%a.

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VI. Becoming and Nirv/%a - neither of these is existent; thecomplete understanding of becoming may be called Nirv/%a.

Free from the alternatives of antecedence and subsequence, cyclicalexistence appears like a magical illusion.

VII. As with regard to the extinction of a formerly originated entity,
cessation is imputed, so too, the Holy Ones consider cessation (to belike) a magical creation.

XVI. When a magical illusion is supposed to originate, or when it is(supposed to be) destroyed, one who knows about it is not deluded,(but) one who is ignorant about it will be greatly affected
emotionally.

VIII. By means of complete destruction (of the afflictions andactions) cessation will arise, not by means of complete
understanding of compounded factors, (but) by whom will it bedirectly experienced (and) what will the knowledge of that
destruction be like?

XVII. Those who see the world of existence with intelligence as likea mirage and a magical illusion are not entirely corrupted by theview of the alternative of antecedence and the alternative ofsubsequence.

IX. If the aggregates are not cut off, even though the afflictions be
exhausted, going beyond will not occur. When they are cut off, thenliberation occurs.

XVIII. Whosoever imputes origination and destruction tocompounded factors does not at all know the movement of the wheelof Interdependent Origination.

X. When what is originated from the condition of ignorance isanalyzed through perfect knowledge, no perception at all of either
origination or cessation occurs.

XIX. Whatsoever originates dependent upon this and that does not
originate in its intrinsic being. How can what is not originated in its
intrinsic being be called originated?

XI. & XII. When, in this life, one is beyond sorrow and has done
what had to be done, if after the nature of factors is realized adistinction exists, those who impute origination even in regard tovery subtle entities, being unwise, have not seen the meaning ofconditioned origination.

XX. Because of the extinction of the cause (of becoming), peace isimputed to be "extinction" (but) as there is nothing which isextinguished in its intrinsic being, how can it be called "extinction?"

XIII. If Sa^s/ra is turned back by the monk who has exhausted
the afflictions, why was not its beginning demonstrated by the
Perfect Buddha?
XIV. If there were a beginning, then definitely a view would also be
adopted, (but) how is it that what is interdependently originatedhas a beginning and an end?
XV. How can what was earlier originated again be turned back?
75

XXI. Therefore, nothing at all originates and nothing at all ceases.
The path of origination and destruction was demonstrated
intentionally.
XXII. Through knowing origination, destruction is known; throughknowing destruction, impermanence is known; through knowing theway to penetrate impermanence, the Holy Dharma is also
understood.
XXIII. Those who know that Interdependent Origination is wellclear of origination and destruction cross the ocean of worldly
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VI. Becoming and Nirv/%a - neither of these is existent; thecomplete understanding of becoming may be called Nirv/%a.

Free from the alternatives of antecedence and subsequence, cyclicalexistence appears like a magical illusion.

VII. As with regard to the extinction of a formerly originated entity,
cessation is imputed, so too, the Holy Ones consider cessation (to belike) a magical creation.

XVI. When a magical illusion is supposed to originate, or when it is(supposed to be) destroyed, one who knows about it is not deluded,(but) one who is ignorant about it will be greatly affected
emotionally.

VIII. By means of complete destruction (of the afflictions andactions) cessation will arise, not by means of complete
understanding of compounded factors, (but) by whom will it bedirectly experienced (and) what will the knowledge of that
destruction be like?

XVII. Those who see the world of existence with intelligence as likea mirage and a magical illusion are not entirely corrupted by theview of the alternative of antecedence and the alternative ofsubsequence.

IX. If the aggregates are not cut off, even though the afflictions be
exhausted, going beyond will not occur. When they are cut off, thenliberation occurs.

XVIII. Whosoever imputes origination and destruction tocompounded factors does not at all know the movement of the wheelof Interdependent Origination.

X. When what is originated from the condition of ignorance isanalyzed through perfect knowledge, no perception at all of either
origination or cessation occurs.

XIX. Whatsoever originates dependent upon this and that does not
originate in its intrinsic being. How can what is not originated in its
intrinsic being be called originated?

XI. & XII. When, in this life, one is beyond sorrow and has done
what had to be done, if after the nature of factors is realized adistinction exists, those who impute origination even in regard tovery subtle entities, being unwise, have not seen the meaning ofconditioned origination.

XX. Because of the extinction of the cause (of becoming), peace isimputed to be "extinction" (but) as there is nothing which isextinguished in its intrinsic being, how can it be called "extinction?"

XIII. If Sa^s/ra is turned back by the monk who has exhausted
the afflictions, why was not its beginning demonstrated by the
Perfect Buddha?
XIV. If there were a beginning, then definitely a view would also be
adopted, (but) how is it that what is interdependently originatedhas a beginning and an end?
XV. How can what was earlier originated again be turned back?
75

XXI. Therefore, nothing at all originates and nothing at all ceases.
The path of origination and destruction was demonstrated
intentionally.
XXII. Through knowing origination, destruction is known; throughknowing destruction, impermanence is known; through knowing theway to penetrate impermanence, the Holy Dharma is also
understood.
XXIII. Those who know that Interdependent Origination is wellclear of origination and destruction cross the ocean of worldly76

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
existence that is born of views.
XIV. Ordinary people who have the notion of the substantiality ofentities as they are flawed by the erroneous views of existence andnon-existence and controlled by the afflictions are deceived by theirown minds.
XXV. Those who are wise in regard to entities see that entities areimpermanent, deceptive factors, pithless, empty, insubstantial andwholly vacuous.
XXVI. Without an objective position, without a support, without
foundation and without abiding, entities only originated from thecause of ignorance are entirely without beginning, middle or end.

not lost and that there are six realms of sentient beings. Having
thoroughly understood their nature, non-origination has also been
demonstrated.
XXXIII. Intentionally, the Conquerors explained "I" and "Mine".
Similarly, the aggregates, elements and sense spheres were also
proclaimed intentionally.
XXXIV. The primary elements etc. are included in consciousness. If
freedom arises through this understanding, why are they noterroneously imagined?
XXXV. The Conquerors proclaimed that Nirv/%a is the only truth,
so who among the wise could understand the rest not to be false?

XXVII. Without essence, like a banana tree and a fairy city, theunbearable city of delusion that is cyclical existence appears like amagical illusion.

XXXVI. As long as there is movement of the mind, so long one will
be in the domain of M/ra. (If it is otherwise), then in that case, howwill faultlessness not be justified?

XXVIII. Whatsoever appears to the worldly (commencing) from
Brahm/ and the like as real is false for the Holy Personalities.
Therefore, what remains apart from this?

XXXVII. The world has ignorance as a condition, because theBuddhas proclaimed it to be so. Therefore, why is it not justified
that this world be (the effect of) conceptualization?

XXIX. The worldly who are infatuated by ignorance follow thecurrent (of their) desire, while the wise are free from desire. How
can their virtue be similar?

XXXVIII. How will what is extinguished when ignorance isextinguished not be seen to be the construction of ignorance?

XXX. First, the seeker for reality should be told that everything
exists. Later, when he has understood things and is free fromdesire, he should be told that everything is vacuous.
XXXI. Those inferior people who do not understand the meaning of
vacuity and accept merely the verbal sense do not accomplish meritand are lost.
XXXII. It has been explained that the effects of actions are surely
77

XXXIX. Whatsoever originates from a cause does not endure
without conditions. It is destroyed through the absence ofconditions, therefore, how can it be apprehended to exist?
XL. If the exponents of existence remain attached to (their) precious
entities and continue in this way, there is nothing amazing in it.
XLI. However it is amazing that the exponents of theimpermanence of everything who rely upon the Buddha's way
continue to cling to such precious entities in disputation.
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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas
existence that is born of views.
XIV. Ordinary people who have the notion of the substantiality ofentities as they are flawed by the erroneous views of existence andnon-existence and controlled by the afflictions are deceived by theirown minds.
XXV. Those who are wise in regard to entities see that entities areimpermanent, deceptive factors, pithless, empty, insubstantial andwholly vacuous.
XXVI. Without an objective position, without a support, without
foundation and without abiding, entities only originated from thecause of ignorance are entirely without beginning, middle or end.

not lost and that there are six realms of sentient beings. Having
thoroughly understood their nature, non-origination has also been
demonstrated.
XXXIII. Intentionally, the Conquerors explained "I" and "Mine".
Similarly, the aggregates, elements and sense spheres were also
proclaimed intentionally.
XXXIV. The primary elements etc. are included in consciousness. If
freedom arises through this understanding, why are they noterroneously imagined?
XXXV. The Conquerors proclaimed that Nirv/%a is the only truth,
so who among the wise could understand the rest not to be false?

XXVII. Without essence, like a banana tree and a fairy city, theunbearable city of delusion that is cyclical existence appears like amagical illusion.

XXXVI. As long as there is movement of the mind, so long one will
be in the domain of M/ra. (If it is otherwise), then in that case, howwill faultlessness not be justified?

XXVIII. Whatsoever appears to the worldly (commencing) from
Brahm/ and the like as real is false for the Holy Personalities.
Therefore, what remains apart from this?

XXXVII. The world has ignorance as a condition, because theBuddhas proclaimed it to be so. Therefore, why is it not justified
that this world be (the effect of) conceptualization?

XXIX. The worldly who are infatuated by ignorance follow thecurrent (of their) desire, while the wise are free from desire. How
can their virtue be similar?

XXXVIII. How will what is extinguished when ignorance isextinguished not be seen to be the construction of ignorance?

XXX. First, the seeker for reality should be told that everything
exists. Later, when he has understood things and is free fromdesire, he should be told that everything is vacuous.
XXXI. Those inferior people who do not understand the meaning of
vacuity and accept merely the verbal sense do not accomplish meritand are lost.
XXXII. It has been explained that the effects of actions are surely
77

XXXIX. Whatsoever originates from a cause does not endure
without conditions. It is destroyed through the absence ofconditions, therefore, how can it be apprehended to exist?
XL. If the exponents of existence remain attached to (their) precious
entities and continue in this way, there is nothing amazing in it.
XLI. However it is amazing that the exponents of theimpermanence of everything who rely upon the Buddha's way
continue to cling to such precious entities in disputation.
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XLII. If when analyzed what are called this and that are not to beperceived, (then) what wise man will argue that this and that are
real?

LI. Whosoever has apprehended any objective position whatsoever
will be caught by the deceiver - the serpent of the afflictions. Those
whose minds have not apprehended an objective position will not becaught.

XLIII. Those who are attached to the self and the world as notdependent, alas, are attracted to the views of permanence,
impermanence and the like.
XLIV. For whosoever holds that dependent entities are establishedin reality how will the faults of permanence and the like not also
occur?
XLV. Those who hold that dependent entities are like the moon's
reflection in water, neither true nor false, are not attracted to aview.
XLVI. If the acceptance of entities is present, the terrible erroneous
views will arise from which attachment and ill will originate. Fromthe latter, disputation will arise.
XLVII. That (the acceptance of entities) is the cause of all views.
Without it, the afflictions will not originate, therefore, if this is
known, views and afflictions will be thoroughly purified.
XLVIII. How will this be known? - By seeing Interdependent
Origination. The Knower of Suchness (The Buddha) said that thedependently originated does not originate.
XLIX. The process of clinging and disputation etc. will originate
from attachment for those who are dominated by the false cognition
that is grasping at the unreal as real.
L. Those who are of excellent qualities have no position and nodisputation. How could those who have no position have another's
position?
79

LII. Why will those whose minds have (apprehended) an objective
position not be caught by the great poison of the afflictions, wheneven those who dwell in indifference will be caught by the serpent of
the afflictions.
LIII. As children are attached to a reflection, perceiving it to betrue, so the worldly are trapped in the prison of objects.
LIV. The Great Persons who see entities through the eye ofknowledge to be like a reflection are not entangled in the mire ofobjects.
LV. Ordinary people desire form; middling ones are free from desire(for form); those with the excellent intelligence of knowing thenature of form are entirely freed.
LVI. Desire arises from the thought of the pleasurable; from its
opposite, desire is left behind. Seeing entities as vacuous like amagical man, Nirv/%a is achieved.
LVII. Those who are affected by erroneous cognition acquire
whatsoever faults of the afflictions (exist). Those who know themeaning of the conceptions of entities and non-entities will not(acquire them).
LVIII. If an objective position existed, attachment and freedom fromattachment might arise. But the Great Persons who are without anobjective position have neither attachment nor freedom fromattachment.

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XLII. If when analyzed what are called this and that are not to beperceived, (then) what wise man will argue that this and that are
real?

LI. Whosoever has apprehended any objective position whatsoever
will be caught by the deceiver - the serpent of the afflictions. Those
whose minds have not apprehended an objective position will not becaught.

XLIII. Those who are attached to the self and the world as notdependent, alas, are attracted to the views of permanence,
impermanence and the like.
XLIV. For whosoever holds that dependent entities are establishedin reality how will the faults of permanence and the like not also
occur?
XLV. Those who hold that dependent entities are like the moon's
reflection in water, neither true nor false, are not attracted to aview.
XLVI. If the acceptance of entities is present, the terrible erroneous
views will arise from which attachment and ill will originate. Fromthe latter, disputation will arise.
XLVII. That (the acceptance of entities) is the cause of all views.
Without it, the afflictions will not originate, therefore, if this is
known, views and afflictions will be thoroughly purified.
XLVIII. How will this be known? - By seeing Interdependent
Origination. The Knower of Suchness (The Buddha) said that thedependently originated does not originate.
XLIX. The process of clinging and disputation etc. will originate
from attachment for those who are dominated by the false cognition
that is grasping at the unreal as real.
L. Those who are of excellent qualities have no position and nodisputation. How could those who have no position have another's
position?
79

LII. Why will those whose minds have (apprehended) an objective
position not be caught by the great poison of the afflictions, wheneven those who dwell in indifference will be caught by the serpent of
the afflictions.
LIII. As children are attached to a reflection, perceiving it to betrue, so the worldly are trapped in the prison of objects.
LIV. The Great Persons who see entities through the eye ofknowledge to be like a reflection are not entangled in the mire ofobjects.
LV. Ordinary people desire form; middling ones are free from desire(for form); those with the excellent intelligence of knowing thenature of form are entirely freed.
LVI. Desire arises from the thought of the pleasurable; from its
opposite, desire is left behind. Seeing entities as vacuous like amagical man, Nirv/%a is achieved.
LVII. Those who are affected by erroneous cognition acquire
whatsoever faults of the afflictions (exist). Those who know themeaning of the conceptions of entities and non-entities will not(acquire them).
LVIII. If an objective position existed, attachment and freedom fromattachment might arise. But the Great Persons who are without anobjective position have neither attachment nor freedom fromattachment.

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LIX. Those who think of complete vacuity are not moved even by
the fickle mind. They will cross the terrible ocean of existence
churned by the serpent of the afflictions.
LX. By this merit, may all sentient beings, having accumulated theheaps of merit and knowledge, attain the two highest goods (the twodimensions of Buddhahood) that arise from merit and knowledge.

Translated by the Indian abbot Mudita^r$ and the Tibetantranslator Palsap Nyima Grags.

81

Section Three
An Explanation of Reasoning:
The Sixty Stanzas Based on Candrakirti's Commentary
In his introductory remarks, Candrak$rti offers obeisance tothe author of the Yukti&a&tik@, that is N@g@rjuna. The text, he says,
dispels the two alternatives of existence and non-existence andfollows the path of reasoned argument of the Conquerors.
Candrak$rti undertakes to elucidate the stanzas of the text inaccord with the Madhyamaka system of Buddhist philosophy.
The author of the text, N@g@rjuna, having seen reality,
accurately in agreement with the state of Interdependent
Origination has achieved extraordinary happiness. The
comprehension of this truth achieved by the knowledge ofInterdependent Origination leads to the accumulation of all
mundane and supramundane merit without exception. It also is thesource of the emergence of the Holy Personalities.
Those who possess the unobstructed knowledge of the
Buddhas who have seen complete Enlightenment and known reality
in all its aspects are not affected by the alternatives of origination,
destruction, existence and non-existence, since Interdependent
Origination is not originated in its intrinsic being. The author of thestanzas therefore proposes to elucidate Interdependent Origination
which is in its intrinsic being empty. Before proceeding with thisproject, N@g@rjuna offers obeisance to the Buddha who is nodifferent from Interdependent Origination.
"I offer obeisance to the Lord of the Sages (The Buddha) who
proclaimed Interdependent Origination, and who thereby avoided
origination and destruction."
Why has the Master composed a benedictory stanza to this82

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

LIX. Those who think of complete vacuity are not moved even by
the fickle mind. They will cross the terrible ocean of existence
churned by the serpent of the afflictions.
LX. By this merit, may all sentient beings, having accumulated theheaps of merit and knowledge, attain the two highest goods (the twodimensions of Buddhahood) that arise from merit and knowledge.

Translated by the Indian abbot Mudita^r$ and the Tibetantranslator Palsap Nyima Grags.

81

Section Three
An Explanation of Reasoning:
The Sixty Stanzas Based on Candrakirti's Commentary
In his introductory remarks, Candrak$rti offers obeisance tothe author of the Yukti&a&tik@, that is N@g@rjuna. The text, he says,
dispels the two alternatives of existence and non-existence andfollows the path of reasoned argument of the Conquerors.
Candrak$rti undertakes to elucidate the stanzas of the text inaccord with the Madhyamaka system of Buddhist philosophy.
The author of the text, N@g@rjuna, having seen reality,
accurately in agreement with the state of Interdependent
Origination has achieved extraordinary happiness. The
comprehension of this truth achieved by the knowledge ofInterdependent Origination leads to the accumulation of all
mundane and supramundane merit without exception. It also is thesource of the emergence of the Holy Personalities.
Those who possess the unobstructed knowledge of the
Buddhas who have seen complete Enlightenment and known reality
in all its aspects are not affected by the alternatives of origination,
destruction, existence and non-existence, since Interdependent
Origination is not originated in its intrinsic being. The author of thestanzas therefore proposes to elucidate Interdependent Origination
which is in its intrinsic being empty. Before proceeding with thisproject, N@g@rjuna offers obeisance to the Buddha who is nodifferent from Interdependent Origination.
"I offer obeisance to the Lord of the Sages (The Buddha) who
proclaimed Interdependent Origination, and who thereby avoided
origination and destruction."
Why has the Master composed a benedictory stanza to this82

Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

text, while he did not do so in the case of Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas and The Refutation of Objections? The answer is that
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas and The Refutation of Objections
are elaborations of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.
They are subsidiary works and not independent treatises.
Therefore, the Master did not compose separate benedictory stanzas
for those texts.5
In this way, with reference to the following stanza containedin The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, "The intrinsic beingof entities is not in the conditions etc; as intrinsic being does notexist, how can other being exist."6 The Refutation of Objections
elaborates the ostensible objections to this statement and theirappropriate refutations.
Similarly, in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, itsays, "Origination, duration and destruction are demonstrated to be
like an illusion, a dream and a fairy city."7 Inasmuch as Emptiness:
The Seventy Stanzas treats of the ostensible objections to thisstatement and their appropriate refutations, it is an elaboration.
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas, on the other hand, like The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way is principally concernedwith an examination of Interdependent Origination. Therefore, it is
not an elaboration of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way
but an independent work.
Those who profess substance, God, primordial matter, spirit,
time and the rest and accept the origination and destruction of
beings may nonetheless wish to achieve the city of Nirv@%a throughabandoning all the foregoing. Still because of failing to see precisely
the two truths- apparent and ultimate - they will for a very longtime not be able to reach the goal of Nirv@%a which is theannihilation of Sa`s@ra. The demonstration of Interdependent
Origination is the only cause of seeing rightly the two truths,
therefore, all the Holy Personalities have traveled this path.
The Buddha, the unsurpassed teacher who proclaimed
Interdependent Origination is foremost among the Disciples and thePrivate Buddhas and consequently He is regarded as the Lord of
the Sages. But even more He is regarded as the Lord of the Sages,

because He has proclaimed Interdependent Origination. The Lord of
the Sages who proclaims Interdependent Origination is therefore
none other than the Buddha.
The demonstration of Interdependent Origination isconsequently the cause of being denoted the Lord of the Sages andconversely, being the Lord of the Sages is the cause of proclaiming
Interdependent Origination.
While it is true that Disciples, Private Buddhas andBodhisattvas also can speak about Interdependent origination, thisis only because the Buddha has shown the way.
Now if one says that when two things are dependent, one
upon the other, neither of them is established, and further
recognizes that they have no origination and destruction in theirintrinsic being, then this is a description of Interdependent
Origination. Moreover, this is also accepted by the Exponents ofEmptiness (/#nyav@dins).
The Buddha is not called the Lord of the Sages merely
because He proclaimed Interdependent Origination, but also
because in this way, He put an end to the supposed origination anddestruction of entities. He accomplished this through thedemonstration of non-duality and so He is seen as theunsurpassable one, the Lord of the Sages.
Someone might object that the demonstration ofInterdependent Origination does not in fact imply the negation oforigination and destruction. If it is said that one's son has beenborn, then it is not correct to say that one's son has not been born.
This is incorrect.
I. Those whose intellects have gone well beyond existence andnon-existence and do not dwell (anywhere), perfectly meditate upon
the meaning of the conditioned which is profound and without asupport.
Those who in their past existences were familiar with
Emptiness comprehend Interdependent Origination, because they
have the potential to see Emptiness, even if in this present life, they
have not had occasion to familiarize themselves with Emptiness.
Emptiness is not the province of the childish. Emptiness is free from83

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text, while he did not do so in the case of Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas and The Refutation of Objections? The answer is that
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas and The Refutation of Objections
are elaborations of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.
They are subsidiary works and not independent treatises.
Therefore, the Master did not compose separate benedictory stanzas
for those texts.5
In this way, with reference to the following stanza containedin The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, "The intrinsic beingof entities is not in the conditions etc; as intrinsic being does notexist, how can other being exist."6 The Refutation of Objections
elaborates the ostensible objections to this statement and theirappropriate refutations.
Similarly, in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, itsays, "Origination, duration and destruction are demonstrated to be
like an illusion, a dream and a fairy city."7 Inasmuch as Emptiness:
The Seventy Stanzas treats of the ostensible objections to thisstatement and their appropriate refutations, it is an elaboration.
Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas, on the other hand, like The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way is principally concernedwith an examination of Interdependent Origination. Therefore, it is
not an elaboration of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way
but an independent work.
Those who profess substance, God, primordial matter, spirit,
time and the rest and accept the origination and destruction of
beings may nonetheless wish to achieve the city of Nirv@%a throughabandoning all the foregoing. Still because of failing to see precisely
the two truths- apparent and ultimate - they will for a very longtime not be able to reach the goal of Nirv@%a which is theannihilation of Sa`s@ra. The demonstration of Interdependent
Origination is the only cause of seeing rightly the two truths,
therefore, all the Holy Personalities have traveled this path.
The Buddha, the unsurpassed teacher who proclaimed
Interdependent Origination is foremost among the Disciples and thePrivate Buddhas and consequently He is regarded as the Lord of
the Sages. But even more He is regarded as the Lord of the Sages,

because He has proclaimed Interdependent Origination. The Lord of
the Sages who proclaims Interdependent Origination is therefore
none other than the Buddha.
The demonstration of Interdependent Origination isconsequently the cause of being denoted the Lord of the Sages andconversely, being the Lord of the Sages is the cause of proclaiming
Interdependent Origination.
While it is true that Disciples, Private Buddhas andBodhisattvas also can speak about Interdependent origination, thisis only because the Buddha has shown the way.
Now if one says that when two things are dependent, one
upon the other, neither of them is established, and further
recognizes that they have no origination and destruction in theirintrinsic being, then this is a description of Interdependent
Origination. Moreover, this is also accepted by the Exponents ofEmptiness (/#nyav@dins).
The Buddha is not called the Lord of the Sages merely
because He proclaimed Interdependent Origination, but also
because in this way, He put an end to the supposed origination anddestruction of entities. He accomplished this through thedemonstration of non-duality and so He is seen as theunsurpassable one, the Lord of the Sages.
Someone might object that the demonstration ofInterdependent Origination does not in fact imply the negation oforigination and destruction. If it is said that one's son has beenborn, then it is not correct to say that one's son has not been born.
This is incorrect.
I. Those whose intellects have gone well beyond existence andnon-existence and do not dwell (anywhere), perfectly meditate upon
the meaning of the conditioned which is profound and without asupport.
Those who in their past existences were familiar with
Emptiness comprehend Interdependent Origination, because they
have the potential to see Emptiness, even if in this present life, they
have not had occasion to familiarize themselves with Emptiness.
Emptiness is not the province of the childish. Emptiness is free from83

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the obscurations of the conceptions of existence and non-existence.
Those who comprehend the profound nature of Interdependent
Origination are holy. For example, merely by hearing a stanza
proclaimed by the Buddha, /@riputra realized the truth. In thisway, by the power of practise in past lives, the minds of some havegone beyond the perception of existence and non-existence. Apartfrom the alternatives of existence and non-existence, there is also no
middle wherein one may wisely dwell.
Because Emptiness arouses fear in the childish, they findthey are unable to penetrate it. For this reason, Emptiness is called
profound. Phenomena do not originate in their intrinsic being,
therefore, there is no object or support which could be conceived interms of the alternatives of existence and non-existence or even aform of being mid way between the two. No object or support of thekind is apprehended. Those who meditate on the meaning ofconditioned existence achieve direct supraknowledge. Those otherthan the Holy Personalities who have mistaken views and dogmas
are unable to comprehend the meaning of Interdependent
origination. Those who have attachment arising from the conceptionof intrinsic being when they hear Interdependent Origination
taught, are liable to dispute with the exponents of Emptiness.
Therefore, in order to discover the reasoning which may establish
Emptiness, the following lines are composed. The understanding ofInterdependent Origination rules out the apprehension of existence
and non-existence.
The Holy Personalities whose minds are beyond thefabrications of existence and non-existence, as long as they meditate
upon the profound teaching of Interdependent Origination cannot
negate justifiably the apprehension of entities. If entities were
altogether non-existent, they would be unapprehended like the hornof a rabbit. It has been demonstrated that sentient beings havecome from a former existence to the present existence and againthat they will go from this existence to another existence. The
demonstration of rebirth vindicates the relationship between
actions and their fruits and similarly demonstrates the noninterruption of the continuity of cyclical existence. Otherwise thedemonstration of the twelve constituents of Interdependent
Origination distributed over the course of three lives will also not
be appropriate. The stipulation of the aggregates, the sense spheresand elements as well as the setting down of particular and generalcharacteristics in the Abhidharma also in that case will not beappropriate. Now if all these exist in the way in which they havebeen explained and are appropriate, then there exists
Interdependent Origination.
II. a. (The alternative of) non-existence, the source of all
defects has been utterly rejected.
Nihilists who accept the alternative of non-existence refuse torecognize the relationship between actions and their fruits. The
consequence of this view is the destruction of the basis of all
mundane and supramundane wholesome potential. Moreover, it is
the cause of the accumulation of unwholesome actions. Again, therepudiation of Interdependent Origination as it is taught to occur
over the course of three lives as well as the repudiation of the
stipulation of the receptacle8 of the universe as it is produced by thecollective actions of all sentient beings has been rejected in the85

Abhidharma.
II. b. Do listen (as) the reasoning by which existence too is tobe rejected (is explained).
Nonetheless, the alternative of existence is also rejected. The
Buddha proclaimed that only Nirv@%a is not a deception. It is the
single most excellent truth. All the compounded factors of thereceptacle of the universe are only deceptions and fictions. "Alas,compounded factors are impermanent." Although the truth is noneother than this, it is seldom understood through a single sentence.
Therefore, the many declarations of the Lord of the Sages, theBuddha, through which He rejected the alternative of existence
have been condensed, as it were, in this text, and the reasoning bywhich the view of existence is removed has been indicated. What is
this reasoning?
III. As according to the first thought of ordinary people,
entities truly exist, why is not their non-existence accepted to be thecause of liberation?
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the obscurations of the conceptions of existence and non-existence.
Those who comprehend the profound nature of Interdependent
Origination are holy. For example, merely by hearing a stanza
proclaimed by the Buddha, /@riputra realized the truth. In thisway, by the power of practise in past lives, the minds of some havegone beyond the perception of existence and non-existence. Apartfrom the alternatives of existence and non-existence, there is also no
middle wherein one may wisely dwell.
Because Emptiness arouses fear in the childish, they findthey are unable to penetrate it. For this reason, Emptiness is called
profound. Phenomena do not originate in their intrinsic being,
therefore, there is no object or support which could be conceived interms of the alternatives of existence and non-existence or even aform of being mid way between the two. No object or support of thekind is apprehended. Those who meditate on the meaning ofconditioned existence achieve direct supraknowledge. Those otherthan the Holy Personalities who have mistaken views and dogmas
are unable to comprehend the meaning of Interdependent
origination. Those who have attachment arising from the conceptionof intrinsic being when they hear Interdependent Origination
taught, are liable to dispute with the exponents of Emptiness.
Therefore, in order to discover the reasoning which may establish
Emptiness, the following lines are composed. The understanding ofInterdependent Origination rules out the apprehension of existence
and non-existence.
The Holy Personalities whose minds are beyond thefabrications of existence and non-existence, as long as they meditate
upon the profound teaching of Interdependent Origination cannot
negate justifiably the apprehension of entities. If entities were
altogether non-existent, they would be unapprehended like the hornof a rabbit. It has been demonstrated that sentient beings havecome from a former existence to the present existence and againthat they will go from this existence to another existence. The
demonstration of rebirth vindicates the relationship between
actions and their fruits and similarly demonstrates the noninterruption of the continuity of cyclical existence. Otherwise thedemonstration of the twelve constituents of Interdependent
Origination distributed over the course of three lives will also not
be appropriate. The stipulation of the aggregates, the sense spheresand elements as well as the setting down of particular and generalcharacteristics in the Abhidharma also in that case will not beappropriate. Now if all these exist in the way in which they havebeen explained and are appropriate, then there exists
Interdependent Origination.
II. a. (The alternative of) non-existence, the source of all
defects has been utterly rejected.
Nihilists who accept the alternative of non-existence refuse torecognize the relationship between actions and their fruits. The
consequence of this view is the destruction of the basis of all
mundane and supramundane wholesome potential. Moreover, it is
the cause of the accumulation of unwholesome actions. Again, therepudiation of Interdependent Origination as it is taught to occur
over the course of three lives as well as the repudiation of the
stipulation of the receptacle8 of the universe as it is produced by thecollective actions of all sentient beings has been rejected in the85

Abhidharma.
II. b. Do listen (as) the reasoning by which existence too is tobe rejected (is explained).
Nonetheless, the alternative of existence is also rejected. The
Buddha proclaimed that only Nirv@%a is not a deception. It is the
single most excellent truth. All the compounded factors of thereceptacle of the universe are only deceptions and fictions. "Alas,compounded factors are impermanent." Although the truth is noneother than this, it is seldom understood through a single sentence.
Therefore, the many declarations of the Lord of the Sages, theBuddha, through which He rejected the alternative of existence
have been condensed, as it were, in this text, and the reasoning bywhich the view of existence is removed has been indicated. What is
this reasoning?
III. As according to the first thought of ordinary people,
entities truly exist, why is not their non-existence accepted to be thecause of liberation?
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Through one-pointedness of mind, reality is comprehended
exactly. If reality is comprehended exactly, then being without
attachment, one consequently achieves liberation.
Ordinary people also because of a perception of reality likethat of the Arhat, through the renunciation of manifold thingsachieve Nirv@%a. On the other hand, one may not hold that as in thecase of the Arhat, liberation is achieved through the perception of
the non-existence of all phenomena. Nonetheless, liberation will not
be achieved through following the way of the ignorant and wrong
minded people. Thus, those who cling to the view of existence areunable to perceive reality. In this context, the The King ofAbsorption Discourse (Sam@dhir@jas#tra) declares that, the eye,
ear and nose are not logically sustainable, nor are the tongue, bodyor mind logically sustainable. If these faculties were logicallysustainable, what would be the use of the Holy Path? Thus all thesefaculties are not logically sustainable. Therefore, one who wishes tobe liberated should follow the Holy Path. All these factors arefabricated by erroneous perception or ideation. They do not exist
ultimately. The conception that these unoriginated factors exist
really is erroneously constructed.
Why is the perception of these factors not the perception ofreality? In the same text, it says that all compounded anduncompounded factors are neither true nor false. The excellent,
mediocre and inferior factors need not be practised. All these factors
are not originated. Though one searches for them, they are notperceived,. They are all non-existent and forever empty. This is theprovince of the wise.
The view of non-existence is the cause of rebirth in inferior
states and is the source of all defects. The view of existence too
however is the province of ordinary people. It is the cause ofachieving rebirth in superior states and the cause of experiencing
happiness throughout ones rebirths. Therefore, both the views ofexistence and non-existence are the cause of experiencing rebirth inSa`s@ra - be it in states of woe or in states of happiness.
IV. a. (The view of) existence does not achieve liberation frombecoming, nor does (the view of) non-existence.

Impurity is not cleansed through impurity. Therefore, thesetwo views of existence and non-existence are the cause of Sa`s@ra,
and through them liberation from cyclical existence cannot begained.
Thus by means of the views of existence and non-existence,
one cannot achieve liberation from the factors and the sense
spheres. Then, it may be asked, by means of what sort of view canyogins be liberated?
IV. b. The Great Person is freed through the complete
understanding of (the interdependence of) existence and nonexistence.
Without depending upon existence, non-existence cannot beestablished. Both existence and non-existence in fact are notestablished in their intrinsic being. Therefore, knowing existence
and non-existence means knowing that they both do not exist andare not established in their intrinsic being. Those who understandthis are distinguished from the ordinary run of men, therefore they
are called Great Persons. They abide in the supraknowledge whichis unsupported or without an object of mind. Alternatively, they
may also be referred to as Holy Personalities. The attachment etc.
which arises from the conception of the marks of existence and nonexistence is the cause of not going beyond the three spheres of thephenomenal universe. Ordinary people are bound in just this way.
They are rendered powerless by the conceptions of existence andnon-existence and consequently, they circle throughout the five
realms9 of cyclical existence. The habit of attachment etc. is broken
when the conception of the marks of existence and non-existence
does not arise, i.e., when existence and non-existence are notapprehended. When the habit of attachment is broken one achieves
liberation.
Now suppose someone says that existence and non-existence
are facts, because if they did not exist, then Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%aalso would be fictions. Sa`s@ra is of the nature of the substance ofthe five appropriating aggregates, so it has the nature of existence.
Because of the afflictions, sentient beings wander through thevarious realms. This wandering is called Sa`s@ra, the cycle or87

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Through one-pointedness of mind, reality is comprehended
exactly. If reality is comprehended exactly, then being without
attachment, one consequently achieves liberation.
Ordinary people also because of a perception of reality likethat of the Arhat, through the renunciation of manifold thingsachieve Nirv@%a. On the other hand, one may not hold that as in thecase of the Arhat, liberation is achieved through the perception of
the non-existence of all phenomena. Nonetheless, liberation will not
be achieved through following the way of the ignorant and wrong
minded people. Thus, those who cling to the view of existence areunable to perceive reality. In this context, the The King ofAbsorption Discourse (Sam@dhir@jas#tra) declares that, the eye,
ear and nose are not logically sustainable, nor are the tongue, bodyor mind logically sustainable. If these faculties were logicallysustainable, what would be the use of the Holy Path? Thus all thesefaculties are not logically sustainable. Therefore, one who wishes tobe liberated should follow the Holy Path. All these factors arefabricated by erroneous perception or ideation. They do not exist
ultimately. The conception that these unoriginated factors exist
really is erroneously constructed.
Why is the perception of these factors not the perception ofreality? In the same text, it says that all compounded anduncompounded factors are neither true nor false. The excellent,
mediocre and inferior factors need not be practised. All these factors
are not originated. Though one searches for them, they are notperceived,. They are all non-existent and forever empty. This is theprovince of the wise.
The view of non-existence is the cause of rebirth in inferior
states and is the source of all defects. The view of existence too
however is the province of ordinary people. It is the cause ofachieving rebirth in superior states and the cause of experiencing
happiness throughout ones rebirths. Therefore, both the views ofexistence and non-existence are the cause of experiencing rebirth inSa`s@ra - be it in states of woe or in states of happiness.
IV. a. (The view of) existence does not achieve liberation frombecoming, nor does (the view of) non-existence.

Impurity is not cleansed through impurity. Therefore, thesetwo views of existence and non-existence are the cause of Sa`s@ra,
and through them liberation from cyclical existence cannot begained.
Thus by means of the views of existence and non-existence,
one cannot achieve liberation from the factors and the sense
spheres. Then, it may be asked, by means of what sort of view canyogins be liberated?
IV. b. The Great Person is freed through the complete
understanding of (the interdependence of) existence and nonexistence.
Without depending upon existence, non-existence cannot beestablished. Both existence and non-existence in fact are notestablished in their intrinsic being. Therefore, knowing existence
and non-existence means knowing that they both do not exist andare not established in their intrinsic being. Those who understandthis are distinguished from the ordinary run of men, therefore they
are called Great Persons. They abide in the supraknowledge whichis unsupported or without an object of mind. Alternatively, they
may also be referred to as Holy Personalities. The attachment etc.
which arises from the conception of the marks of existence and nonexistence is the cause of not going beyond the three spheres of thephenomenal universe. Ordinary people are bound in just this way.
They are rendered powerless by the conceptions of existence andnon-existence and consequently, they circle throughout the five
realms9 of cyclical existence. The habit of attachment etc. is broken
when the conception of the marks of existence and non-existence
does not arise, i.e., when existence and non-existence are notapprehended. When the habit of attachment is broken one achieves
liberation.
Now suppose someone says that existence and non-existence
are facts, because if they did not exist, then Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%aalso would be fictions. Sa`s@ra is of the nature of the substance ofthe five appropriating aggregates, so it has the nature of existence.
Because of the afflictions, sentient beings wander through thevarious realms. This wandering is called Sa`s@ra, the cycle or87

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

wheel of existence. It exists and therefore existence is also a fact.
Liberation, on the other hand, is beyond this. Its nature is thediscontinuation of Sa`s@ra. Liberation implies the nonreoccurrence of suffering, and it is of the nature of non-existence.
Therefore, that being or entity which is not Sa`s@ra, that is
Nirv@%a also is a possible fact. If Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a are facts,
and they exist, then existence and non-existence will also beestablished. However, these two are not facts and do not exist.
Then, do you think the Blessed One did not proclaim thesetwo? Indeed, He taught the Dharma in order to eliminate Sa`s@ra
and achieve Nirv@%a. If Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a did not exist, theteaching of the Blessed One would be useless, but it is not useless.
Thus Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a both exist and therefore, existence andnon-existence are also established.
Then, to whom did the Blessed One teach Sa`s@ra andNirv@%a? He did so to the Holy Personalities of course. Well, if theBlessed One taught Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a to the Holy Personalities,
then inasmuch as they had already achieved the status of Holy
Personalities, they can hardly be said to have needed to achievethat status through that teaching. Now if you say that they were
taught Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a, because they were on the way to
becoming Holy Personalities, then in that case, they would have to
become Holy Personalities through the process of hearing,considering and so forth. In that case, the teaching is for those whoare not yet Holy Personalities. Those who have not yet achieved thestatus of Holy Personalities are very familiar with the view ofexistence through their experience of Sa`s@ra from beginninglesstime. Therefore, if as a corrective to this habit, the most excellent
state, Nirv@%a, which is characterized by opposition to Sa`s@ra is
not demonstrated, attachment to existence cannot be removed.
Therefore, Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a were demonstrated not for thesake of the Holy Personalities, but for ordinary people.
V. a. Those who do not see suchness are attached to the world
and Nirv/%a, …
When one does not see suchness, that is Sa`s@ra. Nirv/%a iscalled the opposite of the world or of worldly existence. The two ofthem, Sa`s@ra and Nirv/%a, are mutually opposed antidotes toeach other. One of them is meant to be removed and the other is tobe acquired.
V. b. …but those who see suchness are not attached to theworld and Nirv/%a.
Those who are called Holy Personalities are distinguished by
the realization of the unsupported Dharma. They neither perceive
existence nor non-existence. Therefore, Sa`s@ra and Nirv/%a havebeen demonstrated for the sake of ordinary people. Consequently,
the contention that both existence and non-existence are facts is notsustainable from the ultimate point of view.
But if Sa`s@ra and Nirv/%a were not demonstrated to theHoly Personalities, how can the teaching of the Four Noble Truths
be appropriate? If the truths are real for the Holy Personalities,
then they can be called Holy or Noble Truths. Then the name Holy
Truths will be appropriate. If, however, the Four Holy Truths areassociated by you with those who are not Holy Personalities, then
their being called Holy Truths is not appropriate. Then the name,the Holy Eightfold Path, also will not be appropriate, because it is
not for the Holy Personalities.
These terms, or conventional usages are marred by
impurities and belong to the world, you may say. But in that case,whatever worldly entities are to be found may also be called Holyeven if they do not alter their worldly nature. Otherwise, the truths
which make one Holy are called the Holy Truths.
There are in fact two kinds of objects or supports: erroneousand non-erroneous. In the case of an erroneous object or support,
one regards phenomena as a source of happiness. Even apparently,that is according to the apparent truth, factors do not have thatnature. On the other hand, suffering etc. are examples of nonerroneous objects or supports. Even according to the apparent truth,
all phenomena have the nature of suffering. It is in this sense thatthe term Holy is applied to the Four Holy Truths.
So then, do you really mean to say that you think Nirv/%abelongs to the realm of conventional or apparent truth? Yes, ofcourse, if one entertains the conception of Sa`s@ra, so one also

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

wheel of existence. It exists and therefore existence is also a fact.
Liberation, on the other hand, is beyond this. Its nature is thediscontinuation of Sa`s@ra. Liberation implies the nonreoccurrence of suffering, and it is of the nature of non-existence.
Therefore, that being or entity which is not Sa`s@ra, that is
Nirv@%a also is a possible fact. If Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a are facts,
and they exist, then existence and non-existence will also beestablished. However, these two are not facts and do not exist.
Then, do you think the Blessed One did not proclaim thesetwo? Indeed, He taught the Dharma in order to eliminate Sa`s@ra
and achieve Nirv@%a. If Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a did not exist, theteaching of the Blessed One would be useless, but it is not useless.
Thus Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a both exist and therefore, existence andnon-existence are also established.
Then, to whom did the Blessed One teach Sa`s@ra andNirv@%a? He did so to the Holy Personalities of course. Well, if theBlessed One taught Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a to the Holy Personalities,
then inasmuch as they had already achieved the status of Holy
Personalities, they can hardly be said to have needed to achievethat status through that teaching. Now if you say that they were
taught Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a, because they were on the way to
becoming Holy Personalities, then in that case, they would have to
become Holy Personalities through the process of hearing,considering and so forth. In that case, the teaching is for those whoare not yet Holy Personalities. Those who have not yet achieved thestatus of Holy Personalities are very familiar with the view ofexistence through their experience of Sa`s@ra from beginninglesstime. Therefore, if as a corrective to this habit, the most excellent
state, Nirv@%a, which is characterized by opposition to Sa`s@ra is
not demonstrated, attachment to existence cannot be removed.
Therefore, Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a were demonstrated not for thesake of the Holy Personalities, but for ordinary people.
V. a. Those who do not see suchness are attached to the world
and Nirv/%a, …
When one does not see suchness, that is Sa`s@ra. Nirv/%a iscalled the opposite of the world or of worldly existence. The two ofthem, Sa`s@ra and Nirv/%a, are mutually opposed antidotes toeach other. One of them is meant to be removed and the other is tobe acquired.
V. b. …but those who see suchness are not attached to theworld and Nirv/%a.
Those who are called Holy Personalities are distinguished by
the realization of the unsupported Dharma. They neither perceive
existence nor non-existence. Therefore, Sa`s@ra and Nirv/%a havebeen demonstrated for the sake of ordinary people. Consequently,
the contention that both existence and non-existence are facts is notsustainable from the ultimate point of view.
But if Sa`s@ra and Nirv/%a were not demonstrated to theHoly Personalities, how can the teaching of the Four Noble Truths
be appropriate? If the truths are real for the Holy Personalities,
then they can be called Holy or Noble Truths. Then the name Holy
Truths will be appropriate. If, however, the Four Holy Truths areassociated by you with those who are not Holy Personalities, then
their being called Holy Truths is not appropriate. Then the name,the Holy Eightfold Path, also will not be appropriate, because it is
not for the Holy Personalities.
These terms, or conventional usages are marred by
impurities and belong to the world, you may say. But in that case,whatever worldly entities are to be found may also be called Holyeven if they do not alter their worldly nature. Otherwise, the truths
which make one Holy are called the Holy Truths.
There are in fact two kinds of objects or supports: erroneousand non-erroneous. In the case of an erroneous object or support,
one regards phenomena as a source of happiness. Even apparently,that is according to the apparent truth, factors do not have thatnature. On the other hand, suffering etc. are examples of nonerroneous objects or supports. Even according to the apparent truth,
all phenomena have the nature of suffering. It is in this sense thatthe term Holy is applied to the Four Holy Truths.
So then, do you really mean to say that you think Nirv/%abelongs to the realm of conventional or apparent truth? Yes, ofcourse, if one entertains the conception of Sa`s@ra, so one also

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entertains the conception of Nirv/%a, because both of them areworldly conventions. Therefore, in the Perfection of Wisdom
Discourses, it is said that Nirv/%a is like an illusion and a dream.
Moreover, if there existed anything superior to Nirv/%a, that too
would be like an illusion and a dream. If Nirv/%a did not depend
upon the conception of Sa`s@ra, then it would not be of the natureof illusion. However, inasmuch as it is dependent upon theconception of Sa`s@ra, Nirv/%a also belongs to the realm of
apparent truth.
Then, if what you say is true, how is it that Nirv/%a is called
ultimate truth? This appellation is meant not to deceive ordinary
people. According to conventional usage, it is called ultimate truth.
Whatever is deceptive, compounded or conditioned is not ultimate
truth. Very well, grant it that three of the Four Holy Truths refer tothe conditioned universe and are deceptive by nature, but did not
the Blessed One declare to the monks that only Nirv/%a has thenature of not being deceptive? Conditioned phenomena appear
deceptively and lead ordinary people astray, Nirv/%a, however, is
not thus. Nirv/%a, forever, remains in the form of non-origination.
Therefore, Nirv/%a which always remains just what it is, is calledin the conventions of the world, ultimate truth. Nonetheless, theHoly Personalities who perceive the ultimate, neither perceiveSa`s@ra nor Nirv/%a. Consequently, for one who has seensuchness, there is no assumption of either Sa`s@ra or Nirv/%a.
Why then is it said that the Holy Personalities who have seen
the ultimate truth neither perceive Sa`s@ra nor Nirv/%a?
VI. a. Becoming and Nirv/%a - neither of these is existent; …
Becoming is co-extensive with the five appropriating
aggregates. Inasmuch as they are interdependently originated, they
do not exist in their intrinsic being, like a reflection. If the world of
becoming, that is the five appropriating aggregates does not exist,
then surely the non-existence of non-entities is impossible.
Therefore, both becoming and Nirv/%a are impossible. The
perception of non-existence is not the perception of suchness. If you
think that, then even those afflicted by cataracts will consequently

perceive the truth, it is not so. The Holy Personalities haveperceived reality. They have not perceived non-existence. If, indeed,
Nirv/%a were nothing at all, then how can it be stipulated that theHoly Personalities achieve Nirv/%a?
VI. b. …the complete understanding of becoming may becalled Nirv/%a.
Through the complete understanding of the fact that nonorigination is the characteristic of becoming, all signs areabandoned or prevented. When this state of being is associated withconventional truth, it is called Nirv/%a. Nirv/%a is none otherthan the non-establishment of anything in its intrinsic being. For
example, even impermanence cannot be established solely withreference to non-existence. Without depending upon existence too,impermanence is not valid. Similarly, without depending upon an
illusory entity, the conception of Nirv/%a cannot be acquired.
VII. As with regard to the extinction of a formerly originatedentity, cessation is imputed, so too, the Holy Ones consider
cessation (to be like) a magical creation.
When the impermanence of an originated entity is nonexistent, then through this there is no establishment of intrinsic
being. If an entity were existent without depending upon anotherentity, it could be seen to exist in its intrinsic being. The Holy Ones
do not perceive anything that is established in its intrinsic being.
When such entities are analyzed with wisdom, they are found to be
like an illusory elephant in a magical show, non-existent in theirintrinsic being. Whatever is non-existent in its intrinsic being andwhatever is unoriginated is called Nirv@%a. Nirv@%a is establisheddepending upon an illusion, just as in the conventions of the world
there is the stipulation of impermanence. In this way, it is provedthat Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a do not exist in their intrinsic being. Thus
when one has understood the nature of entities to beunapprehended or without support, this is Nirv@%a.
VIII. By means of complete destruction (of the afflictions andactions) cessation will arise, not by means of complete
understanding of compounded factors, (but) by whom will it bedirectly experienced (and) what will the knowledge of that91

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entertains the conception of Nirv/%a, because both of them areworldly conventions. Therefore, in the Perfection of Wisdom
Discourses, it is said that Nirv/%a is like an illusion and a dream.
Moreover, if there existed anything superior to Nirv/%a, that too
would be like an illusion and a dream. If Nirv/%a did not depend
upon the conception of Sa`s@ra, then it would not be of the natureof illusion. However, inasmuch as it is dependent upon theconception of Sa`s@ra, Nirv/%a also belongs to the realm of
apparent truth.
Then, if what you say is true, how is it that Nirv/%a is called
ultimate truth? This appellation is meant not to deceive ordinary
people. According to conventional usage, it is called ultimate truth.
Whatever is deceptive, compounded or conditioned is not ultimate
truth. Very well, grant it that three of the Four Holy Truths refer tothe conditioned universe and are deceptive by nature, but did not
the Blessed One declare to the monks that only Nirv/%a has thenature of not being deceptive? Conditioned phenomena appear
deceptively and lead ordinary people astray, Nirv/%a, however, is
not thus. Nirv/%a, forever, remains in the form of non-origination.
Therefore, Nirv/%a which always remains just what it is, is calledin the conventions of the world, ultimate truth. Nonetheless, theHoly Personalities who perceive the ultimate, neither perceiveSa`s@ra nor Nirv/%a. Consequently, for one who has seensuchness, there is no assumption of either Sa`s@ra or Nirv/%a.
Why then is it said that the Holy Personalities who have seen
the ultimate truth neither perceive Sa`s@ra nor Nirv/%a?
VI. a. Becoming and Nirv/%a - neither of these is existent; …
Becoming is co-extensive with the five appropriating
aggregates. Inasmuch as they are interdependently originated, they
do not exist in their intrinsic being, like a reflection. If the world of
becoming, that is the five appropriating aggregates does not exist,
then surely the non-existence of non-entities is impossible.
Therefore, both becoming and Nirv/%a are impossible. The
perception of non-existence is not the perception of suchness. If you
think that, then even those afflicted by cataracts will consequently

perceive the truth, it is not so. The Holy Personalities haveperceived reality. They have not perceived non-existence. If, indeed,
Nirv/%a were nothing at all, then how can it be stipulated that theHoly Personalities achieve Nirv/%a?
VI. b. …the complete understanding of becoming may becalled Nirv/%a.
Through the complete understanding of the fact that nonorigination is the characteristic of becoming, all signs areabandoned or prevented. When this state of being is associated withconventional truth, it is called Nirv/%a. Nirv/%a is none otherthan the non-establishment of anything in its intrinsic being. For
example, even impermanence cannot be established solely withreference to non-existence. Without depending upon existence too,impermanence is not valid. Similarly, without depending upon an
illusory entity, the conception of Nirv/%a cannot be acquired.
VII. As with regard to the extinction of a formerly originatedentity, cessation is imputed, so too, the Holy Ones consider
cessation (to be like) a magical creation.
When the impermanence of an originated entity is nonexistent, then through this there is no establishment of intrinsic
being. If an entity were existent without depending upon anotherentity, it could be seen to exist in its intrinsic being. The Holy Ones
do not perceive anything that is established in its intrinsic being.
When such entities are analyzed with wisdom, they are found to be
like an illusory elephant in a magical show, non-existent in theirintrinsic being. Whatever is non-existent in its intrinsic being andwhatever is unoriginated is called Nirv@%a. Nirv@%a is establisheddepending upon an illusion, just as in the conventions of the world
there is the stipulation of impermanence. In this way, it is provedthat Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a do not exist in their intrinsic being. Thus
when one has understood the nature of entities to beunapprehended or without support, this is Nirv@%a.
VIII. By means of complete destruction (of the afflictions andactions) cessation will arise, not by means of complete
understanding of compounded factors, (but) by whom will it bedirectly experienced (and) what will the knowledge of that91

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destruction be like?
What is meant here by destruction?
If all factors ofexperience which are similar to a magical illusion are notapprehended and not originated, that is not Nirv@%a. On thecontrary, the subsequent non-origination of form and the like
consequent upon the destruction of the afflictions and actions is
Nirv@%a. In this case, by interrupting the continuity of the nature ofentities, Nirv@%a is achieved. Therefore, Nirv@%a is not achieved
through the understanding of compounded factors.
The view stated above, however, is not correct. Throughseeing suchness, cessation is clearly perceived. If cessation or
Nirv@%a at a time when the aggregates are not cut off does notexist, on the other hand, when the aggregates are cut off, then bywhom will cessation or Nirv@%a be directly experienced? So long as
the continuity of the aggregates exists, there can be Holy
personalities who perceive suchness as in the case of the Holy/@riputra. Then, it will be correct to say that cessation or Nirv@%a isdirectly experienced by some one. Now, if some one should ask what
is it that is directly experienced by such a Holy Personality uponseeing suchness? Even though it may not yet be directly
experienced, still through knowing the reasoning well, it iseventually directly experienced.
The direct experience of Nirv@%a follows from the teaching of
the Master of Yogins and is not adulterated by imagination or
speculative construction. Moreover, it is altogether without thesuperimposition of objects. Merely seeing an object is not
appropriate in the state of cessation. The existence of an entity
which has a particular characteristic mark becomes familiar
through the general characteristics. Then gradually, throughmeditation, supraknowledge arises. Whatever entity is apprehended
by the supraknowledge which is without speculative construction
has the nature of being free from superimposition. It has just its
own particular characteristic. In this way, if one is able tounderstand impermanence which is empty of the alternatives ofantecedence and subsequence, one can penetrate mere being. Thus,
there exists an object which is an unique particular or which has aparticular characteristic, like the consciousness which perceives
only blue and the like. Therefore, it may be said that direct
experience is like the consciousness which perceives just a patch ofblue and the like.
Now here the distinction between general and particularcharacteristics has been accepted. The object whose nature is of theform of a general characteristic, when it is meditated upon, is not
rightly an object with a particular characteristic. The absurd
consequence of this is that the name is unrelated to the object.
In the state of cessation, there does not exist even theminutest particle of an entity which is the cessation of suffering.
Despite this, how can there be an object of direct perception?
Therefore, it is said that the knowledge of the non-origination of
suffering is direct experience. It is not possible for cognition to cause
the state of non-origination to arise. If like the cognition, the object
has the nature of non-origination, then as the two are similar, it
may be appropriate. In the world too, this kind of representation is
known as direct experience.
The following parable may be used to explain the case.
Suppose a traveler sees in the distance a river. He wants to crossthe river, but he does not know how to do so, and he is moreoverafraid of being unable to do so. Therefore, he asks a farmer who
belongs to that country, how deep the water is? The farmer
answers that there is no water at all. Although it may appear to bea river, it is in fact a mirage. If you do not believe what I say, says
the farmer, go and see for your self. Then my words will turn into
direct experience. In this way, the farmer demonstrates the nonexistence of the water to the traveler. Similarly, my words also turninto direct experience. Likewise, non-existence and non-perception
in the conventions of the world turn into direct experience.
Therefore, in the apparent truth of the world, the cognition of nonapprehension or non-perception may be called direct experience
without fear of contradiction. When the meaning of the entity which
produces cognition has been penetrated, it is called direct
experience. This parable from the Discourses of the Buddha is to thepoint.

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destruction be like?
What is meant here by destruction?
If all factors ofexperience which are similar to a magical illusion are notapprehended and not originated, that is not Nirv@%a. On thecontrary, the subsequent non-origination of form and the like
consequent upon the destruction of the afflictions and actions is
Nirv@%a. In this case, by interrupting the continuity of the nature ofentities, Nirv@%a is achieved. Therefore, Nirv@%a is not achieved
through the understanding of compounded factors.
The view stated above, however, is not correct. Throughseeing suchness, cessation is clearly perceived. If cessation or
Nirv@%a at a time when the aggregates are not cut off does notexist, on the other hand, when the aggregates are cut off, then bywhom will cessation or Nirv@%a be directly experienced? So long as
the continuity of the aggregates exists, there can be Holy
personalities who perceive suchness as in the case of the Holy/@riputra. Then, it will be correct to say that cessation or Nirv@%a isdirectly experienced by some one. Now, if some one should ask what
is it that is directly experienced by such a Holy Personality uponseeing suchness? Even though it may not yet be directly
experienced, still through knowing the reasoning well, it iseventually directly experienced.
The direct experience of Nirv@%a follows from the teaching of
the Master of Yogins and is not adulterated by imagination or
speculative construction. Moreover, it is altogether without thesuperimposition of objects. Merely seeing an object is not
appropriate in the state of cessation. The existence of an entity
which has a particular characteristic mark becomes familiar
through the general characteristics. Then gradually, throughmeditation, supraknowledge arises. Whatever entity is apprehended
by the supraknowledge which is without speculative construction
has the nature of being free from superimposition. It has just its
own particular characteristic. In this way, if one is able tounderstand impermanence which is empty of the alternatives ofantecedence and subsequence, one can penetrate mere being. Thus,
there exists an object which is an unique particular or which has aparticular characteristic, like the consciousness which perceives
only blue and the like. Therefore, it may be said that direct
experience is like the consciousness which perceives just a patch ofblue and the like.
Now here the distinction between general and particularcharacteristics has been accepted. The object whose nature is of theform of a general characteristic, when it is meditated upon, is not
rightly an object with a particular characteristic. The absurd
consequence of this is that the name is unrelated to the object.
In the state of cessation, there does not exist even theminutest particle of an entity which is the cessation of suffering.
Despite this, how can there be an object of direct perception?
Therefore, it is said that the knowledge of the non-origination of
suffering is direct experience. It is not possible for cognition to cause
the state of non-origination to arise. If like the cognition, the object
has the nature of non-origination, then as the two are similar, it
may be appropriate. In the world too, this kind of representation is
known as direct experience.
The following parable may be used to explain the case.
Suppose a traveler sees in the distance a river. He wants to crossthe river, but he does not know how to do so, and he is moreoverafraid of being unable to do so. Therefore, he asks a farmer who
belongs to that country, how deep the water is? The farmer
answers that there is no water at all. Although it may appear to bea river, it is in fact a mirage. If you do not believe what I say, says
the farmer, go and see for your self. Then my words will turn into
direct experience. In this way, the farmer demonstrates the nonexistence of the water to the traveler. Similarly, my words also turninto direct experience. Likewise, non-existence and non-perception
in the conventions of the world turn into direct experience.
Therefore, in the apparent truth of the world, the cognition of nonapprehension or non-perception may be called direct experience
without fear of contradiction. When the meaning of the entity which
produces cognition has been penetrated, it is called direct
experience. This parable from the Discourses of the Buddha is to thepoint.

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On the other hand, the condition wherein the continuity of
the aggregates is cut off is nothing at all. By whom will thiscessation be directly experienced? It is said that birth is at an end,
the religious life led, that what had to be done has been done andthat there is no further rebirth; but the cognition that puts an end
to birth also is not appropriate. When an entity is non-existent, it issaid that the entity is destroyed and that there is no further birth.
As long as there persists the continuity of the aggregates producedby causes and conditions, so long there exists birth. One cannot
comprehend the destruction of this condition.
In regard to the reference to the discourses, "beyond this,
there is no further birth", if it refers to the non-perception of afuture birth, in that case too,
IX. If the aggregates are not cut off, even though theafflictions be exhausted, going beyond will not occur. When they are
cut off, then liberation occurs.
In the discourses, it is said that when the cessation of theaggregates occurs, Nirv@%a is gained. Nirv@%a is described invarious ways. It is said that therein, all suffering has been left
behind, that it is purified, destroyed or exhausted, free fromattachment, extinguished, pacified, not associated with anotherarising of suffering and not born again. Further, Nirv@%a is called
peace, the most excellent and the abandonment of all aggregates.
Some say, even at the present moment, if the aggregates are
not cut off, one cannot see Nirv@%a. But if one sees the nonorigination of the conditioned or the state of suffering, then at thattime, one does not perceive origination. Suffering will be destroyed.
Others do not accept this. They contend that at that time Nirv@%a is
not gained. But the Blessed One has proclaimed two kinds of
Nirv@%a: Nirv@%a along with the aggregates and Nirv@%a without
the aggregates. If the Nirv@%a along with the aggregates isnonetheless free from the bondage of the afflictions, then the
Nirv@%a along with the aggregates is free from the bondage ofattachment and so forth.
Suffering, the origination of suffering and the world are
generally recognized to be synonymous with the five appropriating

aggregates. Even if this may be generally acceptable, sometimes ageneral definition may be used in a particular way.
If one refuses to accept that the non-origination of suffering is
Nirv@%a, then consequently the afflictions will not be negated by
cutting through the bondage of attachment and the like. Then one
will have the condition of the perception of the view of realindividuality, because through the perception of this view,attachment and the like arise and liberation cannot be achieved.
The cause of the arising of the afflictions is the perception of
the aggregates. So long as it exists, the afflictions will continue to bepresent. Consequently, there will be no possibility of putting an end
to the aggregates. The afflictions also act as a cause which has its
effect. Actions originate from the cause of the afflictions. Since thecontinuity which arises from actions which have the afflictions as
their cause too is not ended, therefore liberation which ischaracterized by the cutting off of the aggregates will not be
possible. Similarly, the idea of the end of rebirth which is associatedwith the aggregates in a future period is also impossible. Therefore,
birth is said to be destroyed.
Now, it has been shown that for those who maintain theexistence of being, liberation is altogether impossible. Moreover, it
will be shown how on the contrary it is possible for those who
maintain Emptiness.
X. When what is originated from the condition of ignorance isanalyzed through perfect knowledge, no perception at all of either
origination or cessation occurs.
When it is said, originated from the condition of ignorance, it
refers to the conditioning of volitions, consciousness and the like.
While the direct cause or condition is said to be ignorance, indirectly
and implicitly, the aggregates of volition and consciousness are also
conditions.
While ignorance is the direct condition of volitions, it is theindirect condition of consciousness. If volitions etc., the objects
originated from the condition of ignorance are established in theirown right, then since they are established in their own right, they
will not need to depend upon ignorance.

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On the other hand, the condition wherein the continuity of
the aggregates is cut off is nothing at all. By whom will thiscessation be directly experienced? It is said that birth is at an end,
the religious life led, that what had to be done has been done andthat there is no further rebirth; but the cognition that puts an end
to birth also is not appropriate. When an entity is non-existent, it issaid that the entity is destroyed and that there is no further birth.
As long as there persists the continuity of the aggregates producedby causes and conditions, so long there exists birth. One cannot
comprehend the destruction of this condition.
In regard to the reference to the discourses, "beyond this,
there is no further birth", if it refers to the non-perception of afuture birth, in that case too,
IX. If the aggregates are not cut off, even though theafflictions be exhausted, going beyond will not occur. When they are
cut off, then liberation occurs.
In the discourses, it is said that when the cessation of theaggregates occurs, Nirv@%a is gained. Nirv@%a is described invarious ways. It is said that therein, all suffering has been left
behind, that it is purified, destroyed or exhausted, free fromattachment, extinguished, pacified, not associated with anotherarising of suffering and not born again. Further, Nirv@%a is called
peace, the most excellent and the abandonment of all aggregates.
Some say, even at the present moment, if the aggregates are
not cut off, one cannot see Nirv@%a. But if one sees the nonorigination of the conditioned or the state of suffering, then at thattime, one does not perceive origination. Suffering will be destroyed.
Others do not accept this. They contend that at that time Nirv@%a is
not gained. But the Blessed One has proclaimed two kinds of
Nirv@%a: Nirv@%a along with the aggregates and Nirv@%a without
the aggregates. If the Nirv@%a along with the aggregates isnonetheless free from the bondage of the afflictions, then the
Nirv@%a along with the aggregates is free from the bondage ofattachment and so forth.
Suffering, the origination of suffering and the world are
generally recognized to be synonymous with the five appropriating

aggregates. Even if this may be generally acceptable, sometimes ageneral definition may be used in a particular way.
If one refuses to accept that the non-origination of suffering is
Nirv@%a, then consequently the afflictions will not be negated by
cutting through the bondage of attachment and the like. Then one
will have the condition of the perception of the view of realindividuality, because through the perception of this view,attachment and the like arise and liberation cannot be achieved.
The cause of the arising of the afflictions is the perception of
the aggregates. So long as it exists, the afflictions will continue to bepresent. Consequently, there will be no possibility of putting an end
to the aggregates. The afflictions also act as a cause which has its
effect. Actions originate from the cause of the afflictions. Since thecontinuity which arises from actions which have the afflictions as
their cause too is not ended, therefore liberation which ischaracterized by the cutting off of the aggregates will not be
possible. Similarly, the idea of the end of rebirth which is associatedwith the aggregates in a future period is also impossible. Therefore,
birth is said to be destroyed.
Now, it has been shown that for those who maintain theexistence of being, liberation is altogether impossible. Moreover, it
will be shown how on the contrary it is possible for those who
maintain Emptiness.
X. When what is originated from the condition of ignorance isanalyzed through perfect knowledge, no perception at all of either
origination or cessation occurs.
When it is said, originated from the condition of ignorance, it
refers to the conditioning of volitions, consciousness and the like.
While the direct cause or condition is said to be ignorance, indirectly
and implicitly, the aggregates of volition and consciousness are also
conditions.
While ignorance is the direct condition of volitions, it is theindirect condition of consciousness. If volitions etc., the objects
originated from the condition of ignorance are established in theirown right, then since they are established in their own right, they
will not need to depend upon ignorance.

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When it is seen that the appearance of these factors is likethe appearance of hairs before the eyes of one who suffers from afault of vision, then the perception of existence in its intrinsic being
will cease. Those whose vision is pure, who so to speak do not sufferfrom a fault of vision, do not perceive hair etc. nor do they perceive
origination. When something exists through imagination, like hairetc., and is subsequently removed, then following its removal, it canno longer be found. Similarly, if volitions and the rest were
established in their intrinsic being, then when the supraknowledgeof analysis arises within the person of pure vision, they could not be
destroyed or dispelled.
Moreover, in that case, the cessation of ignorance would notaffect the existence of volitions and the rest. In that case, thecessation of ignorance would also not necessarily imply thecessation of volitions. When perfect supraknowledge has arisen, thehair etc. which is perceived because of a fault of vision ceases to bevisible.
Now although volitions and the rest originate like the hairetc. which is perceived as the consequence of a fault of vision andthen ceases to be perceived, so too when perfect supraknowledgearises, there is no perception whatsoever of the origination or
cessation of volitions and the rest. When neither the origination nor
the cessation of Interdependent Origination is perceived, thenNirv@%a is achieved in this very life.
XI.a. When, in this life, one is beyond sorrow and has done
what had to be done,
The yogin who develops the supraknowledge of the nonperception of all factors achieves Nirv@%a in this life. The occasion
when the supraknowledge is present which perceives neither
origination nor cessation is called liberation in this life.
The other scriptural references to the ending of birth, thepreservation of the religious life, the accomplishment of what had tobe done and the avoidance of birth in the future should beunderstood in this way. They refer to the non-origination ofInterdependent Origination. Otherwise, if one strays from thereality characterized by the non-perception of the origination andcessation of Interdependent Origination and imagines that theperceived entities exist in their intrinsic being, then entities will
have mutually distinct independent being. In that case, however,one would have to ascertain the nature of the distinction.
Well, it may be said that by knowing the nature of one
entity, the nature of another entity cannot be penetrated. For
instance, by knowing the nature of blue, one is not able to penetrate
the nature of yellow.
XI.b & XII. if after the nature of factors is realized adistinction exists, those who impute origination even in regard tovery subtle entities, being unwise, have not seen the meaning ofconditioned origination.
The nature of factors which occurs in the stanza means
Nirv@%a. The actuality or essence of Nirv@%a is not different fromInterdependent Origination. After all, it is also said in the
discourses that one who sees Interdependent Origination, sees theDharma. The wisdom of the non-differentiation of Interdependent
Origination and liberation is called realizing or understanding thenature of factors, that is equivalent to gaining Nirv@%a. Therefore,
it is also said in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way that
Interdependent Origination is of the nature of pacification.10
At this point, the meaning of Interdependent Origination is
explained in the following way. The origination of entities is not an
actual origination. Inasmuch as suffering also participates inInterdependent Origination, it is not originated in its intrinsic
being. Because it is not originated in its intrinsic being, it is known
as Nirv@%a. Therefore, both, that is Interdependent Origination andNirv@%a are unoriginated in their intrinsic being. Consequently, it
is said in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way that there isnothing which distinguishes Sa`s@ra from Nirv@%a, nor is there
anything that distinguishes Nirv@%a from Sa`s@ra. The limit of
Nirv@%a is also the limit of Sa`s@ra. There is not even the subtlest
difference between these two.11 The term "limit" or perhaps better,summit means excellence and this in turn signifies most superior.
Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a are one. Therefore, because Nirv@%a does notpossess any distinction, Interdependent Origination is called the9798Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

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When it is seen that the appearance of these factors is likethe appearance of hairs before the eyes of one who suffers from afault of vision, then the perception of existence in its intrinsic being
will cease. Those whose vision is pure, who so to speak do not sufferfrom a fault of vision, do not perceive hair etc. nor do they perceive
origination. When something exists through imagination, like hairetc., and is subsequently removed, then following its removal, it canno longer be found. Similarly, if volitions and the rest were
established in their intrinsic being, then when the supraknowledgeof analysis arises within the person of pure vision, they could not be
destroyed or dispelled.
Moreover, in that case, the cessation of ignorance would notaffect the existence of volitions and the rest. In that case, thecessation of ignorance would also not necessarily imply thecessation of volitions. When perfect supraknowledge has arisen, thehair etc. which is perceived because of a fault of vision ceases to bevisible.
Now although volitions and the rest originate like the hairetc. which is perceived as the consequence of a fault of vision andthen ceases to be perceived, so too when perfect supraknowledgearises, there is no perception whatsoever of the origination or
cessation of volitions and the rest. When neither the origination nor
the cessation of Interdependent Origination is perceived, thenNirv@%a is achieved in this very life.
XI.a. When, in this life, one is beyond sorrow and has done
what had to be done,
The yogin who develops the supraknowledge of the nonperception of all factors achieves Nirv@%a in this life. The occasion
when the supraknowledge is present which perceives neither
origination nor cessation is called liberation in this life.
The other scriptural references to the ending of birth, thepreservation of the religious life, the accomplishment of what had tobe done and the avoidance of birth in the future should beunderstood in this way. They refer to the non-origination ofInterdependent Origination. Otherwise, if one strays from thereality characterized by the non-perception of the origination andcessation of Interdependent Origination and imagines that theperceived entities exist in their intrinsic being, then entities will
have mutually distinct independent being. In that case, however,one would have to ascertain the nature of the distinction.
Well, it may be said that by knowing the nature of one
entity, the nature of another entity cannot be penetrated. For
instance, by knowing the nature of blue, one is not able to penetrate
the nature of yellow.
XI.b & XII. if after the nature of factors is realized adistinction exists, those who impute origination even in regard tovery subtle entities, being unwise, have not seen the meaning ofconditioned origination.
The nature of factors which occurs in the stanza means
Nirv@%a. The actuality or essence of Nirv@%a is not different fromInterdependent Origination. After all, it is also said in the
discourses that one who sees Interdependent Origination, sees theDharma. The wisdom of the non-differentiation of Interdependent
Origination and liberation is called realizing or understanding thenature of factors, that is equivalent to gaining Nirv@%a. Therefore,
it is also said in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way that
Interdependent Origination is of the nature of pacification.10
At this point, the meaning of Interdependent Origination is
explained in the following way. The origination of entities is not an
actual origination. Inasmuch as suffering also participates inInterdependent Origination, it is not originated in its intrinsic
being. Because it is not originated in its intrinsic being, it is known
as Nirv@%a. Therefore, both, that is Interdependent Origination andNirv@%a are unoriginated in their intrinsic being. Consequently, it
is said in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way that there isnothing which distinguishes Sa`s@ra from Nirv@%a, nor is there
anything that distinguishes Nirv@%a from Sa`s@ra. The limit of
Nirv@%a is also the limit of Sa`s@ra. There is not even the subtlest
difference between these two.11 The term "limit" or perhaps better,summit means excellence and this in turn signifies most superior.
Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a are one. Therefore, because Nirv@%a does notpossess any distinction, Interdependent Origination is called the9798Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas

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Dharma. Through perceiving Interdependent Origination, one canperceive Nirv@%a, therefore, one who has seen Interdependent
Origination has seen the Dharma. Moreover, inasmuch as theactuality or nature of factors and the Blessed Buddha are notdistinguishable, that is to say, they are not different, the perceptionof the nature of factors amounts to the perception of the Buddha. In
this way too, through the cognition which perceives factors in termsof the non-origination of Interdependent Origination, the basis of
the three truths: the truths of suffering, its cause and the path aswell as the actual non-origination of Interdependent Originationand the reality of Nirv@%a are found to be only one single
realization. The substance of the comprehension of the truth ofsuffering is the comprehension of the non-origination and noncessation of suffering which participates in the factors of experiencethat are perceived or appear because of Interdependent Origination.
The understanding of the truth of the cause is none other than theunderstanding of the non-origination and non-cessation of theafflictions and actions. The understanding of the truth of cessation
is none other than the understanding of the non-origination andnon-cessation of Interdependent Origination. Finally, theunderstanding of the truth of the path is also just theunderstanding of the actuality of non-origination and non-cessation,
because the path also is just Interdependent Origination. In thisway, in an instant of understanding the nature of factors, one has
seen Interdependent Origination and therefore there is no
possibility of seeing another unprecedented truth.
Well, in that case, how do you go about arranging the fifteen
moments of the path of seeing?12 Anyway, some groups do not
accept the fifteen moments of the path of seeing. They hold that
there is only a single realization. This interpretation does notcontradict the theory of those who hold this opinion. As for those
who assert the existence of fifteen moments, even in their case, thedivision of a cognition which is essentially one is undertaken with aview to cultivating and benefiting people. Therefore, a cognition
whose nature is essentially one is divided into fifteen parts. If thatis so, then the same thing may be said with regard to otherstipulations like the sixteen aspects of meditation upon the path.
They are all stipulated merely through the activity of mental
fabrication. In reality, the realization is essentially one.
If following upon the realization of the nature of factors, there
exists a distinction to be made, the object or support of that
distinction is imputed or imagined in another form. As the unwise
impute origination in their intrinsic being even with regard to very
subtle entities, they do not know the meaning of Interdependent
Origination which does not originate in its intrinsic being and which
is an object which is of one taste. It has been seen that the meaningof Interdependent origination is characterized by unity or oneness.
Dwelling upon the cognition of the perception of the actuality ofInterdependent Origination, once ignorance has been completely
removed. Through step by step meditation, one has done what had
to be done and one has achieved Nirv@%a in this life.
Then according to your system,
XIII. If Sa^s/ra is turned back by the monk who has
exhausted the afflictions, why was not its beginning demonstrated
by the Perfect Buddha?
If supraknowledge can remove afflictions, then it can also
remove actions, because they will not possess causes and conditions.
Circling in Sa^s/ra from beginningless time, one has experienced
birth and death continuously again and again. If the continuity ofform and the rest, in other words, the aggregates which areestablished in their intrinsic being is turned back or removed, why
did not the Buddhas explain the beginning of this continuity?
Perhaps the Buddha did not proclaim it for the following
reasons. He should have explained the beginning and the end of thecontinuity of the aggregates. It might be thought that He did not doso, because He did not know, or perhaps for another reason. But the
Buddha is accepted to be the Omniscient One, so it is impossiblethat He did not know.
If it is said that like the rungs of a water wheel, there is no
beginning, therefore, the Buddha did not proclaim a beginning, thenin that case, as there is no beginning, there is also no end. The casemay be illustrated with the help of the examples of a wheel and the

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Dharma. Through perceiving Interdependent Origination, one canperceive Nirv@%a, therefore, one who has seen Interdependent
Origination has seen the Dharma. Moreover, inasmuch as theactuality or nature of factors and the Blessed Buddha are notdistinguishable, that is to say, they are not different, the perceptionof the nature of factors amounts to the perception of the Buddha. In
this way too, through the cognition which perceives factors in termsof the non-origination of Interdependent Origination, the basis of
the three truths: the truths of suffering, its cause and the path aswell as the actual non-origination of Interdependent Originationand the reality of Nirv@%a are found to be only one single
realization. The substance of the comprehension of the truth ofsuffering is the comprehension of the non-origination and noncessation of suffering which participates in the factors of experiencethat are perceived or appear because of Interdependent Origination.
The understanding of the truth of the cause is none other than theunderstanding of the non-origination and non-cessation of theafflictions and actions. The understanding of the truth of cessation
is none other than the understanding of the non-origination andnon-cessation of Interdependent Origination. Finally, theunderstanding of the truth of the path is also just theunderstanding of the actuality of non-origination and non-cessation,
because the path also is just Interdependent Origination. In thisway, in an instant of understanding the nature of factors, one has
seen Interdependent Origination and therefore there is no
possibility of seeing another unprecedented truth.
Well, in that case, how do you go about arranging the fifteen
moments of the path of seeing?12 Anyway, some groups do not
accept the fifteen moments of the path of seeing. They hold that
there is only a single realization. This interpretation does notcontradict the theory of those who hold this opinion. As for those
who assert the existence of fifteen moments, even in their case, thedivision of a cognition which is essentially one is undertaken with aview to cultivating and benefiting people. Therefore, a cognition
whose nature is essentially one is divided into fifteen parts. If thatis so, then the same thing may be said with regard to otherstipulations like the sixteen aspects of meditation upon the path.
They are all stipulated merely through the activity of mental
fabrication. In reality, the realization is essentially one.
If following upon the realization of the nature of factors, there
exists a distinction to be made, the object or support of that
distinction is imputed or imagined in another form. As the unwise
impute origination in their intrinsic being even with regard to very
subtle entities, they do not know the meaning of Interdependent
Origination which does not originate in its intrinsic being and which
is an object which is of one taste. It has been seen that the meaningof Interdependent origination is characterized by unity or oneness.
Dwelling upon the cognition of the perception of the actuality ofInterdependent Origination, once ignorance has been completely
removed. Through step by step meditation, one has done what had
to be done and one has achieved Nirv@%a in this life.
Then according to your system,
XIII. If Sa^s/ra is turned back by the monk who has
exhausted the afflictions, why was not its beginning demonstrated
by the Perfect Buddha?
If supraknowledge can remove afflictions, then it can also
remove actions, because they will not possess causes and conditions.
Circling in Sa^s/ra from beginningless time, one has experienced
birth and death continuously again and again. If the continuity ofform and the rest, in other words, the aggregates which areestablished in their intrinsic being is turned back or removed, why
did not the Buddhas explain the beginning of this continuity?
Perhaps the Buddha did not proclaim it for the following
reasons. He should have explained the beginning and the end of thecontinuity of the aggregates. It might be thought that He did not doso, because He did not know, or perhaps for another reason. But the
Buddha is accepted to be the Omniscient One, so it is impossiblethat He did not know.
If it is said that like the rungs of a water wheel, there is no
beginning, therefore, the Buddha did not proclaim a beginning, thenin that case, as there is no beginning, there is also no end. The casemay be illustrated with the help of the examples of a wheel and the

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XIV. a. If there were a beginning, then definitely a view
would also be adopted, …
If one superimposes the notion of a beginning, then Sa`s@ra
would have a beginning. But if the beginning of Sa`s@ra is
accepted, then you will have to accept that Sa`s@ra is without acause and consequently, an erroneous view will arise. Those of us
who profess the doctrine of Interdependent Origination do not makethis mistake. Whoever accepts Interdependent Origination also
holds that entities are not originated in their intrinsic being. In
order to demonstrate that their beginning and end cannot besuperimposed or constructed, it is said,
XIV. b. …(but) how is it that what is interdependently
originated has a beginning and an end?
Moreover, if Sa`s@ra had a beginning, then it would not havean end. If Sa`s@ra were originated in its intrinsic being, then it
could not change into something else, in other words, it could not
become non-existent. In that case, Sa`s@ra would be eternal. In
order to demonstrate this, the following couplet is advanced.
XV.a. How can what was earlier originated again be turnedback?
In other words, if something did not change its intrinsic
being, then it would be eternal. If, however, it is accepted that
entities originate from the absence of intrinsic being, then if there
were a beginning, then definitely a view would be adopted. If, on theother hand, entities originated from non-existence, rather thanfrom the absence of intrinsic being, they would consequently be
without cause and conditions. In other words, their origination if
they were originated from non-existence would be without cause.
But then there is also a view according to which factors areuncaused. If one is associated with this point of view, then one
acquires the defect of nihilism.
So long as Interdependent Origination obtains, where is there
an antecedent state, and where is there a subsequent state,inasmuch as factors are not originated in their intrinsic being. In
this way, interdependently originated entities are not originated intheir intrinsic being. Therefore, without doubt,
XV. b. Free from the alternatives of antecedence andsubsequence, cyclical existence appears like a magical illusion.
For example, a magician who practises his magical arts
through magical syllables produces an elephant, horse or man, butthey do not exist in their intrinsic being. They are merely
appearances of an elephant etc. In regard to the magically createdelephant, there is no reason to speculate about its antecedent stateand its subsequent state in the way that one might in regard to areal elephant or in the way in which those who believe it to be areal elephant might speculate about its antecedent and subsequent
state. In regard to the appearance of Interdependent Originationalso, one ought not to speculate or construct the alternatives ofantecedence and subsequence.
Therefore, not holding still even for an instant, the wheel ofcyclical existence has to roll on. Because its appearance is deceptive,
this is called magical illusion. Those who are deceived with regard
to the nature of appearance are taken in by its fascination.
XVI. When a magical illusion is supposed to originate, or
when it is (supposed to be) destroyed, one who knows about it is notdeluded, (but) one who is ignorant about it will be greatly affected
emotionally.
For example, when through the power of the magicalsyllables of a magician, a lovely young woman is created, perfected
in all the accomplishments of the courtesan's art, she is found to be
most attractive. One who is not wise with regard to the nature ofthis appearance supposes the lovely young woman to exist in reality
and is delighted by her. The unwise fantasize regarding such amagical illusion. Similarly, those who are ignorant regarding thenature of insubstantiality fantasize regarding entities which they
mistakenly believe to exist in reality. The magician, however, those
who know that the magical illusion does not exist in reality are notdeluded or deceived. The things of the world also, for the practised
yogin, are similar to a magical illusion.
XVII. Those who see the world of existence with intelligenceas like a mirage and a magical illusion are not entirely corrupted by

like.

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XIV. a. If there were a beginning, then definitely a view
would also be adopted, …
If one superimposes the notion of a beginning, then Sa`s@ra
would have a beginning. But if the beginning of Sa`s@ra is
accepted, then you will have to accept that Sa`s@ra is without acause and consequently, an erroneous view will arise. Those of us
who profess the doctrine of Interdependent Origination do not makethis mistake. Whoever accepts Interdependent Origination also
holds that entities are not originated in their intrinsic being. In
order to demonstrate that their beginning and end cannot besuperimposed or constructed, it is said,
XIV. b. …(but) how is it that what is interdependently
originated has a beginning and an end?
Moreover, if Sa`s@ra had a beginning, then it would not havean end. If Sa`s@ra were originated in its intrinsic being, then it
could not change into something else, in other words, it could not
become non-existent. In that case, Sa`s@ra would be eternal. In
order to demonstrate this, the following couplet is advanced.
XV.a. How can what was earlier originated again be turnedback?
In other words, if something did not change its intrinsic
being, then it would be eternal. If, however, it is accepted that
entities originate from the absence of intrinsic being, then if there
were a beginning, then definitely a view would be adopted. If, on theother hand, entities originated from non-existence, rather thanfrom the absence of intrinsic being, they would consequently be
without cause and conditions. In other words, their origination if
they were originated from non-existence would be without cause.
But then there is also a view according to which factors areuncaused. If one is associated with this point of view, then one
acquires the defect of nihilism.
So long as Interdependent Origination obtains, where is there
an antecedent state, and where is there a subsequent state,inasmuch as factors are not originated in their intrinsic being. In
this way, interdependently originated entities are not originated intheir intrinsic being. Therefore, without doubt,
XV. b. Free from the alternatives of antecedence andsubsequence, cyclical existence appears like a magical illusion.
For example, a magician who practises his magical arts
through magical syllables produces an elephant, horse or man, butthey do not exist in their intrinsic being. They are merely
appearances of an elephant etc. In regard to the magically createdelephant, there is no reason to speculate about its antecedent stateand its subsequent state in the way that one might in regard to areal elephant or in the way in which those who believe it to be areal elephant might speculate about its antecedent and subsequent
state. In regard to the appearance of Interdependent Originationalso, one ought not to speculate or construct the alternatives ofantecedence and subsequence.
Therefore, not holding still even for an instant, the wheel ofcyclical existence has to roll on. Because its appearance is deceptive,
this is called magical illusion. Those who are deceived with regard
to the nature of appearance are taken in by its fascination.
XVI. When a magical illusion is supposed to originate, or
when it is (supposed to be) destroyed, one who knows about it is notdeluded, (but) one who is ignorant about it will be greatly affected
emotionally.
For example, when through the power of the magicalsyllables of a magician, a lovely young woman is created, perfected
in all the accomplishments of the courtesan's art, she is found to be
most attractive. One who is not wise with regard to the nature ofthis appearance supposes the lovely young woman to exist in reality
and is delighted by her. The unwise fantasize regarding such amagical illusion. Similarly, those who are ignorant regarding thenature of insubstantiality fantasize regarding entities which they
mistakenly believe to exist in reality. The magician, however, those
who know that the magical illusion does not exist in reality are notdeluded or deceived. The things of the world also, for the practised
yogin, are similar to a magical illusion.
XVII. Those who see the world of existence with intelligenceas like a mirage and a magical illusion are not entirely corrupted by

like.

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the view of the alternative of antecedence and the alternative ofsubsequence.
The yogin sees the whole world of conditioned cyclicalexistence as similar to a mirage and a magical illusion by means of
his own wisdom and right knowledge. Ultimately, he apprehends
nothing at all. Whatever be the nature of entities, he is not deludedby the alternatives of antecedence and subsequence. Such a yogin
is not subject to erroneous views.
Others, like the unwise, who are attached to an illusory
young woman give up the path of the knowledge of insubstantiality
along which all the Holy Personalities have trod.
XVIII. Whosoever imputes origination and destruction tocompounded factors does not at all know the movement of the wheelof Interdependent Origination.
Those who impute the origination and destruction ofcompounded factors fail completely to understand Interdependent
Origination in which there is neither beginning, middle or end, as in
the case of the circle of the whirling fire brand. It is impossible forcompounded factors to originate and to cease in their intrinsic
being. Nonetheless, some assume their origination and destruction.
Therefore, it is said that they do not understand and have notpenetrated the meaning or movement of the wheel ofInterdependent Origination.
Now, suppose someone asks why the acceptance oforigination and destruction in reality necessarily means one has notunderstood the meaning of Interdependent Origination?
XIX. Whatsoever originates dependent upon this and that
does not originate in its intrinsic being. How can what is not
originated in its intrinsic being be called originated?
The reference in the stanza to being dependent upon this andthat is intended to suggest all possible conditions in general, fromsubjective ignorance to the sphere of air which is usually thought tobe external or objective. In other words, this and that refer to any
entity which abiding as a cause forms the basis for the origination ofanother entity. If whatever arises dependent upon this and thatcause originated in its intrinsic being, then it should exist

absolutely. But, an entity whose nature is established even at thetime of origination would not depend upon the entity which is the
supposed cause of its origination. If the entities which are supposed
to originate do not exist in their intrinsic being prior to their
origination, then their origination is like the appearance of areflection. It would appear that they do not exist in their intrinsic
being, that is to say, they do not exist substantially.
Very well, it may be right to insist that they do not originate intheir intrinsic being, but they are originated conventionally.
Conventionally, form originates, feeling originates and so forth.
Consequently, it may be supposed by someone that origination
exists. Then, alas, such a one has entered the wrong path. The wise
man whose intelligence conforms to the facts through analyticalreasoning knows that what is not originated in its intrinsic being
cannot be called originated at all.
Look here, the defining characteristic proper to earth isimpenetrability. If earth is not originated in its intrinsic being, thatis along with its own defining characteristic, then is it originatedalong with the defining characteristic of liquidity? Surely thatwould be inappropriate.
Indeed, the origination of factors from self and other isequally impossible. Things are not originated along with their own
defining characteristic, nor are they originated along with another's
defining characteristic. Therefore, the non-origination of entities isproven.
Thus, having demonstrated the impossibility of substantial
origination with reference to Interdependent Origination, now the
impossibility of actual cessation will be demonstrated.
XX. Because of the extinction of the cause (of becoming),
peace is imputed to be "extinction" (but) as there is nothing which isextinguished in its intrinsic being, how can it be called "extinction?"
When an originated entity exists, the duration of that entity
is the consequence of conditions. If the conditions for its
continuation do not exist, it will be destroyed. Therefore, when thecause of the existence of the world is extinguished, there obtains
peace and Nirv@%a. That is perceived as extinction or cessation. If

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the view of the alternative of antecedence and the alternative ofsubsequence.
The yogin sees the whole world of conditioned cyclicalexistence as similar to a mirage and a magical illusion by means of
his own wisdom and right knowledge. Ultimately, he apprehends
nothing at all. Whatever be the nature of entities, he is not deludedby the alternatives of antecedence and subsequence. Such a yogin
is not subject to erroneous views.
Others, like the unwise, who are attached to an illusory
young woman give up the path of the knowledge of insubstantiality
along which all the Holy Personalities have trod.
XVIII. Whosoever imputes origination and destruction tocompounded factors does not at all know the movement of the wheelof Interdependent Origination.
Those who impute the origination and destruction ofcompounded factors fail completely to understand Interdependent
Origination in which there is neither beginning, middle or end, as in
the case of the circle of the whirling fire brand. It is impossible forcompounded factors to originate and to cease in their intrinsic
being. Nonetheless, some assume their origination and destruction.
Therefore, it is said that they do not understand and have notpenetrated the meaning or movement of the wheel ofInterdependent Origination.
Now, suppose someone asks why the acceptance oforigination and destruction in reality necessarily means one has notunderstood the meaning of Interdependent Origination?
XIX. Whatsoever originates dependent upon this and that
does not originate in its intrinsic being. How can what is not
originated in its intrinsic being be called originated?
The reference in the stanza to being dependent upon this andthat is intended to suggest all possible conditions in general, fromsubjective ignorance to the sphere of air which is usually thought tobe external or objective. In other words, this and that refer to any
entity which abiding as a cause forms the basis for the origination ofanother entity. If whatever arises dependent upon this and thatcause originated in its intrinsic being, then it should exist

absolutely. But, an entity whose nature is established even at thetime of origination would not depend upon the entity which is the
supposed cause of its origination. If the entities which are supposed
to originate do not exist in their intrinsic being prior to their
origination, then their origination is like the appearance of areflection. It would appear that they do not exist in their intrinsic
being, that is to say, they do not exist substantially.
Very well, it may be right to insist that they do not originate intheir intrinsic being, but they are originated conventionally.
Conventionally, form originates, feeling originates and so forth.
Consequently, it may be supposed by someone that origination
exists. Then, alas, such a one has entered the wrong path. The wise
man whose intelligence conforms to the facts through analyticalreasoning knows that what is not originated in its intrinsic being
cannot be called originated at all.
Look here, the defining characteristic proper to earth isimpenetrability. If earth is not originated in its intrinsic being, thatis along with its own defining characteristic, then is it originatedalong with the defining characteristic of liquidity? Surely thatwould be inappropriate.
Indeed, the origination of factors from self and other isequally impossible. Things are not originated along with their own
defining characteristic, nor are they originated along with another's
defining characteristic. Therefore, the non-origination of entities isproven.
Thus, having demonstrated the impossibility of substantial
origination with reference to Interdependent Origination, now the
impossibility of actual cessation will be demonstrated.
XX. Because of the extinction of the cause (of becoming),
peace is imputed to be "extinction" (but) as there is nothing which isextinguished in its intrinsic being, how can it be called "extinction?"
When an originated entity exists, the duration of that entity
is the consequence of conditions. If the conditions for its
continuation do not exist, it will be destroyed. Therefore, when thecause of the existence of the world is extinguished, there obtains
peace and Nirv@%a. That is perceived as extinction or cessation. If

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the conditions which sustain existence in the world do not exist,
cyclical existence will be extinguished. Therefore the extinction of
cyclical existence depends upon the non-existence of the conditions
which sustain it. Therefore, the extinction of cyclical existence is notestablished in its intrinsic being.
If anything were extinguished in its intrinsic being, then thatextinction would not depend upon conditions. In that case, thatextinction would not be regarded as conditioned. In other words,
such a cessation would not be experienced consequent upon theextinction of the causes of cyclical existence. Therefore, in that case,even without the absence of the afflictions and actions which are thecauses of cyclical existence, Nirv@%a would arise. Consequently, thiswould mean that one can achieve liberation without any effort. As it
is not correct to believe that an oil lamp can be finally extinguishedeven without the exhaustion of the oil and the wick, so there is no
extinction which is established in its intrinsic being.
In this way, non-origination also will be acceptable as acause. The extinction which follows upon the non-existence of thecause would have to be accepted as the extinction of cyclicalexistence. Those who hold that the cessation of an entity isdependent upon the extinction of the cause consequently hold thatcessation does not depend upon an entity, since the ostensible cause
is a non-entity like a sky flower. If, because of the non-existence ofan entity, an earthen pot and the like does not participate inInterdependent Origination, the non-existence of an entity also
depends upon the existence of an entity.
Now, if it is asked how one can call non-existence a cause? It
is replied, how can existence also be called a cause? So long as theseed exists, the entity which is the sprout is not cognized. Only
when the seed becomes non-existent is it considered the cause of the
sprout. For instance, the passage into non-existence of thepreceding consciousness is accepted to be the immediately preceding
condition (samanantarapratyaya) of the subsequent consciousness.
So long as the preceding consciousness exists, it cannot be called thecause of the subsequent consciousness, because two moments ofconsciousness cannot exist simultaneously. Moreover, the notion ofsome kind of intermediate condition of consciousness half way
between existence and non-existence is unacceptable.
Now, some people hold that the cessation of the preceding
cause functions as the condition of the origination of the effect. In
this way too, it is possible for non-existence in the form of the
cessation of the preceding cause to function as a cause. Therefore, it
is not sustainable to claim that non-existence cannot function as acause. Even if it is said that when analyzed logically, it cannot
possibly be a cause, it is not so. The things of the world which
participate in the conventions of the world should not be accepted
following analysis, but rather they should be accepted following thecommon usages found among men. In the world also, it is seen that
non-existence is called a cause. For example, it is well known that
because of the absence, that is the non-existence of water, the grain
is damaged or ruined. Again, it is said that because of the absenceor non-existence of food, ones son has died. All worldly conventions
are to be recognized without difficulty according to their acceptanceand popularity in the world. They need not be recognized rationally.
The absence of water etc. is commonly called the cause ofdestruction and death. Therefore, the extinction of the cause isstipulated to be extinction. Extinction then cannot possibly exist
before the extinction of the cause. Therefore, it has no real essence
established by itself, that is to say, in its intrinsic being. Whatever
is not extinguished in its intrinsic being, is also not dependent upona cause, for whatever is not extinguished in its intrinsic being canhardly be extinguished in another's intrinsic being. Extinction andnon-extinction have disparate natures. Therefore, just as
origination is not possible in the intrinsic being of entities and in
the extrinsic being of entities, so extinction is similarly impossible
in the intrinsic being of entities and in the extrinsic being ofentities. The yogin who has known precisely the meaning ofInterdependent Origination sees neither the origination nor the
cessation of anything.
XXI. Therefore, nothing at all originates and nothing at allceases. The path of origination and destruction was demonstrated
intentionally.

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the conditions which sustain existence in the world do not exist,
cyclical existence will be extinguished. Therefore the extinction of
cyclical existence depends upon the non-existence of the conditions
which sustain it. Therefore, the extinction of cyclical existence is notestablished in its intrinsic being.
If anything were extinguished in its intrinsic being, then thatextinction would not depend upon conditions. In that case, thatextinction would not be regarded as conditioned. In other words,
such a cessation would not be experienced consequent upon theextinction of the causes of cyclical existence. Therefore, in that case,even without the absence of the afflictions and actions which are thecauses of cyclical existence, Nirv@%a would arise. Consequently, thiswould mean that one can achieve liberation without any effort. As it
is not correct to believe that an oil lamp can be finally extinguishedeven without the exhaustion of the oil and the wick, so there is no
extinction which is established in its intrinsic being.
In this way, non-origination also will be acceptable as acause. The extinction which follows upon the non-existence of thecause would have to be accepted as the extinction of cyclicalexistence. Those who hold that the cessation of an entity isdependent upon the extinction of the cause consequently hold thatcessation does not depend upon an entity, since the ostensible cause
is a non-entity like a sky flower. If, because of the non-existence ofan entity, an earthen pot and the like does not participate inInterdependent Origination, the non-existence of an entity also
depends upon the existence of an entity.
Now, if it is asked how one can call non-existence a cause? It
is replied, how can existence also be called a cause? So long as theseed exists, the entity which is the sprout is not cognized. Only
when the seed becomes non-existent is it considered the cause of the
sprout. For instance, the passage into non-existence of thepreceding consciousness is accepted to be the immediately preceding
condition (samanantarapratyaya) of the subsequent consciousness.
So long as the preceding consciousness exists, it cannot be called thecause of the subsequent consciousness, because two moments ofconsciousness cannot exist simultaneously. Moreover, the notion ofsome kind of intermediate condition of consciousness half way
between existence and non-existence is unacceptable.
Now, some people hold that the cessation of the preceding
cause functions as the condition of the origination of the effect. In
this way too, it is possible for non-existence in the form of the
cessation of the preceding cause to function as a cause. Therefore, it
is not sustainable to claim that non-existence cannot function as acause. Even if it is said that when analyzed logically, it cannot
possibly be a cause, it is not so. The things of the world which
participate in the conventions of the world should not be accepted
following analysis, but rather they should be accepted following thecommon usages found among men. In the world also, it is seen that
non-existence is called a cause. For example, it is well known that
because of the absence, that is the non-existence of water, the grain
is damaged or ruined. Again, it is said that because of the absenceor non-existence of food, ones son has died. All worldly conventions
are to be recognized without difficulty according to their acceptanceand popularity in the world. They need not be recognized rationally.
The absence of water etc. is commonly called the cause ofdestruction and death. Therefore, the extinction of the cause isstipulated to be extinction. Extinction then cannot possibly exist
before the extinction of the cause. Therefore, it has no real essence
established by itself, that is to say, in its intrinsic being. Whatever
is not extinguished in its intrinsic being, is also not dependent upona cause, for whatever is not extinguished in its intrinsic being canhardly be extinguished in another's intrinsic being. Extinction andnon-extinction have disparate natures. Therefore, just as
origination is not possible in the intrinsic being of entities and in
the extrinsic being of entities, so extinction is similarly impossible
in the intrinsic being of entities and in the extrinsic being ofentities. The yogin who has known precisely the meaning ofInterdependent Origination sees neither the origination nor the
cessation of anything.
XXI. Therefore, nothing at all originates and nothing at allceases. The path of origination and destruction was demonstrated
intentionally.

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Then why was the path of origination and destruction leading
to Nirv@%a demonstrated? Although the Blessed Buddha has
uttered such words, He did not proclaim these in terms of their
being established in their intrinsic being. Despite origination anddestruction not existing in their intrinsic being, the Buddha taught
the world Interdependent Origination. Origination and destruction
were taught by Him intentionally, that is to say, with a purpose inmind. The Blessed One demonstrated the path of origination anddestruction in order to fulfill the needs of certain disciples.
Now, it may be asked what is the purpose of demonstrating
the path of origination and destruction?
XXII. Through knowing origination, destruction is known;
through knowing destruction, impermanence is known; throughknowing the way to penetrate impermanence, the Holy Dharma isalso understood.
Attachment to compounded factors obstructs the path that
leads to the city of Nirv@%a. As a corrective for this attachment, theBlessed Buddha has provisionally demonstrated the path oforigination and destruction.
It is said that through knowing origination, destruction is
also known, because origination is the foundation or basis ofdestruction. Further, through knowing destruction, one canpenetrate the significance of destruction, that is to say,impermanence. Whoever finds himself within the burning flames of
the transitory three spheres of existence like one trapped inside aburning house, but wishes to escape from this situation will surely
be freed by the knowledge of Interdependent Origination. If such aperson penetrates the truth of non-origination and non-destruction,
he can realize the profound truth of Nirv@%a by means of thisunderstanding. Therefore, by means of developing ones awarenessthrough the stages of origination, destruction and so forth one canrealize the Holy Dharma.
XXIII. Those who know that Interdependent Origination iswell clear of origination and destruction cross the ocean of worldly
existence that is born of views.
As there is no origination, so there are no views or dogmas ofbeing etc. Further, if there is neither origination nor destruction,then there is no intrinsic characteristic or mark, that is to say, no
self nature.
If one perceives neither the origination nor the destruction ofInterdependent Origination, one will cross the ocean of cyclicalexistence that is born of views and dogmas.
One who strives to understand Emptiness will surely crossthe ocean of existence by means of the great vessel of Emptiness.
Those who fear Emptiness are not able to avoid falling into the twoalternatives of origination and destruction with respect toInterdependent Origination.
XXIV. Ordinary people who have the notion of thesubstantiality of entities as they are flawed by the erroneous viewsof existence and non-existence and controlled by the afflictions are
deceived by their own minds.
Ordinary people (p=thagjana) literally individual people, areso called because they are born individually in accordance with
their afflictions and their actions. Those who grasp at the view thata substance or essence abides in entities possess the notion of thesubstantiality of entities, because they cling to the idea of a self or
substance in things. Otherwise, they are attached to entities. They
are controlled by and are subject to the afflictions that are
generated by the superimposition of the erroneous views ofexistence and non-existence. They become attached to entities
which they consider pleasant, while in regard to entities which they
consider unpleasant, they produce aversion or hatred. Their conduct
is therefore determined by the afflictions. Accumulating wholesome
and unwholesome actions, they circle in Sa`s@ra. In this way,
ordinary people who are attached to entities are deceived by theirown minds. Their attachment to entities is superimposed by theirown minds, since the intrinsic being of entities is not established,that is, it is not independently valid. Therefore, the vision of thereality of entities is obscured from such ordinary people. As theysuperimpose erroneous views upon the real state of things, they aredeceived by their own minds. Those who do not fear the teaching ofa friend of virtue (kaly@namitra) but regard it as demonstrating the

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Then why was the path of origination and destruction leading
to Nirv@%a demonstrated? Although the Blessed Buddha has
uttered such words, He did not proclaim these in terms of their
being established in their intrinsic being. Despite origination anddestruction not existing in their intrinsic being, the Buddha taught
the world Interdependent Origination. Origination and destruction
were taught by Him intentionally, that is to say, with a purpose inmind. The Blessed One demonstrated the path of origination anddestruction in order to fulfill the needs of certain disciples.
Now, it may be asked what is the purpose of demonstrating
the path of origination and destruction?
XXII. Through knowing origination, destruction is known;
through knowing destruction, impermanence is known; throughknowing the way to penetrate impermanence, the Holy Dharma isalso understood.
Attachment to compounded factors obstructs the path that
leads to the city of Nirv@%a. As a corrective for this attachment, theBlessed Buddha has provisionally demonstrated the path oforigination and destruction.
It is said that through knowing origination, destruction is
also known, because origination is the foundation or basis ofdestruction. Further, through knowing destruction, one canpenetrate the significance of destruction, that is to say,impermanence. Whoever finds himself within the burning flames of
the transitory three spheres of existence like one trapped inside aburning house, but wishes to escape from this situation will surely
be freed by the knowledge of Interdependent Origination. If such aperson penetrates the truth of non-origination and non-destruction,
he can realize the profound truth of Nirv@%a by means of thisunderstanding. Therefore, by means of developing ones awarenessthrough the stages of origination, destruction and so forth one canrealize the Holy Dharma.
XXIII. Those who know that Interdependent Origination iswell clear of origination and destruction cross the ocean of worldly
existence that is born of views.
As there is no origination, so there are no views or dogmas ofbeing etc. Further, if there is neither origination nor destruction,then there is no intrinsic characteristic or mark, that is to say, no
self nature.
If one perceives neither the origination nor the destruction ofInterdependent Origination, one will cross the ocean of cyclicalexistence that is born of views and dogmas.
One who strives to understand Emptiness will surely crossthe ocean of existence by means of the great vessel of Emptiness.
Those who fear Emptiness are not able to avoid falling into the twoalternatives of origination and destruction with respect toInterdependent Origination.
XXIV. Ordinary people who have the notion of thesubstantiality of entities as they are flawed by the erroneous viewsof existence and non-existence and controlled by the afflictions are
deceived by their own minds.
Ordinary people (p=thagjana) literally individual people, areso called because they are born individually in accordance with
their afflictions and their actions. Those who grasp at the view thata substance or essence abides in entities possess the notion of thesubstantiality of entities, because they cling to the idea of a self or
substance in things. Otherwise, they are attached to entities. They
are controlled by and are subject to the afflictions that are
generated by the superimposition of the erroneous views ofexistence and non-existence. They become attached to entities
which they consider pleasant, while in regard to entities which they
consider unpleasant, they produce aversion or hatred. Their conduct
is therefore determined by the afflictions. Accumulating wholesome
and unwholesome actions, they circle in Sa`s@ra. In this way,
ordinary people who are attached to entities are deceived by theirown minds. Their attachment to entities is superimposed by theirown minds, since the intrinsic being of entities is not established,that is, it is not independently valid. Therefore, the vision of thereality of entities is obscured from such ordinary people. As theysuperimpose erroneous views upon the real state of things, they aredeceived by their own minds. Those who do not fear the teaching ofa friend of virtue (kaly@namitra) but regard it as demonstrating the

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ultimate nature of factors of experience and leading to the city of
Nirv@%a realizing perfectly the deceptive nature of the mind andfreeing themselves from its sway should surely be considered Holy
Personalities.
XXV. Those who are wise in regard to entities see that
entities are impermanent, deceptive factors, pithless, empty,
insubstantial and wholly vacuous.
Here, the term entities refers tocompounded factors.
Because such factors have the nature of momentary destruction,that is of being destroyed every moment, they are impermanent.
The intrinsic being of entities is the absence of substance or essence.
Nonetheless, for ordinary people, the actuality of their intrinsic
being appears to exist. Therefore, like illusion, entities are deceptive
factors. Such factors cannot endure for long. They are fragile, andtherefore, they are said to be pithless. As they are without essence,
they are called empty, and as they are without substance, they are
insubstantial. Impermanence, therefore, is the very nature ofentities. Thus, through seeing entities in this way, the wise mansees them as vacuous (vivikta). The term vacuity or vacuous means
emptiness or empty. Moreover, vacuity implies non-origination andisolation which is its literal meaning. Therefore, when it is said thatthe yogin has seen the vacuity of entities, it means that he has seen
their Emptiness. But the vacuous nature of existence is not seen
through abandoning entities. Rather Emptiness is seen inasmuch as
entities are empty. Therefore, in order to demonstrate Emptiness,
impermanence was specially taught by the Buddha.
Again, vacuous means without stain. Ordinary people whoare in error mistakenly conceive even entities which are pure in
their intrinsic being to be impure through the action of soiling such
entities by mental fabrication, however, the Holy Personalities do
not do so. They see the vacuous as merely pure and without stain.
Alternatively, one can say that the Holy Personalities who havearisen from the supraknowledge of suchness see entities as vacuous.
The Master N@g@rjuna who has penetrated the truth andrealized suchness has made this realization available to others
through the application of logically constructed reasoning.

XXVI. Without an objective position, without a support,
without foundation and without abiding, entities only originatedfrom the cause of ignorance are entirely without beginning, middle
or end.
XXVII. Without essence, like a banana tree and a fairy city,
the unbearable city of delusion that is cyclical existence appears
like a magical illusion.
Rely upon this statement as one might rely upon the earth
which is the basis of the harvest. This statement is the basis of theharvest of truth. The manifold objects of experience are without any
place of abiding, so they are said to be without an objective position.
The perception of factors occurs dependent upon conditions as if
propped up by conditions, while in reality, there is no support. The
term foundation refers to the general cause of factors, their
origination, extension and growth as in the case of the root of a tree.
Because of all this, it is said that the world of cyclical existence is
not established. Therefore, the world of cyclical existence is anerror.
If examined more closely, the term objective position refers to
the six sense spheres. The term support refers to all factors ofexperience without exception. The term foundation refers to theseed as well as to the conditions which produce and sustain factors,
therefore all factors participate in Interdependent Origination. They
do not possess substantial existence, consequently, it is not
appropriate to consider the world of cyclical existence as existing intruth, because it is devoid of abiding and the like.
Now, it may be asked, if indeed there is no cyclical existence,then how is it that its reality appears in various forms? The Holy
Personalities do not perceive it in various forms. For them, cyclicalexistence has only a single character, i.e., Emptiness. In Emptiness,there are no various forms. Ordinary people deluded by the sleep ofignorance perceive various forms as if in a dream.
XXVIII. Whatsoever appears to the worldly (commencing)from Brahm/ and the like as real is false for the Holy
Personalities. Therefore, what remains apart from this?
The world of cyclical existence is not established

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ultimate nature of factors of experience and leading to the city of
Nirv@%a realizing perfectly the deceptive nature of the mind andfreeing themselves from its sway should surely be considered Holy
Personalities.
XXV. Those who are wise in regard to entities see that
entities are impermanent, deceptive factors, pithless, empty,
insubstantial and wholly vacuous.
Here, the term entities refers tocompounded factors.
Because such factors have the nature of momentary destruction,that is of being destroyed every moment, they are impermanent.
The intrinsic being of entities is the absence of substance or essence.
Nonetheless, for ordinary people, the actuality of their intrinsic
being appears to exist. Therefore, like illusion, entities are deceptive
factors. Such factors cannot endure for long. They are fragile, andtherefore, they are said to be pithless. As they are without essence,
they are called empty, and as they are without substance, they are
insubstantial. Impermanence, therefore, is the very nature ofentities. Thus, through seeing entities in this way, the wise mansees them as vacuous (vivikta). The term vacuity or vacuous means
emptiness or empty. Moreover, vacuity implies non-origination andisolation which is its literal meaning. Therefore, when it is said thatthe yogin has seen the vacuity of entities, it means that he has seen
their Emptiness. But the vacuous nature of existence is not seen
through abandoning entities. Rather Emptiness is seen inasmuch as
entities are empty. Therefore, in order to demonstrate Emptiness,
impermanence was specially taught by the Buddha.
Again, vacuous means without stain. Ordinary people whoare in error mistakenly conceive even entities which are pure in
their intrinsic being to be impure through the action of soiling such
entities by mental fabrication, however, the Holy Personalities do
not do so. They see the vacuous as merely pure and without stain.
Alternatively, one can say that the Holy Personalities who havearisen from the supraknowledge of suchness see entities as vacuous.
The Master N@g@rjuna who has penetrated the truth andrealized suchness has made this realization available to others
through the application of logically constructed reasoning.

XXVI. Without an objective position, without a support,
without foundation and without abiding, entities only originatedfrom the cause of ignorance are entirely without beginning, middle
or end.
XXVII. Without essence, like a banana tree and a fairy city,
the unbearable city of delusion that is cyclical existence appears
like a magical illusion.
Rely upon this statement as one might rely upon the earth
which is the basis of the harvest. This statement is the basis of theharvest of truth. The manifold objects of experience are without any
place of abiding, so they are said to be without an objective position.
The perception of factors occurs dependent upon conditions as if
propped up by conditions, while in reality, there is no support. The
term foundation refers to the general cause of factors, their
origination, extension and growth as in the case of the root of a tree.
Because of all this, it is said that the world of cyclical existence is
not established. Therefore, the world of cyclical existence is anerror.
If examined more closely, the term objective position refers to
the six sense spheres. The term support refers to all factors ofexperience without exception. The term foundation refers to theseed as well as to the conditions which produce and sustain factors,
therefore all factors participate in Interdependent Origination. They
do not possess substantial existence, consequently, it is not
appropriate to consider the world of cyclical existence as existing intruth, because it is devoid of abiding and the like.
Now, it may be asked, if indeed there is no cyclical existence,then how is it that its reality appears in various forms? The Holy
Personalities do not perceive it in various forms. For them, cyclicalexistence has only a single character, i.e., Emptiness. In Emptiness,there are no various forms. Ordinary people deluded by the sleep ofignorance perceive various forms as if in a dream.
XXVIII. Whatsoever appears to the worldly (commencing)from Brahm/ and the like as real is false for the Holy
Personalities. Therefore, what remains apart from this?
The world of cyclical existence is not established

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substantially, but rather by ignorance. It certainly springs up fromthe cause of the seed of ignorance. Therefore, it is said thatbeginning, middle and end are to be rejected and that origination,
duration and destruction are absent.
As the world of cyclical existence originates from the seed ofignorance, it is likened to a banana tree which is without essence. If
it were not originated from the seed of ignorance, then whensubjected to examination, an essence would be found. However,when compounded factors are examined, they are found to be likethe aggregation of the banana tree, without essence. Whatever has
no essence, but contrary to fact appears as if it had an essence, doesso by the power of ignorance.
Again, because the world of cyclical existence is like a fairy
city, it is said to originate from the seed of ignorance. No matter
how beautiful a fairy city may appear, when it is examined, it is not
as it appears, therefore, it is not real or genuine. Therefore, when it
is examined in this way, the world of cyclical existence which
originates from the cause of ignorance is not established actually.
Then, the unbearable city of cyclical existence is surely a product ofdelusion.
Because the world of cyclical existence which appears like anillusion is difficult to reverse although it is the source of many woes
and because it is difficult to recognize its true nature inasmuch as it
is obscured by ignorance, it is called unbearable or terrible. The
world of cyclical existence is unbearable or suffocating, therefore, it
is a cause of fear. But those who are free from error see it to be like
illusion. The city of delusion experienced by ordinary people is seen
to be mere illusion by the Holy Personalities. Moreover, because
ignorance is like delusion, therefore, the world of cyclical existence
is not substantial.
The penetration of an object which is beyond the objects ofthe sense organs is understood to be the state of Brahm/, and thisis valid. However, even what appears to be the real substantial
nature of entities is false for the Holy Personalities. The one truth
taught by the Blessed One is Nirv@%a. Compounded factors ofexperience are false and have the nature of being deceptive. Since

without doubt, all these appearances are false, what endures among
all these? Therefore, there exists nothing which is not like illusion.
Otherwise, if Brahm/ and the rest who are worldly and theHoly Personalities had the same vision, then, in that case, theworldly and the Holy Personalities would become equal. However,
the worldly and the Holy Personalities are not comparable.
XXIX. The worldly who are infatuated by ignorance follow thecurrent (of their) desire, while the wise are free from desire. How
can their virtue be similar?
Their eyes of knowledge are blinded by the cataract ofignorance. Therefore, the whole world of sentient beings from
Brahm@ downward without exception fail to see the truth.
Consequently, they are whirled powerlessly in the great whirlpool ofcyclical existence agitated by the wind of error. The vessel of theirvirtuous actions is shattered. With the vessel of their virtuous
actions shattered, the worldly carried away by the current of their
desire reap the consequences of their ripening unwholesome actions.
On the contrary, the virtue of the wise purified by wisdom
who possess the excellent eye of knowledge and are satisfied
through drinking from the river of the essence of the nectar of theHoly Dharma is superior. They constantly adhere to the way ofvirtuous actions and to the way of the Dharma. How can such
virtuous ones be imagined to be equal to the worldly mentioned
above? It is not correct to suppose that light and darkness, Sa`s@ra
and Nirv@%a are equal. Therefore, without doubt, whatever is real
for worldly, like Brahm@ and so forth, who follow the way of cyclicalexistence is false for the Holy Personalities.
Now, if Sa`s@ra is empty in its intrinsic being, then, how is itthat the Blessed Buddha did not demonstrate the real state ofthings, but taught aggregates, elements and sense spheres which
are unreal? Here as a means of entering into the ultimate truth,
the aggregates, elements and sense spheres which are unreal aredemonstrated in the beginning. In the beginning, the real state ofthings, suchness or Emptiness is not demonstrated, because if itwere demonstrated in the beginning, it would be meaningless. The
Dharma which is free from the precipices of the two extremes

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substantially, but rather by ignorance. It certainly springs up fromthe cause of the seed of ignorance. Therefore, it is said thatbeginning, middle and end are to be rejected and that origination,
duration and destruction are absent.
As the world of cyclical existence originates from the seed ofignorance, it is likened to a banana tree which is without essence. If
it were not originated from the seed of ignorance, then whensubjected to examination, an essence would be found. However,when compounded factors are examined, they are found to be likethe aggregation of the banana tree, without essence. Whatever has
no essence, but contrary to fact appears as if it had an essence, doesso by the power of ignorance.
Again, because the world of cyclical existence is like a fairy
city, it is said to originate from the seed of ignorance. No matter
how beautiful a fairy city may appear, when it is examined, it is not
as it appears, therefore, it is not real or genuine. Therefore, when it
is examined in this way, the world of cyclical existence which
originates from the cause of ignorance is not established actually.
Then, the unbearable city of cyclical existence is surely a product ofdelusion.
Because the world of cyclical existence which appears like anillusion is difficult to reverse although it is the source of many woes
and because it is difficult to recognize its true nature inasmuch as it
is obscured by ignorance, it is called unbearable or terrible. The
world of cyclical existence is unbearable or suffocating, therefore, it
is a cause of fear. But those who are free from error see it to be like
illusion. The city of delusion experienced by ordinary people is seen
to be mere illusion by the Holy Personalities. Moreover, because
ignorance is like delusion, therefore, the world of cyclical existence
is not substantial.
The penetration of an object which is beyond the objects ofthe sense organs is understood to be the state of Brahm/, and thisis valid. However, even what appears to be the real substantial
nature of entities is false for the Holy Personalities. The one truth
taught by the Blessed One is Nirv@%a. Compounded factors ofexperience are false and have the nature of being deceptive. Since

without doubt, all these appearances are false, what endures among
all these? Therefore, there exists nothing which is not like illusion.
Otherwise, if Brahm/ and the rest who are worldly and theHoly Personalities had the same vision, then, in that case, theworldly and the Holy Personalities would become equal. However,
the worldly and the Holy Personalities are not comparable.
XXIX. The worldly who are infatuated by ignorance follow thecurrent (of their) desire, while the wise are free from desire. How
can their virtue be similar?
Their eyes of knowledge are blinded by the cataract ofignorance. Therefore, the whole world of sentient beings from
Brahm@ downward without exception fail to see the truth.
Consequently, they are whirled powerlessly in the great whirlpool ofcyclical existence agitated by the wind of error. The vessel of theirvirtuous actions is shattered. With the vessel of their virtuous
actions shattered, the worldly carried away by the current of their
desire reap the consequences of their ripening unwholesome actions.
On the contrary, the virtue of the wise purified by wisdom
who possess the excellent eye of knowledge and are satisfied
through drinking from the river of the essence of the nectar of theHoly Dharma is superior. They constantly adhere to the way ofvirtuous actions and to the way of the Dharma. How can such
virtuous ones be imagined to be equal to the worldly mentioned
above? It is not correct to suppose that light and darkness, Sa`s@ra
and Nirv@%a are equal. Therefore, without doubt, whatever is real
for worldly, like Brahm@ and so forth, who follow the way of cyclicalexistence is false for the Holy Personalities.
Now, if Sa`s@ra is empty in its intrinsic being, then, how is itthat the Blessed Buddha did not demonstrate the real state ofthings, but taught aggregates, elements and sense spheres which
are unreal? Here as a means of entering into the ultimate truth,
the aggregates, elements and sense spheres which are unreal aredemonstrated in the beginning. In the beginning, the real state ofthings, suchness or Emptiness is not demonstrated, because if itwere demonstrated in the beginning, it would be meaningless. The
Dharma which is free from the precipices of the two extremes

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cannot be shown in the beginning to people whose intellects are notpurified. Therefore, the Buddha who was skilled in accomplishing
the benefit of sentient beings had recourse to various forms ofindirect teaching.
XXX. First, the seeker for reality should be told thateverything exists. Later, when he has understood things and is freefrom desire, he should be told that everything is vacuous.
If people whose minds are not purified are initiallyintroduced to Emptiness, they will be confused. Therefore, the Holy
Personalities do not demonstrate Emptiness in the beginning.
Well, what then should the teacher tell those who are looking
for the real state of things? At first, he should tell them thateverything exists. It is stated that the term everything is meant toinclude the five aggregates, the twelve sense spheres and theeighteen elements. Once the disciple has grasped the aggregates,
elements and sense spheres, by means of examples like short andlong and the light of an oil lamp, he is shown the interdependence of
this and that.
The disciple comes to understand things when he realizes
that objects which are gained with great effort are destroyed
without difficulty. Seeing the easy destruction of all that one has
striven for in the worldly way, one becomes disgusted. He ceases toapprove the conduct of ordinary people and ceases to delight inbirth. Unhappy and ill at ease with destruction and death, hedevelops the wish to sever attachment to Sa`s@ra, the wish toabandon Sa`s@ra. He loosens his attachment and clinging to theself. Only then should vacuity be demonstrated to him. If theteacher demonstrates Emptiness in this way, it will not be fruitless.
The disciple also will avoid straying into a mistaken way of viewing
things.
Otherwise, if the apparent and ultimate truths are
mistakenly thought to be incompatible, the teaching of Emptinesswill lead to error. If this occurs, one will find it difficult to renounce
unwholesome actions. In this case, the unwise thinking thatSa`s@ra is empty, will be loathe to perform wholesome actions
which are necessary. Such a person will be like the bird who leaves

his nest before his wings are fully developed and is consequently
destroyed. That is because such persons have not developed theirown intuition of the truth.
XXXI. Those inferior people who do not understand themeaning of vacuity and accept merely the verbal sense do notaccomplish merit and are lost.
For one who has within himself directly intuited Emptiness,
the non-performance of wholesome and unwholesome actions iscorrect. However, those who have not directly known Emptiness,but have merely acquired the verbal sense of Emptiness, simply
imitate the accomplished ones and engage in unwholesome actions,
not in wholesome ones. Like the bird whose wings are notcompletely developed, they will fall into the depth of the afflictions.
After all, merely by hearing the word water, one cannot quench ones
thirst. Nor can one satisfy ones hunger merely by hearing the word
food. Those who only engage in unwholesome actions are called
inferior people. In order to discourage this kind of conduct, theBuddha taught His audience the apparent truth which is notwithout meaning.
XXXII. It has been explained that the effects of actions are
surely not lost and that there are six realms of sentient beings.
Having thoroughly understood their nature, non-origination has
also been demonstrated.
The Blessed One taught the existence of the six realms of
migration wherein sentient beings perform actions and experience
their effects.
Then for those who are inclined toward the truth, as acorrective for the knot of actions, the non-origination of cyclicalexistence consequent upon the realization of its nature was also
demonstrated. The various realms are interdependently originated,
therefore, they are not originated substantially. When their nature
has been understood, then the path and cyclical existence areunoriginated.
In this way, the path leading to the gaining ofsupraknowledge is also demonstrated. The description of the realms
and the like is therefore undertaken with a purpose in mind. Now, if

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cannot be shown in the beginning to people whose intellects are notpurified. Therefore, the Buddha who was skilled in accomplishing
the benefit of sentient beings had recourse to various forms ofindirect teaching.
XXX. First, the seeker for reality should be told thateverything exists. Later, when he has understood things and is freefrom desire, he should be told that everything is vacuous.
If people whose minds are not purified are initiallyintroduced to Emptiness, they will be confused. Therefore, the Holy
Personalities do not demonstrate Emptiness in the beginning.
Well, what then should the teacher tell those who are looking
for the real state of things? At first, he should tell them thateverything exists. It is stated that the term everything is meant toinclude the five aggregates, the twelve sense spheres and theeighteen elements. Once the disciple has grasped the aggregates,
elements and sense spheres, by means of examples like short andlong and the light of an oil lamp, he is shown the interdependence of
this and that.
The disciple comes to understand things when he realizes
that objects which are gained with great effort are destroyed
without difficulty. Seeing the easy destruction of all that one has
striven for in the worldly way, one becomes disgusted. He ceases toapprove the conduct of ordinary people and ceases to delight inbirth. Unhappy and ill at ease with destruction and death, hedevelops the wish to sever attachment to Sa`s@ra, the wish toabandon Sa`s@ra. He loosens his attachment and clinging to theself. Only then should vacuity be demonstrated to him. If theteacher demonstrates Emptiness in this way, it will not be fruitless.
The disciple also will avoid straying into a mistaken way of viewing
things.
Otherwise, if the apparent and ultimate truths are
mistakenly thought to be incompatible, the teaching of Emptinesswill lead to error. If this occurs, one will find it difficult to renounce
unwholesome actions. In this case, the unwise thinking thatSa`s@ra is empty, will be loathe to perform wholesome actions
which are necessary. Such a person will be like the bird who leaves

his nest before his wings are fully developed and is consequently
destroyed. That is because such persons have not developed theirown intuition of the truth.
XXXI. Those inferior people who do not understand themeaning of vacuity and accept merely the verbal sense do notaccomplish merit and are lost.
For one who has within himself directly intuited Emptiness,
the non-performance of wholesome and unwholesome actions iscorrect. However, those who have not directly known Emptiness,but have merely acquired the verbal sense of Emptiness, simply
imitate the accomplished ones and engage in unwholesome actions,
not in wholesome ones. Like the bird whose wings are notcompletely developed, they will fall into the depth of the afflictions.
After all, merely by hearing the word water, one cannot quench ones
thirst. Nor can one satisfy ones hunger merely by hearing the word
food. Those who only engage in unwholesome actions are called
inferior people. In order to discourage this kind of conduct, theBuddha taught His audience the apparent truth which is notwithout meaning.
XXXII. It has been explained that the effects of actions are
surely not lost and that there are six realms of sentient beings.
Having thoroughly understood their nature, non-origination has
also been demonstrated.
The Blessed One taught the existence of the six realms of
migration wherein sentient beings perform actions and experience
their effects.
Then for those who are inclined toward the truth, as acorrective for the knot of actions, the non-origination of cyclicalexistence consequent upon the realization of its nature was also
demonstrated. The various realms are interdependently originated,
therefore, they are not originated substantially. When their nature
has been understood, then the path and cyclical existence areunoriginated.
In this way, the path leading to the gaining ofsupraknowledge is also demonstrated. The description of the realms
and the like is therefore undertaken with a purpose in mind. Now, if

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it be asked, what is the purpose?
XXXIII. Intentionally, the Conquerors explained "I" and"Mine". Similarly, the aggregates, elements and sense spheres werealso proclaimed intentionally.
The Blessed Buddha abandoned I and mine. But for the
benefit of certain disciples accustomed to the ways of the world, theBuddha adopted the use of the expressions: I and mine. Similarly,
intentionally, the Buddha taught the aggregates, elements andsense spheres, because without recourse to analysis, there is no
method by means of which the worldly can enter the real state ofthings.
As the Buddha taught the aggregates, elements and sense
spheres with a purpose in mind and not in realty, then there ought
to be substantiation of this claim by means of logic and scripture.
First, according to logic, the following stanza may be considered.
XXXIV. The primary elements etc. are included inconsciousness. If freedom arises through this understanding, why
are they not erroneously imagined?
Consciousness is that by which the perception of origination
is apprehended. The primary elements etc. are merely fabricated.
Without creating a conceptual scheme in consciousness, in the world
nothing can be stipulated to exist, because consequently the baron
woman's son etc. would exist. Therefore, the primary elements andthe secondary elements, the mind and the mental derivatives andthe factors disassociated from mind, because they haveconsciousness as their cause, are all included in consciousness.
When the yogin sees the non-existent objects imputed byconsciousness which are false and deceptive factors as not
originated in their intrinsic being, then he knows their nature
certainly. Again, knowing that consciousness also is not originatedsubstantially, he yet knows that from it are produced the primaryelements etc. without exception. All the manifold factors ofexperience are similar to a reflection. When the form is
extinguished, so too the reflection is extinguished. Inasmuch as all
the manifold factors of experience exist merely in the manner ofreflections, are they not erroneously imagined? Therefore, theaggregates etc. exist because of consciousness. Though they do notexist in reality, they appear to exist, therefore, they are notsubstantially existent. The aggregates etc. were demonstrated for
those who suffer from the pride of clinging to I and mine.13
Thus far, it has been demonstrated logically that theaggregates and the rest were taught with a purpose in mind. Now,
it will be shown by recourse to scripture that although theaggregates and the rest are false, they were taught with a purpose.
XXXV. The Conquerors proclaimed that Nirv/%a is the only
truth, so who among the wise could understand the rest not to befalse?
The Blessed Buddha said to the monks that Nirv/%a, thenon-deceptive substratum is the only supreme truth. Who among
the wise would fail to understand in the light of this reference thatthe aggregates etc. are false? Because if the aggregates, elements
and sense spheres are examined by reasoning and scripture, they
are found not to be established in their intrinsic being, therefore,
the following couplet surely indicates the truth.
XXXVI. a. As long as there is movement of the mind, so longone will be in the domain of M/ra.
M/ra obstructs the light of wisdom of the Holy Personalities,
therefore, he is great in the three spheres and owns the ministers
that are the four wrong views or dogmas. He is always surroundedby the retinue of the afflictions of attachment and so forth. The
ignoble do not disparage him. They follow the way of evil conduct,
and therefore M/ra is the cause of the diffusion of the sentient
beings of the universe of cyclical existence. M/ra is called
ignorance. Failing to go beyond ignorance, entities are imagined
because of erroneous views. On the other hand, if non-origination isunderstood, because then the mind is steady, one is not in thedomain of M/ra.
XXXVI.b. (If it is otherwise), then in that case, how will
faultlessness not be justified?
Here, the phrase, then in that case, indicates the complete
apprehension of the fact of non-origination in reality. Therefore, if

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it be asked, what is the purpose?
XXXIII. Intentionally, the Conquerors explained "I" and"Mine". Similarly, the aggregates, elements and sense spheres werealso proclaimed intentionally.
The Blessed Buddha abandoned I and mine. But for the
benefit of certain disciples accustomed to the ways of the world, theBuddha adopted the use of the expressions: I and mine. Similarly,
intentionally, the Buddha taught the aggregates, elements andsense spheres, because without recourse to analysis, there is no
method by means of which the worldly can enter the real state ofthings.
As the Buddha taught the aggregates, elements and sense
spheres with a purpose in mind and not in realty, then there ought
to be substantiation of this claim by means of logic and scripture.
First, according to logic, the following stanza may be considered.
XXXIV. The primary elements etc. are included inconsciousness. If freedom arises through this understanding, why
are they not erroneously imagined?
Consciousness is that by which the perception of origination
is apprehended. The primary elements etc. are merely fabricated.
Without creating a conceptual scheme in consciousness, in the world
nothing can be stipulated to exist, because consequently the baron
woman's son etc. would exist. Therefore, the primary elements andthe secondary elements, the mind and the mental derivatives andthe factors disassociated from mind, because they haveconsciousness as their cause, are all included in consciousness.
When the yogin sees the non-existent objects imputed byconsciousness which are false and deceptive factors as not
originated in their intrinsic being, then he knows their nature
certainly. Again, knowing that consciousness also is not originatedsubstantially, he yet knows that from it are produced the primaryelements etc. without exception. All the manifold factors ofexperience are similar to a reflection. When the form is
extinguished, so too the reflection is extinguished. Inasmuch as all
the manifold factors of experience exist merely in the manner ofreflections, are they not erroneously imagined? Therefore, theaggregates etc. exist because of consciousness. Though they do notexist in reality, they appear to exist, therefore, they are notsubstantially existent. The aggregates etc. were demonstrated for
those who suffer from the pride of clinging to I and mine.13
Thus far, it has been demonstrated logically that theaggregates and the rest were taught with a purpose in mind. Now,
it will be shown by recourse to scripture that although theaggregates and the rest are false, they were taught with a purpose.
XXXV. The Conquerors proclaimed that Nirv/%a is the only
truth, so who among the wise could understand the rest not to befalse?
The Blessed Buddha said to the monks that Nirv/%a, thenon-deceptive substratum is the only supreme truth. Who among
the wise would fail to understand in the light of this reference thatthe aggregates etc. are false? Because if the aggregates, elements
and sense spheres are examined by reasoning and scripture, they
are found not to be established in their intrinsic being, therefore,
the following couplet surely indicates the truth.
XXXVI. a. As long as there is movement of the mind, so longone will be in the domain of M/ra.
M/ra obstructs the light of wisdom of the Holy Personalities,
therefore, he is great in the three spheres and owns the ministers
that are the four wrong views or dogmas. He is always surroundedby the retinue of the afflictions of attachment and so forth. The
ignoble do not disparage him. They follow the way of evil conduct,
and therefore M/ra is the cause of the diffusion of the sentient
beings of the universe of cyclical existence. M/ra is called
ignorance. Failing to go beyond ignorance, entities are imagined
because of erroneous views. On the other hand, if non-origination isunderstood, because then the mind is steady, one is not in thedomain of M/ra.
XXXVI.b. (If it is otherwise), then in that case, how will
faultlessness not be justified?
Here, the phrase, then in that case, indicates the complete
apprehension of the fact of non-origination in reality. Therefore, if

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one has completely penetrated the reality of non-origination, one
does not recognize the substantiality of things. Regarding thesubstance of appearance, if there is error, it - the substance ofappearance - exists. If not, then it does not exist.
XXXVII. The world has ignorance as a condition, because theBuddhas proclaimed it to be so. Therefore, why is it not justified
that this world be (the effect of) conceptualization?
The world having ignorance as its condition, consequently
originates from ignorance. Here, the term world refers to the five
appropriating aggregates. Conditioned by ignorance, volitions arise.
Conditioned by volitions, consciousness arises. The Blessed Buddhataught that the world has ignorance as its condition. It is notestablished in its intrinsic being, that is, it is not establishedsubstantially. Any substance established in its own actuality would
not have delusion as its condition. Therefore, since ignorance is acondition, why is it not justifiable to regard the world as the effect ofmere conceptualization. When it is asked, why is it not justifiable toregard the world as the effect of mere conceptualization? - thequestion is meant to indicate that in fact it is justified to regard it
so.
Again, the world as the effect of mere conceptualizationmeans that as the world is not established substantially, the worldis constructed by conceptualization just as one constructs the idea ofa man in the darkness. Therefore, if there exist error, mistaken
views and the like, the world exists, but if there is no error, theworld does not exist.
XXXVIII. How will what is extinguished when ignorance isextinguished not be seen to be the construction of ignorance?
When a light is brought into the darkness, the form of a man
is no longer perceived. When this is understood, then the erroneous
perception was not cognized certainly, since it was constructed or
imagined by ignorance. The appearance is not establishedsubstantially, therefore, the world does not exist substantially,
because like a reflection, it depends upon cause and conditions.
XXXIX. Whatsoever originates from a cause does not endure
without conditions. It is destroyed through the absence ofconditions, therefore, how can it be apprehended to exist?
If the world existed in its intrinsic being, that is if it existed
substantially, then it would not be dependent upon cause andconditions. In that case, it would not be created. Then not even its
survival would depend upon conditions. Further, if the world were
established substantially, it could not change its form. In this way,in order to avoid changing its form, the conditions for its persistence
should be ascertainable. Anything which like a reflection depends
upon cause and conditions to exist is not established in its intrinsic
being. Anything which is established substantially cannot change
its nature in the absence of the conditions needed for its survival. In
that case, it cannot be eliminated. Whatever cannot endure and iseliminated in the absence of the conditions needed for its continued
existence, like a reflection, is not established in its intrinsic being.
Whatever is, in this way, not established in its intrinsic being, canalso not be established by another. There is no reasonable argumentthat can support such a notion. The existence of such an entity is
illogical. Non-Buddhists who do not accept Interdependent
Origination have attachment to the intrinsic being of entities.
XL. If the exponents of existence remain attached to (their)
precious entities and continue in this way, there is nothing amazing
in it.
According to the tenets of the S@`khya system, the qualities:
lightness, passion and darkness are permanent. The Vai^e&ika, fortheir part, accept that atoms of earth, water, fire and air which are
the foundation of all compounded things without exception arepermanent. Consequently, they are termed, Eternalists. If in thisway, they grasp at the substantial nature of entities and remain
attached to them, the intelligent observer will not be even slightly
amazed.
Now, if it be asked why? In the world, reliance upon nonexistent entities is a cause of omniscience. While, reliance upon
existent entities is not such a cause. Nevertheless, their reliance
upon such entities stems from the tenets of their systems, therefore,
it is not a source of amazement to the wise.
However, the Vaibh@&ika, Sautr@ntikas and Vij~@nav@dins,

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one has completely penetrated the reality of non-origination, one
does not recognize the substantiality of things. Regarding thesubstance of appearance, if there is error, it - the substance ofappearance - exists. If not, then it does not exist.
XXXVII. The world has ignorance as a condition, because theBuddhas proclaimed it to be so. Therefore, why is it not justified
that this world be (the effect of) conceptualization?
The world having ignorance as its condition, consequently
originates from ignorance. Here, the term world refers to the five
appropriating aggregates. Conditioned by ignorance, volitions arise.
Conditioned by volitions, consciousness arises. The Blessed Buddhataught that the world has ignorance as its condition. It is notestablished in its intrinsic being, that is, it is not establishedsubstantially. Any substance established in its own actuality would
not have delusion as its condition. Therefore, since ignorance is acondition, why is it not justifiable to regard the world as the effect ofmere conceptualization. When it is asked, why is it not justifiable toregard the world as the effect of mere conceptualization? - thequestion is meant to indicate that in fact it is justified to regard it
so.
Again, the world as the effect of mere conceptualizationmeans that as the world is not established substantially, the worldis constructed by conceptualization just as one constructs the idea ofa man in the darkness. Therefore, if there exist error, mistaken
views and the like, the world exists, but if there is no error, theworld does not exist.
XXXVIII. How will what is extinguished when ignorance isextinguished not be seen to be the construction of ignorance?
When a light is brought into the darkness, the form of a man
is no longer perceived. When this is understood, then the erroneous
perception was not cognized certainly, since it was constructed or
imagined by ignorance. The appearance is not establishedsubstantially, therefore, the world does not exist substantially,
because like a reflection, it depends upon cause and conditions.
XXXIX. Whatsoever originates from a cause does not endure
without conditions. It is destroyed through the absence ofconditions, therefore, how can it be apprehended to exist?
If the world existed in its intrinsic being, that is if it existed
substantially, then it would not be dependent upon cause andconditions. In that case, it would not be created. Then not even its
survival would depend upon conditions. Further, if the world were
established substantially, it could not change its form. In this way,in order to avoid changing its form, the conditions for its persistence
should be ascertainable. Anything which like a reflection depends
upon cause and conditions to exist is not established in its intrinsic
being. Anything which is established substantially cannot change
its nature in the absence of the conditions needed for its survival. In
that case, it cannot be eliminated. Whatever cannot endure and iseliminated in the absence of the conditions needed for its continued
existence, like a reflection, is not established in its intrinsic being.
Whatever is, in this way, not established in its intrinsic being, canalso not be established by another. There is no reasonable argumentthat can support such a notion. The existence of such an entity is
illogical. Non-Buddhists who do not accept Interdependent
Origination have attachment to the intrinsic being of entities.
XL. If the exponents of existence remain attached to (their)
precious entities and continue in this way, there is nothing amazing
in it.
According to the tenets of the S@`khya system, the qualities:
lightness, passion and darkness are permanent. The Vai^e&ika, fortheir part, accept that atoms of earth, water, fire and air which are
the foundation of all compounded things without exception arepermanent. Consequently, they are termed, Eternalists. If in thisway, they grasp at the substantial nature of entities and remain
attached to them, the intelligent observer will not be even slightly
amazed.
Now, if it be asked why? In the world, reliance upon nonexistent entities is a cause of omniscience. While, reliance upon
existent entities is not such a cause. Nevertheless, their reliance
upon such entities stems from the tenets of their systems, therefore,
it is not a source of amazement to the wise.
However, the Vaibh@&ika, Sautr@ntikas and Vij~@nav@dins,

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjunain their systems, demonstrate the unreasonable character ofexistence. If they still adhere to the notion of entities, it is indeed asource of amazement to the wise.
XLI. However it is amazing that the exponents of theimpermanence of everything who rely upon the Buddha's way
continue to cling to such precious entities in disputation.
The Buddhist path is that of Interdependent Origination.
Relying upon this vision, all compounded factors, since they
participate in Interdependent Origination are impermanent. Whilethey accept this, they nonetheless would like to establish the
intrinsic being of entities. They dispute with the advocates ofEmptiness relying upon impossible non-existent entities which is asource of amazement and wonder.
All the above schools although they rely upon the teaching ofimpermanence and accept Interdependent Origination demonstrate
the substantial existence of entities. It is a source of amazement for
the wise.
Just as sometimes inferior persons who are in fact unworthyof salutation are nonetheless offered salutation sarcastically, so it issaid that the attitude of these Buddhist schools is a source ofamazement and wonder.
XLII. If when analyzed what are called this and that are not
to be perceived, (then) what wise man will argue that this and thatare real?
Thus, all conditioned factors: form, feeling, consciousness andso forth participate in Interdependent Origination, therefore, they
are not originated in their intrinsic being. The characteristic markof whatever is not originated in its intrinsic being is not perceived,
therefore, although it may be said, "this is form", "this is feeling","this is consciousness", "these are the other conditioned factors",
they never appear to the perceiving subject. Whatever is not
perceived distinctly by the mind cannot be demonstrated to others
and cannot be the basis or object of disputation for those who
possess wisdom. The term disputation indicates the activity of
establishing or proving ones own position and refuting the positionof others. In this way, when nothing at all is apprehended or

perceived, how can one demonstrate an entity which one believes toexist substantially to another, saying "this is form" and the like.
Alternatively, how can one demonstrate or declare that an entity
which others believe to exist substantially and which one believes
to be false is in fact so. In this way, those who have not understood
the meaning of Interdependent Origination which is the absence of
substantial origination are liable to develop erroneous conceptions.
XLIII. Those who are attached to the self and the world as
not dependent, alas, are attracted to the views of permanence,
impermanence and the like.
There are those who do not regard the five aggregates asdevoid of substance like a reflection and do not hold that relying
upon the former, the so called self is applied in the manner of aname. On the contrary, they call the establishment of the mind in
its own characteristic mark the self and are surely caused to strayfrom the path of Nirv@%a by the great river of views.14
Now, one might ask, if the mind is indeed established in its
intrinsic being, that is substantially, then is it permanent orimpermanent? If it is permanent, then you maintain that it issubstantially existent. If it is impermanent, then you are an
exponent of Nihilism. If you hold that something which has arisen,
after ceases to exist, that is the view of Nihilism. Then, alas, those
who think in this way are attracted by views.
The term world means the five aggregates. If the fiveaggregates are thought to be established in their own characteristic
mark, then too a similar fault will occur.
Otherwise, the S@`khyas and others hold that the self is
independent and permanent. According to them, it is established in
its intrinsic being and is not interdependently originated. The world
too is of the substance of primordial matter, prak=ti. They believethat primordial matter is substantially existent and that it does notchange. They further hold that the changing conglomerations ofobjects is opposite to this.
Now, there are some Buddhist schools that accept the fiveaggregates and the self as interdependent, but who also accept themto exist as substances. Again, there are Buddhists who accept that

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjunain their systems, demonstrate the unreasonable character ofexistence. If they still adhere to the notion of entities, it is indeed asource of amazement to the wise.
XLI. However it is amazing that the exponents of theimpermanence of everything who rely upon the Buddha's way
continue to cling to such precious entities in disputation.
The Buddhist path is that of Interdependent Origination.
Relying upon this vision, all compounded factors, since they
participate in Interdependent Origination are impermanent. Whilethey accept this, they nonetheless would like to establish the
intrinsic being of entities. They dispute with the advocates ofEmptiness relying upon impossible non-existent entities which is asource of amazement and wonder.
All the above schools although they rely upon the teaching ofimpermanence and accept Interdependent Origination demonstrate
the substantial existence of entities. It is a source of amazement for
the wise.
Just as sometimes inferior persons who are in fact unworthyof salutation are nonetheless offered salutation sarcastically, so it issaid that the attitude of these Buddhist schools is a source ofamazement and wonder.
XLII. If when analyzed what are called this and that are not
to be perceived, (then) what wise man will argue that this and thatare real?
Thus, all conditioned factors: form, feeling, consciousness andso forth participate in Interdependent Origination, therefore, they
are not originated in their intrinsic being. The characteristic markof whatever is not originated in its intrinsic being is not perceived,
therefore, although it may be said, "this is form", "this is feeling","this is consciousness", "these are the other conditioned factors",
they never appear to the perceiving subject. Whatever is not
perceived distinctly by the mind cannot be demonstrated to others
and cannot be the basis or object of disputation for those who
possess wisdom. The term disputation indicates the activity of
establishing or proving ones own position and refuting the positionof others. In this way, when nothing at all is apprehended or

perceived, how can one demonstrate an entity which one believes toexist substantially to another, saying "this is form" and the like.
Alternatively, how can one demonstrate or declare that an entity
which others believe to exist substantially and which one believes
to be false is in fact so. In this way, those who have not understood
the meaning of Interdependent Origination which is the absence of
substantial origination are liable to develop erroneous conceptions.
XLIII. Those who are attached to the self and the world as
not dependent, alas, are attracted to the views of permanence,
impermanence and the like.
There are those who do not regard the five aggregates asdevoid of substance like a reflection and do not hold that relying
upon the former, the so called self is applied in the manner of aname. On the contrary, they call the establishment of the mind in
its own characteristic mark the self and are surely caused to strayfrom the path of Nirv@%a by the great river of views.14
Now, one might ask, if the mind is indeed established in its
intrinsic being, that is substantially, then is it permanent orimpermanent? If it is permanent, then you maintain that it issubstantially existent. If it is impermanent, then you are an
exponent of Nihilism. If you hold that something which has arisen,
after ceases to exist, that is the view of Nihilism. Then, alas, those
who think in this way are attracted by views.
The term world means the five aggregates. If the fiveaggregates are thought to be established in their own characteristic
mark, then too a similar fault will occur.
Otherwise, the S@`khyas and others hold that the self is
independent and permanent. According to them, it is established in
its intrinsic being and is not interdependently originated. The world
too is of the substance of primordial matter, prak=ti. They believethat primordial matter is substantially existent and that it does notchange. They further hold that the changing conglomerations ofobjects is opposite to this.
Now, there are some Buddhist schools that accept the fiveaggregates and the self as interdependent, but who also accept themto exist as substances. Again, there are Buddhists who accept that

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ignorance and volitions function as causes and conditions for theorigination of things but who accept the substantial existence of
consciousness etc. The latter views are also wrong.
XLIV. For whosoever holds that dependent entities are
established in reality how will the faults of permanence and the like
not also occur?
Therefore, by accepting the substantial existence and nonexistence of the self and factors, the faults of permanence and thelike, that is Eternalism and Nihilism occur. When the above
erroneous views are removed, one has understood the precise
meaning of Interdependent Origination, reality.
XLV. Those who hold that dependent entities are like themoon's reflection in water, neither true nor false, are not attracted
to a view.
Form and the rest do not exist substantially. Substantial
existence cannot change its mode of being. Whatever issubstantially non-existent also cannot possibly exist later on. While
one may accept the existence of causes and conditions, nothing at all
can possibly originate. Causes and conditions also could hardly exist
substantially, for this would be impossible and contrary to theirdependent or interdependently originated state.
Now suppose that one would like to get well rid of this fault.
If one accepts substantial existence, but despite this, accepts thenotion of Interdependent Origination, then causes and conditions
will not occur. Causes and conditions, in that case, will be without apurpose. In this case also, Interdependent Origination will becontradicted. If it is contrary to Interdependent Origination, then
all the stipulated schemes will become as nothing. Cyclical existencealso will be unapprehended like the horn of a donkey. In that case,the factors, cyclical existence, birth, family, color, form, knowledge,
the sphere of air, gold, silver, lapis lazuli, the red and the white
lotuses, trees, mountains, jar and chariot etc. will all beunapprehended and non-existent. But, when all these are perceived,to accept them to be non-existent is not correct.
Thus having rejected the alternatives of substantial existence
and non-existence, the appearance of objects is established merely

by conditions like the appearance of a reflection. Therefore, the factthat they are not established substantially ought to be accepted. In
this way, the factors which participate in the domain of erroneous
views, like a reflection, are interdependently originated and freefrom the alternatives of Eternalism and Nihilism.
This is not contradictory. Whatever has been said regarding
the different aspects of cyclical existence is not impossible. The Holy
Personalities have given up erroneous views. As they are free fromfalse superimposition, their liberation is not unreasonable. Because
factors are interdependently originated, they are not originatedsubstantially. Therefore, all entities are like the moon's reflection inwater. They are not established in their intrinsic being, like areflection. Such objects are held to be not essentially true, andbecause they are not essentially or intrinsically true, so too they are
not essentially false.
The conceptions of truth and falsity depend upon entities.
However, factors that participate in Interdependent Origination are
not essentially entities, but appear like a reflection. Therefore, they
are not real. If they were real, then consequently, it would be
impossible for them to change their mode of being. In the world,
however, things appear to be real or true, therefore, they are notalso altogether false. The statement that entities are not true is also
made with a purpose in mind, the purpose being to benefit certain
persons of particular dispositions. Moreover, because things are nottrue, we are not Eternalists or substantialists. However, things arealso not false, consequently, we are also not Nihilists.
In this way, if one comprehends that things which participate
in Interdependent Origination are not substantially existent, thenby means of the vessel of the knowledge of Interdependent
Origination, one will cross the ocean of the view of permanence andimpermanence which like great waves are agitated by the wind oferror. Thereafter, one will reach the great plain of Nirv@%a which isadorned by the forest of the trees of the matchless teachings of the
Buddha having the marvelous jeweled limbs of Enlightenment,
stainless, because of the achievement of the ten powers of
Buddhahood. When one has happily reached the goal of vacuity

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ignorance and volitions function as causes and conditions for theorigination of things but who accept the substantial existence of
consciousness etc. The latter views are also wrong.
XLIV. For whosoever holds that dependent entities are
established in reality how will the faults of permanence and the like
not also occur?
Therefore, by accepting the substantial existence and nonexistence of the self and factors, the faults of permanence and thelike, that is Eternalism and Nihilism occur. When the above
erroneous views are removed, one has understood the precise
meaning of Interdependent Origination, reality.
XLV. Those who hold that dependent entities are like themoon's reflection in water, neither true nor false, are not attracted
to a view.
Form and the rest do not exist substantially. Substantial
existence cannot change its mode of being. Whatever issubstantially non-existent also cannot possibly exist later on. While
one may accept the existence of causes and conditions, nothing at all
can possibly originate. Causes and conditions also could hardly exist
substantially, for this would be impossible and contrary to theirdependent or interdependently originated state.
Now suppose that one would like to get well rid of this fault.
If one accepts substantial existence, but despite this, accepts thenotion of Interdependent Origination, then causes and conditions
will not occur. Causes and conditions, in that case, will be without apurpose. In this case also, Interdependent Origination will becontradicted. If it is contrary to Interdependent Origination, then
all the stipulated schemes will become as nothing. Cyclical existencealso will be unapprehended like the horn of a donkey. In that case,the factors, cyclical existence, birth, family, color, form, knowledge,
the sphere of air, gold, silver, lapis lazuli, the red and the white
lotuses, trees, mountains, jar and chariot etc. will all beunapprehended and non-existent. But, when all these are perceived,to accept them to be non-existent is not correct.
Thus having rejected the alternatives of substantial existence
and non-existence, the appearance of objects is established merely

by conditions like the appearance of a reflection. Therefore, the factthat they are not established substantially ought to be accepted. In
this way, the factors which participate in the domain of erroneous
views, like a reflection, are interdependently originated and freefrom the alternatives of Eternalism and Nihilism.
This is not contradictory. Whatever has been said regarding
the different aspects of cyclical existence is not impossible. The Holy
Personalities have given up erroneous views. As they are free fromfalse superimposition, their liberation is not unreasonable. Because
factors are interdependently originated, they are not originatedsubstantially. Therefore, all entities are like the moon's reflection inwater. They are not established in their intrinsic being, like areflection. Such objects are held to be not essentially true, andbecause they are not essentially or intrinsically true, so too they are
not essentially false.
The conceptions of truth and falsity depend upon entities.
However, factors that participate in Interdependent Origination are
not essentially entities, but appear like a reflection. Therefore, they
are not real. If they were real, then consequently, it would be
impossible for them to change their mode of being. In the world,
however, things appear to be real or true, therefore, they are notalso altogether false. The statement that entities are not true is also
made with a purpose in mind, the purpose being to benefit certain
persons of particular dispositions. Moreover, because things are nottrue, we are not Eternalists or substantialists. However, things arealso not false, consequently, we are also not Nihilists.
In this way, if one comprehends that things which participate
in Interdependent Origination are not substantially existent, thenby means of the vessel of the knowledge of Interdependent
Origination, one will cross the ocean of the view of permanence andimpermanence which like great waves are agitated by the wind oferror. Thereafter, one will reach the great plain of Nirv@%a which isadorned by the forest of the trees of the matchless teachings of the
Buddha having the marvelous jeweled limbs of Enlightenment,
stainless, because of the achievement of the ten powers of
Buddhahood. When one has happily reached the goal of vacuity

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through the knowledge of perfection and non-origination, then one
can proclaim the message of Interdependent Origination for the
benefit of others.
Those who do not understand the reality of Interdependent
Origination will conceive of the substantial existence of entities.
XLVI. If the acceptance of entities is present, the terrible
erroneous views will arise from which attachment and ill will
originate. From the latter, disputation will arise.
Here, the term attachment refers to attachment to ones own
position. The term ill will refers to the rejection of others' positions,or the turning of ones back upon others. It is called terrible because
the consequences of this attitude are extremely unpleasant anddifficult to bear. Moreover, it is terrible because it damages ones
mental continuum and is difficult to escape. What is the attitude inquestion? It is none other than the grasping of views. The presenceof views of this kind too arises from the acceptance of entities. If
there exists grasping of views, so then there occurs the wish to
demonstrate the objects which are accepted by oneself and thedesire to vindicate the facts that one accepts. Again, there occurs
the desire to debunk what is accepted by others. Therefore, thedisputations which arise from the acceptance of views also arise
from the basis of the inclination to accept entities. Besides, there
are other consequences as well.
XLVII. That (the acceptance of entities) is the cause of all
views. Without it, the afflictions will not originate, therefore, if thisis known, views and afflictions will be thoroughly purified.
If entities are accepted, the alternatives of beginning, middle
and end will be conceived. Attachment to entities is the cause of all
the varieties of discriminating conceptions. Once discriminating
conceptions and views are present, then the afflictions which areborn from adherence to views will occur. Attachment to ones own
view will lead to pride and arrogance. Moreover, ill will toward theviews of others will occur in its turn. Originated from delusion,
views produce afflictions. Because in this way, all views andafflictions originate from the cause of apprehending or perceiving
entities, therefore, if one penetrates the essential nature of entities

and ceases to apprehend them, views will be abandoned. Whenviews are abandoned, afflictions also are purified.
XLVIII. How will this be known? - By seeing Interdependent
Origination. The Knower of Suchness (The Buddha) said that thedependently originated does not originate.
When Interdependent Origination is seen, the substantial
nature of entities ceases to be perceived, because whatever
originates dependent upon something else is essentially not
originated like a reflection.
Now, whatever is originated is indeed originated. How can
you claim that it is not? If you say it is not originated, then how canyou maintain that it is dependently originated? If in this way, it issuggested that the latter statement contradicts the former, thisobjection also can be met.
Alas, those who have neither ears nor hearts seek to findfault in my explanation when they are themselves out of place.
Whatever is dependently originated, like a reflection, does not
originate substantially. Therefore, when I speak as before, how canthere be occasion to find fault in this explanation? One who
perceives that a form which is dependently originated, like areflection, is false, may say, it is not originated. Therefore, it may besaid that whatever is not originated substantially is not originated.
The purpose of this text is to demonstrate the real state ofthings. However, a traveler who has lost his way, confused by error,
may fail to see the way things really are. Interdependent
Origination which is not substantially originated does not occur inthe nature of error. Ordinary people imagine substantial
origination. They become attached to this imagined substantial
origination and consequently become afflicted. In order to free themfrom this affliction, the Blessed Buddha-the Knower of Suchnesswho is foremost among the knowers of reality: the disciples, thePrivate Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas, said that whatever isdependently originated does not originate.
The magician who creates the form of a lovely young woman
will not suffer from the afflicted states of mind that arise from thenotion that it is a real young woman. But, another, overcome with

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through the knowledge of perfection and non-origination, then one
can proclaim the message of Interdependent Origination for the
benefit of others.
Those who do not understand the reality of Interdependent
Origination will conceive of the substantial existence of entities.
XLVI. If the acceptance of entities is present, the terrible
erroneous views will arise from which attachment and ill will
originate. From the latter, disputation will arise.
Here, the term attachment refers to attachment to ones own
position. The term ill will refers to the rejection of others' positions,or the turning of ones back upon others. It is called terrible because
the consequences of this attitude are extremely unpleasant anddifficult to bear. Moreover, it is terrible because it damages ones
mental continuum and is difficult to escape. What is the attitude inquestion? It is none other than the grasping of views. The presenceof views of this kind too arises from the acceptance of entities. If
there exists grasping of views, so then there occurs the wish to
demonstrate the objects which are accepted by oneself and thedesire to vindicate the facts that one accepts. Again, there occurs
the desire to debunk what is accepted by others. Therefore, thedisputations which arise from the acceptance of views also arise
from the basis of the inclination to accept entities. Besides, there
are other consequences as well.
XLVII. That (the acceptance of entities) is the cause of all
views. Without it, the afflictions will not originate, therefore, if thisis known, views and afflictions will be thoroughly purified.
If entities are accepted, the alternatives of beginning, middle
and end will be conceived. Attachment to entities is the cause of all
the varieties of discriminating conceptions. Once discriminating
conceptions and views are present, then the afflictions which areborn from adherence to views will occur. Attachment to ones own
view will lead to pride and arrogance. Moreover, ill will toward theviews of others will occur in its turn. Originated from delusion,
views produce afflictions. Because in this way, all views andafflictions originate from the cause of apprehending or perceiving
entities, therefore, if one penetrates the essential nature of entities

and ceases to apprehend them, views will be abandoned. Whenviews are abandoned, afflictions also are purified.
XLVIII. How will this be known? - By seeing Interdependent
Origination. The Knower of Suchness (The Buddha) said that thedependently originated does not originate.
When Interdependent Origination is seen, the substantial
nature of entities ceases to be perceived, because whatever
originates dependent upon something else is essentially not
originated like a reflection.
Now, whatever is originated is indeed originated. How can
you claim that it is not? If you say it is not originated, then how canyou maintain that it is dependently originated? If in this way, it issuggested that the latter statement contradicts the former, thisobjection also can be met.
Alas, those who have neither ears nor hearts seek to findfault in my explanation when they are themselves out of place.
Whatever is dependently originated, like a reflection, does not
originate substantially. Therefore, when I speak as before, how canthere be occasion to find fault in this explanation? One who
perceives that a form which is dependently originated, like areflection, is false, may say, it is not originated. Therefore, it may besaid that whatever is not originated substantially is not originated.
The purpose of this text is to demonstrate the real state ofthings. However, a traveler who has lost his way, confused by error,
may fail to see the way things really are. Interdependent
Origination which is not substantially originated does not occur inthe nature of error. Ordinary people imagine substantial
origination. They become attached to this imagined substantial
origination and consequently become afflicted. In order to free themfrom this affliction, the Blessed Buddha-the Knower of Suchnesswho is foremost among the knowers of reality: the disciples, thePrivate Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas, said that whatever isdependently originated does not originate.
The magician who creates the form of a lovely young woman
will not suffer from the afflicted states of mind that arise from thenotion that it is a real young woman. But, another, overcome with

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arrogance and error, who believes her to be real will be affected bydesire and the like. In this way also, the Blessed One has said that
dependently originated things are not originated. The above serves
as a corrective for the attachment to the notion that entities exist
substantially.
XLIX. The process of clinging and disputation etc. will
originate from attachment for those who are dominated by the false
cognition that is grasping at the unreal as real.
Therefore, in order to correct the error of assuming entities
which are unreal, that is not substantially real to be real, theBuddha has taught Interdependent Origination. The things thatparticipate in Interdependent Origination are deceptive. When one
has realized that such entities are not real, then attachment tothem can be removed. When one has removed attachment toentities, one can then remove grasping at entities. Here, bygrasping is meant the appropriation of entities, that is making
entities ones own. Once this attachment, this appropriating
tendency is removed, then attachment to desired objects,
attachment to views and attachment to disputation can also be
eliminated.
L. Those who are of excellent qualities have no position andno disputation. How could those who have no position haveanother's position?
Now, if it is said by M@dhyamikas that although they have no
position of their own, it is not impossible for them to refute
another's position, then it is not so, because when the position ofanother exists, ones own position cannot consequently be nonexistent. When no entity exists, and there exists no position of ones
own or of another, then the afflictions of those who see this reality
will surely be annihilated. How is that so?
LI. Whosoever has apprehended any objective position
whatsoever will be caught by the deceiver - the serpent of theafflictions. Those whose minds have not apprehended an objective
position will not be caught.
Desire moves in the dense forest of volitions where the beastof erroneous views has made his liar in the sense faculty of visionand obstructs the wholesome life. Those who are attached to an
objective position cease upon it as a support. On the other hand,those who do not at all perceive an entity who have put an end tothe cause of being bitten by the serpent of the afflictions haveplugged up the apertures of the senses by the applications of the
shutters of mindfulness and attention. They do not find themselvescaught by the serpent of the afflictions. In their minds, they do notdwell upon or grasp any objective position. Therefore, the minds ofthose who do not perceive any objective position do not come toharm, because of the poisonous deceiver, the serpent of theafflictions. If there existed no perception of entities, then there
would be no apprehension on the part of the mind. Therefore, those
who have no mental perception of an objective position are notcaught by the vicious deceitful, serpent of the afflictions. Those who
perceive form etc. in their intrinsic being, although they think they
can abandon the afflictions, cannot in fact do so.
LII. a. Why will those whose minds have (apprehended) an
objective position not be caught by the great poison of theafflictions, …
If entities are perceived, the presence of the afflictions like
attachment and the rest without doubt, cannot be removed. If thoseentities remain agreeable to the mind, it will be difficult to remove
attachment to them. On the other hand, if they are found not to beagreeable, then it will be difficult to remove the consequent attitudeof aversion toward them. Otherwise, if one should be able to remove
both these attitudes of mind, that is attachment and ill will, and yet
continue to superimpose the perception of substantial existence
upon an objective position, then an objective position of indifference
will be perceived. Then, it will be difficult to remove the subtle
affliction of ignorance with regard to such an objective position of
indifference. When an objective position of indifference exists, thesubtle affliction of ignorance which is a cause of suffering and whichis conducive to the arising of the suffering of Sa`s@ra will bepresent. Harmful by nature, this subtle ignorance gives rise to theother afflictions.
LII. b. …when even those who dwell in indifference will be

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arrogance and error, who believes her to be real will be affected bydesire and the like. In this way also, the Blessed One has said that
dependently originated things are not originated. The above serves
as a corrective for the attachment to the notion that entities exist
substantially.
XLIX. The process of clinging and disputation etc. will
originate from attachment for those who are dominated by the false
cognition that is grasping at the unreal as real.
Therefore, in order to correct the error of assuming entities
which are unreal, that is not substantially real to be real, theBuddha has taught Interdependent Origination. The things thatparticipate in Interdependent Origination are deceptive. When one
has realized that such entities are not real, then attachment tothem can be removed. When one has removed attachment toentities, one can then remove grasping at entities. Here, bygrasping is meant the appropriation of entities, that is making
entities ones own. Once this attachment, this appropriating
tendency is removed, then attachment to desired objects,
attachment to views and attachment to disputation can also be
eliminated.
L. Those who are of excellent qualities have no position andno disputation. How could those who have no position haveanother's position?
Now, if it is said by M@dhyamikas that although they have no
position of their own, it is not impossible for them to refute
another's position, then it is not so, because when the position ofanother exists, ones own position cannot consequently be nonexistent. When no entity exists, and there exists no position of ones
own or of another, then the afflictions of those who see this reality
will surely be annihilated. How is that so?
LI. Whosoever has apprehended any objective position
whatsoever will be caught by the deceiver - the serpent of theafflictions. Those whose minds have not apprehended an objective
position will not be caught.
Desire moves in the dense forest of volitions where the beastof erroneous views has made his liar in the sense faculty of visionand obstructs the wholesome life. Those who are attached to an
objective position cease upon it as a support. On the other hand,those who do not at all perceive an entity who have put an end tothe cause of being bitten by the serpent of the afflictions haveplugged up the apertures of the senses by the applications of the
shutters of mindfulness and attention. They do not find themselvescaught by the serpent of the afflictions. In their minds, they do notdwell upon or grasp any objective position. Therefore, the minds ofthose who do not perceive any objective position do not come toharm, because of the poisonous deceiver, the serpent of theafflictions. If there existed no perception of entities, then there
would be no apprehension on the part of the mind. Therefore, those
who have no mental perception of an objective position are notcaught by the vicious deceitful, serpent of the afflictions. Those who
perceive form etc. in their intrinsic being, although they think they
can abandon the afflictions, cannot in fact do so.
LII. a. Why will those whose minds have (apprehended) an
objective position not be caught by the great poison of theafflictions, …
If entities are perceived, the presence of the afflictions like
attachment and the rest without doubt, cannot be removed. If thoseentities remain agreeable to the mind, it will be difficult to remove
attachment to them. On the other hand, if they are found not to beagreeable, then it will be difficult to remove the consequent attitudeof aversion toward them. Otherwise, if one should be able to remove
both these attitudes of mind, that is attachment and ill will, and yet
continue to superimpose the perception of substantial existence
upon an objective position, then an objective position of indifference
will be perceived. Then, it will be difficult to remove the subtle
affliction of ignorance with regard to such an objective position of
indifference. When an objective position of indifference exists, thesubtle affliction of ignorance which is a cause of suffering and whichis conducive to the arising of the suffering of Sa`s@ra will bepresent. Harmful by nature, this subtle ignorance gives rise to theother afflictions.
LII. b. …when even those who dwell in indifference will be

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caught by the serpent of the afflictions.
When delusion is rampant, its darkness obscures the vision of
the real so that ordinary people by the power of delusion are
inclined to establish the substantial existence of entities.
LIII. As children are attached to a reflection, perceiving it to
be true, so the worldly are trapped in the prison of objects.
Just as children who are not conversant with the conventionsof the world and innocent about the nature of consciousness, whenperceiving a reflection, believe that they are apprehending objects
that exists substantially and become attached to them and pursue
them, similarly, the worldly who are ignorant are attached to thebelief that entities which are born from the power of delusion aretrue or real. They also commit their whole being to the pursuit ofsuch entities. Attracted by the imagined existence of entities andsubject to the power of attachment, ill will, pride and so forth, they
pursue them without freedom to do otherwise like children.
Undertaking this or that activity in pursuit of their objects, they
become trapped in the prison of objects, that is Sa`s@ra. Suchpeople who do not know the true state of Sa`s@ra are objects ofcompassion for the Holy Personalities. The Holy Personalities who
possess the clear eye of wisdom know precisely the nature of reality.
LIV. The Great Persons who see entities through the eye ofknowledge to be like a reflection are not entangled in the mire ofobjects.
The Great Persons who are free from attachment to entities
are not entangled in the mire of objects. The Great Persons or Holy
Personalities are familiar with the nature of a reflection unlike thechildish who are not.
LV. Ordinary people desire form; middling ones are free fromdesire (for form); those with the excellent intelligence of knowing
the nature of form are entirely freed.
Ordinary people who are childish by nature are calledchildish. Although the body, form, be impure and subject tomomentary destruction, some think it is pure and permanent.
Moreover, the body is hardly praise worthy, requires constant careand is the basis of the experience of suffering. Again, for the sake ofthe body, people undertake unwholesome actions which havesuffering as their consequence. These are the consequences of thedesire of the childish for form, that is the body, notwithstanding its
lack of purity and so forth.
Middling ones, seeing the impure state of the body, declare it
to be just so. They have seen the accumulation of many hundreds ofsufferings associated with the physical body. The middling person,
having freed himself from desire for form, achieves the formlessabsorptions. The middling ones are so called, because they havetranscended the sphere of desire.
Those who understand form to be without substantial
existence, like a reflection, are freed, because they are aware of thevarious mental fabrications associated with form and the like.
LVI. Desire arises from the thought of the pleasurable; fromits opposite, desire is left behind. Seeing entities as vacuous like amagical man, Nirv/%a is achieved.
Those who possess excellent intelligence and see the world of
cyclical existence as vacuous and empty like a magical man, gain
Nirv/%a. They are to be known as the Disciples, Private Buddhas
and Blessed Buddhas. Middling ones are of the world although they
are free from sensual desire. The childish, on the other hand, areattached to objects of sensual desire.
Now, it may be asked, if one sees the world of cyclicalexistence as vacuous like a magical man, then what will Nirv/%abe like?
LVII. Those who are affected by erroneous cognition acquire
whatsoever faults of the afflictions (exist). Those who know themeaning of the conceptions of entities and non-entities will not(acquire them).
Those who perceive cyclical existence to be like illusion, who
do not perceive the actual marks of entities and non-entities andwho thoroughly understand the conceptions of entities and nonentities do not imagine or fabricate these conceptions. Those whohave analyzed the conceptions of existence and non-existence and ofentities and non-entities and who have understood them certainly
do not fall into cyclical existence because of the afflictions of

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

caught by the serpent of the afflictions.
When delusion is rampant, its darkness obscures the vision of
the real so that ordinary people by the power of delusion are
inclined to establish the substantial existence of entities.
LIII. As children are attached to a reflection, perceiving it to
be true, so the worldly are trapped in the prison of objects.
Just as children who are not conversant with the conventionsof the world and innocent about the nature of consciousness, whenperceiving a reflection, believe that they are apprehending objects
that exists substantially and become attached to them and pursue
them, similarly, the worldly who are ignorant are attached to thebelief that entities which are born from the power of delusion aretrue or real. They also commit their whole being to the pursuit ofsuch entities. Attracted by the imagined existence of entities andsubject to the power of attachment, ill will, pride and so forth, they
pursue them without freedom to do otherwise like children.
Undertaking this or that activity in pursuit of their objects, they
become trapped in the prison of objects, that is Sa`s@ra. Suchpeople who do not know the true state of Sa`s@ra are objects ofcompassion for the Holy Personalities. The Holy Personalities who
possess the clear eye of wisdom know precisely the nature of reality.
LIV. The Great Persons who see entities through the eye ofknowledge to be like a reflection are not entangled in the mire ofobjects.
The Great Persons who are free from attachment to entities
are not entangled in the mire of objects. The Great Persons or Holy
Personalities are familiar with the nature of a reflection unlike thechildish who are not.
LV. Ordinary people desire form; middling ones are free fromdesire (for form); those with the excellent intelligence of knowing
the nature of form are entirely freed.
Ordinary people who are childish by nature are calledchildish. Although the body, form, be impure and subject tomomentary destruction, some think it is pure and permanent.
Moreover, the body is hardly praise worthy, requires constant careand is the basis of the experience of suffering. Again, for the sake ofthe body, people undertake unwholesome actions which havesuffering as their consequence. These are the consequences of thedesire of the childish for form, that is the body, notwithstanding its
lack of purity and so forth.
Middling ones, seeing the impure state of the body, declare it
to be just so. They have seen the accumulation of many hundreds ofsufferings associated with the physical body. The middling person,
having freed himself from desire for form, achieves the formlessabsorptions. The middling ones are so called, because they havetranscended the sphere of desire.
Those who understand form to be without substantial
existence, like a reflection, are freed, because they are aware of thevarious mental fabrications associated with form and the like.
LVI. Desire arises from the thought of the pleasurable; fromits opposite, desire is left behind. Seeing entities as vacuous like amagical man, Nirv/%a is achieved.
Those who possess excellent intelligence and see the world of
cyclical existence as vacuous and empty like a magical man, gain
Nirv/%a. They are to be known as the Disciples, Private Buddhas
and Blessed Buddhas. Middling ones are of the world although they
are free from sensual desire. The childish, on the other hand, areattached to objects of sensual desire.
Now, it may be asked, if one sees the world of cyclicalexistence as vacuous like a magical man, then what will Nirv/%abe like?
LVII. Those who are affected by erroneous cognition acquire
whatsoever faults of the afflictions (exist). Those who know themeaning of the conceptions of entities and non-entities will not(acquire them).
Those who perceive cyclical existence to be like illusion, who
do not perceive the actual marks of entities and non-entities andwho thoroughly understand the conceptions of entities and nonentities do not imagine or fabricate these conceptions. Those whohave analyzed the conceptions of existence and non-existence and ofentities and non-entities and who have understood them certainly
do not fall into cyclical existence because of the afflictions of

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attachment and so forth. The afflictions arise for those who sufferfrom erroneous cognition.
Those who because of this erroneous cognition, perceive
objects are therefore affected by the afflictions. Those who havesucceeded in penetrating the real state of things are free from theafflictions and will certainly achieve Nirv@%a. The childish, on theother hand, are affected by erroneous views and mistaken beliefs,
therefore, it is not sustainable to maintain that they have achieved
Nirv@%a.
When an objective position is perceived, the conceptions ofattachment and freedom from attachment arise, in so far as one is
attached to an objective position, or alternatively, free fromattachment to an objective position.
LVIII. If an objective position existed, attachment andfreedom from attachment might arise. But the Great Persons who
are without an objective position have neither attachment nor
freedom from attachment.
If attachment and freedom from attachment are perceived,
then attachment and freedom from attachment will beappropriated. The Great Persons or Holy Personalities do not
perceive the substantial existence of entities, therefore, they haveno objective position or fixed object of the mind. They will surely
gain Nirv@%a.
LIX. Those who think of complete vacuity are not moved evenby the fickle mind. They will cross the terrible ocean of existence
churned by the serpent of the afflictions.
Because it is restless by nature, the mind is said to be fickle
like a monkey. Here, complete vacuity equals Emptiness. Those who
remain steadfast in the cultivation of Emptiness cross the ocean ofexistence.
Now, in order to dedicate the merit of this practise, the final
stanza is composed.
LX. By this merit, may all sentient beings, having
accumulated the heaps of merit and knowledge, attain the twohighest goods (the two dimensions of Buddhahood) that arise frommerit and knowledge.

The infinite merit that is accomplished in order to bringabout the enhanced understanding of all the spheres of sentient
beings is demonstrated to be the accumulation of the heap of merit.
This is apart from wisdom and the cause of wisdom. Wisdom andthe cause of wisdom which bring about the accomplishment of
Buddhahood are referred to in the dedication as the accumulation ofknowledge.
May all sentient beings achieve the excellent fruits or the twohighest goods that arise from merit and knowledge. What are thetwo excellent fruits that are born from the accumulations of meritand knowledge? The two highest goods are the phenomenal
dimension(Rupak@ya)
andtranscendental
dimension,(Dharmak@ya) of Buddhahood respectively.
The commentary composed by Candrak$rti, the Mah@y@na
Master and expositor of the Madhyamaka philosophy wastranslated from Sanskrit into Tibetan by the Indian abbots:
Jinamitra, D@na^$la, /$lendrabodhi and by the great Tibetantranslator Bande Ye shes sde.

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attachment and so forth. The afflictions arise for those who sufferfrom erroneous cognition.
Those who because of this erroneous cognition, perceive
objects are therefore affected by the afflictions. Those who havesucceeded in penetrating the real state of things are free from theafflictions and will certainly achieve Nirv@%a. The childish, on theother hand, are affected by erroneous views and mistaken beliefs,
therefore, it is not sustainable to maintain that they have achieved
Nirv@%a.
When an objective position is perceived, the conceptions ofattachment and freedom from attachment arise, in so far as one is
attached to an objective position, or alternatively, free fromattachment to an objective position.
LVIII. If an objective position existed, attachment andfreedom from attachment might arise. But the Great Persons who
are without an objective position have neither attachment nor
freedom from attachment.
If attachment and freedom from attachment are perceived,
then attachment and freedom from attachment will beappropriated. The Great Persons or Holy Personalities do not
perceive the substantial existence of entities, therefore, they haveno objective position or fixed object of the mind. They will surely
gain Nirv@%a.
LIX. Those who think of complete vacuity are not moved evenby the fickle mind. They will cross the terrible ocean of existence
churned by the serpent of the afflictions.
Because it is restless by nature, the mind is said to be fickle
like a monkey. Here, complete vacuity equals Emptiness. Those who
remain steadfast in the cultivation of Emptiness cross the ocean ofexistence.
Now, in order to dedicate the merit of this practise, the final
stanza is composed.
LX. By this merit, may all sentient beings, having
accumulated the heaps of merit and knowledge, attain the twohighest goods (the two dimensions of Buddhahood) that arise frommerit and knowledge.

The infinite merit that is accomplished in order to bringabout the enhanced understanding of all the spheres of sentient
beings is demonstrated to be the accumulation of the heap of merit.
This is apart from wisdom and the cause of wisdom. Wisdom andthe cause of wisdom which bring about the accomplishment of
Buddhahood are referred to in the dedication as the accumulation ofknowledge.
May all sentient beings achieve the excellent fruits or the twohighest goods that arise from merit and knowledge. What are thetwo excellent fruits that are born from the accumulations of meritand knowledge? The two highest goods are the phenomenal
dimension(Rupak@ya)
andtranscendental
dimension,(Dharmak@ya) of Buddhahood respectively.
The commentary composed by Candrak$rti, the Mah@y@na
Master and expositor of the Madhyamaka philosophy wastranslated from Sanskrit into Tibetan by the Indian abbots:
Jinamitra, D@na^$la, /$lendrabodhi and by the great Tibetantranslator Bande Ye shes sde.

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I dedicate this book to the late Khenpo
Migmar Tsering, principal of the Sakya
Institute of Higher Buddhist Studies, Rajpur,
Dehra Dun, India.
His wisdom, compassion and genuine good
humour are greatly missed by his students
and friends.

Part Four

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Madhyamaka will be expressed in a single stanza. Often too, boththe antithesis, or pre- critical position (p#rvapak&a) as well as the

Madhyamaka's critique will amazingly be stuffed into a single

Section One
An Introduction to Nagarjuna's Emptiness:
The Seventy Stanzas
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas is markedly different instyle from Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas. It also treats a subject
matter, admittedly, more rarefied in the philosophical sense, and so
N@g@rjuna has not unwisely chosen to adopt a more rigorous andintellectual style. Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas is a text written
for philosophers, or at least bright students of philosophy, while as
we suggested Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas has an altogether
different tenor.
In keeping with the style and object of the text, N@g@rjuna
has packed an immense amount of content into a very few words. He
would certainly be said to have done justice to that old Sanskrit
saying about writers of philosophical texts rejoicing more at thesaving of one word in a stanza than most men do at the birth of ason. Fortunately, out of great compassion no doubt, N@g@rjuna hasrelented and provided an auto-commentary to go along with thetext. It has to be said of course that the commentary is also quite
terse, but it is loquacious compared to the stanzas.
In fact what the commentary does do at many places is makethe words appearing in the stanzas, often in contexts where a single
word may have to carry a whole doctrinal position intelligible.
Without such a key provided by the commentary, we think the text
would be impenetrable in the absence of an authentic oral tradition.
As we have just suggested, the stanzas in the text are so
packed with references - often to the views of other Buddhist schools- and so full of meaning, that an entire philosophical disputation
between, for instance, a Buddhist Realist opponent and the133stanza, and that also when the aspects of the positions are manifold.
Perhaps Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas is so packed withmeaning, because the purpose it seems to have been written to serve
is such a great one. Candrak$rti tells us in his introductory remarksin the commentary to Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas that Emptiness:
The Seventy Stanzas was written to explain Stanza 34 of chapter
VII of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way. "Like an illusion,a dream and a fairy city are described the concepts of origination,
duration and destruction." The stanza Candrak$rti indicates
expresses an analogy, but with few exceptions, the text here is fullof arguments and far less generous with similes. The arguments arein most cases, because of the excess of contents also more like what
we have called proto syllogisms. Perhaps one might say seedsyllogisms, expressions in which single words convey condition andconsequence and the student of philosophy is left to figure them out
for himself. If this is an obstacle to the reading of the text however,it should not be. For one thing, it is much easier to read than theentire Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way a completely
statisfactory English translation of which still does not exist to ourknowledge, notwithstanding the valiant efforts of a number of
excellent scholars. It is hardly surprising, given that the text runs totwenty-seven chapters and hundreds of stanzas, all of them difficult.
But here, we would return to our theme. Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas is a summery or condensation of The Foundation Stanzasof the Middle Way a philosophical readers' digest of the immense
text. Consequently, it should be well suited to our modern age.
Let us pursue this theme a bit further. The Foundation
Stanzas of the Middle Way contain a very large and important
chapter VII on the examination of origination. It actually looks at
the three characteristics of the so called compounded factors anddiscusses, as in the first and twentieth chapters, causation orconditionality. The chapter on origination is very detailed, and wehave not read an intelligible English translation. Candrak$rti's
134

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Madhyamaka will be expressed in a single stanza. Often too, boththe antithesis, or pre- critical position (p#rvapak&a) as well as the

Madhyamaka's critique will amazingly be stuffed into a single

Section One
An Introduction to Nagarjuna's Emptiness:
The Seventy Stanzas
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas is markedly different instyle from Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas. It also treats a subject
matter, admittedly, more rarefied in the philosophical sense, and so
N@g@rjuna has not unwisely chosen to adopt a more rigorous andintellectual style. Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas is a text written
for philosophers, or at least bright students of philosophy, while as
we suggested Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas has an altogether
different tenor.
In keeping with the style and object of the text, N@g@rjuna
has packed an immense amount of content into a very few words. He
would certainly be said to have done justice to that old Sanskrit
saying about writers of philosophical texts rejoicing more at thesaving of one word in a stanza than most men do at the birth of ason. Fortunately, out of great compassion no doubt, N@g@rjuna hasrelented and provided an auto-commentary to go along with thetext. It has to be said of course that the commentary is also quite
terse, but it is loquacious compared to the stanzas.
In fact what the commentary does do at many places is makethe words appearing in the stanzas, often in contexts where a single
word may have to carry a whole doctrinal position intelligible.
Without such a key provided by the commentary, we think the text
would be impenetrable in the absence of an authentic oral tradition.
As we have just suggested, the stanzas in the text are so
packed with references - often to the views of other Buddhist schools- and so full of meaning, that an entire philosophical disputation
between, for instance, a Buddhist Realist opponent and the133stanza, and that also when the aspects of the positions are manifold.
Perhaps Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas is so packed withmeaning, because the purpose it seems to have been written to serve
is such a great one. Candrak$rti tells us in his introductory remarksin the commentary to Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas that Emptiness:
The Seventy Stanzas was written to explain Stanza 34 of chapter
VII of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way. "Like an illusion,a dream and a fairy city are described the concepts of origination,
duration and destruction." The stanza Candrak$rti indicates
expresses an analogy, but with few exceptions, the text here is fullof arguments and far less generous with similes. The arguments arein most cases, because of the excess of contents also more like what
we have called proto syllogisms. Perhaps one might say seedsyllogisms, expressions in which single words convey condition andconsequence and the student of philosophy is left to figure them out
for himself. If this is an obstacle to the reading of the text however,it should not be. For one thing, it is much easier to read than theentire Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way a completely
statisfactory English translation of which still does not exist to ourknowledge, notwithstanding the valiant efforts of a number of
excellent scholars. It is hardly surprising, given that the text runs totwenty-seven chapters and hundreds of stanzas, all of them difficult.
But here, we would return to our theme. Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas is a summery or condensation of The Foundation Stanzasof the Middle Way a philosophical readers' digest of the immense
text. Consequently, it should be well suited to our modern age.
Let us pursue this theme a bit further. The Foundation
Stanzas of the Middle Way contain a very large and important
chapter VII on the examination of origination. It actually looks at
the three characteristics of the so called compounded factors anddiscusses, as in the first and twentieth chapters, causation orconditionality. The chapter on origination is very detailed, and wehave not read an intelligible English translation. Candrak$rti's
134

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

commentary if translated would help, but it has not been. The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way are, it is acknowledged,
cryptic in the extreme. Not so cryptic as those of Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas, but nonetheless often requiring a commentary. In
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, N@g@rjuna takes up the topic of

The point is an important one, because Realists have always linked
the existence of a characteristic, let us say solidity with theexistence of a substratum or basis in reality, in this case earth ormateriality. If the characteristic and substratum scheme are somehow fatally flawed, then the assertion of the existence of a realworld proved by particular characteristics to exist is toppled. The
Foundation stanzas of the Middle Way contain a chapter on thequestion,3 but in Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, once again it issummarized in a single stanza. Of course, the subject being animportant one, it crops up again in other contexts such as in thediscussion of the status of form or matter, just as the discussion of
causality also because of its importance is hardly ever very far fromthe mind of the author. The fact is however that no matter how one
quantifies the meaning per word value of Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas, it must rate right at the top.
Not only are important subjects of discussion between
Buddhist Realists and the M@dhyamikas dealt with here as they
have been treated in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way
only more concisely, but even important principles of the
Madhyamaka philosophy of argument are enunciated. The Xthchapter of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way contains in
the main a discussion of the relata-relatum phenomenon, but it alsopresents a clear instance of the enunciation of a system of variablesin the forensic methodology of N@g@rjuna. Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas also contains a clear suggestion of such a system. That is tosay, differing or variable elements of doctrinal or conceptual
schemes can be slotted into a critical framework which consistently
exposes them to be empty and relative. It is a lovely demonstrationof the critical dialectician's skill.
The text indeed presents the fundamental Madhyamaka
attitude on the really important questions which divided theBuddhist Realists from the emerging Perfection of Wisdom andMadhyamaka traditions. Naturally, we would not want to overplay
the relationship between the Perfection of Wisdom literature andthe Madhyamaka as a systematic school of philosophy. A
relationship undoubtedly exists, but it would be a mistake toorigination, conditions and compounded factors in a very few
stanzas and manages to tap the essentials of the whole
Madhyamaka critique of these conceptions. In particular, heachieves what we can only call an intellectual miracle when hesummarizes in its essentials the whole of chapter VII of The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way in a single stanza.1 If we
add to it stanzas like XXXI, III, IV and VI we have a very complete
discussion of causality in a hand full of stanzas. There are manyother examples of N@g@rjuna's wizardry in this text.
Another example of the uncanny ability of The Seventy
Stanzas to condense arguments treated at much greater length
elsewhere is that of the treatment of the question of the self. Like somany other topics dealt with in the text, the question of the self
occupies an entire chapter in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle
Way,2 but in The Seventy Stanzas, it is dispensed with in one stanza
and with hardly any loss of the essential content of the issue. The
important alternatives are addressed and rejected and theirconventional and fundamentally artificial nature revealed. The
quiescent and inexpressible nature of all factors
from thestandpoint of the real is also indicated.
At other places we find an entire chapter from The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way replaced by a single stanzain The Seventy Stanzas. Take for example the topic of time treatedin the XIXth chapter of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.
Stanza XXIX of the text reproduces the discussion along with thevarious critiques advanced by the Madhyamaka. Taken together
with the auto- commentary which even in this case is not lengthy,
the treatment still makes a quite adequate statement of theessential elements of the argument about time. Then there is thecase of the stanza which treats the subject of the characteristic andthe substratum of the characteristic or whatever one wants to call it.
135

136

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

commentary if translated would help, but it has not been. The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way are, it is acknowledged,
cryptic in the extreme. Not so cryptic as those of Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas, but nonetheless often requiring a commentary. In
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, N@g@rjuna takes up the topic of

The point is an important one, because Realists have always linked
the existence of a characteristic, let us say solidity with theexistence of a substratum or basis in reality, in this case earth ormateriality. If the characteristic and substratum scheme are somehow fatally flawed, then the assertion of the existence of a realworld proved by particular characteristics to exist is toppled. The
Foundation stanzas of the Middle Way contain a chapter on thequestion,3 but in Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, once again it issummarized in a single stanza. Of course, the subject being animportant one, it crops up again in other contexts such as in thediscussion of the status of form or matter, just as the discussion of
causality also because of its importance is hardly ever very far fromthe mind of the author. The fact is however that no matter how one
quantifies the meaning per word value of Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas, it must rate right at the top.
Not only are important subjects of discussion between
Buddhist Realists and the M@dhyamikas dealt with here as they
have been treated in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way
only more concisely, but even important principles of the
Madhyamaka philosophy of argument are enunciated. The Xthchapter of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way contains in
the main a discussion of the relata-relatum phenomenon, but it alsopresents a clear instance of the enunciation of a system of variablesin the forensic methodology of N@g@rjuna. Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas also contains a clear suggestion of such a system. That is tosay, differing or variable elements of doctrinal or conceptual
schemes can be slotted into a critical framework which consistently
exposes them to be empty and relative. It is a lovely demonstrationof the critical dialectician's skill.
The text indeed presents the fundamental Madhyamaka
attitude on the really important questions which divided theBuddhist Realists from the emerging Perfection of Wisdom andMadhyamaka traditions. Naturally, we would not want to overplay
the relationship between the Perfection of Wisdom literature andthe Madhyamaka as a systematic school of philosophy. A
relationship undoubtedly exists, but it would be a mistake toorigination, conditions and compounded factors in a very few
stanzas and manages to tap the essentials of the whole
Madhyamaka critique of these conceptions. In particular, heachieves what we can only call an intellectual miracle when hesummarizes in its essentials the whole of chapter VII of The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way in a single stanza.1 If we
add to it stanzas like XXXI, III, IV and VI we have a very complete
discussion of causality in a hand full of stanzas. There are manyother examples of N@g@rjuna's wizardry in this text.
Another example of the uncanny ability of The Seventy
Stanzas to condense arguments treated at much greater length
elsewhere is that of the treatment of the question of the self. Like somany other topics dealt with in the text, the question of the self
occupies an entire chapter in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle
Way,2 but in The Seventy Stanzas, it is dispensed with in one stanza
and with hardly any loss of the essential content of the issue. The
important alternatives are addressed and rejected and theirconventional and fundamentally artificial nature revealed. The
quiescent and inexpressible nature of all factors
from thestandpoint of the real is also indicated.
At other places we find an entire chapter from The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way replaced by a single stanzain The Seventy Stanzas. Take for example the topic of time treatedin the XIXth chapter of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.
Stanza XXIX of the text reproduces the discussion along with thevarious critiques advanced by the Madhyamaka. Taken together
with the auto- commentary which even in this case is not lengthy,
the treatment still makes a quite adequate statement of theessential elements of the argument about time. Then there is thecase of the stanza which treats the subject of the characteristic andthe substratum of the characteristic or whatever one wants to call it.
135

136

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

assume total consonance between the two movements. In any case,in this and other works, N@g@rjuna is concerned with persuading
Buddhist Realists to accept the philosophy of Emptiness, and they
did not even accept the Mah@y@na Perfection of Wisdom discourses
as valid. N@g@rjuna did not therefore attempt to convince his
opponents of the veracity of texts which they refused toacknowledge. On the contrary, he set out in true Madhyamaka
fashion to convince them of the truth of Emptiness using the very
doctrines and logical tools which the Buddhist Realists had come toaccept.
As in The Refutation of Objections, N@g@rjuna emphasizes in
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas the equivalence of conditionality,
absence of intrinsic being and Emptiness. Therefore, although thetext occupies itself primarily with Emptiness, causality is still thepedestal of the pillar.
In tandem with the extensive discussion of causality in thecontext of origination, cause and the like is an illuminating
discourse on the subject of actions (Karma). The subject of actions isof course very close to that of causality as it deals with the workingof cause and effect in the context of intentional actions performed byan agent, call him a moral agent if one will. Again, the subject istreated in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way and there it
occupies a chapter.4 In The Seventy Stanzas also it is given rather a
lot of attention taking up, as it does, eleven stanzas.5 The
discussion follows that found in The Foundation Stanzas of the
Middle Way very closely. Here also the gripping analogy of theillusory emanation of the Tath@gata is found, and the creative roleof imagination or mental fabrication is expounded. The picture
which emerges from three striking stanzas which appear
uninterrupted by any auto- commentary6 is one of a phenomenal
world animated by imagination, the creative power of consciousness,through a series of projections or emanations. It is a fascinating
vision and one that comes pretty near the conception of the Mind
Only school, or to look further a field, some of the Cabalistic
developments in esoteric Judaism. Of course N@g@rjuna does tell usvery emphatically elsewhere in the text that consciousness likeeverything else is empty.
The last stanza in N@g@rjuna's treatment of actions is amarvelous recapitulation of the Middle Way. Actions are neither
existent nor non-existent, because in either case there areunacceptable consequences for all concerned. The arguments
sandwiched into the stanza are examples of arguments ad
absurdum (prasa<gav@kya) But the real achievement of the stanza
is the vindication of the utility of actions as long as they are
consigned to the sphere of the relative. Actions, if either reified ornullified absolutely fail to function in any way.
Again the text contains a discussion of Nirv@%a, and once
again as in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas, an objectified Nirv@%a isrejected, although perhaps not as fiercely as in the latter. The
Realist opponent who sees in Emptiness a threat to his Sa`s@raNirv@%a scheme is shown that Nirv@%a can be nothing other thanunoriginated, unceasing Emptiness. This almost echoes the words ofthe famous utterance of the Buddha, "If there were not an unborn..."Actually, the discussion of the three accepted characteristics ofcompounded factors, origination etc. which provides the occasion formuch of the discussion of causality also supplies the key to theannihilation of the distinction between Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a.
Inasmuch as the characteristics of the compounded factors of theworld of experience are not plausible, so their opposites theuncompounded factors, chiefly Nirv@%a are also impossible. In aflash, N@g@rjuna has given the reader the dissolution of the basis of
the distinction between Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a. The distinction
rejected in the often quoted two stanzas from The Foundation
Stanzas of the Middle Way.7
There are many other common themes taken up in
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. One more is the problem of thetwelve constituents of Interdependent Origination. As in Reasoning:
The Sixty Stanzas the principle conclusion of the discourse is that
Interdependent origination does not originate. However, in
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas N@g@rjuna directs his arguments
perhaps more pointedly at the theory of origination from anotherespoused by the Buddhist Realists. Intrinsic being or self existence

137

138

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

assume total consonance between the two movements. In any case,in this and other works, N@g@rjuna is concerned with persuading
Buddhist Realists to accept the philosophy of Emptiness, and they
did not even accept the Mah@y@na Perfection of Wisdom discourses
as valid. N@g@rjuna did not therefore attempt to convince his
opponents of the veracity of texts which they refused toacknowledge. On the contrary, he set out in true Madhyamaka
fashion to convince them of the truth of Emptiness using the very
doctrines and logical tools which the Buddhist Realists had come toaccept.
As in The Refutation of Objections, N@g@rjuna emphasizes in
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas the equivalence of conditionality,
absence of intrinsic being and Emptiness. Therefore, although thetext occupies itself primarily with Emptiness, causality is still thepedestal of the pillar.
In tandem with the extensive discussion of causality in thecontext of origination, cause and the like is an illuminating
discourse on the subject of actions (Karma). The subject of actions isof course very close to that of causality as it deals with the workingof cause and effect in the context of intentional actions performed byan agent, call him a moral agent if one will. Again, the subject istreated in The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way and there it
occupies a chapter.4 In The Seventy Stanzas also it is given rather a
lot of attention taking up, as it does, eleven stanzas.5 The
discussion follows that found in The Foundation Stanzas of the
Middle Way very closely. Here also the gripping analogy of theillusory emanation of the Tath@gata is found, and the creative roleof imagination or mental fabrication is expounded. The picture
which emerges from three striking stanzas which appear
uninterrupted by any auto- commentary6 is one of a phenomenal
world animated by imagination, the creative power of consciousness,through a series of projections or emanations. It is a fascinating
vision and one that comes pretty near the conception of the Mind
Only school, or to look further a field, some of the Cabalistic
developments in esoteric Judaism. Of course N@g@rjuna does tell usvery emphatically elsewhere in the text that consciousness likeeverything else is empty.
The last stanza in N@g@rjuna's treatment of actions is amarvelous recapitulation of the Middle Way. Actions are neither
existent nor non-existent, because in either case there areunacceptable consequences for all concerned. The arguments
sandwiched into the stanza are examples of arguments ad
absurdum (prasa<gav@kya) But the real achievement of the stanza
is the vindication of the utility of actions as long as they are
consigned to the sphere of the relative. Actions, if either reified ornullified absolutely fail to function in any way.
Again the text contains a discussion of Nirv@%a, and once
again as in Reasoning: The Sixty Stanzas, an objectified Nirv@%a isrejected, although perhaps not as fiercely as in the latter. The
Realist opponent who sees in Emptiness a threat to his Sa`s@raNirv@%a scheme is shown that Nirv@%a can be nothing other thanunoriginated, unceasing Emptiness. This almost echoes the words ofthe famous utterance of the Buddha, "If there were not an unborn..."Actually, the discussion of the three accepted characteristics ofcompounded factors, origination etc. which provides the occasion formuch of the discussion of causality also supplies the key to theannihilation of the distinction between Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a.
Inasmuch as the characteristics of the compounded factors of theworld of experience are not plausible, so their opposites theuncompounded factors, chiefly Nirv@%a are also impossible. In aflash, N@g@rjuna has given the reader the dissolution of the basis of
the distinction between Sa`s@ra and Nirv@%a. The distinction
rejected in the often quoted two stanzas from The Foundation
Stanzas of the Middle Way.7
There are many other common themes taken up in
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. One more is the problem of thetwelve constituents of Interdependent Origination. As in Reasoning:
The Sixty Stanzas the principle conclusion of the discourse is that
Interdependent origination does not originate. However, in
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas N@g@rjuna directs his arguments
perhaps more pointedly at the theory of origination from anotherespoused by the Buddhist Realists. Intrinsic being or self existence

137

138

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(svabh@va) is of course rejected by the M@dhyamikas as in a sense it
was even by the Buddhist Realists. The Buddhist Realists claimed akind of intrinsic being of entities in so far as water is wet while fireis hot etc. However, the Buddhist Realists had to accept the
principle of Interdependent Origination, that is "dependent upon
this, that arises." The production of things from cause andconditions is such a central item in Buddhist teaching that it could
not be ignored even by the most determinedly naive Realist.
Therefore, it is precisely this accepted truth of conditionality thatN@g@rjuna exploits to convince the Buddhist Realists thatconditionality is incompatible with intrinsic being. But then what
about extrinsic being, that is being dependent upon another(parabh@va) This rather tenuous conception is also attacked in The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way and here in Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas, N@g@rjuna makes it crystal clear that anythingwhich lacks intrinsic being must also necessarily lack extrinsic
being too inasmuch as it is actually non-existent. Besides, anythingwhich lacks intrinsic being is incapable of producing another,because of its very non-existence. Therefore, the twelve constituentsare mutually dependent, like the emotions experienced in a dreamand the dream itself. The nebulous other being secured by theconventionally accepted conception of origination dependent uponanother is therefore refuted.
N@g@rjuna takes up the question of the four erroneous views
which receives his attention also in the last chapter of The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way. We have seen thatN@g@rjuna rejects the three characteristics of compounded factors:
origination and the like, but there the objects of refutation are
philosophical, almost metaphysical. In the context of the discussionof the four erroneous views, the objects at stake are much closer tothe religious heart of the common Buddhist practitioner. After all,the three or four characteristics taught by the Buddha with thestated purpose of freeing people from bondage were: impermanence,
suffering, not-self and impurity. The opposite of this truths, for theuninstructed are the four erroneous views, that is: permanence,happiness, self and purity. The four characteristics of the world,

impermanence and the like were obviously great favorites with the
Buddhist Realists. The Therav@da of Sri Lanka still makes a great
deal of them, although in China, they were transmuted almost to
the point of obscurity. Notwithstanding this development in the far
east, the fact remains that the four characteristics, particularly, we
would suggest, impermanence and not-self remain mainstays ofbasic Buddhist training. Moreover, a case can be and is made by the
Indo-Tibetan Mah@y@na tradition in favour of the importance ofimpermanence and not-self as keys to the vision of Emptiness.
N@g@rjuna however, immediately struck by the blatantly dialecticalnature of the four erroneous views and their opposites, the fourcharacteristics, did not hesitate to reject them as relative andempty. Again in this there is evidence of N@g@rjuna and theM@dhyamikas willingness to dispense even with cherished religious
truths. The case of the Madhyamaka treatment of Nirv@%a has
already been discussed, and even the four noble truths are relegatedto the status of convenient expedient for instructing theunenlightened.
The text also contains a lengthy and detailed examination of
the aggregates of form and the like as well as the sense spheres,(@yatana) which parallels the treatment of the subject in two
chapters of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.8 In fact, astanza from the magnum opus is quoted verbatim in the latterstages of Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas.9 Again the discussion
touches upon the alternatives of intrinsic and extrinsic being
alluded to before. Although the stanzas and auto-commentary which
treat these issues are rather technical, they yield some very
valuable insights into the radical and rigorous nature of the
Madhyamaka deconstruction of the accepted patterns of perception.
N@g@rjuna proceeds to discuss at some length another one of
the five aggregates of particular significance. It is consciousness.
The Madhyamaka standpoint as one might expect regards
consciousness as empty inasmuch as it is conditioned or
dependently originated. Nonetheless, N@g@rjuna's treatment of the
topic is precocious because it anticipates in its essentials much of
the Madhyamaka polemic against the later and more doctrinaire

139

140

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(svabh@va) is of course rejected by the M@dhyamikas as in a sense it
was even by the Buddhist Realists. The Buddhist Realists claimed akind of intrinsic being of entities in so far as water is wet while fireis hot etc. However, the Buddhist Realists had to accept the
principle of Interdependent Origination, that is "dependent upon
this, that arises." The production of things from cause andconditions is such a central item in Buddhist teaching that it could
not be ignored even by the most determinedly naive Realist.
Therefore, it is precisely this accepted truth of conditionality thatN@g@rjuna exploits to convince the Buddhist Realists thatconditionality is incompatible with intrinsic being. But then what
about extrinsic being, that is being dependent upon another(parabh@va) This rather tenuous conception is also attacked in The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way and here in Emptiness: The
Seventy Stanzas, N@g@rjuna makes it crystal clear that anythingwhich lacks intrinsic being must also necessarily lack extrinsic
being too inasmuch as it is actually non-existent. Besides, anythingwhich lacks intrinsic being is incapable of producing another,because of its very non-existence. Therefore, the twelve constituentsare mutually dependent, like the emotions experienced in a dreamand the dream itself. The nebulous other being secured by theconventionally accepted conception of origination dependent uponanother is therefore refuted.
N@g@rjuna takes up the question of the four erroneous views
which receives his attention also in the last chapter of The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way. We have seen thatN@g@rjuna rejects the three characteristics of compounded factors:
origination and the like, but there the objects of refutation are
philosophical, almost metaphysical. In the context of the discussionof the four erroneous views, the objects at stake are much closer tothe religious heart of the common Buddhist practitioner. After all,the three or four characteristics taught by the Buddha with thestated purpose of freeing people from bondage were: impermanence,
suffering, not-self and impurity. The opposite of this truths, for theuninstructed are the four erroneous views, that is: permanence,happiness, self and purity. The four characteristics of the world,

impermanence and the like were obviously great favorites with the
Buddhist Realists. The Therav@da of Sri Lanka still makes a great
deal of them, although in China, they were transmuted almost to
the point of obscurity. Notwithstanding this development in the far
east, the fact remains that the four characteristics, particularly, we
would suggest, impermanence and not-self remain mainstays ofbasic Buddhist training. Moreover, a case can be and is made by the
Indo-Tibetan Mah@y@na tradition in favour of the importance ofimpermanence and not-self as keys to the vision of Emptiness.
N@g@rjuna however, immediately struck by the blatantly dialecticalnature of the four erroneous views and their opposites, the fourcharacteristics, did not hesitate to reject them as relative andempty. Again in this there is evidence of N@g@rjuna and theM@dhyamikas willingness to dispense even with cherished religious
truths. The case of the Madhyamaka treatment of Nirv@%a has
already been discussed, and even the four noble truths are relegatedto the status of convenient expedient for instructing theunenlightened.
The text also contains a lengthy and detailed examination of
the aggregates of form and the like as well as the sense spheres,(@yatana) which parallels the treatment of the subject in two
chapters of The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way.8 In fact, astanza from the magnum opus is quoted verbatim in the latterstages of Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas.9 Again the discussion
touches upon the alternatives of intrinsic and extrinsic being
alluded to before. Although the stanzas and auto-commentary which
treat these issues are rather technical, they yield some very
valuable insights into the radical and rigorous nature of the
Madhyamaka deconstruction of the accepted patterns of perception.
N@g@rjuna proceeds to discuss at some length another one of
the five aggregates of particular significance. It is consciousness.
The Madhyamaka standpoint as one might expect regards
consciousness as empty inasmuch as it is conditioned or
dependently originated. Nonetheless, N@g@rjuna's treatment of the
topic is precocious because it anticipates in its essentials much of
the Madhyamaka polemic against the later and more doctrinaire

139

140

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

school of the Mind Only tradition. Is it that there was already agerminal school or at least a subterranean current of opinion
affirming the real existence of consciousness? Or, did N@g@rjuna
simply anticipate the role that an aggregate as central as
consciousness would come to play in Buddhist philosophy? After all,even the Buddha had implicitly recognized the fact that
consciousness might well be mistaken for the self.
The consideration of consciousness naturally leads N@g@rjuna
to take up also the topic of primary mental functions, in this caseimagination (vikalpa). We persist in translating the original term byimagination in the English, although some of our academic colleges
seem to prefer conceptualization or any one of a variety ofalternatives. Conceptualization appears to us to be too cerebral. The
Tibetan rendering of vikalpa covers everything from rank
superstition, to deeply ingrained habits of experience like thesubject-object polarity, to metaphysical theories. Once again,
N@g@rjuna's discussion of imagination is illuminating particularly inview of the place which imagination occupies in, for instance, theworks of Asa<ga and Vasubandhu. Imagination obviously receives
the same devastating critique as do the other propositions reviewed
in the text.
The concluding portions of Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
are largely concerned with a summing up of the basic principles
established throughout the body of the work. The importance of thedevice of the two truths is again reiterated. The order of the world
as it is expressed in conventional usage, or the apparent truth isInterdependent Origination. The ultimate reality, is Emptiness. The
two are not contradictory but compliment each other functioning
together to supply a critical mechanism for achieving liberation.
The text of Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas was translated
by me and my associates many years ago at a time when I was
inclined to adopt a rather strict and literal approach to the task oftranslation from the Tibetan. We have, for the purposes of this book,somewhat modified the more extreme peculiarities of style which
had appeared in the English translation, but, by and large, we havenot attempted a whole scale retranslation of the work. The stanzas

as well as the commentary therefore remain quite faithful to theoriginal text, and this may sometimes create a slightly awkward
affect for the reader. We encourage him to persevere however,
because while the text, is packed with extremely dense discussion ofimportant themes in a cryptic style, still, if one enters into the spiritof N@g@rjuna's project, one can find Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas very rewarding indeed. In fact, even the dry dialectics of thetext possess an irresistible appeal to anyone gifted with aphilosophical sense of humor. We must admit that even after many
years of working on the text, there are still passages where
N@g@rjuna's relentless and inexorable demolition of opinions andviews causes us to laugh out loud.
One last word about the perennial problem of distinguishing
the pre-critical from the post-critical phases of polemical works like
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. To put it more simply, it isimportant that one know who is saying what as the views of theM@dhyamika's opponents receive almost as much space as those of
the M@dhyamika himself. We have avoided the practice of overtly
marking the opinions of the opponent with some such word as
objection and the M@dhyamika's retort by reply or one of its
alternatives. The auto-commentary uses a stock formula to indicate
each of these. It uses: "Here it is said", "Here it is asked" or "Here it
may be thought" to introduce objections or opinions held by the
Madhyamaka's opponents. On the other hand, the auto-commentary
invariably uses, "Here it is explained" to introduce the M@dhyamika
version of things. If the reader bears this in mind and has an eye forthe natural and logical drift of the discussion, he should not haveany major problems in knowing where the argument stands at any
given point.

141

142

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

school of the Mind Only tradition. Is it that there was already agerminal school or at least a subterranean current of opinion
affirming the real existence of consciousness? Or, did N@g@rjuna
simply anticipate the role that an aggregate as central as
consciousness would come to play in Buddhist philosophy? After all,even the Buddha had implicitly recognized the fact that
consciousness might well be mistaken for the self.
The consideration of consciousness naturally leads N@g@rjuna
to take up also the topic of primary mental functions, in this caseimagination (vikalpa). We persist in translating the original term byimagination in the English, although some of our academic colleges
seem to prefer conceptualization or any one of a variety ofalternatives. Conceptualization appears to us to be too cerebral. The
Tibetan rendering of vikalpa covers everything from rank
superstition, to deeply ingrained habits of experience like thesubject-object polarity, to metaphysical theories. Once again,
N@g@rjuna's discussion of imagination is illuminating particularly inview of the place which imagination occupies in, for instance, theworks of Asa<ga and Vasubandhu. Imagination obviously receives
the same devastating critique as do the other propositions reviewed
in the text.
The concluding portions of Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
are largely concerned with a summing up of the basic principles
established throughout the body of the work. The importance of thedevice of the two truths is again reiterated. The order of the world
as it is expressed in conventional usage, or the apparent truth isInterdependent Origination. The ultimate reality, is Emptiness. The
two are not contradictory but compliment each other functioning
together to supply a critical mechanism for achieving liberation.
The text of Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas was translated
by me and my associates many years ago at a time when I was
inclined to adopt a rather strict and literal approach to the task oftranslation from the Tibetan. We have, for the purposes of this book,somewhat modified the more extreme peculiarities of style which
had appeared in the English translation, but, by and large, we havenot attempted a whole scale retranslation of the work. The stanzas

as well as the commentary therefore remain quite faithful to theoriginal text, and this may sometimes create a slightly awkward
affect for the reader. We encourage him to persevere however,
because while the text, is packed with extremely dense discussion ofimportant themes in a cryptic style, still, if one enters into the spiritof N@g@rjuna's project, one can find Emptiness: The Seventy
Stanzas very rewarding indeed. In fact, even the dry dialectics of thetext possess an irresistible appeal to anyone gifted with aphilosophical sense of humor. We must admit that even after many
years of working on the text, there are still passages where
N@g@rjuna's relentless and inexorable demolition of opinions andviews causes us to laugh out loud.
One last word about the perennial problem of distinguishing
the pre-critical from the post-critical phases of polemical works like
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas. To put it more simply, it isimportant that one know who is saying what as the views of theM@dhyamika's opponents receive almost as much space as those of
the M@dhyamika himself. We have avoided the practice of overtly
marking the opinions of the opponent with some such word as
objection and the M@dhyamika's retort by reply or one of its
alternatives. The auto-commentary uses a stock formula to indicate
each of these. It uses: "Here it is said", "Here it is asked" or "Here it
may be thought" to introduce objections or opinions held by the
Madhyamaka's opponents. On the other hand, the auto-commentary
invariably uses, "Here it is explained" to introduce the M@dhyamika
version of things. If the reader bears this in mind and has an eye forthe natural and logical drift of the discussion, he should not haveany major problems in knowing where the argument stands at any
given point.

141

142

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

VII. Without one, many does not occur. Without many, one does notoccur. Therefore, interdependently originated entities are without
signs.

Section Two
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
I. Duration, origination, destruction, existence, non-existence,
inferiority, mediocrity and superiority were taught by the Buddha inaccord with conventional usage, not by the power of the real.
II. There is not anything which corresponds to the expressions: notself, not not-self, both self and not-self (because) all factors which
can be spoken of are - like Nirv/%a - in their intrinsic being empty.
III. Since the intrinsic being of all entities does not exist in thecause and conditions, either together or separately, or in any way,
therefore they are empty.
IV. The existent does not originate, because it is existent. The nonexistent does not (originate) because it is non-existent. The existentand non-existent also does not (originate) because they areheterogeneous. Because there is no origination there is no durationand no destruction.
V. The originated is not the object to be originated. The
unoriginated is also not the object to be originated. The (object) at
the time of origination is also not the object to be originated,because it would be originated and unoriginated.
VI. If the effect is existent, the cause will possess the effect. If nonexistent, the cause will be equal to a non-cause. If neither existent
nor non-existent, it is contradictory, nor again is a cause justified in
the three times.
143

VIII. The twelve constituents of Interdependent Origination which
possess the effect of suffering do not originate, as they are neither
justified in one moment of consciousness, nor in a series of momentsof consciousness.
IX. Impermanence is the negation of permanence. Not-self is thenegation of self. Impurity is the negation of purity, and suffering is
the negation of happiness. Therefore, there are no erroneous views.
X. Without them, there is no ignorance originated from the four
erroneous views. Without it, volitions do not originate nor in thesame way do the remaining (constituents).
XI. Without volitions, ignorance does not originate. Without it(ignorance) volitions do not originate. Since they are mutuallycaused, they are not established in their intrinsic being.
XII. How can what is itself not established in its intrinsic being
produce another? Thus another condition which is not establishedis not what causes the origination of another.
XIII. The father is not the son, nor is the son the father, nor do they
exist without mutual dependence, nor are they identical and so also
the twelve constituents.
XIV. Neither the happiness and suffering which depend upon an
object in a dream, nor that object are existent. Similarly, neither
that which originates dependently, nor that upon which it depends
are existent.
XV. If entities are not existent in their intrinsic being, neither
inferiority, mediocrity nor superiority, nor the manifold (objects of144

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

VII. Without one, many does not occur. Without many, one does notoccur. Therefore, interdependently originated entities are without
signs.

Section Two
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
I. Duration, origination, destruction, existence, non-existence,
inferiority, mediocrity and superiority were taught by the Buddha inaccord with conventional usage, not by the power of the real.
II. There is not anything which corresponds to the expressions: notself, not not-self, both self and not-self (because) all factors which
can be spoken of are - like Nirv/%a - in their intrinsic being empty.
III. Since the intrinsic being of all entities does not exist in thecause and conditions, either together or separately, or in any way,
therefore they are empty.
IV. The existent does not originate, because it is existent. The nonexistent does not (originate) because it is non-existent. The existentand non-existent also does not (originate) because they areheterogeneous. Because there is no origination there is no durationand no destruction.
V. The originated is not the object to be originated. The
unoriginated is also not the object to be originated. The (object) at
the time of origination is also not the object to be originated,because it would be originated and unoriginated.
VI. If the effect is existent, the cause will possess the effect. If nonexistent, the cause will be equal to a non-cause. If neither existent
nor non-existent, it is contradictory, nor again is a cause justified in
the three times.
143

VIII. The twelve constituents of Interdependent Origination which
possess the effect of suffering do not originate, as they are neither
justified in one moment of consciousness, nor in a series of momentsof consciousness.
IX. Impermanence is the negation of permanence. Not-self is thenegation of self. Impurity is the negation of purity, and suffering is
the negation of happiness. Therefore, there are no erroneous views.
X. Without them, there is no ignorance originated from the four
erroneous views. Without it, volitions do not originate nor in thesame way do the remaining (constituents).
XI. Without volitions, ignorance does not originate. Without it(ignorance) volitions do not originate. Since they are mutuallycaused, they are not established in their intrinsic being.
XII. How can what is itself not established in its intrinsic being
produce another? Thus another condition which is not establishedis not what causes the origination of another.
XIII. The father is not the son, nor is the son the father, nor do they
exist without mutual dependence, nor are they identical and so also
the twelve constituents.
XIV. Neither the happiness and suffering which depend upon an
object in a dream, nor that object are existent. Similarly, neither
that which originates dependently, nor that upon which it depends
are existent.
XV. If entities are not existent in their intrinsic being, neither
inferiority, mediocrity nor superiority, nor the manifold (objects of144

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
experience) are established, nor will there be anything establishedfrom a cause.
XVI. If intrinsic being were established, a dependent entity would
not occur. But without dependence, how does (an entity) exist?
Without intrinsic being (an entity) does not occur and with intrinsic
being (an entity) cannot be destroyed.
XVII. In what is non-existent, how are intrinsic being, extrinsic
being and being possible? Therefore, intrinsic being, extrinsic being
and non-being are erroneous.
XVIII. If entities are empty, they can neither cease nor originate.
How can what is empty in its intrinsic being either cease or
originate?
XIX. Being and non- being are not identical. Without non-being,
there is no being. Being and non-being will always occur. Without
being, non-being does not arise.
XX. Without being, there is no non-being. Being is not (originated)from itself and not (originated) from another. Thus, there is nobeing, and without it, there is no non-being.
XXI. If being were just existent, it would be permanent. If it were
non-existent, it would surely be annihilated. If being were existent,
it would be (both) these two. Therefore, being is not accepted.
XXII. Because of continuity, those (consequences) do not exist. An
entity ceases (to exist) when it has imparted a cause (to an effect).
Just as before, this is not established. Further, the fault ofinterrupting the continuity will occur.
XXIII. Through seeing origination and destruction, the path to
Nirv/%a was demonstrated, not by means of Emptiness. These areseen, because (they are) mutually contradictory and so are conceived
145

as such.
XXIV. If neither origination nor cessation are existent, the cessationof what is Nirv/%a? Is not what is in its intrinsic being neither
originated nor ceases liberation?
XXV. If Nirv/%a were cessation, it would be annihilation. If it were
supposed to be otherwise, it would be permanence. Therefore(Nirv/%a) is neither being nor non-being. It is such as is neither
originated nor again ceases.
XXVI. If any cessation were existent, it would occur even without
being. Without being, it (cessation) is also non-existent. Again,
without non-being, it is non-existent.
XXVII. The characteristic is established by the substratum of
the characteristic. The substratum of the characteristic isestablished by the characteristic, but they are not establishedindependently, nor are they established by one another. What is notestablished is not that which establishes another which is notestablished.
XXVIII. By this (analysis), cause and effect, experience and thesubject of experience etc., as well as the subject and object of visionetc., what so ever (may exist) are all explained without exception.
XXIX. The three times are non-existent and are mere imagination,
because (they) are non-enduring, are reciprocally established,disordered, not established independently and (because) an entity is
non-existent.
XXX. Because the three characteristics of the compounded (factors) origination, duration and destruction- are non-existent, therefore
the compounded (factors) and the uncompounded (factors) are not at
all existent.
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Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas
experience) are established, nor will there be anything establishedfrom a cause.
XVI. If intrinsic being were established, a dependent entity would
not occur. But without dependence, how does (an entity) exist?
Without intrinsic being (an entity) does not occur and with intrinsic
being (an entity) cannot be destroyed.
XVII. In what is non-existent, how are intrinsic being, extrinsic
being and being possible? Therefore, intrinsic being, extrinsic being
and non-being are erroneous.
XVIII. If entities are empty, they can neither cease nor originate.
How can what is empty in its intrinsic being either cease or
originate?
XIX. Being and non- being are not identical. Without non-being,
there is no being. Being and non-being will always occur. Without
being, non-being does not arise.
XX. Without being, there is no non-being. Being is not (originated)from itself and not (originated) from another. Thus, there is nobeing, and without it, there is no non-being.
XXI. If being were just existent, it would be permanent. If it were
non-existent, it would surely be annihilated. If being were existent,
it would be (both) these two. Therefore, being is not accepted.
XXII. Because of continuity, those (consequences) do not exist. An
entity ceases (to exist) when it has imparted a cause (to an effect).
Just as before, this is not established. Further, the fault ofinterrupting the continuity will occur.
XXIII. Through seeing origination and destruction, the path to
Nirv/%a was demonstrated, not by means of Emptiness. These areseen, because (they are) mutually contradictory and so are conceived
145

as such.
XXIV. If neither origination nor cessation are existent, the cessationof what is Nirv/%a? Is not what is in its intrinsic being neither
originated nor ceases liberation?
XXV. If Nirv/%a were cessation, it would be annihilation. If it were
supposed to be otherwise, it would be permanence. Therefore(Nirv/%a) is neither being nor non-being. It is such as is neither
originated nor again ceases.
XXVI. If any cessation were existent, it would occur even without
being. Without being, it (cessation) is also non-existent. Again,
without non-being, it is non-existent.
XXVII. The characteristic is established by the substratum of
the characteristic. The substratum of the characteristic isestablished by the characteristic, but they are not establishedindependently, nor are they established by one another. What is notestablished is not that which establishes another which is notestablished.
XXVIII. By this (analysis), cause and effect, experience and thesubject of experience etc., as well as the subject and object of visionetc., what so ever (may exist) are all explained without exception.
XXIX. The three times are non-existent and are mere imagination,
because (they) are non-enduring, are reciprocally established,disordered, not established independently and (because) an entity is
non-existent.
XXX. Because the three characteristics of the compounded (factors) origination, duration and destruction- are non-existent, therefore
the compounded (factors) and the uncompounded (factors) are not at
all existent.
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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

XXXI. The undestroyed is not destroyed, nor is the destroyed. The
enduring does not endure, nor does the unenduring endure. The
originated does not originate, nor does the unoriginated (originate).

originate, because of that perception of the real. Without actions,that which originates from actions will not originate.

XXXII. The compounded (factors) and the uncompounded (factors)
are neither manifold nor unitary, neither existent nor non-existent,
nor both existent and non-existent. Within this perimeter, allpossibilities are included.
XXXIII. The Blessed One proclaimed the enduring of actions. The
Preceptor proclaimed actions and their effects (and) that thesentient being is the agent of actions and that actions are not lost.
XXXIV. Because it has been demonstrated that they are without
intrinsic being, actions do not originate, so they cannot be destroyed.
Actions originate from self clinging. That clinging which produces
actions also originates from imagination.
XXXV. If actions existed in their intrinsic being, then the bodyoriginated from them would be permanent. They would not beendowed with the maturing effect of suffering. Therefore, actions
would also be substantial.
XXXVI. Actions originated from conditions are not in the least
existent, nor are (actions) existent originated without conditions.
Compounded (factors) are like an illusion, a fairy city and a mirage.
XXXVII. Afflictions are the cause of actions. Volitions consist ofactions and afflictions. Actions are the cause of the body, (therefore)
all three are also empty in their intrinsic being.
XXXVIII. Without actions, there is no agent. Without those two,
there is no effect. Without it, there is consequently no subject ofexperience. Hence (they) are empty.
XXXIX. If one knows very well actions to be empty, actions will not
147

XL. As the Blessed One, the Tath/gata creates an illusory creation
by means of illusory emanation, that illusory creation createsanother illusory creation.
XLI. Among them, the illusory creation of the Tath/gata is empty.
What need is there to say anything about the illusory creation of anillusory creation? They are both existent in so far as anythingwhich is mere imagination.
XLII. Similarly, the agent is like the illusory creation (and) actions
are like the illusory creation of an illusory creation. They are empty
in their intrinsic being (and) exist insofar as anything which is mere
imagination.
XLIII. If actions existed in their intrinsic being, there would be no
Nirv/%a (and no) agent of actions. If (they were) non-existent, there
would be no attractive and unattractive effects originated fromactions.
XLIV. There exists the statement of existence and also thestatement of non-existence and again the statement of both
existence and non-existence. The intentional proclamations of the
Buddhas are not easily penetrated.
XLV. If form were originated from the great elements, form would
originate from a deficient (cause). It is not (originated) from its(own) intrinsic being. (Moreover), since it is non-existent, it is not(originated) from another.
XLVI. In one also, four are not existent. In four also, one is notexistent. How would form be established dependent upon the four
non-existent great elements?
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XXXI. The undestroyed is not destroyed, nor is the destroyed. The
enduring does not endure, nor does the unenduring endure. The
originated does not originate, nor does the unoriginated (originate).

originate, because of that perception of the real. Without actions,that which originates from actions will not originate.

XXXII. The compounded (factors) and the uncompounded (factors)
are neither manifold nor unitary, neither existent nor non-existent,
nor both existent and non-existent. Within this perimeter, allpossibilities are included.
XXXIII. The Blessed One proclaimed the enduring of actions. The
Preceptor proclaimed actions and their effects (and) that thesentient being is the agent of actions and that actions are not lost.
XXXIV. Because it has been demonstrated that they are without
intrinsic being, actions do not originate, so they cannot be destroyed.
Actions originate from self clinging. That clinging which produces
actions also originates from imagination.
XXXV. If actions existed in their intrinsic being, then the bodyoriginated from them would be permanent. They would not beendowed with the maturing effect of suffering. Therefore, actions
would also be substantial.
XXXVI. Actions originated from conditions are not in the least
existent, nor are (actions) existent originated without conditions.
Compounded (factors) are like an illusion, a fairy city and a mirage.
XXXVII. Afflictions are the cause of actions. Volitions consist ofactions and afflictions. Actions are the cause of the body, (therefore)
all three are also empty in their intrinsic being.
XXXVIII. Without actions, there is no agent. Without those two,
there is no effect. Without it, there is consequently no subject ofexperience. Hence (they) are empty.
XXXIX. If one knows very well actions to be empty, actions will not
147

XL. As the Blessed One, the Tath/gata creates an illusory creation
by means of illusory emanation, that illusory creation createsanother illusory creation.
XLI. Among them, the illusory creation of the Tath/gata is empty.
What need is there to say anything about the illusory creation of anillusory creation? They are both existent in so far as anythingwhich is mere imagination.
XLII. Similarly, the agent is like the illusory creation (and) actions
are like the illusory creation of an illusory creation. They are empty
in their intrinsic being (and) exist insofar as anything which is mere
imagination.
XLIII. If actions existed in their intrinsic being, there would be no
Nirv/%a (and no) agent of actions. If (they were) non-existent, there
would be no attractive and unattractive effects originated fromactions.
XLIV. There exists the statement of existence and also thestatement of non-existence and again the statement of both
existence and non-existence. The intentional proclamations of the
Buddhas are not easily penetrated.
XLV. If form were originated from the great elements, form would
originate from a deficient (cause). It is not (originated) from its(own) intrinsic being. (Moreover), since it is non-existent, it is not(originated) from another.
XLVI. In one also, four are not existent. In four also, one is notexistent. How would form be established dependent upon the four
non-existent great elements?
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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

XLVII. Because, it is never apprehended. (But) if it is said, from theevidence (form is established). That evidence is non-existent,
because originated from cause and conditions. If it (form) is still
existent, the non-existence of the evidence is not logical.

consciousness originates. Thus there is no consciousness. (It) is
empty like a mirage and an illusion.

XLVIII. If (awareness) apprehended form, it would be apprehended
as the very intrinsic being (of awareness). How could non-existentawareness originated from conditions apprehend non-existent form?
XLIX. When the originated momentary awareness does notapprehend the originated momentary form, how could it
comprehend past and future form?
L. While colour and shape never exist separately, the separate are
not apprehended as one, because the two are known as form.
LI. Eye awareness is not existent in the eye. It is not existent inform, nor (in the space) in between. What is constructed dependent
upon the eye and form is erroneous.
LII. If the eye does not see itself, how can it see form? Therefore,
the eye and form are insubstantial. The remaining sense spheres
are also similar.
LIII. The eye is empty of its own substantiality. It is empty of
another's substantiality. Form is also similarly empty (and) theremaining sense spheres are also similar.
LIV. When one (sense sphere) is conjoined through contact, thenthe others are empty. The empty also does not depend upon the nonempty. The non-empty too (does not depend) upon the empty.
LV. The three (which are) non-existent and unenduring in theirintrinsic being do not (participate) in conjunction. Because there isno contact of that nature, therefore, feeling is not existent.
LVI. Dependent upon the inner and outer sense spheres,
149

LVII. Consciousness originates dependent upon an object ofconsciousness, therefore it is non-existent. Without cognition and an
object of consciousness, there is consequently no subject ofconsciousness at all.
LVIII. All is impermanent (but) impermanence or permanence
never existed. (If) an entity existed, it would be impermanent orpermanent (but) how is it so existent?
LIX. Born from the conditions - attraction, repulsion and error attachment, aversion and delusion originate. Therefore, attachment,
aversion and delusion are non-existent in their intrinsic being.
LX. Because regarding it (a single given object) attachment,
aversion and delusion (occur), therefore, they (attachment, aversion
and delusion) are produced from imagination. Imagination also isperfectly non-existent.
LXI. The object of imagination is not existent. Without the object ofimagination, how is imagination existent? Therefore, since (theyare) originated from conditions, the object of imagination andimagination are empty.
LXII. Because of the perception of the real, there is no ignorance
originated from the four erroneous views. Since that (ignorance) is
non-existent, volitions do not originate. The remaining(constituents) are also similar.
LXIII. What originates dependent upon that, originates from that.
Without that, (it) does not originate. Entities and non-entities (aswell as) compounded factors and uncompounded factors are peaceand Nirv/%a.

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

XLVII. Because, it is never apprehended. (But) if it is said, from theevidence (form is established). That evidence is non-existent,
because originated from cause and conditions. If it (form) is still
existent, the non-existence of the evidence is not logical.

consciousness originates. Thus there is no consciousness. (It) is
empty like a mirage and an illusion.

XLVIII. If (awareness) apprehended form, it would be apprehended
as the very intrinsic being (of awareness). How could non-existentawareness originated from conditions apprehend non-existent form?
XLIX. When the originated momentary awareness does notapprehend the originated momentary form, how could it
comprehend past and future form?
L. While colour and shape never exist separately, the separate are
not apprehended as one, because the two are known as form.
LI. Eye awareness is not existent in the eye. It is not existent inform, nor (in the space) in between. What is constructed dependent
upon the eye and form is erroneous.
LII. If the eye does not see itself, how can it see form? Therefore,
the eye and form are insubstantial. The remaining sense spheres
are also similar.
LIII. The eye is empty of its own substantiality. It is empty of
another's substantiality. Form is also similarly empty (and) theremaining sense spheres are also similar.
LIV. When one (sense sphere) is conjoined through contact, thenthe others are empty. The empty also does not depend upon the nonempty. The non-empty too (does not depend) upon the empty.
LV. The three (which are) non-existent and unenduring in theirintrinsic being do not (participate) in conjunction. Because there isno contact of that nature, therefore, feeling is not existent.
LVI. Dependent upon the inner and outer sense spheres,
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LVII. Consciousness originates dependent upon an object ofconsciousness, therefore it is non-existent. Without cognition and an
object of consciousness, there is consequently no subject ofconsciousness at all.
LVIII. All is impermanent (but) impermanence or permanence
never existed. (If) an entity existed, it would be impermanent orpermanent (but) how is it so existent?
LIX. Born from the conditions - attraction, repulsion and error attachment, aversion and delusion originate. Therefore, attachment,
aversion and delusion are non-existent in their intrinsic being.
LX. Because regarding it (a single given object) attachment,
aversion and delusion (occur), therefore, they (attachment, aversion
and delusion) are produced from imagination. Imagination also isperfectly non-existent.
LXI. The object of imagination is not existent. Without the object ofimagination, how is imagination existent? Therefore, since (theyare) originated from conditions, the object of imagination andimagination are empty.
LXII. Because of the perception of the real, there is no ignorance
originated from the four erroneous views. Since that (ignorance) is
non-existent, volitions do not originate. The remaining(constituents) are also similar.
LXIII. What originates dependent upon that, originates from that.
Without that, (it) does not originate. Entities and non-entities (aswell as) compounded factors and uncompounded factors are peaceand Nirv/%a.

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LXIV. Entities originated from cause and conditions are imputed tobe real. That is proclaimed to be ignorance by the Preceptor. Fromit, the twelve constituents originate.
LXV. Because of the perception of the real, of entities as empty,
ignorance does not originate. Just that is the cessation of ignorance,
therefore, the twelve constituents cease.

peace.
LXXIII. Having comprehended apparent conditionality, the net offalse views is swept aside. (Consequently), abandoning attachment,delusion and anger, without stain, one surely reaches Nirv/%a.

LXVI. Compounded factors are like a fairy city, an illusion, amirage, a bubble of water, foam and like a dream and the circle of
the whirling fire-brand.
LXVII. No entity whatsoever is existent in its intrinsic being. In thiscase, a non-entity also is non-existent. Entities and non-entities
originated from cause and conditions are empty.
LXVIII. Since all entities are empty in their intrinsic being, theInterdependent Origination of entities is particularly demonstrated
by the incomparable Tath/gata.
LXIX. The ultimate is none other than this (Emptiness). The
Blessed Buddha, relying upon conventional usage imagined all
possibilities.
LXX. The doctrine of the world is not destroyed. In reality, no factor
at all is demonstrated. Not comprehending the proclamation of theTath/gata, (ordinary people) are consequently afraid of theunsupported and unimaginable (truth).
LXXI. The way of the world, "dependent upon this, that originates",
is not negated. What is interdependently originated is without
intrinsic being, (so) how does it exist? This is perfect certitude.
LXXII. One who has faith, who diligently seeks the ultimate, notrelying upon any demonstrated factor, inclined to subject the way of
the world to reason, abandoning being and non-being (attains)
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LXIV. Entities originated from cause and conditions are imputed tobe real. That is proclaimed to be ignorance by the Preceptor. Fromit, the twelve constituents originate.
LXV. Because of the perception of the real, of entities as empty,
ignorance does not originate. Just that is the cessation of ignorance,
therefore, the twelve constituents cease.

peace.
LXXIII. Having comprehended apparent conditionality, the net offalse views is swept aside. (Consequently), abandoning attachment,delusion and anger, without stain, one surely reaches Nirv/%a.

LXVI. Compounded factors are like a fairy city, an illusion, amirage, a bubble of water, foam and like a dream and the circle of
the whirling fire-brand.
LXVII. No entity whatsoever is existent in its intrinsic being. In thiscase, a non-entity also is non-existent. Entities and non-entities
originated from cause and conditions are empty.
LXVIII. Since all entities are empty in their intrinsic being, theInterdependent Origination of entities is particularly demonstrated
by the incomparable Tath/gata.
LXIX. The ultimate is none other than this (Emptiness). The
Blessed Buddha, relying upon conventional usage imagined all
possibilities.
LXX. The doctrine of the world is not destroyed. In reality, no factor
at all is demonstrated. Not comprehending the proclamation of theTath/gata, (ordinary people) are consequently afraid of theunsupported and unimaginable (truth).
LXXI. The way of the world, "dependent upon this, that originates",
is not negated. What is interdependently originated is without
intrinsic being, (so) how does it exist? This is perfect certitude.
LXXII. One who has faith, who diligently seeks the ultimate, notrelying upon any demonstrated factor, inclined to subject the way of
the world to reason, abandoning being and non-being (attains)
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Section Three
Nagarjuna's Commentary to Emptiness:
The Seventy Stanzas
Salutation to [rya Ma~jugho&a J~@nasattva.
I. Duration, origination, destruction, existence, non-existence,
inferiority, mediocrity and superiority were taught by the Buddha inaccord with conventional usage, not by the power of the real.
Whatsoever was taught by the Buddha in accord withconventional usage: duration, origination, destruction, inferiority,
mediocrity and superiority were all not taught by the power of thereal.
Here it is asked. Do not the so called self and so on and soforth which are spoken of exist at all? Since the consciousness
which considers not-self occurs, the self must undoubtedly be
existent.10
It is explained. II. a There is not anything which corresponds
to the expressions: not-self, not not-self, both self and not-self
If it is asked why? - II. b (Because) all factors which can be
spoken of are - like Nirv/%a - in their intrinsic being, empty.
Here it is asked. Is this (statement), "all entities are in theirintrinsic being empty", a royal decree, or do some grounds exist bymeans of which to penetrate into the knowledge of the fact that allentities are in their intrinsic being, empty, as it is so?
Here it is explained. III. Since the intrinsic being of allentities does not exist in the cause and conditions, either together orseparately, or in any way, therefore they are empty. Thus it isexplained.11
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Moreover, IV. The existent does not originate, because it isexistent. The non-existent does not (originate) because it is nonexistent. The existent and non-existent also does not (originate)because they are heterogeneous. Because there is no origination,
there is no duration and no destruction.
(An existent) entity does not originate from a cause, because
it is existent. Now, existent is explained as being existent. The nonexistent does not originate from a cause, because it is non-existent.
The (both) existent and non-existent does not originate, because(they) are heterogeneous, that is mutually contradictory. Because
what is both existent and non-existent is heterogeneous - having
mutually contradictory properties - how does what is existent andnon-existent originate? Because there is no origination, there is no
duration and no destruction.
Here it is said. The three characteristics of the compoundedfactors - origination, duration and destruction - are proclaimed, andat the time of origination, origination is evident. Thus, there isorigination of compounded factors from something.
Here it is explained. V. The originated is not the object to beoriginated. The unoriginated is also not the object to be originated.
The (object) at the time of origination is also not the object to beoriginated, because it would be originated and unoriginated.
First, the originated is not the object to be originated - If it isasked - why? - Because it is already originated. An object which isalready originated is not the object to be originated. The notoriginated is also not the object to be originated - why? - Because it
is not originated. An object which is not originated is not the object
to be originated, because (it) is without activity, without efficiency
and non-existent. Thus, it is not the object to be originated. An
object at the time of origination is also not the object to beoriginated - why? - Because it is exhausted between the originatedand the unoriginated, and the object which is originated and theobject which is not originated is also not the object to be originated,
simply because of the considerations explained above. Of the two,the first, the originated is not the object to be originated, because it
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Section Three
Nagarjuna's Commentary to Emptiness:
The Seventy Stanzas
Salutation to [rya Ma~jugho&a J~@nasattva.
I. Duration, origination, destruction, existence, non-existence,
inferiority, mediocrity and superiority were taught by the Buddha inaccord with conventional usage, not by the power of the real.
Whatsoever was taught by the Buddha in accord withconventional usage: duration, origination, destruction, inferiority,
mediocrity and superiority were all not taught by the power of thereal.
Here it is asked. Do not the so called self and so on and soforth which are spoken of exist at all? Since the consciousness
which considers not-self occurs, the self must undoubtedly be
existent.10
It is explained. II. a There is not anything which corresponds
to the expressions: not-self, not not-self, both self and not-self
If it is asked why? - II. b (Because) all factors which can be
spoken of are - like Nirv/%a - in their intrinsic being, empty.
Here it is asked. Is this (statement), "all entities are in theirintrinsic being empty", a royal decree, or do some grounds exist bymeans of which to penetrate into the knowledge of the fact that allentities are in their intrinsic being, empty, as it is so?
Here it is explained. III. Since the intrinsic being of allentities does not exist in the cause and conditions, either together orseparately, or in any way, therefore they are empty. Thus it isexplained.11
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Moreover, IV. The existent does not originate, because it isexistent. The non-existent does not (originate) because it is nonexistent. The existent and non-existent also does not (originate)because they are heterogeneous. Because there is no origination,
there is no duration and no destruction.
(An existent) entity does not originate from a cause, because
it is existent. Now, existent is explained as being existent. The nonexistent does not originate from a cause, because it is non-existent.
The (both) existent and non-existent does not originate, because(they) are heterogeneous, that is mutually contradictory. Because
what is both existent and non-existent is heterogeneous - having
mutually contradictory properties - how does what is existent andnon-existent originate? Because there is no origination, there is no
duration and no destruction.
Here it is said. The three characteristics of the compoundedfactors - origination, duration and destruction - are proclaimed, andat the time of origination, origination is evident. Thus, there isorigination of compounded factors from something.
Here it is explained. V. The originated is not the object to beoriginated. The unoriginated is also not the object to be originated.
The (object) at the time of origination is also not the object to beoriginated, because it would be originated and unoriginated.
First, the originated is not the object to be originated - If it isasked - why? - Because it is already originated. An object which isalready originated is not the object to be originated. The notoriginated is also not the object to be originated - why? - Because it
is not originated. An object which is not originated is not the object
to be originated, because (it) is without activity, without efficiency
and non-existent. Thus, it is not the object to be originated. An
object at the time of origination is also not the object to beoriginated - why? - Because it is exhausted between the originatedand the unoriginated, and the object which is originated and theobject which is not originated is also not the object to be originated,
simply because of the considerations explained above. Of the two,the first, the originated is not the object to be originated, because it
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not the object to be originated, because it is not originated, without
the activity of origination, without efficiency and non-existent. Thus,
for the reason that excluding the originated and the not originated,
there is no third which is the moment of origination, the object at
the time of origination is also not the object to be originated.
Moreover, there is also no origination, because a cause is notjustified - why? - Because,
VI. If the effect is existent, the cause will possess the effect. If
non-existent, the cause will be equal to a non-cause. If neither
existent nor non-existent, it is contradictory, nor again is a cause
justified in the three times.
If the effect is existent, that which possesses the effect is a
cause. If that effect is non-existent, then the cause will be equal to a
non-cause. If the effect is neither existent nor non-existent, it iscontradictory, because non-existence and existence cannot bepresent simultaneously. Moreover, a cause is not justified in thethree times. It may be asked how? First, if it is supposed that thecause is prior (to the effect), of what is it the cause? Yet, if it is
supposed that (the cause is) subsequent (to the effect), then whatneed is there for the cause, as the effect is already complete? Yet(again) if it is supposed that the cause and effect are simultaneous,then among the cause and the effect which originate
simultaneously, which is the cause of which and which is the effectof which? Thus, in all the three times, a cause is not justified.12
Here, it is said, all entities are not empty, because number isjustified. What are called one, two and many which are number are
existent. Further, number is justified only if entities exist, therefore
all entities are not empty.
Here it is explained. VII. Without one, many does not occur.
Without many, one does not occur. Therefore, interdependently
originated entities are without signs.
The originated is without signs, because without one, many
does not occur and without many, one does not occur. Therefore,
entities are interdependently originated and hence in reality
without signs.
Here it is said. Interdependent Origination which possesses

the effect of suffering has been extensively demonstrated in the
canonical discourses. It has also been demonstrated by masters who
bestow instructions as justified in one moment of consciousness andin a series of moments of consciousness. Thus, all entities are not
empty.
Here it is explained. VIII. The twelve constituents ofInterdependent Origination which possess the effect of suffering do
not originate, as they are neither justified in one moment ofconsciousness, nor in a series of moments of consciousness.
The twelve constituents of Interdependent Origination which
possess the effect of suffering do not originate. They are neither
justified in one moment of consciousness, nor in a series of momentsof consciousness, since if in one moment of consciousness, the effectwould originate simultaneously with the cause, while if in a series ofmoments of consciousness, the preceding constituents which havebeen destroyed could not be the cause of the succeeding ones. Thus,in either way, they (the twelve constituents) are not justified.
Therefore, Interdependent Origination does not originate. It may be
asked why (they) do not originate?
It is explained (that) Interdependent Origination is falsely
imputed to originate from the cause of ignorance. That ignorance
has also been shown to depend upon the condition of erroneous
views. These erroneous views are also in their intrinsic being empty.
It may be asked why?
IX. Impermanence is the negation of permanence. Not-self isthe negation of self. Impurity is the negation of purity, and sufferingis the negation of happiness. Therefore, there are no erroneous
views.
Impermanence is the negation of permanence. Without
permanence, its antidote - impermanence - is also non-existent. In
this way, the remaining (propositions) should also be treated.
Therefore, there are no erroneous views.13
X. Without them, there is no ignorance originated from thefour erroneous views. Without it, volitions do not originate nor in
the same way do the remaining (constituents).
Without these erroneous views, there is no ignorance

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not the object to be originated, because it is not originated, without
the activity of origination, without efficiency and non-existent. Thus,
for the reason that excluding the originated and the not originated,
there is no third which is the moment of origination, the object at
the time of origination is also not the object to be originated.
Moreover, there is also no origination, because a cause is notjustified - why? - Because,
VI. If the effect is existent, the cause will possess the effect. If
non-existent, the cause will be equal to a non-cause. If neither
existent nor non-existent, it is contradictory, nor again is a cause
justified in the three times.
If the effect is existent, that which possesses the effect is a
cause. If that effect is non-existent, then the cause will be equal to a
non-cause. If the effect is neither existent nor non-existent, it iscontradictory, because non-existence and existence cannot bepresent simultaneously. Moreover, a cause is not justified in thethree times. It may be asked how? First, if it is supposed that thecause is prior (to the effect), of what is it the cause? Yet, if it is
supposed that (the cause is) subsequent (to the effect), then whatneed is there for the cause, as the effect is already complete? Yet(again) if it is supposed that the cause and effect are simultaneous,then among the cause and the effect which originate
simultaneously, which is the cause of which and which is the effectof which? Thus, in all the three times, a cause is not justified.12
Here, it is said, all entities are not empty, because number isjustified. What are called one, two and many which are number are
existent. Further, number is justified only if entities exist, therefore
all entities are not empty.
Here it is explained. VII. Without one, many does not occur.
Without many, one does not occur. Therefore, interdependently
originated entities are without signs.
The originated is without signs, because without one, many
does not occur and without many, one does not occur. Therefore,
entities are interdependently originated and hence in reality
without signs.
Here it is said. Interdependent Origination which possesses

the effect of suffering has been extensively demonstrated in the
canonical discourses. It has also been demonstrated by masters who
bestow instructions as justified in one moment of consciousness andin a series of moments of consciousness. Thus, all entities are not
empty.
Here it is explained. VIII. The twelve constituents ofInterdependent Origination which possess the effect of suffering do
not originate, as they are neither justified in one moment ofconsciousness, nor in a series of moments of consciousness.
The twelve constituents of Interdependent Origination which
possess the effect of suffering do not originate. They are neither
justified in one moment of consciousness, nor in a series of momentsof consciousness, since if in one moment of consciousness, the effectwould originate simultaneously with the cause, while if in a series ofmoments of consciousness, the preceding constituents which havebeen destroyed could not be the cause of the succeeding ones. Thus,in either way, they (the twelve constituents) are not justified.
Therefore, Interdependent Origination does not originate. It may be
asked why (they) do not originate?
It is explained (that) Interdependent Origination is falsely
imputed to originate from the cause of ignorance. That ignorance
has also been shown to depend upon the condition of erroneous
views. These erroneous views are also in their intrinsic being empty.
It may be asked why?
IX. Impermanence is the negation of permanence. Not-self isthe negation of self. Impurity is the negation of purity, and sufferingis the negation of happiness. Therefore, there are no erroneous
views.
Impermanence is the negation of permanence. Without
permanence, its antidote - impermanence - is also non-existent. In
this way, the remaining (propositions) should also be treated.
Therefore, there are no erroneous views.13
X. Without them, there is no ignorance originated from thefour erroneous views. Without it, volitions do not originate nor in
the same way do the remaining (constituents).
Without these erroneous views, there is no ignorance

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originated from them. Without ignorance, volitions do not originate,
nor in a like manner do the remaining (constituents) originate.
Moreover, XI. Without volitions, ignorance does not originate.
Without it (ignorance) volitions do not originate. Since they aremutually caused, they are not established in their intrinsic being.
XII. How can what is itself not established in its intrinsic
being produce another? Thus another condition which is notestablished is not what causes the origination of another.
First of all, ignorance does not originate without volitions.
Without ignorance also, volitions do not originate. They are notestablished in their intrinsic being, because the two (of them) aremutually caused. How can what is itself not established in its
intrinsic being produce another? Thus other conditions which are
not established are not producers of something else.
Moreover, XIII. The father is not the son, nor is the son thefather, nor do they exist without mutual dependence, nor are they
identical and so also the twelve constituents.
First of all, the father is not the son, nor is the son the father.
They do not exist without mutual dependence, nor are they
identical. Just as through this procedure, the father and the son are(seen) to be not established, so also the twelve constituents are
similarly (not established).
Moreover, XIV. Neither the happiness and suffering which
depend upon an object in a dream, nor that object are existent.
Similarly, neither that which originates dependently, nor that uponwhich it depends are existent.
For instance, neither the happiness and suffering which
depend upon an object in a dream, nor the object are existent.
Similarly, neither that which originates dependently, nor again thatupon which it depends are existent.
Here it is said. XV. If entities are not existent in theirintrinsic being, neither inferiority, mediocrity nor superiority, nor
the manifold (objects of experience) are established, nor will there
be anything established from a cause.
Therefore, the statement that entities are not existent in theirintrinsic being is not appropriate.

Here it is explained. XVI. If intrinsic being were established,a dependent entity would not occur. But without dependence, howdoes (an entity) exist? Without intrinsic being (an entity) does notoccur and with intrinsic being (an entity) cannot be destroyed.
If entities were existent in their intrinsic being, dependent
entities would not occur. In regard to this, it may be thought (that)
entities exist even without dependence. Here it is explained. But
without dependence, how does (an entity) exist?
Without
dependence also (an entity) cannot occur. If an entity were to occur
even without dependence, it would not be without intrinsic being. If
it were existent in its intrinsic being, it could not be destroyed, nor
could it become non-existent. Thus it is explained.
Here it is said. The conceptions of what are called intrinsic
being, extrinsic being, being and non-being and their support are
not non-existent. Therefore, entities are not empty.
Here it is explained. XVII. In what is non-existent, how are
intrinsic being, extrinsic being and being possible? Therefore,
intrinsic being, extrinsic being and non-being are erroneous.
Thus, non-existent is explained as that which is not existent.
In what is non-existent, how are what are called intrinsic being,
extrinsic being and destruction possible? Therefore, extrinsic being,
non-being and intrinsic being are erroneous.
Here it is said, XVIII. If entities are empty, they can neither
cease nor originate. How can what is empty in its intrinsic being
either cease or originate?
If entities are empty in their intrinsic being, they can neither
cease nor originate. If it is held that what is in its intrinsic being
empty ceases and originates,(then) here it is said. How can what is
empty in its intrinsic being either cease or originate?
Here it is explained. All factors are just empty - why? Because, XIX. Being and non- being are not identical. Without nonbeing, there is no being. Being and non-being will always occur.
Without being, non-being does not arise.
Being and non-being are not identical. It may be asked how
this is explained? Being and non-being cannot be existent at thesame time (and in the same place). Thus, it is explained. At this

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originated from them. Without ignorance, volitions do not originate,
nor in a like manner do the remaining (constituents) originate.
Moreover, XI. Without volitions, ignorance does not originate.
Without it (ignorance) volitions do not originate. Since they aremutually caused, they are not established in their intrinsic being.
XII. How can what is itself not established in its intrinsic
being produce another? Thus another condition which is notestablished is not what causes the origination of another.
First of all, ignorance does not originate without volitions.
Without ignorance also, volitions do not originate. They are notestablished in their intrinsic being, because the two (of them) aremutually caused. How can what is itself not established in its
intrinsic being produce another? Thus other conditions which are
not established are not producers of something else.
Moreover, XIII. The father is not the son, nor is the son thefather, nor do they exist without mutual dependence, nor are they
identical and so also the twelve constituents.
First of all, the father is not the son, nor is the son the father.
They do not exist without mutual dependence, nor are they
identical. Just as through this procedure, the father and the son are(seen) to be not established, so also the twelve constituents are
similarly (not established).
Moreover, XIV. Neither the happiness and suffering which
depend upon an object in a dream, nor that object are existent.
Similarly, neither that which originates dependently, nor that uponwhich it depends are existent.
For instance, neither the happiness and suffering which
depend upon an object in a dream, nor the object are existent.
Similarly, neither that which originates dependently, nor again thatupon which it depends are existent.
Here it is said. XV. If entities are not existent in theirintrinsic being, neither inferiority, mediocrity nor superiority, nor
the manifold (objects of experience) are established, nor will there
be anything established from a cause.
Therefore, the statement that entities are not existent in theirintrinsic being is not appropriate.

Here it is explained. XVI. If intrinsic being were established,a dependent entity would not occur. But without dependence, howdoes (an entity) exist? Without intrinsic being (an entity) does notoccur and with intrinsic being (an entity) cannot be destroyed.
If entities were existent in their intrinsic being, dependent
entities would not occur. In regard to this, it may be thought (that)
entities exist even without dependence. Here it is explained. But
without dependence, how does (an entity) exist?
Without
dependence also (an entity) cannot occur. If an entity were to occur
even without dependence, it would not be without intrinsic being. If
it were existent in its intrinsic being, it could not be destroyed, nor
could it become non-existent. Thus it is explained.
Here it is said. The conceptions of what are called intrinsic
being, extrinsic being, being and non-being and their support are
not non-existent. Therefore, entities are not empty.
Here it is explained. XVII. In what is non-existent, how are
intrinsic being, extrinsic being and being possible? Therefore,
intrinsic being, extrinsic being and non-being are erroneous.
Thus, non-existent is explained as that which is not existent.
In what is non-existent, how are what are called intrinsic being,
extrinsic being and destruction possible? Therefore, extrinsic being,
non-being and intrinsic being are erroneous.
Here it is said, XVIII. If entities are empty, they can neither
cease nor originate. How can what is empty in its intrinsic being
either cease or originate?
If entities are empty in their intrinsic being, they can neither
cease nor originate. If it is held that what is in its intrinsic being
empty ceases and originates,(then) here it is said. How can what is
empty in its intrinsic being either cease or originate?
Here it is explained. All factors are just empty - why? Because, XIX. Being and non- being are not identical. Without nonbeing, there is no being. Being and non-being will always occur.
Without being, non-being does not arise.
Being and non-being are not identical. It may be asked how
this is explained? Being and non-being cannot be existent at thesame time (and in the same place). Thus, it is explained. At this

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point, it may be thought that nothing other than being alone exists.
Here it is explained. Without non-being, there is no being. Without
non-being, being is not justified, because there is no being without
impermanence. Being and non-being will always occur, that is,
being will always be impermanent.
At this point, it may be thought that being is always bound up
with impermanence, however, at the time of origination andduration, it (impermanence) is latent, but at the time of destruction,
impermanence destroys being. Here it is explained. Without being,
non-being does not arise. Non-being does not exist without being
because without destruction, impermanence which has thecharacteristic of destruction is not appropriate. Without destruction,
what is called impermanence is not justified. Therefore, there will
always be precisely being and non-being.
Here it is said, there is nothing other than non-being alone.
Here it is explained. XX. Without being, there is no non-being. Beingis not (originated) from itself and not (originated) from another.
Thus, there is no being, and without it, there is no non-being.
Without being, there is no non-being and that being neither
originates from itself nor from another. Thus because of thisargument, there is no existent being. Therefore non-being does notarise. So it is explained. Without it (non-being), there is (also) no
being. Without being, there is also no non-existence of that being,that is, the non-being of such a being is also impossible. Thus it isexplained.14
Moreover, XXI. If being were just existent, it would bepermanent. If it were non-existent, it would surely be annihilated. If
being were existent, it would be (both) these two. Therefore, being is
not accepted.
Being is not accepted, because if being were just existent, it
would consequently be permanent. If it were non-existent, it would
consequently surely be annihilated. If being were existent, it would
consequently be (both) these two (permanent and annihilated).15
Here it is said. XXII a. Because of continuity, those(consequences) do not exist. An entity ceases (to exist) when it has
imparted a cause (to an effect).

The two (consequences of) permanence and annihilation do
not exist, because of the continuity of origination and destruction.
An entity ceases (to exist) when it has imparted a cause (to aneffect).
Here it is explained. XXII b. Just as before, this is notestablished. Further, the fault of interrupting the continuity will
occur.
As we determined earlier, being and non-being are not
identical.16 Therefore, the continuity which you accept is just as
before, not established. Moreover, the fault of interrupting thecontinuity will consequently occur.
Here it is said. XXIII a. Through seeing origination anddestruction, the path to Nirv/%a was demonstrated, not by meansof Emptiness.17
The path to Nirv/%a was demonstrated through seeing
origination and destruction, but not because of emptiness.
Here it is explained XXIII b. These are seen, because (theyare) mutually contradictory and so are conceived as such.
It is explained thus. (The opponents' objection implies that)
not through the knowledge of non- origination (was the path to
Nirv@%a demonstrated). That (knowledge) which sees originationand destruction also sees origination to be the contrary ofdestruction and sees destruction also to be the contrary oforigination. Therefore, since origination and destruction are
mutually contradictory and the knowledge (of them) is alsomutually contradictory, origination and destruction are seen.
Therefore, again, there is only Emptiness, because origination isdependent upon destruction and destruction is dependent uponorigination.
Here it is said. XXIV a. If neither origination nor cessation
are existent, the cessation of what is Nirv/%a?18
If there is no origination and also no cessation, then the
cessation of what is Nirv/%a?
Here it is explained. XXIV b. Is not what is in its intrinsic
being neither originated nor ceases liberation?
Is not liberation what is in its intrinsic- being neither

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point, it may be thought that nothing other than being alone exists.
Here it is explained. Without non-being, there is no being. Without
non-being, being is not justified, because there is no being without
impermanence. Being and non-being will always occur, that is,
being will always be impermanent.
At this point, it may be thought that being is always bound up
with impermanence, however, at the time of origination andduration, it (impermanence) is latent, but at the time of destruction,
impermanence destroys being. Here it is explained. Without being,
non-being does not arise. Non-being does not exist without being
because without destruction, impermanence which has thecharacteristic of destruction is not appropriate. Without destruction,
what is called impermanence is not justified. Therefore, there will
always be precisely being and non-being.
Here it is said, there is nothing other than non-being alone.
Here it is explained. XX. Without being, there is no non-being. Beingis not (originated) from itself and not (originated) from another.
Thus, there is no being, and without it, there is no non-being.
Without being, there is no non-being and that being neither
originates from itself nor from another. Thus because of thisargument, there is no existent being. Therefore non-being does notarise. So it is explained. Without it (non-being), there is (also) no
being. Without being, there is also no non-existence of that being,that is, the non-being of such a being is also impossible. Thus it isexplained.14
Moreover, XXI. If being were just existent, it would bepermanent. If it were non-existent, it would surely be annihilated. If
being were existent, it would be (both) these two. Therefore, being is
not accepted.
Being is not accepted, because if being were just existent, it
would consequently be permanent. If it were non-existent, it would
consequently surely be annihilated. If being were existent, it would
consequently be (both) these two (permanent and annihilated).15
Here it is said. XXII a. Because of continuity, those(consequences) do not exist. An entity ceases (to exist) when it has
imparted a cause (to an effect).

The two (consequences of) permanence and annihilation do
not exist, because of the continuity of origination and destruction.
An entity ceases (to exist) when it has imparted a cause (to aneffect).
Here it is explained. XXII b. Just as before, this is notestablished. Further, the fault of interrupting the continuity will
occur.
As we determined earlier, being and non-being are not
identical.16 Therefore, the continuity which you accept is just as
before, not established. Moreover, the fault of interrupting thecontinuity will consequently occur.
Here it is said. XXIII a. Through seeing origination anddestruction, the path to Nirv/%a was demonstrated, not by meansof Emptiness.17
The path to Nirv/%a was demonstrated through seeing
origination and destruction, but not because of emptiness.
Here it is explained XXIII b. These are seen, because (theyare) mutually contradictory and so are conceived as such.
It is explained thus. (The opponents' objection implies that)
not through the knowledge of non- origination (was the path to
Nirv@%a demonstrated). That (knowledge) which sees originationand destruction also sees origination to be the contrary ofdestruction and sees destruction also to be the contrary oforigination. Therefore, since origination and destruction are
mutually contradictory and the knowledge (of them) is alsomutually contradictory, origination and destruction are seen.
Therefore, again, there is only Emptiness, because origination isdependent upon destruction and destruction is dependent uponorigination.
Here it is said. XXIV a. If neither origination nor cessation
are existent, the cessation of what is Nirv/%a?18
If there is no origination and also no cessation, then the
cessation of what is Nirv/%a?
Here it is explained. XXIV b. Is not what is in its intrinsic
being neither originated nor ceases liberation?
Is not liberation what is in its intrinsic- being neither

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originated nor ceases?
Moreover, XXV. If Nirv/%a were cessation, it would beannihilation. If it were supposed to be otherwise, it would bepermanence. Therefore (Nirv/%a) is neither being nor non-being. It
is such as is neither originated nor again ceases.
If Nirv/%a were cessation, it would consequently beannihilation. If it were not cessation, it would consequently bepermanence. Thus, Nirv/%a is neither being nor non-being.
Nirv/%a is such as is neither originated nor ceases.
Here it is said. There is cessation and that too endures
permanently.
Here it is explained. XXVI a. If any cessation were existent, it
would occur even without being.
If any cessation endured, it would occur even without being. If
any cessation were to endure even without being, then it would exist
even without dependence.
It is explained thus. This is also not logical, because, XXVI b.
Without being, it (cessation) is also non-existent. Again, without
non-being, it is non-existent.
Both without being and without non-being also, it, cessation,
is not existent. It may be asked how is it explained? Also without
being and also without non-being are explained as without
depending upon being and without depending upon non-being.19
Here it is said. Entities are existent, because the substratumof the characteristic and the characteristic are inherently related.20
Here it is explained. XXVII. The characteristic is establishedby the substratum of the characteristic. The substratum of thecharacteristic is established by the characteristic, but they are notestablished independently, nor are they established by one another.
What is not established is not that which establishes another which
is not established.
The characteristic too is established by the substratum of thecharacteristic. The substratum of the characteristic too isestablished by the characteristic. However, they are not establishedindependently, nor are they established by one another, that is, they
are not reciprocally established. It is explained so. Since thesubstratum of the characteristic and the characteristic aredisproved by this process, the substratum of the characteristic andthe characteristic are not established, that is they are not whatestablishes entities.21
XXVIII. By this (analysis), cause and effect, experience andthe subject of experience etc., as well as the subject and object ofvision etc., what so ever (may exist) are all explained without
exception.22
Here it is said. Those who affirm time distinguish manifold
times, thus time is existent.
Here it is explained. XXIX. The three times are non-existentand are mere imagination, because (they) are non-enduring, arereciprocally established, disordered, not established independently
and (because) an entity is non-existent.
Time is not established. It may be asked - why? - Because it isnon-enduring, that is, time is thought to be non-enduring. What is
non-enduring cannot be apprehended. How (then) is a name affixed
to what cannot be apprehended? Thus it (time) is not established.
Moreover, since (the three times) are reciprocally established, they
are imputed to be reciprocally established, that is, dependent upon
the past, present and future are established. Dependent upon thepresent, past and future (are established) and dependent upon the
future, past and present (time) are established. Time is notestablished, since (the three times) are imputed to be establisheddependently. (Moreover) it is not established, because (the threetimes) are disordered. The very (same) time, when compared withthe present, is (called) present. The very (same time) is (called) pastwhen compared with the future and the very (same time) is (called)
future when compared with the past. Moreover, since substantial
existence is not established, time is not established independently.
Thus, it is not established. Moreover, it (time) is non-existentbecause an entity is non-existent. If an entity were established, time
would also be established, yet, if sought, an entity is non-existent in
its intrinsic being. Therefore, time is just not established in its
intrinsic being, that is, it is just mere imagination. 23
Here it is said. It was taught that all compounded factors

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originated nor ceases?
Moreover, XXV. If Nirv/%a were cessation, it would beannihilation. If it were supposed to be otherwise, it would bepermanence. Therefore (Nirv/%a) is neither being nor non-being. It
is such as is neither originated nor again ceases.
If Nirv/%a were cessation, it would consequently beannihilation. If it were not cessation, it would consequently bepermanence. Thus, Nirv/%a is neither being nor non-being.
Nirv/%a is such as is neither originated nor ceases.
Here it is said. There is cessation and that too endures
permanently.
Here it is explained. XXVI a. If any cessation were existent, it
would occur even without being.
If any cessation endured, it would occur even without being. If
any cessation were to endure even without being, then it would exist
even without dependence.
It is explained thus. This is also not logical, because, XXVI b.
Without being, it (cessation) is also non-existent. Again, without
non-being, it is non-existent.
Both without being and without non-being also, it, cessation,
is not existent. It may be asked how is it explained? Also without
being and also without non-being are explained as without
depending upon being and without depending upon non-being.19
Here it is said. Entities are existent, because the substratumof the characteristic and the characteristic are inherently related.20
Here it is explained. XXVII. The characteristic is establishedby the substratum of the characteristic. The substratum of thecharacteristic is established by the characteristic, but they are notestablished independently, nor are they established by one another.
What is not established is not that which establishes another which
is not established.
The characteristic too is established by the substratum of thecharacteristic. The substratum of the characteristic too isestablished by the characteristic. However, they are not establishedindependently, nor are they established by one another, that is, they
are not reciprocally established. It is explained so. Since thesubstratum of the characteristic and the characteristic aredisproved by this process, the substratum of the characteristic andthe characteristic are not established, that is they are not whatestablishes entities.21
XXVIII. By this (analysis), cause and effect, experience andthe subject of experience etc., as well as the subject and object ofvision etc., what so ever (may exist) are all explained without
exception.22
Here it is said. Those who affirm time distinguish manifold
times, thus time is existent.
Here it is explained. XXIX. The three times are non-existentand are mere imagination, because (they) are non-enduring, arereciprocally established, disordered, not established independently
and (because) an entity is non-existent.
Time is not established. It may be asked - why? - Because it isnon-enduring, that is, time is thought to be non-enduring. What is
non-enduring cannot be apprehended. How (then) is a name affixed
to what cannot be apprehended? Thus it (time) is not established.
Moreover, since (the three times) are reciprocally established, they
are imputed to be reciprocally established, that is, dependent upon
the past, present and future are established. Dependent upon thepresent, past and future (are established) and dependent upon the
future, past and present (time) are established. Time is notestablished, since (the three times) are imputed to be establisheddependently. (Moreover) it is not established, because (the threetimes) are disordered. The very (same) time, when compared withthe present, is (called) present. The very (same time) is (called) pastwhen compared with the future and the very (same time) is (called)
future when compared with the past. Moreover, since substantial
existence is not established, time is not established independently.
Thus, it is not established. Moreover, it (time) is non-existentbecause an entity is non-existent. If an entity were established, time
would also be established, yet, if sought, an entity is non-existent in
its intrinsic being. Therefore, time is just not established in its
intrinsic being, that is, it is just mere imagination. 23
Here it is said. It was taught that all compounded factors

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possess three characteristics - origination, duration and destruction- and the opposite are the uncompounded factors. Therefore, thecompounded and the uncompounded factors are existent.24
Here it is explained. XXX. Because the three characteristics ofthe compounded (factors) - origination, duration and destructionare non-existent, therefore the compounded (factors) and theuncompounded (factors) are not at all existent.
Origination, duration and destruction which were taught tobe the three characteristics of the compounded factors are notjustified, if analyzed. Therefore, (they are) non-existent. Since they(the three characteristics) are non-existent, compounded factors anduncompounded factors are not at all existent.
Moreover, it is said (that) the compounded factors, eventhough they be accepted, are non-existent, because if analyzed, they
are not justified.
It may be asked why? XXXI. The undestroyed is not
destroyed, nor is the destroyed. The enduring does not endure, nordoes the unenduring endure. The originated does not originate, nordoes the unoriginated (originate).
At this point, it may be considered whether the originatedoriginates or the unoriginated (originates). In this case, first, theoriginated does not originate. It may be asked - why? - Because, it isalready originated. The unoriginated also does not originate. Why?
Because it is unoriginated. It may be considered whether the
enduring endures or the unenduring (endures). In this case, theenduring does not endure, because it is already enduring. The
unenduring also does not endure. Why? Because, it is unenduring.
Finally, it may be considered whether the destroyed is destroyed or
the undestroyed (is destroyed). Neither alternative is justified. Thus
the compounded factors are non-existent, because even though they
are accepted, they are not justified through these three processes.
Since the compounded factors are not existent, the uncompoundedfactors are likewise impossible.
Moreover, XXXII. The compounded (factors) and theuncompounded (factors) are neither manifold nor unitary, neither
existent nor non-existent, nor both existent and non-existent.

Within this perimeter, all possibilities are included.
If analyzed, the compounded factors and the uncompoundedfactors are neither manifold nor unitary, neither existent nor nonexistent nor both existent and non-existent. Thus it is explainedthat within this perimeter, that is within this, all these areincluded, in other words, without exception (or) completely. The
possibilities included by these two (the compounded anduncompounded factors) should be known.25
Here it is said. XXXIII. The Blessed One proclaimed theenduring of actions. The Preceptor proclaimed actions and theireffects (and) that the sentient being is the agent of actions and that
actions are not lost.
In the canonical discourses, the Blessed One has in many
ways explained actions and their effects. It is also proclaimed that
actions are not without their effects. It is also proclaimed that
actions are not lost and that the sentient being is the agent ofactions. Thus, actions and the effects of actions are existent.
Here it is explained. XXXIV. Because it has been
demonstrated that they are without intrinsic being, actions do not
originate, so they cannot be destroyed. Actions originate from selfclinging. That clinging which produces actions also originates fromimagination.
Since, actions have already been demonstrated to be without
intrinsic being, (they do not originate). Therefore, as they do not
originate, they cannot be destroyed. Moreover, actions originate
from that, self clinging, therefore, self clinging produces actions.
That (self clinging) also originates from imagination.
Moreover, XXXV. If actions existed in their intrinsic being,
then the body originated from them would be permanent. They
would not be endowed with the maturing effect of suffering.
Therefore, actions would also be substantial.
If actions existed in their intrinsic being (they would bepermanent). If it were so, whatever bodies originate from thoseactions would also be permanent, that is their intrinsic being would
be immutable. Thus it is explained. Moreover, they would notpossess the maturing effect of suffering. Those actions would also

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possess three characteristics - origination, duration and destruction- and the opposite are the uncompounded factors. Therefore, thecompounded and the uncompounded factors are existent.24
Here it is explained. XXX. Because the three characteristics ofthe compounded (factors) - origination, duration and destructionare non-existent, therefore the compounded (factors) and theuncompounded (factors) are not at all existent.
Origination, duration and destruction which were taught tobe the three characteristics of the compounded factors are notjustified, if analyzed. Therefore, (they are) non-existent. Since they(the three characteristics) are non-existent, compounded factors anduncompounded factors are not at all existent.
Moreover, it is said (that) the compounded factors, eventhough they be accepted, are non-existent, because if analyzed, they
are not justified.
It may be asked why? XXXI. The undestroyed is not
destroyed, nor is the destroyed. The enduring does not endure, nordoes the unenduring endure. The originated does not originate, nordoes the unoriginated (originate).
At this point, it may be considered whether the originatedoriginates or the unoriginated (originates). In this case, first, theoriginated does not originate. It may be asked - why? - Because, it isalready originated. The unoriginated also does not originate. Why?
Because it is unoriginated. It may be considered whether the
enduring endures or the unenduring (endures). In this case, theenduring does not endure, because it is already enduring. The
unenduring also does not endure. Why? Because, it is unenduring.
Finally, it may be considered whether the destroyed is destroyed or
the undestroyed (is destroyed). Neither alternative is justified. Thus
the compounded factors are non-existent, because even though they
are accepted, they are not justified through these three processes.
Since the compounded factors are not existent, the uncompoundedfactors are likewise impossible.
Moreover, XXXII. The compounded (factors) and theuncompounded (factors) are neither manifold nor unitary, neither
existent nor non-existent, nor both existent and non-existent.

Within this perimeter, all possibilities are included.
If analyzed, the compounded factors and the uncompoundedfactors are neither manifold nor unitary, neither existent nor nonexistent nor both existent and non-existent. Thus it is explainedthat within this perimeter, that is within this, all these areincluded, in other words, without exception (or) completely. The
possibilities included by these two (the compounded anduncompounded factors) should be known.25
Here it is said. XXXIII. The Blessed One proclaimed theenduring of actions. The Preceptor proclaimed actions and theireffects (and) that the sentient being is the agent of actions and that
actions are not lost.
In the canonical discourses, the Blessed One has in many
ways explained actions and their effects. It is also proclaimed that
actions are not without their effects. It is also proclaimed that
actions are not lost and that the sentient being is the agent ofactions. Thus, actions and the effects of actions are existent.
Here it is explained. XXXIV. Because it has been
demonstrated that they are without intrinsic being, actions do not
originate, so they cannot be destroyed. Actions originate from selfclinging. That clinging which produces actions also originates fromimagination.
Since, actions have already been demonstrated to be without
intrinsic being, (they do not originate). Therefore, as they do not
originate, they cannot be destroyed. Moreover, actions originate
from that, self clinging, therefore, self clinging produces actions.
That (self clinging) also originates from imagination.
Moreover, XXXV. If actions existed in their intrinsic being,
then the body originated from them would be permanent. They
would not be endowed with the maturing effect of suffering.
Therefore, actions would also be substantial.
If actions existed in their intrinsic being (they would bepermanent). If it were so, whatever bodies originate from thoseactions would also be permanent, that is their intrinsic being would
be immutable. Thus it is explained. Moreover, they would notpossess the maturing effect of suffering. Those actions would also

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not possess the maturing effect of suffering. Moreover, consequently
actions would also be substantial. Since actions would bepermanent, they would also be substantial, because what isimpermanence is suffering and what is suffering is
insubstantiality.26 Thus actions are without intrinsic being and so
do not originate. Since they do not originate, they are not lost.
Moreover, XXXVI a. Actions originated from conditions are
not in the least existent, nor are (actions) existent originatedwithout conditions.
It may be asked why? XXXVI b. Compounded (factors) arelike an illusion, a fairy city and a mirage.
Actions, even as originated from conditions are not existent,
nor are (any actions) originated without conditions in the least
existent. It may be asked - why? - (Because) compounded (factors)
are like an illusion, a fairy city and a mirage. Actions are notexistent in their intrinsic being, because compounded factors arelike an illusion, a fairy city and a mirage.
Moreover, XXXVII. Afflictions are the cause of actions.
Volitions consist of actions and afflictions. Actions are the cause of
the body, (therefore) all three are also empty in their intrinsic being.
Since actions originate from the cause of afflictions, and sincevolitions originate from the cause of actions and afflictions, andsince the body originates from the cause of actions, therefore, allthree are also empty in their intrinsic being.
If it is so, XXXVIII. Without actions, there is no agent.
Without those two, there is no effect. Without it, there isconsequently no subject of experience. Hence (they) are empty.
Thus again, when logically analyzed, if the effect is notexistent in its intrinsic being, there are no actions. Without actions,
there is no agent. Without actions and the agent, there is no effect.
Without it (the effect) there is no subject of experience. Therefore,(they) are empty.
Moreover, XXXIX. If one knows very well actions to be empty,
actions will not originate, because of that perception of the real.
Without actions, that which originates from actions will not
originate.

If one knows very well the cause, actions, to be empty in theirintrinsic being, actions will not originate, because of the perceptionof suchness. Without those actions, that which originates fromactions will not originate.
Are (actions) just non-existent, or does something exist? It is
explained. Something is existent. It may be asked how (is it so)?
XL. As the Blessed One, the Tath/gata creates an illusory
creation by means of illusory emanation, that illusory creation
creates another illusory creation.
XLI. Among them, the illusory creation of the Tath/gata is
empty. What need is there to say anything about the illusory
creation of an illusory creation? They are both existent in so far as
anything which is mere imagination.
XLII. Similarly, the agent is like the illusory creation (and)actions are like the illusory creation of an illusory creation. They are
empty in their intrinsic being (and) exist insofar as anything whichis mere imagination.
As the Blessed One, the Tath/gata, creates an illusory
creation (for the purposes of teaching) through illusory emanation,and that creation also creates another illusory creation, so actions
also should be similarly understood. Among them, first, if theillusory creation of the Tath/gata is empty in its intrinsic being,
what need is there to say anything regarding the illusory creation ofan illusory creation? The two are existent in so far as anythingwhich is mere imagination. So actions are similar to this.
Moreover, XLIII. If actions existed in their intrinsic being,
there would be no Nirv/%a (and no) agent of actions. If (they were)
non-existent, there would be no attractive and unattractive effects
originated from actions.
If the intrinsic being of actions existed, then actions would beestablished in their intrinsic being and there would be no
attainment of Nirv/%a. Moreover, there would be no agent ofactions. It may be asked - why? - Because, even without an agent,actions would be well established. If actions were non-existent intheir intrinsic being, there would be no attractive and unattractive
effects originated from actions.27

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not possess the maturing effect of suffering. Moreover, consequently
actions would also be substantial. Since actions would bepermanent, they would also be substantial, because what isimpermanence is suffering and what is suffering is
insubstantiality.26 Thus actions are without intrinsic being and so
do not originate. Since they do not originate, they are not lost.
Moreover, XXXVI a. Actions originated from conditions are
not in the least existent, nor are (actions) existent originatedwithout conditions.
It may be asked why? XXXVI b. Compounded (factors) arelike an illusion, a fairy city and a mirage.
Actions, even as originated from conditions are not existent,
nor are (any actions) originated without conditions in the least
existent. It may be asked - why? - (Because) compounded (factors)
are like an illusion, a fairy city and a mirage. Actions are notexistent in their intrinsic being, because compounded factors arelike an illusion, a fairy city and a mirage.
Moreover, XXXVII. Afflictions are the cause of actions.
Volitions consist of actions and afflictions. Actions are the cause of
the body, (therefore) all three are also empty in their intrinsic being.
Since actions originate from the cause of afflictions, and sincevolitions originate from the cause of actions and afflictions, andsince the body originates from the cause of actions, therefore, allthree are also empty in their intrinsic being.
If it is so, XXXVIII. Without actions, there is no agent.
Without those two, there is no effect. Without it, there isconsequently no subject of experience. Hence (they) are empty.
Thus again, when logically analyzed, if the effect is notexistent in its intrinsic being, there are no actions. Without actions,
there is no agent. Without actions and the agent, there is no effect.
Without it (the effect) there is no subject of experience. Therefore,(they) are empty.
Moreover, XXXIX. If one knows very well actions to be empty,
actions will not originate, because of that perception of the real.
Without actions, that which originates from actions will not
originate.

If one knows very well the cause, actions, to be empty in theirintrinsic being, actions will not originate, because of the perceptionof suchness. Without those actions, that which originates fromactions will not originate.
Are (actions) just non-existent, or does something exist? It is
explained. Something is existent. It may be asked how (is it so)?
XL. As the Blessed One, the Tath/gata creates an illusory
creation by means of illusory emanation, that illusory creation
creates another illusory creation.
XLI. Among them, the illusory creation of the Tath/gata is
empty. What need is there to say anything about the illusory
creation of an illusory creation? They are both existent in so far as
anything which is mere imagination.
XLII. Similarly, the agent is like the illusory creation (and)actions are like the illusory creation of an illusory creation. They are
empty in their intrinsic being (and) exist insofar as anything whichis mere imagination.
As the Blessed One, the Tath/gata, creates an illusory
creation (for the purposes of teaching) through illusory emanation,and that creation also creates another illusory creation, so actions
also should be similarly understood. Among them, first, if theillusory creation of the Tath/gata is empty in its intrinsic being,
what need is there to say anything regarding the illusory creation ofan illusory creation? The two are existent in so far as anythingwhich is mere imagination. So actions are similar to this.
Moreover, XLIII. If actions existed in their intrinsic being,
there would be no Nirv/%a (and no) agent of actions. If (they were)
non-existent, there would be no attractive and unattractive effects
originated from actions.
If the intrinsic being of actions existed, then actions would beestablished in their intrinsic being and there would be no
attainment of Nirv/%a. Moreover, there would be no agent ofactions. It may be asked - why? - Because, even without an agent,actions would be well established. If actions were non-existent intheir intrinsic being, there would be no attractive and unattractive
effects originated from actions.27

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Here it is said, since it is extensively proclaimed in the
canonical discourses that (actions) are existent, how can they be so
said to be non-existent?
Here it is explained. XLIV. There exists the statement ofexistence and also the statement of non-existence and again thestatement of both existence and non-existence. The intentional
proclamations of the Buddhas are not easily penetrated.
Even
thestatementof existence exists
throughsuperimposition. The statement of non-existence also exists throughsuperimposition (and) the statement of (both) existence and nonexistence also just (exists) through superimposition. The intentional
proclamations of the Buddhas are never easily penetrated.28
Here it is said. At this point, form is held to be (originated)from the great elements. (Therefore) it is existent. The remaining
factors which are not form are also existent in various ways.
Here it is explained. XLV. If form were originated from thegreat elements, form would originate from a deficient (cause). It is
not (originated) from its (own) intrinsic being. (Moreover), since it isnon-existent, it is not (originated) from another.
If it is held that form originates from the great elements(then) if it were so, form would originate from a deficient (cause).
From a deficient (cause) is explained as from an insubstantial(cause). Similarly, form is not (originated) from its intrinsic being.
Here it is said. So it is. It (form) is not (originated) from its
intrinsic being, but it is (originated) from another, because the great
elements are other than it.
Here it is explained. Since it is non-existent, it is not(originated) from another. It, form, is not (originated) from another.
It may be asked why? - Since it is non-existent, the other is nonexistent. Thus, since it is not established in its intrinsic being, theso called (origination) from another (of form) is not justified, becausethat which is non-existent cannot justly be called (originated) from(something which is) other than it. What is called other than the
non-existent is not existent.
Moreover, the four great elements are non-existent, because
in this case, if it were held that the great elements are establishedfrom (their) characteristics, it is also not justified that thecharacteristics be established prior to the elements. Since they (thecharacteristics) are not established, (the substratum of thecharacteristics), the great elements, are also not established.
XLVI. In one also, four are not existent. In four also, one is
not existent. How would form be established dependent upon thefour non-existent great elements?
Thus, in the four (great elements) also, one (that is form) is
non-existent. In one (that is form) also, the four (great elements) are
non-existent. How (then) would form be established dependent upon
the four non-existent great elements? Non-existent is explained as(meaning) non-existent.
Moreover, XLVII. Because, it is never apprehended. (But) if it
is said, from the evidence (form is established). That evidence is
non-existent, because originated from cause and conditions. If it(form) is still existent, the non-existence of the evidence is not
logical.
Since form is never apprehended, it is just non-existent. It
may be asked why? - Since it is never apprehended, form is just notapprehended. How could what cannot be apprehended be what issaid to exist? Here, in this case, it is thought that from theevidence, (form is established). If the evidence, the awareness which
considers form, that is awareness of form, is existent, what is called
form will be established, because without an object, awareness (ofan object) would not occur. Therefore, form is (proved to be) existentfrom the evidence of awareness.
Here it is explained. If it is said, from the evidence (form isestablished), that evidence is non-existent. That evidence is nonexistent, that is, it is not existent. It may be asked - why? - Because
originated from cause and conditions. Therefore, it is non-existent,
because the evidence of awareness is originated from cause andconditions.
Moreover, if it (form) is still existent, the non-existence of theevidence is not logical. If form is still existent, the non-existence ofthe evidence of the existence of form is not logical, that is, the nonexistence of the presence of the evidence is not logical.

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Here it is said, since it is extensively proclaimed in the
canonical discourses that (actions) are existent, how can they be so
said to be non-existent?
Here it is explained. XLIV. There exists the statement ofexistence and also the statement of non-existence and again thestatement of both existence and non-existence. The intentional
proclamations of the Buddhas are not easily penetrated.
Even
thestatementof existence exists
throughsuperimposition. The statement of non-existence also exists throughsuperimposition (and) the statement of (both) existence and nonexistence also just (exists) through superimposition. The intentional
proclamations of the Buddhas are never easily penetrated.28
Here it is said. At this point, form is held to be (originated)from the great elements. (Therefore) it is existent. The remaining
factors which are not form are also existent in various ways.
Here it is explained. XLV. If form were originated from thegreat elements, form would originate from a deficient (cause). It is
not (originated) from its (own) intrinsic being. (Moreover), since it isnon-existent, it is not (originated) from another.
If it is held that form originates from the great elements(then) if it were so, form would originate from a deficient (cause).
From a deficient (cause) is explained as from an insubstantial(cause). Similarly, form is not (originated) from its intrinsic being.
Here it is said. So it is. It (form) is not (originated) from its
intrinsic being, but it is (originated) from another, because the great
elements are other than it.
Here it is explained. Since it is non-existent, it is not(originated) from another. It, form, is not (originated) from another.
It may be asked why? - Since it is non-existent, the other is nonexistent. Thus, since it is not established in its intrinsic being, theso called (origination) from another (of form) is not justified, becausethat which is non-existent cannot justly be called (originated) from(something which is) other than it. What is called other than the
non-existent is not existent.
Moreover, the four great elements are non-existent, because
in this case, if it were held that the great elements are establishedfrom (their) characteristics, it is also not justified that thecharacteristics be established prior to the elements. Since they (thecharacteristics) are not established, (the substratum of thecharacteristics), the great elements, are also not established.
XLVI. In one also, four are not existent. In four also, one is
not existent. How would form be established dependent upon thefour non-existent great elements?
Thus, in the four (great elements) also, one (that is form) is
non-existent. In one (that is form) also, the four (great elements) are
non-existent. How (then) would form be established dependent upon
the four non-existent great elements? Non-existent is explained as(meaning) non-existent.
Moreover, XLVII. Because, it is never apprehended. (But) if it
is said, from the evidence (form is established). That evidence is
non-existent, because originated from cause and conditions. If it(form) is still existent, the non-existence of the evidence is not
logical.
Since form is never apprehended, it is just non-existent. It
may be asked why? - Since it is never apprehended, form is just notapprehended. How could what cannot be apprehended be what issaid to exist? Here, in this case, it is thought that from theevidence, (form is established). If the evidence, the awareness which
considers form, that is awareness of form, is existent, what is called
form will be established, because without an object, awareness (ofan object) would not occur. Therefore, form is (proved to be) existentfrom the evidence of awareness.
Here it is explained. If it is said, from the evidence (form isestablished), that evidence is non-existent. That evidence is nonexistent, that is, it is not existent. It may be asked - why? - Because
originated from cause and conditions. Therefore, it is non-existent,
because the evidence of awareness is originated from cause andconditions.
Moreover, if it (form) is still existent, the non-existence of theevidence is not logical. If form is still existent, the non-existence ofthe evidence of the existence of form is not logical, that is, the nonexistence of the presence of the evidence is not logical.

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Moreover, XLVIII. If (awareness) apprehended form, it would
be apprehended as the very intrinsic being (of awareness). How
could non-existent awareness originated from conditions apprehend
non-existent form?
If form were apprehended (by awareness), then it would be of
the very intrinsic being (of awareness), that is, of the substance ofawareness. This explains that it (form) would be apprehended as thevery own substance (of awareness).29 (However) that is also notverified, since it (form) cannot be apprehended by (awareness) itself.
Since that awareness is empty in its intrinsic being, therefore, how
could that non-existent (awareness) originated from cause andconditions apprehend a non-existent form?
Here it is said, in the canonical discourses, it is abundantly
proclaimed that past and future form are apprehended. Thus, theapprehension of form exists.
Here it is explained. XLIX. When the originated momentary
awareness does not apprehend the originated momentary form, how
could it comprehend past and future form?
In this case, both form and awareness are also thought to be
momentary. When the originated awareness which is momentary
does not apprehend the originated form which is (also) momentary,
how could it comprehend past and future form, that is since, (pastand future form) are impossible, they cannot be apprehended. How
signifies clarification, because by this reasoning, form is neverapprehended.
Moreover, even though (form) be accepted to be (constitutedby) colour and shape, the apprehension of form is simply notjustified. It may be asked why?
L. While colour and shape never exist separately, theseparate are not apprehended as one, because the two are known asform.
If color and shape were really separate, it would consequently
be justified that the two be apprehended as separate, (but) whencolor and shape are held to be form, it is not justified.
Moreover LI. Eye awareness is not existent in the eye. It is
not existent in form, nor (in the space) in between. What isconstructed dependent upon the eye and form is erroneous.
If it is examined, eye awareness is non-existent even in theeye. It is not existent in form, nor again is it existent (in the space)in between the two. What is (conceptually) constructed to originate
dependent upon the eye and form is erroneous.
Here it is said, the eye etc. - the sense spheres - are existentand so are the objects of the sense of sight etc. existent. Amongthem, the eye sees form, and the ear etc. respectively (function) in alike manner.
Here it is explained. LII. If the eye does not see itself, how canit see form? Therefore, the eye and form are insubstantial. The
remaining sense spheres are also similar.30
LIII. The eye is empty of its own substantiality. It is empty of
another's substantiality. Form is also similarly empty (and) theremaining sense spheres are also similar.
Similarly indicates similarity, (that is) just as form is empty
of its own substantiality and of another's substantiality, so also theremaining sense spheres are empty of their own substantiality andof another's substantiality. Thus, form is empty of its own
substantiality and of another's substantiality.
Moreover, (form) is also empty, because it is dependently
originated. In this case, what is established from the great elementsof form which have functioned as the cause is establisheddependently. Hence, what is established dependently is notestablished in its intrinsic being. Thus, form is empty of its own
intrinsic being. Form is empty of another's substantiality also sinceother than it (form) are the eye and awareness. The eye along withawareness are the (epistemological) subject, and form is the object.
What is the (epistemological) object is not the (epistemological)
subject. Thus, it (form) is also empty of another's substantiality.
Alternatively, awareness is internal, while form is an object
and external, that is it is not internal. Therefore, (form) is also
empty of another's substantiality.
It may be asked from what, that is from what is (eye)awareness dependently originated, and how is it dependently
originated? Awareness is established dependent upon the object to

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Moreover, XLVIII. If (awareness) apprehended form, it would
be apprehended as the very intrinsic being (of awareness). How
could non-existent awareness originated from conditions apprehend
non-existent form?
If form were apprehended (by awareness), then it would be of
the very intrinsic being (of awareness), that is, of the substance ofawareness. This explains that it (form) would be apprehended as thevery own substance (of awareness).29 (However) that is also notverified, since it (form) cannot be apprehended by (awareness) itself.
Since that awareness is empty in its intrinsic being, therefore, how
could that non-existent (awareness) originated from cause andconditions apprehend a non-existent form?
Here it is said, in the canonical discourses, it is abundantly
proclaimed that past and future form are apprehended. Thus, theapprehension of form exists.
Here it is explained. XLIX. When the originated momentary
awareness does not apprehend the originated momentary form, how
could it comprehend past and future form?
In this case, both form and awareness are also thought to be
momentary. When the originated awareness which is momentary
does not apprehend the originated form which is (also) momentary,
how could it comprehend past and future form, that is since, (pastand future form) are impossible, they cannot be apprehended. How
signifies clarification, because by this reasoning, form is neverapprehended.
Moreover, even though (form) be accepted to be (constitutedby) colour and shape, the apprehension of form is simply notjustified. It may be asked why?
L. While colour and shape never exist separately, theseparate are not apprehended as one, because the two are known asform.
If color and shape were really separate, it would consequently
be justified that the two be apprehended as separate, (but) whencolor and shape are held to be form, it is not justified.
Moreover LI. Eye awareness is not existent in the eye. It is
not existent in form, nor (in the space) in between. What isconstructed dependent upon the eye and form is erroneous.
If it is examined, eye awareness is non-existent even in theeye. It is not existent in form, nor again is it existent (in the space)in between the two. What is (conceptually) constructed to originate
dependent upon the eye and form is erroneous.
Here it is said, the eye etc. - the sense spheres - are existentand so are the objects of the sense of sight etc. existent. Amongthem, the eye sees form, and the ear etc. respectively (function) in alike manner.
Here it is explained. LII. If the eye does not see itself, how canit see form? Therefore, the eye and form are insubstantial. The
remaining sense spheres are also similar.30
LIII. The eye is empty of its own substantiality. It is empty of
another's substantiality. Form is also similarly empty (and) theremaining sense spheres are also similar.
Similarly indicates similarity, (that is) just as form is empty
of its own substantiality and of another's substantiality, so also theremaining sense spheres are empty of their own substantiality andof another's substantiality. Thus, form is empty of its own
substantiality and of another's substantiality.
Moreover, (form) is also empty, because it is dependently
originated. In this case, what is established from the great elementsof form which have functioned as the cause is establisheddependently. Hence, what is established dependently is notestablished in its intrinsic being. Thus, form is empty of its own
intrinsic being. Form is empty of another's substantiality also sinceother than it (form) are the eye and awareness. The eye along withawareness are the (epistemological) subject, and form is the object.
What is the (epistemological) object is not the (epistemological)
subject. Thus, it (form) is also empty of another's substantiality.
Alternatively, awareness is internal, while form is an object
and external, that is it is not internal. Therefore, (form) is also
empty of another's substantiality.
It may be asked from what, that is from what is (eye)awareness dependently originated, and how is it dependently
originated? Awareness is established dependent upon the object to

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be comprehended and so forth. What is dependently originated is
not established in its own substantiality. Thus, that awareness isinsubstantial. Therefore, what is said, (that is) that awarenessapprehends subtle objects etc., is not appropriate. Form is alsosimilarly empty indicates that form is like that (that is the eye). (Inother words), just as the eye is empty of its own substantiality andof another's substantiality, similarly form is empty of its own
substantiality and of another's substantiality.
It may be asked how form is empty of its own substantiality
and of another's substantiality? (It is explained). Because theintrinsic being of all entities is not existent in all entities. This(method of) examination has already been explained.31 Its
significance is that if examined, all entities are not existent, since
the intrinsic being of all entities is not existent. The significance of(the word) empty is (in this case) unperceived.
The eye is empty, because it is dependently originated, thatis, because the eye is established dependently. What is establisheddependently is not established in its own substantiality. Thus, theeye is empty in its own substantiality. If it were held that it isexistent in another's substantiality, that is also not appropriate. It
may be asked why? - How could what is non-existent in its own
substantiality be existent in another's intrinsic being? That is, italso is not existent in another's intrinsic being. Thus, it is empty of
another's substantiality. Alternatively, empty of another's
substantiality also (may be explained as follows). So, other than that(form) is awareness. This means that the eye is also empty ofawareness. It may be asked - why? - Because the eye is not existent
as cognition, and because what is not cognition is not capable ofbecoming existent as the substance of cognition, therefore (it) is also
empty of another's substantiality. Moreover, the eye is empty.
Here it is said (that) the eye sees by itself, but not soawareness. It may be asked - why? - Because awareness is whatapprehends, (in other words) because awareness apprehends subtle
objects etc., so it is (known as) awareness. The eye (on the otherhand) sees by itself. Thus, the eye is of the substance of clear great
elements. That is the nature of the eye. What apprehends it (theobject) is awareness alone. Similarly, what apprehends color
differences of shape and form is awareness alone. Thus, what you
have said, if the eye does not see itself, how can it see form?- is notjustified.
Here it is explained. That is not so. It may be asked why? The eye is empty of its own substantiality. It is empty of another's
substantiality. Form is also similarly empty (and) the remaining
sense spheres are also similar.
In this case, the eye is empty of its own substantiality. Whatis called its own substantiality is (the eye) itself. If the eye does notsee itself, how can it see form? Since what does not see itself cannot
see form either, the eye is insubstantial, that is without intrinsic
being. So it is explained.
Moreover, form is insubstantial inasmuch as what does notappear is not form. The remaining sense spheres are also similar.
Through this process, the remaining sense spheres are (seen to be)without substantiality, that is without intrinsic being.
Moreover, LIV. When one (sense sphere) is conjoined throughcontact, then the others are empty. The empty also does not depend
upon the non-empty. The non-empty too (does not depend) upon theempty.
When one sense sphere is united with contact, the others are
empty. What is empty also does not depend upon the non-empty.
The non-empty also does not depend upon the empty.
Moreover, LV. The three (which are) non-existent andunenduring in their intrinsic being do not (participate) in
conjunction. Because there is no contact of that nature, therefore,
feeling is not existent.
The three (object, organ and consciousness) that are nonexistent and unenduring in their intrinsic being do not (participate)in conjunction. Because there is no conjunction, there is no contactof that nature (that is, of the nature of conjunction). In other words,
there is no contact originated from it (conjunction). Thus it isexplained. Because there is no contact, feeling is non-existent.32
Moreover, LVI. Dependent upon the inner and outer sense
spheres, consciousness originates. Thus there is no consciousness.

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be comprehended and so forth. What is dependently originated is
not established in its own substantiality. Thus, that awareness isinsubstantial. Therefore, what is said, (that is) that awarenessapprehends subtle objects etc., is not appropriate. Form is alsosimilarly empty indicates that form is like that (that is the eye). (Inother words), just as the eye is empty of its own substantiality andof another's substantiality, similarly form is empty of its own
substantiality and of another's substantiality.
It may be asked how form is empty of its own substantiality
and of another's substantiality? (It is explained). Because theintrinsic being of all entities is not existent in all entities. This(method of) examination has already been explained.31 Its
significance is that if examined, all entities are not existent, since
the intrinsic being of all entities is not existent. The significance of(the word) empty is (in this case) unperceived.
The eye is empty, because it is dependently originated, thatis, because the eye is established dependently. What is establisheddependently is not established in its own substantiality. Thus, theeye is empty in its own substantiality. If it were held that it isexistent in another's substantiality, that is also not appropriate. It
may be asked why? - How could what is non-existent in its own
substantiality be existent in another's intrinsic being? That is, italso is not existent in another's intrinsic being. Thus, it is empty of
another's substantiality. Alternatively, empty of another's
substantiality also (may be explained as follows). So, other than that(form) is awareness. This means that the eye is also empty ofawareness. It may be asked - why? - Because the eye is not existent
as cognition, and because what is not cognition is not capable ofbecoming existent as the substance of cognition, therefore (it) is also
empty of another's substantiality. Moreover, the eye is empty.
Here it is said (that) the eye sees by itself, but not soawareness. It may be asked - why? - Because awareness is whatapprehends, (in other words) because awareness apprehends subtle
objects etc., so it is (known as) awareness. The eye (on the otherhand) sees by itself. Thus, the eye is of the substance of clear great
elements. That is the nature of the eye. What apprehends it (theobject) is awareness alone. Similarly, what apprehends color
differences of shape and form is awareness alone. Thus, what you
have said, if the eye does not see itself, how can it see form?- is notjustified.
Here it is explained. That is not so. It may be asked why? The eye is empty of its own substantiality. It is empty of another's
substantiality. Form is also similarly empty (and) the remaining
sense spheres are also similar.
In this case, the eye is empty of its own substantiality. Whatis called its own substantiality is (the eye) itself. If the eye does notsee itself, how can it see form? Since what does not see itself cannot
see form either, the eye is insubstantial, that is without intrinsic
being. So it is explained.
Moreover, form is insubstantial inasmuch as what does notappear is not form. The remaining sense spheres are also similar.
Through this process, the remaining sense spheres are (seen to be)without substantiality, that is without intrinsic being.
Moreover, LIV. When one (sense sphere) is conjoined throughcontact, then the others are empty. The empty also does not depend
upon the non-empty. The non-empty too (does not depend) upon theempty.
When one sense sphere is united with contact, the others are
empty. What is empty also does not depend upon the non-empty.
The non-empty also does not depend upon the empty.
Moreover, LV. The three (which are) non-existent andunenduring in their intrinsic being do not (participate) in
conjunction. Because there is no contact of that nature, therefore,
feeling is not existent.
The three (object, organ and consciousness) that are nonexistent and unenduring in their intrinsic being do not (participate)in conjunction. Because there is no conjunction, there is no contactof that nature (that is, of the nature of conjunction). In other words,
there is no contact originated from it (conjunction). Thus it isexplained. Because there is no contact, feeling is non-existent.32
Moreover, LVI. Dependent upon the inner and outer sense
spheres, consciousness originates. Thus there is no consciousness.

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(It) is empty like a mirage and an illusion.
Since consciousness originates dependent upon the inner andouter sense spheres, there is consequently also no consciousness.
That is, it is empty like a mirage and an illusion.
It may be thought here that consciousness (that is) the agentof consciousness is existent. That is also not justified. It may be
asked why?
LVII. Consciousness originates dependent upon an object ofconsciousness, therefore it is non-existent. Without cognition and an
object of consciousness, there is consequently no subject ofconsciousness at all.
Here it is said. It is proclaimed that all is impermanent.
Through the demonstration that all is impermanent, non-emptinessis also (implicitly) demonstrated.
Here it is explained LVIII. All is impermanent (but)impermanence or permanence never existed. (If) an entity existed, itwould be impermanent or permanent (but) how is it so existent?
Here, what is meant by (the conventional expression) all isimpermanent should be understood (in the correct perspective),
because impermanence or permanence never existed. If an entity
existed, it would be impermanent or permanent, (but) how is suchan entity existent? That is it is non-existent. So it is explained.
Here it is said. As it is extensively demonstrated in the
canonical discourses, attachment, aversion and delusion areexistent.
Here it is explained. LIX. Born from the conditions attraction, repulsion and error - attachment, aversion and delusion
originate. Therefore, attachment, aversion and delusion are nonexistent in their intrinsic being.
Since dependent upon the condition of attraction, thecondition of repulsion and the condition of error, attachment,
aversion and delusion originate, therefore attachment, aversion anddelusion are non-existent in their intrinsic being.
Moreover, LX. Because regarding it (a single given object)attachment, aversion and delusion (occur), therefore, they
(attachment, aversion and delusion) are produced from imagination.

Imagination also is perfectly non-existent.
Because regarding just one (object), attachment, aversion anddelusion (occur), therefore attachment aversion and delusion are
produced from imagination. Moreover, (such) imaginary
constructions are also unreal, so the imaginary constructions which
produce attachment, aversion and delusion are also perfectly nonexistent.33 It may be asked, how are they non-existent?
Here it is explained. LXI. The object of imagination is notexistent. Without the object of imagination, how is imagination
existent? Therefore, since (they are) originated from conditions, theobject of imagination and imagination are empty.
That which is the object of imagination is non-existent.
Without the object of imagination, how could imagination exist?
Since (they are) originated from conditions, the object of imaginationis also empty in its intrinsic being and imagination is likewise
empty in its intrinsic being.34
Moreover, LXII. Because of the perception of the real, there isno ignorance originated from the four erroneous views. Since that
(ignorance) is non-existent, volitions do not originate. The
remaining (constituents) are also similar.
Thus, because of the comprehension of the real, ignorance
originated from the four erroneous views does not originate. Since it
is non-existent, without it, ignorance, volitions do not originate.
Similarly, the remaining (constituents of Interdependent
Origination) do not originate.
Moreover, LXIII. What originates dependent upon that,originates from that. Without that, (it) does not originate. Entities
and non-entities (as well as) compounded factors anduncompounded factors are peace and Nirv/%a.
What originates dependent upon that originates from that(and it) does not originate without that. Entities and non-entities
are peace and compounded factors and uncompounded factors arepeace and Nirv/%a.
Moreover LXIV a. Entities originated from cause andconditions are imputed to be real.
(That is) considering, viewing, imputing and apprehending

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Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna(It) is empty like a mirage and an illusion.
Since consciousness originates dependent upon the inner andouter sense spheres, there is consequently also no consciousness.
That is, it is empty like a mirage and an illusion.
It may be thought here that consciousness (that is) the agentof consciousness is existent. That is also not justified. It may be
asked why?
LVII. Consciousness originates dependent upon an object ofconsciousness, therefore it is non-existent. Without cognition and an
object of consciousness, there is consequently no subject ofconsciousness at all.
Here it is said. It is proclaimed that all is impermanent.
Through the demonstration that all is impermanent, non-emptinessis also (implicitly) demonstrated.
Here it is explained LVIII. All is impermanent (but)impermanence or permanence never existed. (If) an entity existed, itwould be impermanent or permanent (but) how is it so existent?
Here, what is meant by (the conventional expression) all isimpermanent should be understood (in the correct perspective),
because impermanence or permanence never existed. If an entity
existed, it would be impermanent or permanent, (but) how is suchan entity existent? That is it is non-existent. So it is explained.
Here it is said. As it is extensively demonstrated in the
canonical discourses, attachment, aversion and delusion areexistent.
Here it is explained. LIX. Born from the conditions attraction, repulsion and error - attachment, aversion and delusion
originate. Therefore, attachment, aversion and delusion are nonexistent in their intrinsic being.
Since dependent upon the condition of attraction, thecondition of repulsion and the condition of error, attachment,
aversion and delusion originate, therefore attachment, aversion anddelusion are non-existent in their intrinsic being.
Moreover, LX. Because regarding it (a single given object)attachment, aversion and delusion (occur), therefore, they
(attachment, aversion and delusion) are produced from imagination.

Imagination also is perfectly non-existent.
Because regarding just one (object), attachment, aversion anddelusion (occur), therefore attachment aversion and delusion are
produced from imagination. Moreover, (such) imaginary
constructions are also unreal, so the imaginary constructions which
produce attachment, aversion and delusion are also perfectly nonexistent.33 It may be asked, how are they non-existent?
Here it is explained. LXI. The object of imagination is notexistent. Without the object of imagination, how is imagination
existent? Therefore, since (they are) originated from conditions, theobject of imagination and imagination are empty.
That which is the object of imagination is non-existent.
Without the object of imagination, how could imagination exist?
Since (they are) originated from conditions, the object of imaginationis also empty in its intrinsic being and imagination is likewise
empty in its intrinsic being.34
Moreover, LXII. Because of the perception of the real, there isno ignorance originated from the four erroneous views. Since that
(ignorance) is non-existent, volitions do not originate. The
remaining (constituents) are also similar.
Thus, because of the comprehension of the real, ignorance
originated from the four erroneous views does not originate. Since it
is non-existent, without it, ignorance, volitions do not originate.
Similarly, the remaining (constituents of Interdependent
Origination) do not originate.
Moreover, LXIII. What originates dependent upon that,originates from that. Without that, (it) does not originate. Entities
and non-entities (as well as) compounded factors anduncompounded factors are peace and Nirv/%a.
What originates dependent upon that originates from that(and it) does not originate without that. Entities and non-entities
are peace and compounded factors and uncompounded factors arepeace and Nirv/%a.
Moreover LXIV a. Entities originated from cause andconditions are imputed to be real.
(That is) considering, viewing, imputing and apprehending

173

174

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

them to be permanent entities, LXIV. b That is proclaimed to beignorance by the Preceptor. From it, the twelve constituentsoriginate.
Moreover, LXV. Because of the perception of the real, of
entities as empty, ignorance does not originate. Just that is the
cessation of ignorance, therefore, the twelve constituents cease.
The non-origination of ignorance (occurs) because of thecomplete and perfect comprehension of entities as empty in theirintrinsic being, just as (they) are (in fact). (That) is the cessation ofignorance. Therefore, the twelve constituents cease.
It may be asked why? LXVI. Compounded factors are like a
fairy city, an illusion, a mirage, a bubble of water, foam and like a
dream and the circle of the whirling fire-brand.
Since, if extensively examined, compounded factors are likean illusion, a mirage and a fairy city, therefore, if they are very wellcomprehended to be empty in their intrinsic being, ignorance does
not originate. Just that is the cessation of ignorance. Therefore, thetwelve constituents cease.
LXVII. No entity whatsoever is existent in its intrinsic being.
In this case, a non-entity also is non-existent. Entities and nonentities originated from cause and conditions are empty.
If sought, ultimately no entity whatsoever is existent in its
intrinsic being. In this case, there is also no non-entity whatsoever.
Entities and non-entities originated from cause and conditions are
empty.
LXVIII. Since all entities are empty in their intrinsic being,
the Interdependent Origination of entities is particularly
demonstrated by the incomparable Tath/gata.
Since all entities are empty in their intrinsic being, thisInterdependent Origination of entities is particularly demonstrated
by the Tath/gata.
LXIX. The ultimate is none other than this (Emptiness). The
Blessed Buddha, relying upon conventional usage imagined all
possibilities.
From the ultimate (standpoint) all interdependently
originated entities are empty in their intrinsic being. So it is said

that there is no other (truth) than this. The Blessed Buddha, relying
upon conventional usage, in ultimate suchness, imagined all
possibilities without exception.35
LXX. The doctrine of the world is not destroyed. In reality, nofactor at all is demonstrated. Not comprehending the proclamationof the Tath/gata, (ordinary people) are consequently afraid of theunsupported and unimaginable (truth).
Even the factors which are explained according to (theconventions) of the world are not destroyed. In reality, a factor isnever demonstrated. Thus, not knowing the meaning ofinterdependence and not comprehending the proclamation of theTath/gata, the ignorant, therefore, are afraid of the unsupported
and unimaginable (truth), that is the signless.
LXXI. The way of the world, "dependent upon this, thatoriginates", is not negated. What is interdependently originated iswithout intrinsic being, (so) how does it exist? This is perfectcertitude.
The order of the world, that is, "dependent upon this, thatoriginates", is not negated. Since what is interdependently
originated, is without intrinsic being, how does what is non-existent
exist? This (rhetorical question expresses) certitude.36
LXXII. One who has faith, who diligently seeks the ultimate,
not relying upon any demonstrated factor, inclined to subject theway of the world to reason, abandoning being and non-being(attains) peace.
One who has faith, who diligently seeks the ultimate, notrelying upon any demonstrated factor, who is inclined and willing tosubject the order of the world to reason, abandoning being and nonbeing attains peace.
LXXIII. Having comprehended apparent conditionality, thenet of false views is swept aside. (Consequently), abandoning
attachment, delusion and anger, without stain, one surely reaches
Nirv/%a.

175

176

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas

Causality and Emptiness: The Wisdom of Nagarjuna

them to be permanent entities, LXIV. b That is proclaimed to beignorance by the Preceptor. From it, the twelve constituentsoriginate.
Moreover, LXV. Because of the perception of the real, of
entities as empty, ignorance does not originate. Just that is the
cessation of ignorance, therefore, the twelve constituents cease.
The non-origination of ignorance (occurs) because of thecomplete and perfect comprehension of entities as empty in theirintrinsic being, just as (they) are (in fact). (That) is the cessation ofignorance. Therefore, the twelve constituents cease.
It may be asked why? LXVI. Compounded factors are like a
fairy city, an illusion, a mirage, a bubble of water, foam and like a
dream and the circle of the whirling fire-brand.
Since, if extensively examined, compounded factors are likean illusion, a mirage and a fairy city, therefore, if they are very wellcomprehended to be empty in their intrinsic being, ignorance does
not originate. Just that is the cessation of ignorance. Therefore, thetwelve constituents cease.
LXVII. No entity whatsoever is existent in its intrinsic being.
In this case, a non-entity also is non-existent. Entities and nonentities originated from cause and conditions are empty.
If sought, ultimately no entity whatsoever is existent in its
intrinsic being. In this case, there is also no non-entity whatsoever.
Entities and non-entities originated from cause and conditions are
empty.
LXVIII. Since all entities are empty in their intrinsic being,
the Interdependent Origination of entities is particularly
demonstrated by the incomparable Tath/gata.
Since all entities are empty in their intrinsic being, thisInterdependent Origination of entities is particularly demonstrated
by the Tath/gata.
LXIX. The ultimate is none other than this (Emptiness). The
Blessed Buddha, relying upon conventional usage imagined all
possibilities.
From the ultimate (standpoint) all interdependently
originated entities are empty in their intrinsic being. So it is said

that there is no other (truth) than this. The Blessed Buddha, relying
upon conventional usage, in ultimate suchness, imagined all
possibilities without exception.35
LXX. The doctrine of the world is not destroyed. In reality, nofactor at all is demonstrated. Not comprehending the proclamationof the Tath/gata, (ordinary people) are consequently afraid of theunsupported and unimaginable (truth).
Even the factors which are explained according to (theconventions) of the world are not destroyed. In reality, a factor isnever demonstrated. Thus, not knowing the meaning ofinterdependence and not comprehending the proclamation of theTath/gata, the ignorant, therefore, are afraid of the unsupported
and unimaginable (truth), that is the signless.
LXXI. The way of the world, "dependent upon this, thatoriginates", is not negated. What is interdependently originated iswithout intrinsic being, (so) how does it exist? This is perfectcertitude.
The order of the world, that is, "dependent upon this, thatoriginates", is not negated. Since what is interdependently
originated, is without intrinsic being, how does what is non-existent
exist? This (rhetorical question expresses) certitude.36
LXXII. One who has faith, who diligently seeks the ultimate,
not relying upon any demonstrated factor, inclined to subject theway of the world to reason, abandoning being and non-being(attains) peace.
One who has faith, who diligently seeks the ultimate, notrelying upon any demonstrated factor, who is inclined and willing tosubject the order of the world to reason, abandoning being and nonbeing attains peace.
LXXIII. Having comprehended apparent conditionality, thenet of false views is swept aside. (Consequently), abandoning
attachment, delusion and anger, without stain, one surely reaches
Nirv/%a.

175

176

Notes

Notes
Part One
Section One

Ramanan, K.V.,N@g@rjuna's Philosophy, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, Varanasi,
India, 1971, p.25
2 R@hulabhadra is also known as the Mahasiddha Saraha
3 Takakusu, J., (Tr.) A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and the
Malay Archipelago (AD 671-695) by I–Tsing, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, India,
1966, p. 162
1(16) the continuity and stability of the pure religion,(17) being a believer and follower of the Buddha's teaching an(18) having a loving and compassionate heart.
6Brahm@ refers to the gods of the sphere of form and the formless sphere.
7To see a more detailed explanation of the meaning of Interdependent Origination,
see N@g@rjuna's The Heart of Interdependent Origination contained in this book.
8The Buddha-field of the Buddha Amit@bha is called the Happy Land, (sukh@vat$).

Part Two
1ed. Vaidya, P.L., Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, no. 17

2Asa<ga and Vasubandhu, Madhy@ntavibh@ga and Madhy@ntavibh@gabh@&ya 1.11b
3The Heart of Interdependent Origination, Stanza III

Section Two

1 Sugata is an epithet of the Buddha meaning one who has gone well to the further

shore of the ocean of worldly existence.
2According to Indian thought N@gas are creatures which possess bodies that are half
human and half snake. They are believed to dwell in the earth and to influence
rainfall, protect wealth, etc.
3The commentary indicates that this refers to the root disciplines of a monk asmentioned in the Vinaya
4 The seven suns arise at the end of a great aeon (mah@kalpa). Each of these aeons ispresided over by its own human Buddha.
5The eighteen opportune conditions which are necessary for the practice of Dharmaare:(1) freedom from the realm of the hells,(2) freedom from the realm of the hungry ghosts,(3) freedom from the realm of animals,(4) freedom from the realm of long-lived gods(5) freedom from being a heretic,(6) freedom from being a barbarian,(7) freedom from being a fool,(8) freedom from being where there is no teaching from a Buddha,(9) to have gained a human birth,(10) to have gained birth in a central realm (where the Sa`gha exists),(11) to possess sound organs,(12) to be free from actions which conflict with the Dharma,(13) to have faith in the Holy Dharma,(14) the advent of a Buddha in the world,(15) the existence of the teaching of the pure religion,

177

4ibid. Stanza IV
5Tibetan:no- bo- nid, Sanskrit: svabh@va, is here distinguished from the Tibetan:
ran-zin Sanskrit: prak=ti. Although the term, ran-zin can also be rendered as
svabh@va to the doctrine of Svabh@vav@da adhered to by one school of Materialists.
6Tibetan: sems-can, Sanskrit: sattva, literally means "one endowed withconsciousness or mind" is used here in the sense of "Self" or "Supreme Self"
7Tibetan: dag-gi-ba, Sanskrit: @tm$ya, is the genitive case of self. Thus it can betranslated mine or that pertaining to a self. t refers to the psycho-physical factors(dharmas) or aggregates (skandhas) as it can be readily understood from The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, XVIII.
8That is an act of mental imposition. Once again, the role of mental functions in theforging of the bond between cause and effect is emphasized.
9A crystal used in the manner of a magnifying glass to concentrate the sun's rays.

Part Three
1XXV
2

The Madhyamaka and Modern Western Philosophy, Philosophy East and West

3 Vigravy@vartan$
429 & 63
5

The benedictory Stanza to The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way also refers to
the Buddha as the teacher of Interdependent Origination and closely resembles the
Stanza here.

178

Notes

Notes
Part One
Section One

Ramanan, K.V.,N@g@rjuna's Philosophy, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, Varanasi,
India, 1971, p.25
2 R@hulabhadra is also known as the Mahasiddha Saraha
3 Takakusu, J., (Tr.) A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and the
Malay Archipelago (AD 671-695) by I–Tsing, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, India,
1966, p. 162
1(16) the continuity and stability of the pure religion,(17) being a believer and follower of the Buddha's teaching an(18) having a loving and compassionate heart.
6Brahm@ refers to the gods of the sphere of form and the formless sphere.
7To see a more detailed explanation of the meaning of Interdependent Origination,
see N@g@rjuna's The Heart of Interdependent Origination contained in this book.
8The Buddha-field of the Buddha Amit@bha is called the Happy Land, (sukh@vat$).

Part Two
1ed. Vaidya, P.L., Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, no. 17

2Asa<ga and Vasubandhu, Madhy@ntavibh@ga and Madhy@ntavibh@gabh@&ya 1.11b
3The Heart of Interdependent Origination, Stanza III

Section Two

1 Sugata is an epithet of the Buddha meaning one who has gone well to the further

shore of the ocean of worldly existence.
2According to Indian thought N@gas are creatures which possess bodies that are half
human and half snake. They are believed to dwell in the earth and to influence
rainfall, protect wealth, etc.
3The commentary indicates that this refers to the root disciplines of a monk asmentioned in the Vinaya
4 The seven suns arise at the end of a great aeon (mah@kalpa). Each of these aeons ispresided over by its own human Buddha.
5The eighteen opportune conditions which are necessary for the practice of Dharmaare:(1) freedom from the realm of the hells,(2) freedom from the realm of the hungry ghosts,(3) freedom from the realm of animals,(4) freedom from the realm of long-lived gods(5) freedom from being a heretic,(6) freedom from being a barbarian,(7) freedom from being a fool,(8) freedom from being where there is no teaching from a Buddha,(9) to have gained a human birth,(10) to have gained birth in a central realm (where the Sa`gha exists),(11) to possess sound organs,(12) to be free from actions which conflict with the Dharma,(13) to have faith in the Holy Dharma,(14) the advent of a Buddha in the world,(15) the existence of the teaching of the pure religion,

177

4ibid. Stanza IV
5Tibetan:no- bo- nid, Sanskrit: svabh@va, is here distinguished from the Tibetan:
ran-zin Sanskrit: prak=ti. Although the term, ran-zin can also be rendered as
svabh@va to the doctrine of Svabh@vav@da adhered to by one school of Materialists.
6Tibetan: sems-can, Sanskrit: sattva, literally means "one endowed withconsciousness or mind" is used here in the sense of "Self" or "Supreme Self"
7Tibetan: dag-gi-ba, Sanskrit: @tm$ya, is the genitive case of self. Thus it can betranslated mine or that pertaining to a self. t refers to the psycho-physical factors(dharmas) or aggregates (skandhas) as it can be readily understood from The
Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, XVIII.
8That is an act of mental imposition. Once again, the role of mental functions in theforging of the bond between cause and effect is emphasized.
9A crystal used in the manner of a magnifying glass to concentrate the sun's rays.

Part Three
1XXV
2

The Madhyamaka and Modern Western Philosophy, Philosophy East and West

3 Vigravy@vartan$
429 & 63
5

The benedictory Stanza to The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way also refers to
the Buddha as the teacher of Interdependent Origination and closely resembles the
Stanza here.

178

Notes

6
7
8

Notes

21

The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, I.3
ibid. VII. 34

See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. V
This indicates the existence of a system of variables in the logic of N@g@rjuna
23
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. XIX
24
The position of the Buddhist Realists
25
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch VII
26This is a reference to the three marks
27
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way , ch XVII
28
N@g@rjuna indicates the importance of the conception of intensional teaching,i.e.,teaching which has an ulterior purpose29
An anticipation of the Saddharmap#%}ar$ka theory of perception
30
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. III. 2
31
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, III
32
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. III & IV and Refutation of
Objections, XXXff
33
An anticipation of Asa<ga's analysis of the ambivalence of objects
34
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. XVIII. 5
35
See ibid., ch. XXIV. 18 &19
36
ibid., ch.XXIV.10 & ch. XXV. 24
22

i.e. the inanimate universe
Here the realms are five rather than six because the realms of gods and demi-gods
are counted as one.
10
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, VII. 16
11ibid. XXV. 19 & 20
12
Dar^anam@rga is one of the five paths found in the Abhisamay@la`k@ra andother texts.
13 A forthright declaration of the phenomenal primacy of conciousness.
14
The apprehension of conciousness as the self-subject-personality.
9Part Four
1

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, V
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. XVIII
3ibid., ch. V
4ibid., ch.XVII
5
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, XXXIII-XLIII
6
ibid. XL-XLII
7
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch.XXV. 19 & 20
8ibid., ch. III & ch. IV
9Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, LII
2

10

The objection probably proceeds from a Naiy@yika who holds that negation implies
the reality of the negatum. Refutation of Objections, XI, XII, LXI &LXII
11
See Refutation of Objections, I & XXI
12
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. I, VII & XX
13
See ibid., ch. XXIII
14
See ibid., ch. V. 6, 7, 8 & ch. XV
15
The term "consequently" indicates the reductio ad absurdum
16
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, XIX
17
An objection from the Buddhist Realists
18
An objection from the Buddhist Realists
19
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. XXV
20
The contention of the Realists

179

180

Notes

6
7
8

Notes

21

The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, I.3
ibid. VII. 34

See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. V
This indicates the existence of a system of variables in the logic of N@g@rjuna
23
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. XIX
24
The position of the Buddhist Realists
25
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch VII
26This is a reference to the three marks
27
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way , ch XVII
28
N@g@rjuna indicates the importance of the conception of intensional teaching,i.e.,teaching which has an ulterior purpose29
An anticipation of the Saddharmap#%}ar$ka theory of perception
30
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. III. 2
31
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, III
32
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. III & IV and Refutation of
Objections, XXXff
33
An anticipation of Asa<ga's analysis of the ambivalence of objects
34
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. XVIII. 5
35
See ibid., ch. XXIV. 18 &19
36
ibid., ch.XXIV.10 & ch. XXV. 24
22

i.e. the inanimate universe
Here the realms are five rather than six because the realms of gods and demi-gods
are counted as one.
10
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, VII. 16
11ibid. XXV. 19 & 20
12
Dar^anam@rga is one of the five paths found in the Abhisamay@la`k@ra andother texts.
13 A forthright declaration of the phenomenal primacy of conciousness.
14
The apprehension of conciousness as the self-subject-personality.
9Part Four
1

Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, V
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. XVIII
3ibid., ch. V
4ibid., ch.XVII
5
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, XXXIII-XLIII
6
ibid. XL-XLII
7
The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch.XXV. 19 & 20
8ibid., ch. III & ch. IV
9Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, LII
2

10

The objection probably proceeds from a Naiy@yika who holds that negation implies
the reality of the negatum. Refutation of Objections, XI, XII, LXI &LXII
11
See Refutation of Objections, I & XXI
12
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. I, VII & XX
13
See ibid., ch. XXIII
14
See ibid., ch. V. 6, 7, 8 & ch. XV
15
The term "consequently" indicates the reductio ad absurdum
16
Emptiness: The Seventy Stanzas, XIX
17
An objection from the Buddhist Realists
18
An objection from the Buddhist Realists
19
See The Foundation Stanzas of the Middle Way, ch. XXV
20
The contention of the Realists

179180